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[ "I don't know about other bugs but mosquitoes have a preference for type O blood. CO2 also attracts them, and pregnant women exhale more CO2. Also alcohol (as little as 12 ounces of beer) seems to increase their attraction to you; possibly because it raises your body temperature.", "I've wondered the same thing, because all of my family have the same blood type but mosquitoes target me more than any of them and I react badly to them too. However deer flies and horse flies almost ignore me. I've always been told it's to do with CO2 and body heat but my body temperature is lower then my sibling's and they have rarely any problem. I think there has to be some sense that we don't have that makes certain people more appealing to mosquitoes, so appealing that bug spray does not work.", "I've often wondered if this is in fact the case. My wife seems to get bitten a lot more than me. I notice fairly recently though that when I do get bitten I have a much lower reaction to the bite. Could it be that you are being bitten at a similar level just that they do not itch?", "I always thought it had to do with what you ate. My grandma would feed her dogs garlic to keep the bugs off of them. And I assumed if you ate a lot of sugar the bugs would be more attracted to you." ]

[ "Human interactions with insects Human interactions with insects include both a wide variety of uses, whether practical such as for food, textiles, and dyestuffs, or symbolic, as in art, music, and literature, and negative interactions including serious damage to crops and extensive efforts to eliminate insect pests. \nAcademically, the interaction of insects and society has been treated in part as cultural entomology, dealing mostly with \"advanced\" societies, and in part as ethnoentomology, dealing mostly with \"primitive\" societies, though the distinction is weak and not based on theory. Both academic disciplines explore the parallels, connections and influence of insects on human", "getting close to them. \nEntomophobia may develop after the person has had a traumatic experience with the insect(s) in question. It may develop early or later in life and is quite common among the animal phobias. Typically one has from a fear from one specific type of insect, and entomophobia leads to behavioral changes: the person with entomophobia will avoid situations where they may encounter the specific type of insect. Cognitive behavioral therapy is considered an effective treatment.", "be by contact or ingestion, is usually quantified by LD₅₀. Acute toxicity of pesticides causes a range of effects on bees, which can include agitation, vomiting, wing paralysis, arching of the abdomen similar to sting reflex, and uncoordinated movement. Some pesticides, including Neonicotinoids, are more toxic to bees and cause acute symptoms with lower doses compared to older classes of insecticides. Acute toxicity may depend on the mode of exposure, for instance, many pesticides cause toxic effects by contact while Neonicotinoids are more toxic when consumed orally. The acute toxicity, although more lethal, is less common than sub-lethal toxicity or", "state\". That insects have different nervous systems and might perceive pain differently from vertebrates does not mean they lack consciousness. When deciding whether an animal can suffer, he wrote in 2001, we compare its responses to those of evolutionarily higher animals, an argument by analogy, and find that invertebrates \"often behave in a strikingly analogous manner to vertebrates\". He told a conference in 2000: \nIf a chimp pulls its hand away after an electric shock, we say she presumably must have felt an analogous subjective experience to what we call pain. But cockroaches, slugs and snails—which are not protected by", "antileukotriene drugs or topical steroids have beneficial effects in reducing the symptoms of these bites. Presentation The Skeeter syndrome is by definition a mosquito bite allergy that consists of a large mosquito bite reaction that may be accompanied by a brief or longer-term (i.e. days to weeks) low-grade fever. and, on rare occasions, vomiting. The bite site shows an intense, large reaction often resembling a cellulitis infection that persists for days to weeks. The syndrome usually afflicts healthy children, immune-deficient persons, and individuals who are new to an area inhabited by mosquito species to which they have not been exposed.", "85 pesticides, they have improved the standards in response to Chinese national needs. Health impacts Many pesticides achieve their intended use of killing pests by disrupting the nervous system. Due to similarities in brain biochemistry among many different organisms, there is much speculation that these chemicals can have a negative impact on humans as well. \nThere are epidemiological studies that show positive correlations between exposure to pesticides through occupational hazard, which tends to be significantly higher than that ingested by the general population through food, and the occurrence of certain cancers. Although most of the general population may not", "perioral itching and local urticaria. Only occasionally have these food-induced allergies induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the cross-reactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut occurs because latex proteins are structurally homologous with some other plant proteins. Medications About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin; however, 90% turn out not to be. Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03%. Insect stings Typically, insects which generate allergic responses are either stinging insects (wasps, bees, hornets and ants) or biting insects (mosquitoes, ticks). Stinging insects inject venom into their victims, whilst biting insects normally introduce anti-coagulants.", "populations, and vice versa. They are rooted in anthropology and natural history, as well as entomology, the study of insects. Other cultural uses of insects, such as biomimicry, do not necessarily lie within these academic disciplines.\nMore generally, people make a wide range of uses of insects, both practical and symbolic. On the other hand, attitudes to insects are often negative, and extensive efforts are made to kill them. The widespread use of insecticides has failed to exterminate any insect pest, but has caused resistance to commonly-used chemicals in a thousand insect species.\nPractical uses include as food, in medicine, for the", "than to mammal neuron receptors, these insecticides are more toxic to insects than mammals.\nThe low mammalian toxicity of imidacloprid has been explained by its inability to cross the blood–brain barrier because of lack of a charged nitrogen atom at physiological pH. The uncharged molecule can penetrate the insect blood–brain barrier.\nOther neonicotinoids have a negatively charged nitro or cyano group, which interacts with a unique, positively charged amino acid residue present on insect, but not mammalian nAChRs.\nHowever, the breakdown product desnitro-imidacloprid, which is formed in a mammal's body during metabolism as well as in environmental breakdown of imidacloprid, has a charged", "not all studies find that acute high-dose and chronic lower-dose occupational exposures to some neurotoxic pesticides are linked to an increased risk of cognitive decline, dementia or Alzheimer's disease.\"\nIn 2000, Stein and her coauthors wrote, \"Twenty million American children five and under eat an average of eight pesticides every day through food consumption. Thirty-seven pesticides registered for use on foods are neurotoxic organophosphate insecticides, chemically related to more toxic nerve warfare agent developed earlier this century.\" They further noted the ubiquity of these pesticides in the home and at schools, citing Schettler et al. for the claim that \"the trend", "diarrhea to, very rarely, life-threatening symptoms of anaphylaxis; and 3) severe and often systemic reactions occurring in individuals that have an Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease, Epstein-Barr virus-negative lymphoid malignancy, or another predisposing condition such as Eosinophilic cellulitis or chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Mechanism Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito's saliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions (types I and III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (type IV) to", "at the University of Maryland, has been quoted as saying \"Fungicides, which we didn't expect to harm insects, seem to have a sub-lethal effect on bee health\". He went on further to state this is important because fungicides are not heavily regulated. Antibiotics and miticides Most beekeepers affected by CCD report that they use antibiotics and miticides in their colonies, though the lack of uniformity as to which particular chemicals they use makes it unlikely that any single such chemical is involved. However, it is possible that not all such chemicals in use have been tested for possible effects on", "areas of the liver and other organs. Drugs On occasion, drugs that are present in the body at death can also affect how fast insects break down the corpse. Development of these insects can be sped up by cocaine and slowed down by drugs containing arsenic. Current research New research in the related field entomotoxicology is currently studying the effects of drugs on the development of insects who have fed on the decomposing tissue of a drug user. The effects of drugs and toxins on insect development are proving to be an important factor when determining the insect colonization time.", "impractical for routine use. Prevention and treatment The preventive measures listed for ordinary mosquito bite reactions are important for avoiding Skeeter syndrome reactions. In addition to second generation, non-sedative H1 antihistamines, antipyretics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are typically used to treat patients with acute attacks of the syndrome. Presentation Individuals with systemic mosquito bite allergies respond to mosquito bites with intense local skin reactions (e.g. blisters, ulcers, necrosis, scarring) and concurrent or subsequent systemic symptoms (high-grade fever and/or malaise; less commonly, muscle cramps, bloody diarrhea, bloody urine, proteinuria, and/or wheezing; or very rarely, symptoms of overt anaphylaxis such as hives,", "that effect of banning many toxic insecticides such as fenthion and DDVP.", "reactions, and significantly improves the quality of life of people affected by severe insect allergies.", "Note that since insects have different nervous systems from vertebrates, decapitation alone may not always be sufficient to destroy neural function.\nProfessor Peer Zwart has observed that commercial pentobarbital may have a pH between 9.5 and 11.0, which can coagulate the protein of snail hemocele. This might be painful to a live organism. Potassium chloride Potassium chloride (KCl) is one of the three drugs typically used in lethal injection in the United States. It causes hyperkalemia, which stops the heart by inducing depolarization of cellular membrane potentials. Intravenous KCl injection is unacceptable for vertebrate animals unless they have been rendered unconscious", "edema, and internal hemorrhage in the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, eyes, liver, and kidneys. In humans, the effects of bites are associated with excruciating pain that may extend well beyond the area bitten and persist up to 24 hours. Other common effects of bites on humans include local edema (swelling), weakness, sweating, and a rapid fall in blood pressure. Beaded lizards are immune to the effects of their own venom.\nSome compounds in its venom have been shown to have pharmacological properties relating to the possible treatment of diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, and even HIV. One compound, a hormone named exendin-3,", "dyspnoea, hyperactivity, hypoactivity, sweating, and throes were observed following venom injection. S. cyanea venom also contains some antibacterial activity. Bites[clarification needed] and stings Human accidents with wasps can occur one of two ways. Either a human may receive no more than one or two stings, or a swarm may attack a human. Symptoms following the attack can range from inflammatory reactions to severe allergic reactions resulting in anaphylactic shock. In some cases, death may occur following several bites and a large amount of venom injection; however, a wasp sting typically will not produce a reaction more severe than local symptoms", "abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and dizziness. Severe envenomation can lead to respiratory failure and death may occur due to suffocation.\nA clinical toxicology study gives an untreated mortality rate of 1—10%, which may be because contact with humans is rare and when bites do occur, the rate of envenomation when biting defensively is thought to be very low. Currently, polyvalent antivenoms is available in India and Indonesia.", "\"like a hot nail being driven into my leg\".\nThe venom contains a neurotoxin called mandaratoxin, a single-chain polypeptide with a molecular weight around 20 kD. Whilst a single wasp cannot inject a lethal dose, it can be lethal even to people who are not allergic if the dose is sufficient (i.e., if multiple stings are received). However, if the victim is allergic to the venom, this greatly increases the risk of death.\nEach year in Japan, the human death toll caused by Asian giant hornet stings is around 30 to 40.\nAdvice in China is that people stung more than 10 times", "away. Almost any might kill at a massive dose without reprieve, but classification as an insecticide implies death even at lower doses. Repellent safety for the other creatures A 2018 study found that Icaridin, in what the authors described as conservative exposure doses, is highly toxic to salamander larvae. The LC50 standard was additionally found to be completely inadequate in the context of finding this result.\nPermethrin is highly toxic to cats but not to dogs or humans. Less effective methods Some old studies suggested that the ingestion of large doses of thiamine could be effective as an oral insect repellent", "Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People's Ears Cause and effect This story is a resource for teachers to teach the skill cause and effect: \"A cause is something that makes something else happen; An effect is what happens as a result of the cause\" \nThe idea that the mosquito is to blame for the unfortunate death of the owlet is an example of cause and effect. The actions from the other animals also offers several more examples of cause and effect as each animal does something that causes the next animal to do something. This chain of events finally causes the", "toxic effects.\nOrganophosphorus insecticides not only have an adverse effect on the nervous system, they also affect other processes in the body. Recent studies show that organophosphorus insecticides inhibit enzymes which take part in xenobiotic metabolism, for example carboxylases and CYP enzymes, and enzymes that play a role in cell signaling, like lipases. Metabolism Metabolism of organophosphates occurs mostly in the liver, but also in other organs, like the intestine. Before chlorethoxyfos can act as an inhibitor, phase I enzymes need to activate the organophosphate. Phase I of metabolism involves oxidation and hydrolysis. By oxidative desulfurization, CYP enzymes replace the thiono", "saliva and anti-coagulants. For any given individual, with the initial bite there is no reaction but with subsequent bites the body's immune system develops antibodies and a bite becomes inflamed and itchy within 24 hours. This is the usual reaction in young children. With more bites, the sensitivity of the human immune system increases, and an itchy red hive appears in minutes where the immune response has broken capillary blood vessels and fluid has collected under the skin. This type of reaction is common in older children and adults. Some adults can become desensitized to mosquitoes and have little or", "atropos bites, though neurotoxic, do not cause obvious effects on heart and respiratory functions. However, they can be troublesome and their effects sometimes persist for some days or even weeks, which suggests the venom causes nerve damage that does not mend quickly if it is severe. Obvious symptoms may include loss of smell or taste, drooping eyelids and loss of vision.", "computing, legal, and education jobs. Other potential risk factors remain unconfirmed, including chemical exposure, electromagnetic field exposure, occupation, physical trauma, and electric shock. There is a tentative association with exposure to various pesticides, including the organochlorine insecticides aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and toxaphene. Head injury A 2015 review found that moderate to severe traumatic brain injury is a risk factor for ALS, but whether mild traumatic brain injury increases rates was unclear. A 2017 meta-analysis found an association between head injuries and ALS; however, this association disappeared when the authors considered the possibility of reverse causation, which is the idea that", "in vertebrates, it is very damaging to insects. However, heme groups ingested in a blood meal bind to proteins on the peritrophic matrix, enabling insects to safely feed on blood. Infection barrier Organisms that take in food often infected with pathogens, such as blood-feeding insects, also depend on the peritrophic matrix to filter out the disease agents, which are often too large to fit through the matrix pores. This benefit in particular is thought to be an important driving force in the evolution of peritrophic matrices, as many insects feeding on foods with low pathogen levels lack the ability to", "on insects, including honey bees, are consistent with the symptoms of CCD; for example, the effects of imidacloprid on termites include apparent failure of the immune system, and disorientation.\nIn Europe, the interaction of the phenomenon of \"dying bees\" with imidacloprid has been discussed for quite some time. A study from the \"Comité Scientifique et Technique (CST)\" was at the center of discussion, and led to a partial ban of imidacloprid in France. The imidacloprid pesticide Gaucho was banned in 1999 by the French Minister of Agriculture Jean Glavany, primarily due to concern over potential effects on honey bees. Subsequently, when", "decreased. There is substantial evidence of associations between organophosphate insecticide exposures and neurobehavioral alterations. Limited evidence also exists for other negative outcomes from pesticide exposure including neurological, birth defects, and fetal death.\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics recommends limiting exposure of children to pesticides and using safer alternatives:\nOwing to inadequate regulation and safety precautions, 99% of pesticide related deaths occur in developing countries that account for only 25% of pesticide usage.\nOne study found pesticide self-poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides worldwide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticides that are most harmful" ]

[ "You basically \"Own\" a part of a property and you only get to use it a few weeks a year, yet you pay property taxes, upkeep costs and \"Association Dues\" year round. Most people don't want to spend all their vacations at the same place every year, but if you have a time-share, you're wasting money if you don't use it.", "First, a great many timeshares are not scams at all. They are legitimate businesses that provide you with some access to a property in return for you taking the financial burden of partial ownership, and paying service charges for its upkeep and for a central agency to advertise and book its availability. It's a very common business model for many convenient vacation locations such as Florida, and it works quite well for a huge number of people.\n\nSome unethical companies, often just slimy brokers that lie or misrepresent what you are actually going to get out of it, are what make it perceived as scammy. They're actually the minority.\n\nThere's also very common recruiting process they follow where you get a deeply discounted stay at a resort as long as you sit in on a half-day high-pressure sales pitch that tries to force you into buying a share in a time-share condominium. It's not so much a scam - you often DO get what you pay for if you do sign up in one of those things - as it is a sales tactic that really turns off a lot of people.", "It's really not the concept of a timeshare itself so much as how they are sold, especially to the \"first\" owners. Let's say you build a resort hotel, and you have 100 nice apartments. Kitchens, 2 bedrooms, a hot tub, nice balcony, the works. Now, there's 52 weeks in a year, so that's *really* 5200 weeks of room-space you have. *But* most people really only want about a dozen to twenty (depending on seasons and location) of those weeks. So you *might* have about 1600 \"weeks\" of space. *Good* space to sell. Anything beyond that is basically a bonus. \n\nIf it cost $20 million to build this place, that's $12,500 a piece to \"sell\" these lots, plus the heat to keep the pipes from freezing and the electric and water and internet connected in the \"off\" season. If somebody buys one of these for a loan of $12,500 plus monthly maintenance for just *one* week a year... Not so great a deal, is it?\n\nBut, when you look at, in relation, how much people spend on an \"average\" vacation, is it worth it? Some people I know *don't* vacation. Not in the traditional sense. Some people do a $2500 cruise every few years. Some people do a 4 hour drive to the nearest ocean for 5 days once a year. It varies, and so do the costs. And so does the budget.\n\nIf you have a stable budget and like to do the same or similar thing (usually a land-based resort near a tourist attraction for week-long periods) a timeshare, over a few years, isn't a bad deal. \n\nBut you can do better. Look on ebay. A *lot* of people get a timeshare, not realizing what they're in for. The beach gets *old.* Trust me, I lived on a beach for the last 5 years. I could go the rest of my life without seeing another goddamn grain of sand or brilliant emerald wave of water breaking over the fucking tangerine sunset. After a while, the beach *sucks.*\n\nAnyway, look on ebay. There are a lot of people selling timeshares because the beach (or Disney, or the golf resort, or whatever) got *old* for them. Often, they don't even care about the initial $12,500 (or whatever it was) that they paid off years ago, they just want out of the maintenance fees, and you can get a timeshare for a fraction of the price.\n\nLike \"pyramid schemes\" and other \"scams,\" they're not a bad deal if what you *paid* for it is *worth it* to you. But if you sit through one of those \"presentations\" at the end of a \"free\" weekend (which I've done *three* of, still don't own a timeshare) and they give you that pitch about how much you *could* spend \"vacationing\" and how much you could manage that cost, be aware that *those* are for the *first* owners of that timeshare, and some poor sucker has to bear that cost of building a massive resort.\n\nI might do the ebay thing one day, but they all exchange, and they all have beaches, and god damn if I don't hate that fukkin' saltwater-soaked, postcard-beautiful, skin-cancer causing sandbar of beauty and misery. Damn sugar sand and sunburn.", "A timeshare is not a scam in and of itself. Fractional ownership is a perfectly legitimate concept. But timeshares are generally not a very good deal.\n\nThe problem is that they are usually sold using very high-pressure sales techniques and have practically zero resale value. So as soon as you've bought a timeshare from the developer, you have an asset that has ongoing costs (maintenance fees), for which you probably paid more than you wanted (because of the high pressure sales pitch), that you can't really get rid of.", "From what I've read over the years, timeshares are nearly impossible to sell and when you do, it is for pennies on the dollar", "Let's put it this way: Imagine if you could buy a condo for $200K in a nice place you want to visit. But you only want to go there for 2 weeks a year. So instead you timeshare it for $15K.\n\nNotice how selling chunks of this $200K property makes the seller $400K? So you're already paying double what the place is worth.\n\nBut the real killer is the fees. Imagine paying $100/month for maintenance on a place you use only 2 weeks/year. And you have to pay a fee for those two weeks you use it, so it's not like it's already paid for. You might get an assessment fee if they decide to redo the parking lot. Nothing like finding out you owe an extra $800 one month. If you exchange your weeks there may be an exchange fee. And if you sell there could a fee for that. \n\nWhat happens if you lose your job or are low on money? You sure wouldn't take a big vacation. But you're still paying those fees no matter what. There are people desperate to get out of their timeshare they paid big bucks for because the fees are killing them.\n\nAnd remember, the management company can just raise those fees and give themselves a bigger paycheck.", "My wife keeps trying to get me to buy in to the Disney vacation club, but good god, its like 20k!\r\rA few months ago, my father in laws wife gave us her timeshare in the smokies for a week, and it was... Meh... Under maintained grounds, tiny, packed pools, just mediocrity across the board. It also had the most uncomfortably small beds I've ever had the displeasure of sleeping on, I'm 5'10\" and the beds were too short... I certainly didn't stay there and say, \"hmm, I could totally come back here for the rest of my life!\" It had a really nice view, though.", "My parents have a timeshare at Disney. I calculated the up front cost, and the approximate maintenance fees they'll be paying, they increase by a variable percentage yearly. I then calculated the cost of a hotel room at disney over the same period. \n \n \nWhat it boils down to is that you're paying essentially the same cost as a normal hotel room, but you're getting better accommodations. So it's not really a scam, but it's not a great deal either.", "Timeshares are great if you want to stay at the same room once a year indefinitely. Think f it as buying a room in a hotel and paying thousands and thousands of dollars for it. As opposed to going where you want and when you want and paying a fraction of that timeshare buy in. Plus taxes and maintenence fees.", "Typically due to the high pressure sales tactics involved in the process of selling them. And then the feelings of regret 99% of timeshare owners feel within hours of the binding contractual purchase.", "Something else that nobody has mentioned yet that needs to be said...\n\nTimeshares, being the genius that they are, are considered property. This is why you're \"buying\" them and not \"renting\".\n\nNot only are you overpaying for the space, but you also possess all the glorious responsibilities of a homeowner / landlord.\n\nIf the property is destroyed in some way - whether it's from a guest lighting the place on fire or a hurricane wiping the building off the face of the planet - you're going to be responsible for some of that cost.\n\nI forget which timeshare company did this, but there was a location in the Philippines(I think?) that lost their entire resort to a hurricane. They passed on the entire cost of reconstruction to the timeshare owners and there was nothing people could do about it. The worst part? The company didn't have any insurance, so it literally was the entire cost.\n\nA few of the owners tried to fight the charges in court but ended up losing to the contracts they had signed." ]

[ "deduction. Of course, the danger lies in claiming that your timeshare is worth more than the true market value, i.e. resale value. According to the IRS, “Fair market value is the price at which property would change hands between a willing buyer and a willing seller, neither having to buy or sell, and both having reasonable knowledge of all the relevant facts.” In the depressed timeshare resale market, timeshares are worth far less than what people think they are worth. If you claim your timeshare is worth more than true market value, you could become vulnerable to an IRS audit", "left a timeshare tour complaining of being exhausted by the barrage of salespeople they had to deal with before they finally exited the tour. The term \"TO\", or \"turn over\" man, was coined in the land industry, and quickly evolved to the timeshare industry. Once the original tour guide or salesman gives the prospective buyer the pitch and price, the \"TO\" is sent in to drop the price and secure the down payment.\nHowever, the biggest complaint is that timeshare reselling by the private owner is almost impossible to do. In most cases, an owner looking to sell literally cannot", "give the timeshare away. Timeshare resale companies have sprung up that actually charge the owner to assume his/her timeshare ownership—contending that the resale company must assume the maintenance fees along with marketing fees—until that burden can be transferred to a new buyer. Timeshare resales Timeshares are generally treated as real property and can be resold to another party. However, timeshares do not appreciate in value, and therefore should not be considered a money-making investment. Additionally, as much as 50% or more (modest estimate) of the original purchase price of a timeshare from a developer or resort went towards marketing costs,", "observed that he knows too little about the timeshare sales company, due to insufficient time during the sales process. Criticism The United States Federal Trade Commission provides consumers with information regarding timeshare pricing and other related information. Also known as Universal Lease Programs (ULPs), timeshares are considered to be securities under the law.\nMany timeshare owners complain about the annual maintenance fee (which includes property taxes) being too high.\nTimeshare developers contend that pricing compared to staying at hotels in the long term is projected to be lower to the timeshare owner. However, a hotel guest does not have a monthly vacation", "through the expectation that prices always rise. A period of rising prices may cause lenders to underestimate the risk of default.\nA Ponzi scheme is a form of investor fraud where earlier investors are paid from the money gained by more recent investors. In order to stay afloat Ponzi schemes rely on a continuous supply of greater fools who are willing to buy into the scheme. Although a share in such a scheme has no value whatsoever, so long as more greater fools buy into it, it can remain profitable for the investors involved.\nIn the stock market, the greater fool", "it illegal to sell the timeshares because the banks held liens on the property. A 1984 court ruling created an exception for Buffalo River Resorts, although buyers had to be informed that the banks held liens on the property and thus could hypothetically repossess the timeshares if Odom's companies failed to pay their debts. This was followed by a drop in timeshare sales. Telcor ownership In 1987, The Entertainment and Leisure Corporation (Telcor) purchased a 90% stake in OEI. The other 10% was retained by Herb Dunn, Lynn Spradley and Jerry Maland, residents of the area. Telcor, a corporation formed", "to just two.\n\nAs with Ponzi's scheme, when the number of new contributors dries up, it will become impossible to continue to pay the promised benefits. Those early windfall returns are long gone. When today's young workers retire, they will receive returns far below what private investments could provide. Many will be lucky to break even.\n— Michael Tanner\nOne criticism of the analogy is that while Ponzi schemes and Social Security have similar structures (in particular, a sustainability problem when the number of new people paying in is declining), they have different transparencies. In the case of a Ponzi scheme, the fact that", "companies are suspected of being fraudulent. Reasons for cancellation It is more than likely that a new timeshare owner could have purchased the same product from an existing owner on the timeshare resale market for drastically less than what the buyer paid from the resort developer, simply by doing a computer search. In many cases, the exact or similar accommodation purchased, will be happily transferred by an unhappy timeshare owner. The new buyer usually pays only minimum real estate transfer fees and agrees to take over the maintenance fees, because the existing owner can't find a buyer for his/her timeshare", "other areas.\nCancellations, or rescission, of the timeshare contract, remain the industry's biggest problems to date; the difficulty has been the subject of comedy in popular entertainment.. Legislation The industry is regulated in all countries where resorts are located. In Europe, it is regulated by European and by national legislation. In 1994, the European Communities adopted \"The European Directive 94/47/EC of the European Parliament and Council on the protection of purchasers in respect of certain aspects of contracts relating to the purchase of the right to use immovable properties on a timeshare basis\", which was subject to recent review, and resulted", "actual cost of the timeshare can only be quoted by a licensed real estate agent in the United States, unless the purchase is a right to use as opposed to an actual real estate transaction via ownership. Since timeshares are sold internationally, these laws vary from venue to venue. After a warm-up period and some coffee or snack, there will be a podium speaker welcoming the prospects to the resort, followed by a film designed to dazzle them with exotic places they could visit as timeshare owners.\nThe prospects will then be invited to take a tour of the property. Depending", "Internet postings, radio and television advertisement, and direct telephone solicitations. Most of the fees associated with third party resales are up-front and non-refundable, regardless of whether the unit sells, or for how much. Timeshare rentals Depending on the terms of the timeshare contract, an owner may rent their week or interval to another party in exchange for payment to the owner.\nThere are third parties that will try to rent timeshares on behalf of their owners as a one-time event or an annual occurrence. The broker/agent will attempt to find a suitable renter in exchange for fees and commissions. In addition", "is because the shock that leads to foreclosure is not long-lasting, because the credit constraints imposed by having a foreclosure on one’s credit report are not large, or because housing services are more inelastic than other forms of consumption.\" Affected demographics Recent housing studies indicate that minority households disproportionately experience foreclosures. Other overly represented groups include African Americans, renter households, households with children, and foreign-born homeowners. For example, statistics show that African American buyers are 3.3 times more likely than white buyers to be in foreclosure, while Latino and Asian buyers are 2.5 and 1.6 times more likely, respectively. As", "and were a key factor in perpetuating the fraud. Ponzi schemes typically pay returns of 20% or higher, and collapse quickly. One Madoff fund, which described its \"strategy\" as focusing on shares in the Standard & Poor's 100-stock index, reported a 10.5% annual return during the previous 17 years. Even at the end of November 2008, amid a general market collapse, the same fund reported that it was up 5.6%, while the same year-to-date total return on the S&P 500-stock index had been negative 38%. An unnamed investor remarked, \"The returns were just amazing and we trusted this guy for", "asset value can keep the Ponzi borrower afloat.\nIf the use of Ponzi finance is general enough in the financial system, then the inevitable disillusionment of the Ponzi borrower can cause the system to seize up: when the bubble pops, i.e., when the asset prices stop increasing, the speculative borrower can no longer refinance (roll over) the principal even if able to cover interest payments. As with a line of dominoes, collapse of the speculative borrowers can then bring down even hedge borrowers, who are unable to find loans despite the apparent soundness of the underlying investments. Application to the subprime", "Timeshare donation Methods Currently there are several methods to give-away or donate your timeshare. Sale to relative or friend The first is to find a willing relative or friend who might make good use of the timeshare. This method commonly involves selling the timeshare for $1 and proceeding with the formal transfer of title, typically performed by a timeshare closing and escrow company. Donation to a charity The second method is calling your favorite charity to see if they accept timeshare donations. Some charities are able to utilize timeshare weeks to generate revenue; by renting them to donors, or", "purchased, convinced the usually very polite sales crew that no means no, or has gotten up from the table and exited the building. Cancellation of a timeshare contract Timeshare sales are often high-pressure and fast-moving affairs. Some people get caught up in the excitement of the sales presentation and sign a contract, only to realize later that they may have made a mistake.\nU.S. Federal Trade Commission mandates a \"cool off period\" that allows people to cancel some types of purchases without penalty within three days. Additionally, almost all U.S. states have laws that specifically govern cancellation of timeshare contracts. In", "large scale.\nIn modern societies, countertrade is supposed to be only a marginal phenomenon, occurring on the periphery of monetized trade. If barter nevertheless does happen on a huge scale, it contradicts the theory of the transaction costs of barter, and the theory of comparative advantage in trade. Why would people choose barter, instead of payment in money, when money is more efficient than barter? How is it possible for this to occur, for a prolonged time, on such a grand scale? And how is a return to monetization accomplished?\nAll the known theories of trade, value and money are tested in", "of the timeshare in exchange for the buyer waiving cancellation rights (or paying a penalty, such as losing 10% of the purchase price, if the sale is cancelled). However, such a waiver is not legally enforceable anywhere in Mexico or the United States. If a recent timeshare buyer wishes to rescind or cancel the timeshare contract, the intent to cancel must be made within the allotted time period in writing or in person; a telephone call will not suffice.\nIn recent years, a timeshare cancellation industry has formed by companies who provide one simple service: timeshare cancellations. However, some of these", "be made available as a vacation rental should an owner decide to put his owned week(s) on a vacation rental program. Also, a large segment of the 21% of unsold and therefore still resort-controlled inventory is made available as vacation rentals. In 2014, this was a $1.9 billion business. \nA timeshare is a piece of real estate—often a fully furnished condominium—that is jointly shared by multiple owners. While different types of timeshare ownerships exist, in general, each owner bears a portion of the responsibility, along with the right to a segment of time in which he or", "2011 research paper by the Federal Reserve Board, “The Post-Foreclosure Experience of U.S. Households,” used credit reports from more than 37 million individuals between 1999 and 2010 to measure post-foreclosure behavior, especially in regard to future borrowing and housing consumption. The study found that: 1) On average 23% of people experiencing foreclosure had moved within a year of the foreclosure process starting. In the same time, a control group (not facing foreclosure) had only a 12% migration rate; 2) Only 30% of post-foreclosure borrowers moved to neighborhoods with median income at least 25% lower than their previous neighborhood; 3) The", "sales commission, and other fees, which realistically can never be recouped by the owner. Most timeshares resell for a nominal price as low as $1, so the new owner only takes responsibility of maintenance and other recurring fees. Resale price can be considered a market price of the timeshare.\nThere are brokers and agents who specialize in reselling timeshare units on behalf of their owners. This arrangement typically involves listing fees, commissions, or both, being paid by the owner to the broker/agent. In return, the broker/agent markets the resale to prospective buyers. This marketing can take the form of printed materials,", "another statistical example, over 60 per cent of the foreclosures that occurred in New York City in 2007 involved rental properties. Twenty percent of the foreclosures nationwide were from rental properties. One reason for this is that the majority of these people have borrowed with risky subprime loans. There is a major lack of research done in this area posing problems for three reasons. One, not being able to describe who experiences foreclosure makes it challenging to develop policies and programs that can prevent/reduce this trend for the future. Second, researchers cannot tell the extent to which recent foreclosures have", "very daunting, there are some perks to being a latecomer. For example, Late Entrants have the ability to learn from those who are already in the market or have previously entered. Late Followers have the advantage of learning from their early competitors and improving the benefits or reducing the total costs. This allows them to create a strategy that could essentially mean gaining market share and most importantly, staying in the market. In addition to this, markets evolve, leading to consumers wanting improvements and advancements on products. Late Followers have the advantage of catching the shifts in customer needs and", "without paying a resale company thousands of dollars to absorb it for resale. The reason for this anomaly is that the lion's share of the cost of a new timeshare are sales commissions and marketing overhead, and cannot be retrieved by the timeshare owner.\nAnother reason a new owner might want to cancel is buyer's remorse following the subsidence of excitement produced by a sales presentation. He may have realized that he is uncertain what exactly has been purchased and how it works, or may have realized the unlimited duration of a commitment to pay ownership maintenance fees, or may have", "provided funds to ponzi borrowers due to a belief that housing values would continue to increase.\nMcCulley writes that the progression through Minsky's three borrowing stages was evident as the credit and housing bubbles built through approximately August 2007. Demand for housing was both a cause and effect of the rapidly expanding shadow banking system, which helped fund the shift to more lending of the speculative and ponzi types, through ever-riskier mortgage loans at higher levels of leverage. This helped drive the housing bubble, as the availability of credit encouraged higher home prices. Since the bubble burst, we are seeing the", "Market timing Difference in views on the viability of market timing Whether market timing is ever a viable investment strategy is controversial. Some may consider market timing to be a form of gambling based on pure chance, because they do not believe in undervalued or overvalued markets. The efficient-market hypothesis claims that financial prices always exhibit random walk behavior and thus cannot be predicted with consistency.\nSome consider market timing to be sensible in certain situations, such as an apparent bubble. However, because the economy is a complex system that contains many factors, even at times of significant market optimism or", "give CitiApartments sufficient money to make interest payments while also paying off or evicting existing tenants, based on a financial model by which it would replace at least 75% of the tenants within two years.\nCritics long complained that in the event of a market downturn or other unexpected event, CitiApartments was in danger of defaulting on its mortgages and would have to sell them at distressed prices or in foreclosure, which would have a ripple effect that depresses commercial real estate throughout San Francisco. Such predictions came to pass in January, 2009, when the parent company had to assign", "a pyramid or Ponzi scheme.\nIf the demographics of the population were stable, then a pay-as-you-go system would not have demographically-driven financing ups and downs, and no thoughtful person would be tempted to compare it to a Ponzi arrangement. However, since population demographics tend to rise and fall, the balance in pay-as-you-go systems tends to rise and fall as well. This vulnerability to demographic ups and downs is one of the problems with pay-as-you-go financing. But this problem has nothing to do with Ponzi schemes or any other fraudulent form of financing; it is simply the nature of pay-as-you-go systems.", "Tversky and Kahneman, whereby people evaluate new gambles in isolation, ignoring other relevant risks. This phenomenon can be seen in practice in the reaction of people to stock market fluctuations in comparison with other aspects of their overall wealth; people are more sensitive to spikes in the stock market as opposed to their labor income or the housing market. It has also been shown that narrow framing causes loss aversion among stock market investors. This aspect has also been widely used in behavioral economics and mental accounting.\nThe digital age has brought the implementation of prospect theory in software. Framing and", "in the adoption on the 14th of January 2009 on European Directive 2008/122/EC. Exchanging timeshares Used as the basis for attracting mass appeal to purchasing a timeshare, is the idea of owners exchanging their week, either independently or through exchange agencies. The two largest—often mentioned in media—are RCI and Interval International (II), which combined, have over 7,000 resorts. They have resort affiliate programs, and members can only exchange with affiliated resorts. It is most common for a resort to be affiliated with only one of the larger exchange agencies, although resorts with dual affiliations are not uncommon. The timeshare resort" ]

[ "the IS would take over. creating a bigger \"nation\" that's hostile towards US relations. puts israel and our trade partners in the middle east at risk. a middle of the road country is open to trade as long as such a trade agreement does't cause problems with its neighbor. if ISIS is their neighbor, they're less open to agreeing to trade with the enemy of ISIS." ]

[ "the Middle East do not reveal a clearly devised strategy or objectives. Activities The group focused mainly on bomb attacks and extortion attempts targeting American and British civilian and economic interests in Lebanon, at times claiming that its actions were either carried out in protest for US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's 1974 diplomatic Middle Eastern Tour or to force British-owned Lebanese companies to distribute freely large amounts of food to impoverished local families. It is still unclear who financed and armed the ACO though the most likely suspect at the time would have been the Palestinians (either the", "the Middle East against revisionist states, its biased and inequitable application continually stimulates the nationalist and Islamic reaction at the societal level that keeps the regional pot boiling.\nGlobal terrorism and terror events were made possible due to the availability of new powerful and sometimes lethal technology to groups and individuals that previously had no or restricted access to. Conventional instruments of mass transport or communication have been, and can be at any time converted into weapons of mass destruction, or at least of mass terror producing a situation of asymmetrical war where weaker individuals and groups can attack superpowers.", "Human trafficking in the Middle East Prevalence According to Kapstein in the journal of Foreign Affairs, the industrial states have failed to put in much effort to alleviate the issue. He believes that the problem is not one of political capability, but political will. A challenge in combating human trafficking in Middle Eastern countries is that the governments deny there is a problem. The lack of political will is partially the result of empty threats from the international community, but most of it can be attributed to deeper economic forces and sociological factors at play. In her article in \"Global", "after the UN human rights chief, Navi Pillay, called for an urgent stop to arms transfers to government and opposition forces so as to avoid \"further militarisation\" of the conflict. The director of the Saban Center for Middle East Policy had previously argued that, while \"uncontrolled militarization will turn the Syrian uprising into a wider conflict that could draw in jihadis and other extremists from across the Muslim World\", militarisation was inevitable, and so the US should help facilitate and guide it. Marc Lynch argued the opposite in February 2012, as the provision of weapons from Saudi Arabia and Qatar", "former legal advisor for the PLO and another Hamas supporter who, as Middle East scholar Richard Cravatts noted recently, 'denied that thousands of Hamas rockets fired from Gaza into Israel actually had warheads on them, unlike Israeli weaponry.'\"\nScholars of the Middle East, including New Historian Benny Morris, have argued that the one-state solution is not viable because of Arab unwillingness to accept a Jewish national presence in the Middle East. Morris has dismissed claims that a binational state would be a secular democratic state and argues it would instead be an authoritarian, fundamentalist state with a persecuted Jewish minority, citing", "perhaps terminate some countries, destroy the so-called terrorist groups they dislike, and install régimes friendly to the United States. I think this is a dream that has very little basis in reality. The knowledge they have of the Middle East, to judge from the people who advise them, is, to say the least, out of date and widely speculative. . . .\nI don't think the planning for the post–Saddam, post-war period in Iraq is very sophisticated, and there's very little of it. U.S. Undersecretary of State Marc Grossman and U.S. Undersecretary of Defense Douglas Feith testified in Congress, about a", "than to strengthen Abbas.\"\nIn 2008, U.S. diplomats in the Middle East were instructed to secretly collect personal information on Palestinian leaders, and to monitor closely Israeli military and telecommunication capabilities. One U.S. State Department directive orders U.S. diplomats to report on Israeli Military tactics, techniques, and procedures dealing with conventional and unconventional counterinsurgency operations.\nIn 2007, then Israeli Minister of Foreign Affairs Tzipi Livni said she \"doubted that a final status agreement could be reached with Abbas, and therefore the emphasis should be on reforming Fatah so that it could beat Hamas at the polls.\" Mossad chief Meir Dagan told U.S.", "Middle East NWFZ, and NPT Review Conferences in 1995 and 2010 called for a zone free of all weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East. An International Conference For A WMD-Free Middle East was held in Haifa in December 2013 attended by citizens from all over the world concerned about the lack of progress in the official talks.", "Middle East and Palestine as part of an air policing policy, in co-operation with the Israeli Air Force and Egyptian Air Force to prevent conflict between the two countries owing to the formation of the state of Israel in 1948. While there, they undertook a major operation, Operation Bobcat, to prevent illegal Jewish migrants coming into Palestine. In May 1948 the variety of aircraft was reduced despite increasing demand for operations. In May, Palestinians began attacking British military installations throughout the region. In the largest British post-war action, Operation Dawn (13 to 14 May 1948) was launched with the support", "ISIS targets in Syria from the eastern Mediterranean. It was the first time the U.S. Navy had conducted strike missions in the Middle East from the Mediterranean Sea since flying operations against the Iraqi military in 2003.\nBy 9 June, the U.S. Central Command said the Coalition had conducted more than 105 strikes in support of the SDF's advance; French special forces were offering training and advice to SDF fighters in the area and on 15 June, British special forces were also reported to be operating in the area. Much of the SDF advance was made possible by Coalition air support,", "comprehensive peace in the Middle East is crucial, not only for the peoples and countries of the region, but also for the international peace and security.\" They further called for an \"urgent resumption of negotiations\" along the lines of \"UN Resolutions, the Madrid principles, the Road Map and the Arab Peace Initiative.\nFurthermore, the IBSA Fund said it would build a sports center in the city of Ramallah. The group also supported the need for youth sports leagues. An additional US$2 million would be granted for projects in the Occupied Territories. Furtherance of IBSA India took the initiative to call for", "in mission creep.\nIn an article for the BBC, Marc Weller, professor of international law at Cambridge University, argued that the US airstrikes are consistent with international law. Specifically, he argued that: the government in Baghdad invited international forces to join in the fight against IS; the newly reconstituted and religiously representative Iraqi government has a positive obligation to deliver on its constitutional promises and defend its population from subjugation by ISIS; and foreign intervention exercising the right of collective self-defense on behalf of Iraq can involve forcible action in IS-controlled territories in Syria that is proportional to the necessity of", "should intervene in regions of the world only if they directly affect its security and prosperity. The focus, therefore, lies on those powers with significant industrial and military potential and the prevention of war amongst those states. Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the United States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which have the greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is a primary source of oil for much of the developed world. In addition to these more particular concerns, selective engagement also focuses", "in the Arab-Israeli conflict. The ultimate purpose was to prevent any seizure in the Middle East by force. Impact According to Gerald M. Steinberg, the \"agreement did not prevent the Arab states from obtaining weapons through their alliance relationships with suppliers, but Israel was excluded.... Little foreign aid was provided by the United States, and Israeli military officials who sought to purchase weapons and ammunition in the United States were rebuffed.\" NEACC In June 1952, the parties set up the Near East Arms Coordinating Committee (NEACC) through which they co-ordinated their arms sales to all parties in the conflict. The", "conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War via proxy actors, after a series of costly, drawn-out direct engagements in the Middle East spurred a recurrence of war weariness, a so-called \"War on Terror syndrome\".\nNations may also resort to proxy warfare to avoid potential negative international reactions from allied nations, profitable trading partners, or intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations. This is especially significant when standing peace treaties, acts of alliance, or other international agreements ostensibly forbid direct warfare: breaking such agreements could lead to a variety of negative consequences due to either negative international reaction (see above), punitive provisions", "for Terrorism, that stated an aggressive agenda for economic empowerment was needed in the Middle East in order to defeat terrorist groups like ISIL. He argued that the U.S. should promote an agenda similar to what was successfully used in Peru to defeat the Shining Path in the 1990s. He also mentions in the article that local policymakers in the Middle East are missing the fact that if ordinary people cannot play the game legally, they will be far less able to resist a terrorist offensive. The article received praise among high-level global politicians such as US Presidential candidates Rand", "first. While Turkey wanted the Syrian government to be overthrown as soon as possible, the US prioritised the war against ISIL. The US also feared that the Syrian Air Force would bomb the area, which would make the idea of a safe zone impracticable. The government rejected the safe zone for being a safe haven for both civilians and rebels.\nThe outline of the safe zone was another reason for the disagreement. According to Turkey, the safe zone should include a no fly zone, whereas the US rejected establishing a no-fly zone, which would bring a conflict with the Syrian government.\nTurkey", "Asia and the Middle East – where there were no military alliances analogous to NATO – it had mainly extended deterrence through bilateral alliances and security relationships and through its forward military presence and security guarantees. According to the Review Report: \"The Administration is pursuing strategic dialogues with its allies and partners in East Asia and the Middle East to determine how best to cooperatively strengthen regional security architectures to enhance peace and security, and reassure them that U.S. extended deterrence is credible and effective.\" Since 2010 the U.S. position has been less clear and it seems \"to be deliberately", "in southern Yemen. Four civilians were also reportedly killed in the strike. The strike was reportedly coordinated by American special forces and CIA operatives based in Sana. According to the Associated Press, in 2011 the U.S. government began building an airbase in the middle east from which the CIA and U.S. military plans to operate drones over Yemen. On 30 September 2011, Anwar al-Awlaki was targeted by a US drone strike which successfully killed him, Samir Khan and a few other militants while they were all in the same car driving to get breakfast.", "was reached on the agenda and other issues, and the conference was called off in November 2012.\nAn international group of concerned citizens, including former members of the Israeli Knesset, responded to the lack of progress in official talks by organizing an International Conference For A WMD-Free Middle East. It was held in Haifa in December 2013.\nIn September 2013, there was an initiative for a weapons of mass destruction free zone (WMDFZ) in the Middle East. As at January 2014, the Secretary-General of UNODA has received letters confirming support for declaring the Middle East a region free from weapons of mass", "the United Nations Security Council authorised the deployment of UN unarmed military observers to the Middle East in order to monitor the armistice agreement that was signed between Israel and its Arab neighbours in the wake of the Arab-Israeli War. This operation was called the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) and is still in operation today. With the passage of resolution 73 (1949) by the Security Council in August 1949, UNTSO was given the task of fulfilling four Armistice Agreements between the state of Israel and the Arab states which had participated in the war. Thus, UNTSO's operations were", "insurgent element and that they had been inserted into Syria. The deployment of this unit and the supplying of weapons may be the first tangible measure of support since the U.S. stated they would begin providing assistance to the opposition. However, the CIA had been facilitating the flow of arms from Libya to Syria \"for more than a year\" beforehand in collaboration with \"the UK, Saudi Arabia and Qatar\"; \"the operation was largely run out of a covert CIA annex in Benghazi.\" U.S. military intelligence predicted \"the fall of the Assad regime would lead to chaos and, potentially, to Syria's", "regional ally, of their intention to launch airstrikes. It did not share specific timing or targets of strikes with the Iranian government but reportedly assured it that the US would not strike any Syrian government targets. September 2014: Airstrikes begin On 22 September, Pentagon Press Secretary Rear Admiral John Kirby confirmed that the United States and other partner nations had undertaken strikes in Syria using fighters, bombers, and Tomahawk missiles in strikes authorized by President Barack Obama. Bahrain, Jordan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates were identified as countries conducting or supporting airstrikes the first night. The initial", "Palestinian domestic weapons production Even before the outbreak of the Al-Aqsa Intifada, various militant Palestinian (Palestinian resistance) groups built domestically-produced weapons for attacks against Israel. Most of the effort has been in the production of unguided artillery rockets, though Hamas has built its own versions of anti-tank missiles and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs). Though usually smuggled across the Egyptian border into the Gaza Strip and to a lesser extent Jordanian border into the West Bank, various small arms are believed to be produced in the Palestinian territories. On 14 August 2008 the Popular Resistance Committees showed off the Nasser-4 missile, an", "Airstrikes on hospitals in Yemen A Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen began in 2015, in an attempt to influence the outcome of the Yemeni Civil War. Saudi Arabia, spearheading a coalition of nine Arab states, began carrying out airstrikes in neighbouring Yemen and imposing an aerial and naval blockade on 26 March 2015, heralding a military intervention code-named Operation Decisive Storm (Arabic: عملية عاصفة الحزم‎, romanized: Amaliyyat `Āṣifat al-Ḥazm). More than 70 health facilities in Yemen have been destroyed by a series of airstrikes conducted by the Saudi Arabian-led coalition since March 2015. Many of these have", "property theft and acquisition.\" “The United States remains committed to improving the capacity of its partners to fight terrorism, deter regional destabilizers and promote stability in the Middle East,\nbut – as seen in the department’s decision to cancel Turkey’s F-35 programme – we are also prepared to make hard decisions to protect US technology.” Egypt In his first meeting with a Middle East nation as Secretary, Mark Esper met with Egypt's Minister of Defense Mohammad Zaki and asked about their use of counterinsurgency tactics in the Sinai Peninsula. At that meeting Mulroy and Zaki also spoke extensively about the", "the United States and Europe, he declared the resolution to stop the spread of terrorism and extremism under the threat of “radical Islamic terror.” \nOngoing wars in the Middle East have led to large Numbers of refugee seeking asylum, and European countries were the primary recipients. Since the European Union members were required to accept the Quotas of Migrants to alleviate the burden of the main landing sites for the migrants, refugees were swarming into the member states (including Malta, Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Latvia, Lithuania, Sweden, Portugal, Estonia, Cyprus, Netherlands, Slovenia, Germany, Belgium, France, Romania, Spain, Croatia, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Austria,", "operatives from the Occupied Territories into Israel, and is waiting for an opportunity to attack.\nAs of 2015, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey are openly supporting the Army of Conquest, an umbrella rebel group fighting in the Syrian Civil War against the Syrian government that reportedly includes an al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar al-Sham. Kashmir Bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri consider India to be a part of an alleged Crusader-Zionist-Hindu conspiracy against the Islamic world. According to a 2005 report by the Congressional Research Service, bin Laden was involved in training militants for Jihad in", "Army was among the DoD's most compelling strategic interests in the Middle East. As evidence, he explained that the U.S. helped train and equip 28 Iraqi brigades to maintain their readiness and defend their country against ISIS, a common enemy. He further said, \"Five years ago, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS) controlled approximately 55,000 square kilometers and more than 4 million people in Iraq lived under their oppressive rule, now they do not.\" The Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve directly supported these efforts. \nThe Iraqi government will continue fighting the remnants of", "another rationale for military action.\n \n\"And, of course, sophisticated delivery systems aren't required for a chemical or biological attack; all that might be required are a small container and one terrorist or Iraqi intelligence operative to deliver it. And that is the source of our urgent concern about Saddam Hussein's links to international terrorist groups. Over the years, Iraq has provided safe haven to terrorists such as Abu Nidal, whose terror organization carried out more than 90 terrorist attacks in 20 countries that killed or injured nearly 900 people, including 12 Americans. Iraq has also provided safe haven to Abu" ]

[ "As you may know, an earthquake occurs when two slabs of rock move relative to one another over a surface called a \"fault\". Moment magnitude is simply the product of the area of the fault ruptured, the relative movement across the fault, and the stiffness of the rock (called the shear modulus). It is closely related to the energy released in the earthquake, but the relation is not trivial.\n\nThe moment magnitude does not take into account any other factors, so ignores the depth, duration, size of area affected, and so on. The moment magnitude is an important quantity in academia because it is directly related to the fault rupture itself. However, it is not of huge benefit for working out impacts because other parameters like proximity to population centres, building quality, depth and surface geology (the waves that cause the damage are surface waves that only represent a tiny fraction of the total earthquake energy, and these waves can be amplified or suppressed depending on the geology at the surface) are a lot more important than the moment magnitude. \n\nYou may be interested in the USGS's [PAGER program](_URL_0_) which tries to take these factors into account to estimate the economic and humanitarian impact of earthquakes when they happen." ]

[ "an earthquake's strength on the moment magnitude scale, which is based on the actual energy released by an earthquake. Frequency of occurrence It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year, detectable with current instrumentation. About 100,000 of these can be felt. Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in El Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, India, Nepal and Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including Downstate New York, England, and Australia. Larger", "not out of the ordinary as earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains can be felt several times the area felt on West Coast earthquakes. The earthquake was given a magnitude 4.6 on the moment magnitude scale by the USGS (other sources reported as high a magnitude as 4.9) and reports of the duration of the shaking range from 10 seconds to as long as 45 seconds. It is tied with a 1973 earthquake near Knoxville, Tennessee as the strongest earthquake ever to occur in the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone, which is the second most active seismic zone east", "seismic energy propagating as much as ten times further than in the warmer rocks of California. A magnitude 4.0 eastern U.S. earthquake typically can be felt as far as 100 km (60 mi) from its epicenter, but it infrequently causes damage near its source. A magnitude 5.5 eastern U.S. earthquake, although uncommon, can be felt as far as 500 km (300 mi) from its epicenter, and can cause damage as far away as 40 km (25 mi) from its epicenter. Earthquakes stronger than about magnitude 5.0 generate ground motions that are strong enough to be damaging in the epicentral area.\nAt well-studied plate boundaries like the San", "results from an earthquake can be displayed on a shake map.\nDue to the complex conditions affecting PGA, earthquakes of similar magnitude can offer disparate results, with many moderate magnitude earthquakes generating significantly larger PGA values than larger magnitude quakes.\nDuring an earthquake, ground acceleration is measured in three directions: vertically (V or UD, for up-down) and two perpendicular horizontal directions (H1 and H2), often north-south (NS) and east-west (EW). The peak acceleration in each of these directions is recorded, with the highest individual value often reported. Alternatively, a combined value for a given station can be noted. The", "unit scale is existing. 12 points seismic intensity scale The following 12 points seismic intensity scale is given above.\n1 points- hardly felt\n2-points- hardly felt. IS felt by the people in the constant position\n3- points Weak Vibrations. The earthquake is felt by some people inside and few people outside the buildings. It is like the passage of the vehicle. The careful people are noticing the vibration of the things in the upper floors.\n4- points Obvious vibrations- The earthquake is felt by outside and inside people. The people are being awoke but they are not frightened. ", "the moment magnitude scale, and as such is classified as a 'major' earthquake by the United States Geological Survey. It was felt as far away as Christchurch, New Zealand some 1,500 km (930 mi) from the epicentre. Also of note on 31 January 2007 at 4:15:55 NZST a Magnitude 6.5 (Strong) earthquake shook the island. The epicenter was approximately 40 km (25 mi) S of Raoul and 10 km (6.2 mi) below the seabed. On 9 December 2007 at 8.28pm NZST a magnitude 7.6 earthquake shook the area, centered approximately 350 km (220 mi) north of Raoul Island at a depth of 188 km (117 mi). On 30 September 2008", "maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). The earthquake was felt in many parts of eastern New England, and as far south as Long Island, NY.", "The highest magnitude earthquake recorded in the area since 1974 occurred on August 19, 1994 – the temblor was measured 3.2 on the Richter scale with an epicenter at coordinates 35.51°N 89.92°W, ca. 2 miles (3 km) west of Randolph, at a depth of 6.6 miles (10.6 km).\nOn January 16, 2009 at 3:09 p.m. local time (21:09 UTC), \"a small earthquake shook portions of Tipton County\". The earthquake was measured at a magnitude 2.8 on the Richter scale. According to the Center for Earthquake Research and Information (CERI), the epicenter of the temblor was reported to be at coordinates 35.645°N 89.694°W at", "8.4 earthquake was the most powerful earthquake of 2007 to date, more powerful than the two March 2007 Sumatra earthquakes nearby and the 2007 Peru earthquake. It was the second most powerful earthquake since the magnitude 9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, exceeded only by the magnitude 8.6 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake. The two largest earthquakes were the fourth and fifth earthquakes with magnitude 7.9 or greater to have occurred on or near the plate boundaries offshore of western Sumatra in 7 years, the others being the magnitude 7.9 earthquake of 4 June 2000; the magnitude 9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on 26 December 2004; and", "scale. Further away, its intensities ranged from III (Weak) to IV (Light). Damage The earthquake originated near the city of Irondale, 3 miles (5 km) north of Birmingham, striking just after 4 P.M. local time. Because the earthquake took place before Alabama had a seismograph network, its Richter scale magnitude of 5.1 is an estimate, but it is still considered the most powerful earthquake in state history, affecting seven other states.\nAlthough there were no deaths, structural damage, including cracked windows, occurred. The most serious damage was in Irondale, where chimneys were toppled. In a two-block area, shaking wrecked fourteen chimneys, including", "to its magnitude, the quake was believed to have caused a surface rupture near the epicenter. Initial estimates from the United States Geological Survey placed the magnitude at 6.0 (Mw), though this — as well as its focal depth — was revised shortly after. Concurrently, the quake was assigned a preliminary magnitude of 5.9 (ML) by the Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute. Intensity Owing to the shallow depth, powerful shaking was reported in many areas around the epicenter. Maximum ground motion in Simav was estimated at VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli scale; Intensity VI (Strong) was also reported", "duration (length of the shake cycle), and the geology of the ground (subsurface). Shallow-focused earthquakes generate stronger shaking (acceleration) than intermediate and deep quakes, since the energy is released closer to the surface.\nPeak ground acceleration can be expressed in g (the acceleration due to Earth's gravity, equivalent to g-force) as either a decimal or percentage; in m/s² (1 g = 9.81 m/s²); or in Gal, where 1 Gal is equal to 0.01 m/s² (1 g = 981 Gal).\nThe ground type can significantly influence ground acceleration, so PGA values can display extreme variability over distances of a few kilometers, particularly with moderate to large earthquakes. The varying PGA", "of a historic magnitude 4.8 earthquake.", "the epicentre of the earthquake was located inland, on the northeastern slopes of Mount Rinjani at 8.37°S 116.48°E. It initially measured the earthquake's intensity at Mw  6.8, before revising it to 7.0. The United States Geological Survey initially measured the earthquake at Mw  7.0, before revising it down to 6.9. It placed the epicenter at 8.287°S 116.451°E, somewhat north of the BMKG estimate.\nCaused by a shallow thrust fault on or near the Flores Back Arc Thrust, at which the Australia and Sunda plates underthrusts the Indonesian volcanic island arcs, the earthquake struck just a week after the magnitude 6.4 earthquake", "more about the power of East Coast earthquakes, equations that predict ground shaking might need to be revised.\"\nThe earthquake, along with a magnitude-5.8 quake on the border of New York and Ontario in 1944, is the largest to have occurred in the U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains since an 1897 quake centered in Giles County in western Virginia whose magnitude has been estimated as 5.8 or 5.9.\nIn addition to the great landslide distances recorded, the landslides from the 2011 Virginia earthquake occurred in an area 20 times larger than expected from studies of worldwide earthquakes. Scientists plotted the landslide", "displacement during the earthquake is estimated at 12 m, based on the height of the bund and the amount of subsidence to the south. Combined with a lateral extent of at least 80 km, this gives an estimated magnitude of 7.7±2. This matches well with magnitudes estimated using both the total felt area and the area of VIII intensity. Other estimates based on intensity measurements give magnitudes as high as 8.2.\nModelling of the surface deformation indicates that the fault that slipped during the earthquake dipped to the north at between about 50–67°. As faults that dip in excess of 50° are", "Characteristics The extent of damage has been used to estimate the magnitude of the earthquake. Estimates lie in the range from about 5 to 6.1. The maximum felt intensity is estimated to have been in the range IX to X, and the area of highest intensity was elongated roughly WNW–ESE. Shaking was reported to have continued for several days, presumably referring to a sequence of aftershocks. The focal depth is estimated to have been in the range 5–6 km. Damage The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum both suffered major damage, with damage to some buildings also reported from Naples and Nuceria.", "2007 Alum Rock earthquake Earthquake The shock originated on the Calaveras Fault and ruptured an area of the fault for a length of about 5 km (3.1 mi) beginning at the hypocenter and extending southeast. No surface trace of the earthquake along the fault. David Oppenheimer, a seismologist at the United States Geological Survey (USGS), said that although the quake was felt as a strong jolt over a wide region, it was more significant because it caused stress changes in the Calaveras Fault and the nearby Hayward Fault. Damage Intensity VI (Strong) effects included broken windows and items that were knocked off", "Several cities south of Cobquecura were also raised, by up to 3 meters. The maximum recorded peak ground acceleration was at Concepcion, with a value of 0.65 g (6.38 m/s²). Compared with past earthquakes This was the strongest earthquake affecting Chile since the magnitude 9.5 1960 Valdivia earthquake (the most energetic earthquake ever measured in the world), and it was the strongest earthquake worldwide since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and until the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. It is tied with the 1906 Ecuador–Colombia and 1833 Sumatra earthquakes as the sixth strongest earthquake ever measured, approximately 500 times more powerful than the", "northeastern U.S. could be larger than the area of damage caused by an earthquake of the same magnitude in the western U.S. The cooler rocks in the northeastern U.S. contribute to the seismic energy propagating as much as ten times further than in the warmer rocks of California. A magnitude 4.0 eastern U.S. earthquake typically can be felt as far as 100 km (60 mi) from its epicenter, but it infrequently causes damage near its source. A magnitude 5.5 eastern U.S. earthquake, although uncommon, can be felt as far as 500 km (300 mi) from its epicenter, and can cause damage as far away", "earthquake, at magnitude Mw   7.2 (Mₛ  7.8) was also the strongest earthquake in California since 1906. It was followed by a Mw   7.2 (MS  7.4) quake on a near-by fault, the 1999 Hector Mine earthquake. Following the Landers earthquake \"a well-developed linear pattern of primary and triggered aftershocks\" was observed that extended along the Little Lake Fault and into Owens Valley.\nSmaller earthquakes are quite common. In the Ridgecrest area these include a ML  5.2 earthquake in October 1961 near Brown (approximately halfway beteen Ridgecrest and", "Initial estimates from the USGS placed its intensity at a magnitude of 5.8 (Mw); the National Seismological Service registered the earthquake at magnitude 5.5 (ML).\nOwing to the moderate magnitude of the quake, significant shaking was felt only in localized parts of Costa Chica, registering strongest at VI (strong) on the Mercalli scale in Azoyú and V (moderate) in populous areas around the epicenter. Lighter ground motions (MM IV–III) were perceived in much of Guerrero, including Acapulco and Chilpancingo, with weak tremors (MM II) reported as far away as in Mexico City, about 300 km (187 mi) from the epicenter. The capital city rests on a former", "since a magnitude 4.4 earthquake in 1950. The strongest recorded British earthquake is the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter scale.\nTen months later, the earthquake's strength was surpassed by that of the 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake, which was 5.2 in magnitude.\nLess than two years later, on 3 March 2009 at 14.35 UTC, Folkestone was shaken by a smaller magnitude 3.0 quake, located in the same area.", "magnitude of 5.2 Mw at a similar depth.\nSeismologists reported that the earthquakes were part of a prolonged aftershock sequence associated with the major magnitude 7.1 earthquake of September 2010, which includes the February 2011 event. They were succeeded by multiple lighter aftershocks; the strongest, a moderate magnitude 5.1 ML struck a minute after the event. Another tremor 5.0 ML struck the region two days later. Despite significant energy release, the earthquakes were believed to have increased the risk of an additional aftershock of similar magnitude; calculations from GNS Science indicated a 23 percent probability of a magnitude 6.0–6.9 ML earthquake", "may reach depths of 70 km (43 mi).\nSubduction zones are known to produce the strongest earthquakes on earth, as their particular structure allows more stress to build up before energy is released. Geophysicists consider it a matter of time before this earthquake will be surpassed in magnitude by another. The earthquake's rupture zone was 800 km (500 mi) long, stretching from Arauco (37° S) to Chiloé Archipelago (43° S). Rupture velocity, the speed at which a rupture front expands across the surface of the fault, has been estimated as 3.5 km (2.2 mi) per second. The average slip across all 27 Nazca subfaults was estimated to", "focus of the earthquake. The fault rupture begins at the focus and then expands along the fault surface. The rupture stops where the stresses become insufficient to continue breaking the fault (because the rocks are stronger) or where the rupture enters ductile material. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the total area of its fault rupture.Most earthquakes are small, with rupture dimensions less than the depth of the focus so the rupture doesn't break the surface, but in high magnitude, destructive earthquakes, surface breaks are common. Fault ruptures in large earthquakes can extend for more than 100 km (62 mi).", "10,000 earthquakes. Nearly all of them are so small that they are not felt. Only several hundred have been greater than magnitude 3.0, and only about 15–20 have been greater than magnitude 4.0. The magnitude 6.7 1994 Northridge earthquake was particularly destructive, causing a substantial number of deaths, injuries, and structural collapses as well as the most property damage of any earthquake in U.S. history at an estimated $20 billion.\nMany faults are able to produce a magnitude greater than 6.7 earthquake, such as the San Andreas Fault, which can produce a magnitude 8.0 event. Other faults include the San Jacinto", "\"pitch\" as a number of shallow earthquake waves. This resonance amplifies the effects of the shock waves coming from an earthquake far away.\nHowever, only certain types of structures are vulnerable to this resonance effect. Taller buildings have their own frequencies of vibration. Those that are six to fifteen stories tall also vibrate at the 2.5-second cycle, making them act like tuning forks in the event of an earthquake. The low-frequency waves of an earthquake are amplified by the mud of the lakebed, which in turn, is amplified by the building itself. This causes these buildings to shake more violently than", "largest signals on earthquake seismograms. Surface waves are strongly excited when their source is close to the surface, as in a shallow earthquake or a near surface explosion, and are much weaker for deep earthquake sources. Normal modes Both body and surface waves are traveling waves; however, large earthquakes can also make the entire Earth \"ring\" like a resonant bell. This ringing is a mixture of normal modes with discrete frequencies and periods of an hour or shorter. Motion caused by a large earthquake can be observed for up to a month after the event. The first observations", "earthquake on the USGS \"Did You Feel It?\" website. Tremors from the Virginia earthquake were felt as far south as Atlanta, Georgia; as far north as Quebec City, Quebec; as far west as Illinois and as far east as Fredericton, New Brunswick, with damage reported as far away as Brooklyn, New York.\nAlthough earthquakes in the central and eastern U.S. are substantially less frequent than in the western U.S., they are typically felt over a much broader region. East of the Rocky Mountains, an earthquake can be felt over an area as much as ten times larger than a similar magnitude" ]

[ "There are direct and indirect systems. Direct systems have some sort of sensor in the tires that measure the air pressure, and use wireless communications to feed that data to the car's computer. \n\n\nIndirect systems don't measure the pressure directly, but sensors on the rest of the car (like the suspension system) measure different variables on how the car is riding, and then a computer on the car tries to interpolate tire pressure. Generally the car has to be driven for a little while (on what are assumed to be properly inflated tires) and it creates a sort of baseline profile of how the car rides. Over time, if the sensors measure significant changes from that baseline, then that's a clue that something might be up with the tires. \n\nDirect systems are much more accurate, but require sensors (with a power source (battery)) to be located in each tire, which can be a significant maintenance issue. \n\nThe indirect systems can't give you an actual measurement of pressure in each tire, but can usually detect when a tire gets low enough to be a serious issue." ]

[ "8.3 bar). Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. A mechanical \"wig wag\" that automatically drops down into the driver's field of vision when the pressure drops below a certain point is also common. Setting of the parking/emergency brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes, thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result in full spring brake pressure immediately.\nA compressed air brake", "Direct TPMS Direct TPMS, or direct tire pressure monitoring systems (direct sensor TPMS) refers to the use of a pressure sensor directly mounted on the wheels or tires of a vehicle. The pressure inside the tire is measured using a pressure transducer with the pressure information being subsequently sent to the vehicle to warn the driver of under or over inflation of a tire. The pressure information is commonly transmitted to the vehicle using radio frequency (RF) technology, though systems using mechanical, electrical or magnetic methods have been used over recent years. Direct tire pressure monitor system warning light When", "Higher precision gauges with ±1 psi (6.9 kPa) uncertainty can also be obtained. Built-in tire pressure sensors Many modern cars now come with built-in tire pressure sensors that allow all four tire pressures to be read simultaneously from inside the car. In 2005, most on-board Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS) used indirect pressure monitoring. The anti-lock brake sensors detect one tire rotating faster than the rest and indicate a low tire pressure to the driver. The problem with this method was that if tires all lost the same pressure then none would show up against the others to indicate a", "accumulator. The driver's brake pedal simply controls a valve to bleed pressure into the brake units at the wheels, rather than actually creating the pressure in a master cylinder by depressing a piston. This form of brake is analogous to an air brake system but with hydraulic fluid as the working medium rather than air. However, on an air brake air is vented from the system when the brakes are released and the reserve of compressed air must be replenished. On a power hydraulic brake system fluid at low pressure is returned from the brake units at the wheels to", "Tire-pressure monitoring system A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to monitor the air pressure inside the pneumatic tires on various types of vehicles. TPMS report real-time tire-pressure information to the driver of the vehicle, either via a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure warning light. TPMS can be divided into two different types – direct (dTPMS) and indirect (iTPMS). TPMS are provided both at an OEM (factory) level as well as an aftermarket solution. The target of a TPMS is avoiding traffic accidents, poor fuel economy, and increased tire wear due to under-inflated tires through", "the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure from the other side moves the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical probe in the center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in the brake system.\nFrom the pressure differential valve, brake tubing carries the pressure to the brake units at the wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the automobile, it is necessary to use hydraulic brake hose from the end", "adjust each wheel's air pressure individually. This allows the user to tilt the vehicle side-to-side, front-to-back, in some instances \"hit a 3-wheel\" (contort the vehicle so one wheel lifts up from the ground) or even \"hop\" the entire vehicle into the air. When a pressure reservoir is present, the flow of air or gas is commonly controlled with pneumatic solenoid valves. This allows the user to make adjustments by simply pressing a momentary-contact electric button or switch.\nThe installation and configuration of these systems varies for different makes and models but the underlying principle remains the same. The metal spring (coil", "sensors and various events and reactions. Imagine that a car has several sensors—one that measures tire pressure, one that measures speed, and one that detects if someone sits on a seat or leaves a seat.\nIn the first situation, the car is moving and the pressure of one of the tires moves from 45 psi to 41 psi over 15 minutes. As the pressure in the tire is decreasing, a series of events containing the tire pressure is generated. In addition, a series of events containing the speed of the car is generated. The car's Event Processor may detect a situation", "Static pressure Static pressure in design and operation of aircraft An aircraft's altimeter is operated by the static pressure system. An aircraft's airspeed indicator is operated by the static pressure system and the pitot pressure system.\nThe static pressure system is open to the exterior of the aircraft to sense the pressure of the atmosphere at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying. This small opening is called the static port. In flight the air pressure is slightly different at different positions around the exterior of the aircraft. The aircraft designer must select the position of the static port carefully.", "air pressure created by vehicle motion or the air ramming into the tube), which, under ideal conditions, is equal to stagnation pressure, also called total pressure. The pitot tube is most often located on the wing or front section of an aircraft, facing forward, where its opening is exposed to the relative wind. By situating the pitot tube in such a location, the ram air pressure is more accurately measured since it will be less distorted by the aircraft's structure. When airspeed increases, the ram air pressure is increased, which can be translated by the airspeed indicator.", "of the TPM (tire pressure monitoring) sensors have to be registered along with their position on the vehicle with the tire pressure monitor ECU. This is also the case if any of the system components are subsequently changed e.g. in the event of rotating the tires, changing sensors, replacing the ECU etc.\nThis process requires the activation of the direct TPMS sensor using low frequency (LF) radio and the capture of the UHF data transmitted. This data includes the direct TPMS ID, the pressure and the temperature. In automotive manufacturing plants, the activation is carried out using large antenna systems whilst", "Tire-pressure gauge A tire-pressure gauge, or tyre-pressure gauge, is a pressure gauge used to measure the pressure of tires on a vehicle. \nSince tires are rated for specific loads at certain pressure, it is important to keep the pressure of the tire at the optimal amount. Tires are rated for their optimal pressure when cold, meaning before the tire has been driven on for the day and allowed to heat up, which ultimately changes the internal pressure of the tire due to the expansion of gases. The precision of a typical mechanical gauge as shown is ±3 psi (21 kPa). ", "affect the air pressure because it is not an enclosed volume, despite the common misconception. Race cars will exemplify this effect by adding a rear diffuser to accelerate air under the car in front of the diffuser, and raise the air pressure behind it to lessen the car's wake. Other aerodynamic components that can be found on the underside to improve downforce and/or reduce drag, include splitters and vortex generators.\nSome cars, such as the DeltaWing, do not have wings, and generate all of their downforce through their body. Front The function of the airfoils at the front of the car", "Static pressure The static pressure is obtained through a static port. The static port is most often a flush-mounted hole on the fuselage of an aircraft, and is located where it can access the air flow in a relatively undisturbed area. Some aircraft may have a single static port, while others may have more than one. In situations where an aircraft has more than one static port, there is usually one located on each side of the fuselage. With this positioning, an average pressure can be taken, which allows for more accurate readings in specific flight", "correct pressure as this would be very difficult and possibly dangerous to support. However it may have an algorithm contained within it which detects both slow and rapid changes in pressure. This condition may be transmitted as part of the TPM's status. It may also cause the TPM to transmit more frequently. Direct tire pressure monitoring systems There are two main types of direct tire pressure monitoring system currently in use. These are known as 'high line' and 'low line'. High line system If the vehicle is fitted with low frequency (LF) transmitters near each wheel, the vehicle may use", "driver presses on the brake or gas pedal, the accelerometer will register positive or negative acceleration.\nIf the accelerometer is rotated by 90° so that it is vertical, it will read +1 g upwards even though stationary. In that situation, the accelerometer is subject to two forces: the gravitational force and the ground reaction force of the surface it is resting on. Only the latter force can be measured by the accelerometer, due to mechanical interaction between the accelerometer and the ground. The reading is the acceleration the instrument would have if it were exclusively subject to that force.\nA three-axis accelerometer will", "of high and low pressure. This data helps engineers improve designs to increase performance for the vehicles. By changing these designs, engineers can help improve gas mileage and reduce noise.\nIn order to measure the aerodynamic forces on the whole model, beam balances are connected to the model. However, it is also imperative to also understand how those forces are distributed across the aerodynamic surfaces of the aircraft, and this understanding is more difficult to obtain. The classic approach has been to use an array of pressure taps to measure surface pressure distributions on a model. Pressure taps", "pressure in the tyres to rise to the point that the tyre might burst, so fusible plugs are used as a relief mechanism. The vented gas may be directed to cool the braking surfaces.\nFusible plugs are sometimes fitted to the receivers of air compressors as a precaution against the ignition of any lubricating oil vapour that might be present. Should the action of the compressor heat the air above a safe temperature the core will melt and release the pressure.\nAutomobile air conditioning systems were commonly fitted with fusible plugs, operating at 100–110 °C, but from concerns about the environmental effects", "Indirect TPMS are able to detect under-inflation through combined use of roll radius and spectrum analysis and hence four-wheel monitoring has become feasible. With this breakthrough, meeting the legal requirements is possible also with iTPMS. Indirect TPMS Indirect TPMS do not use physical pressure sensors but measure air pressures by monitoring individual wheel rotational speeds and other signals available outside of the tire itself. First generation iTPMS systems are based on the principle that under-inflated tires have a slightly smaller diameter (and hence higher angular velocity) than a correctly inflated one. These differences are measurable through the wheel speed sensors", "additional force can be generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run out point is reached, only the driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master cylinder piston.\nThe fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake tubes to a pressure differential valve, sometimes referred to as a \"brake failure valve\", which performs two functions: it equalizes pressure between the two systems, and it provides a warning if one system loses pressure. The pressure differential valve has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines attach) with a piston between them. When", "Impact pressure In compressible fluid dynamics, impact pressure (dynamic pressure) is the difference between total pressure (also known as pitot pressure or stagnation pressure) and static pressure. In aerodynamics notation, this quantity is denoted as or . \nWhen input to an airspeed indicator, impact pressure is used to provide a calibrated airspeed reading. An air data computer with inputs of pitot and static pressures is able to provide a Mach number and, if static temperature is known, true airspeed.\nSome authors in the field of compressible flows use the term dynamic pressure or compressible dynamic pressure instead of impact", "pressure being different from the air pressure remote from the aircraft. This error is caused by the air flowing past the static port at a speed different from the aircraft's true airspeed. Position errors may provide positive or negative errors, depending on one of several factors. These factors include airspeed, angle of attack, aircraft weight, acceleration, aircraft configuration, and in the case of helicopters, rotor downwash. There are two categories of position errors, which are \"fixed errors\" and \"variable errors\". Fixed errors are defined as errors which are specific to a particular model of aircraft.", "the opposing forces are friction and air drag. Therefore, car modifications are aimed at maximizing the potential energy in the car design and minimizing the air drag and the friction that occurs when the wheel spins on the axle, contacts the axle head or car body, or contacts the track guide rail. Friction due to air drag is a minor, although not insignificant, factor. The wheel tread can be sanded or turned on a lathe and the inner surface of the hub can be tapered to minimize the contact area between the hub and body. Polishing the wheel, especially the", "the wheels are controlled by the air brake system. \nThe three types of foundation brake systems are “S” cam brakes, disc brakes and wedge brakes. Brake boost Most modern passenger vehicles, and light vans, use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force applied to the vehicle's brakes by its operator. This additional force is supplied by the manifold vacuum generated by air flow being obstructed by the throttle on a running engine. This force is greatly reduced when the engine is running at fully open throttle, as the difference between ambient air pressure and manifold (absolute)", "above. Pneumatic load cell The Load cell is designed to automatically regulate the balancing pressure. Air pressure is applied to one end of the diaphragm and it escapes through the nozzle placed at the bottom of the load cell. A pressure gauge is attached with the load cell to measure the pressure inside the cell. The deflection of the diaphragm affects the airflow through the nozzle as well as the pressure inside the chamber. Hydraulic load cell The hydraulic load cell uses a conventional piston and cylinder arrangement with the piston placed in a thin elastic diaphragm. The piston", "shows a manual wig wag which the operator swings to the right out of view when the air pressure is above the threshold where it will remain as long as the pressure is sufficient.\nMost U.S. state commercial driver's license manuals, published by the states’ Departments of Motor Vehicles or equivalents, describe this term.", "to maintain tension in the engine’s timing belt. There is a spring device in the belt tensioner where the bearing is located. The spring device oscillates back and forth at 2° for about 60 cycles per minute.\nComposite bearings ensure an appropriate and consistent level of torque and damping to maintain the correct tension in the drive belt while the engine is in operation. Door Hinges In door hinges, bearings sit between the hinge pin and housing to ensure smooth movement of the door when it is opened and closed by passengers. Composite bearings are used in a number of automotive", "the vehicle when there is low absolute pressure in the intake manifold (i.e., a high vacuum present in the intake manifold relative to the outside air) the powertrain control module (PCM) will open the EGR valve and then monitor the MaP sensor's values. If the EGR is functioning properly, the manifold absolute pressure will increase as exhaust gases enter. Common confusion with boost sensors and gauges MAP sensors measure absolute pressure. Boost sensors or gauges measure the amount of pressure above a set absolute pressure. That set absolute pressure is usually 100 kPa. This is commonly referred to as gauge", "deployment, higher pressure air is forced through an air tube which connects to a second flap, deploying it. This second flap ensures that, should the car continue to spin, no further lift will be created as the vehicle's angle changes. The deployment of these flaps eliminates most of the lift on the vehicle. The roof flaps generally keep the cars on the ground as they spin, alt. SAFER barriers Beginning in 2002 (at Indianapolis), many tracks were retrofitted with SAFER barriers along the walls of the track. These walls absorb the energy of an impact better than concrete walls, while", "wig wag device which deploys to warn the driver if the system air pressure drops too low. Control system The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits, the parking brake circuit, and the trailer brake circuit. The dual service brake circuits are further split into front and rear wheel circuits which receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates both circuits. The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where its applied" ]

[ "A hypergraph is a collection of nodes and edges as a standard graph is, but this time, the edges don't have to be between just two nodes. Edges in a hypergraph can contain an arbitrary number of nodes. That is all that is going on.\n\nWhile hypergraphs can be useful in theory, in practice I'm not aware of anyone actually using them. You can turn a hypergraph into a graph pretty easily by just replacing each hyperedge with a clique, and now you've got something that is easy to perform typical algorithms on." ]

[ "Hypergraph In mathematics, a hypergraph is a generalization of a graph in which an edge can join any number of vertices. Formally, a hypergraph is a pair where is a set of elements called nodes or vertices, and is a set of non-empty subsets of called hyperedges or edges. Therefore, is a subset of , where is the power set of . The size of vertex set is called the order of the hypergraph, and the size of edges set is the size of the hypergraph. \nWhile graph edges are 2-element subsets of", "Hypergeometric function In mathematics, the Gaussian or ordinary hypergeometric function ₂F₁(a,b;c;z) is a special function represented by the hypergeometric series, that includes many other special functions as specific or limiting cases. It is a solution of a second-order linear ordinary differential equation (ODE). Every second-order linear ODE with three regular singular points can be transformed into this equation.\nFor systematic lists of some of the many thousands of published identities involving the hypergeometric function, see the reference works by Erdélyi et al. (1953) and Olde Daalhuis (2010). There is no known system for organizing all of the identities; indeed,", "considered.\nBy a number of organizations, the term \"dysgraphia\" has been used as an overarching term for all disorders of written expression. Math disability (ICD-10 and DSM-IV codes F81.2-3/315.1) Sometimes called dyscalculia, a math disability involves difficulties such as learning math concepts (such as quantity, place value, and time), difficulty memorizing math facts, difficulty organizing numbers, and understanding how problems are organized on the page. Dyscalculics are often referred to as having poor \"number sense\". School laws Schools in the United States have a legal obligation to new arrivals to the country, including undocumented students. The landmark Supreme Court ruling Plyler", "Hyperview (computing) A hyperview in computing is a hypertextual view of the content of a database or set of data on a group of activities. As with a hyperdiagram multiple views are linked to form a hyperview.", "called \"Golden Pages\". Internet yellow pages Online business directories are branded as IYP or Internet yellow pages. On a broader scale, they can be classified as vertical directories. There are consumer oriented and business oriented varieties. Providers of IYP offer online advertising.\nAccording to several reports the search term \"yellow pages\" was in the top 5 highest revenue generator of all search terms in Google's AdWords program in 2010. Experian/Hitwise reported in January 2011 that the search term \"yellow pages\" was one of the top 50 search terms across all search engines and all search terms(millions of search terms). This made", "Null hypersurface In relativity and in pseudo-Riemannian geometry, a null hypersurface is a hypersurface whose normal vector at every point is a null vector (has zero length with respect to the local metric tensor). A light cone is an example.\nAn alternative characterization is that the tangent space of a hypersurface contains a nonzero vector such that the metric applied to such a vector and any vector in the tangent space is zero. Another way of saying this is that the pullback of the metric onto the tangent space is degenerate.\nFor a Lorentzian metric, all the vectors in such a tangent", "in U.S. hangman game show Wheel of Fortune as the category 'Same Letter'. Armenian An example of a tautogram in Armenian is a poem by Vanetsi with all words starting with \"Z\":\n\nԶինված զինվորի՝ Զոհն էր զինվորը զինված\n\nAnd another using the letter \"Sh\":\n\nՇախմատամրցումը շահած \n\nՇուշանագույն շքեղ \n\nՇիֆոնե շրջազգեստով \n\nՇառագույն շրթնաներկոտ շրթունքներով \n\nՇշիկահեր շնորհալի Շենավանցի \n\nՇքեղիրա՛ն շախմատիստուհի\n\nՇողիկ Շաքարյանը \n\nՇատ-շատ շնորհակալ \n\nՇփոթվաց ու շոյված էր \n\nՇրջապատող շատամարդ \n\nՇնորհքով շախմատասերների \n\nՇռայլ շնորհավորանքներից... Greek ΤΥΦΛΟΣ ΤΑ Τ`ΩΤΑ ΤΟΝ ΤΕ ΝΟΥΝ ΤΑ Τ`ΑΜΜΑΤ`ΕΙ – Your ears and your mind are blind as your eyes. Sophocles, Oedipus st:370 Italian Aristotele, ancora adolescente, aveva avuto accesso", "Bibliographic index A bibliographic index is a bibliography intended to help find a publication. Citations are usually listed by author and subject in separate sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence under a system of authorized headings collectively known as controlled vocabulary, developed over time by the indexing service. Indexes of this kind are issued in print periodical form (issued in monthly or quarterly paperback supplements, cumulated annually), online, or both. Since the 1970s they are typically generated as output from bibliographic databases (whereas earlier they were manually compiled using index cards). \n\"From many points of view", "Autograph book An autograph book is a book for collecting the autographs of others. Traditionally they were exchanged among friends, colleagues, and classmates to fill with poems, drawings, personal messages, small pieces of verse, and other mementos. Their modern derivations include yearbooks, friendship books, and guest books. They were popular among university students from the 15th century until the mid-19th century, after which their popularity began to wane as they were gradually replaced by yearbooks. Origin By the beginning of the early modern period, there was a trend among graduating university students of central Europe to have", "be credited and the font height relative to the rest of the poster. Metrics Font metrics refers to metadata consisting of numeric values relating to size and space in the font overall, or in its individual glyphs. Font-wide metrics include cap height (the height of the capitals), x-height (the height of the lower-case letters) and ascender height, descender depth, and the font bounding box. Glyph-level metrics include the glyph bounding box, the advance width (the proper distance between the glyph's initial pen position and the next glyph's initial pen position), and sidebearings (space that pads the glyph outline on either", "General hypergeometric function In mathematics, a general hypergeometric function or Aomoto–Gelfand hypergeometric function is a generalization of the hypergeometric function that was introduced by Gelfand (1986). The general hypergeometric function is a function that is (more or less) defined on a Grassmannian, and depends on a choice of some complex numbers and signs.", "Encyclopedic Dictionary (Новый энциклопедический словарь); 29 volumes of the planned 48 were published, up to the entry for \"Отто\". The National Library of Russia holds proof-copies of the 30th («Падалка» — «Пермская епархия»; incomplete, without beginning), and the 31st volumes («Пермская система» — «Познанское великое княжество»).", "respectively. By contracting the hub and authority tensors, one obtains the overall versatilities as and , respectively. PageRank versatility PageRank, better known as Google Search Algorithm is another measure of centrality in complex networks, originally introduced to rank Web pages. Its extension to the case of interconnected multilayer networks can be obtained as follows.\nFirst, it is worth remarking that PageRank can be seen as the steady-state solution of a special Markov process on the top of the network. Random walkers explore the network according to a special transition matrix and their dynamics is governed by a random walk master", "is freely used by many companies. Telephone directories using the official Internet address \"yellowpages.xx\" exist in 75 different countries. They are edited by many different phone companies and directory publishers, mostly independent from each other.\nIn Belgium, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, the Republic of Ireland, Israel, the Netherlands, and Romania, the yellow pages are known as the Golden Pages. In Austria and Germany, the yellow pages are known as Gelbe Seiten, and in Sweden as Gula Sidorna, which in both cases means the yellow pages. In Portugal and Brazil, the yellow pages are known as Páginas Amarelas. In Spain, Chile, Peru,", "Webgraph The webgraph describes the directed links between pages of the World Wide Web. A graph, in general, consists of several vertices, some pairs connected by edges. In a directed graph, edges are directed lines or arcs. The webgraph is a directed graph, whose vertices correspond to the pages of the WWW, and a directed edge connects page X to page Y if there exists a hyperlink on page X, referring to page Y.", "page to be seen is \"folio 1 recto\", typically abbreviated to \"f1 r.\". When this page is turned over \"f1 v.\" is on the left and \"f2 r.\" on the right of the \"opening\", or two pages that are visible. For books in Arabic, Hebrew, Japanese and other languages, where the book is begun from the back in Western terms, with the open page edges at the reader's left, the numbering also follows the sequence in which the reader encounters.\nIn the discussion of two-columned manuscripts, a/b/c/d can denote the left and right-hand columns of recto and verso pages (e.g.", "Parse.ly Overview Parse.ly is a content optimization platform for online publishers. Parse.ly's product, Dash, is built on top of the Parse.ly platform. Dash parses articles on a publisher's site, and then analyzes them to identify data around metrics that are specific for publishers such as topics, authors, sections, and referrers. The technology it uses to do this is natural language processing, and has extracted over 350,000 unique topics from the URLs it has crawled. In addition to providing site analytics, Dash can show users what topics are resonating with people across the web through their webwide trends interface.\nParse.ly was", "F(g) Scholar Features f(g) Scholar provided 12 types of charts including: bar, pie, area, three-dimensional area.\nf(g) Scholar supported the following graphic types: .WPG, .WMF, .CLP, .CGM, and .PIC.", "the letters subtend 1 minute of arc), which means that the chart should be sized such that these letters are 8.73 mm tall and the topmost (6/60) \"E\" should be 87.3 mm tall. Putting it another way, the eye should be at a distance 68.76 times the height of the top (6/60) letter. The formula is\nwhere is the optotype height or width (which are the same due to the optotype being on a square grid), is the distance from eye to chart, and is the angle subtended by the optotype, which is 5 arcminutes as specified by Snellen. Another", "Higraph A higraph is a diagramming object that formalizes relations into a visual structure, it was developed by David Harel in 1988. Higraphs extend mathematical graphs by including notions of depth and orthogonality. In particular, nodes in a higraph can contain other nodes inside them, creating a hierarchy. The idea was initially developed for applications to databases, knowledge representation, and the behavioral specification of complex concurrent systems using the higraph-based language of statecharts.\nHigraphs are widely used in industrial applications like UML. Recently they have been used by philosophers to formally study the use of diagrams in mathematical proofs and reasoning.", "chunk of text into a point in a 50-dimensional space. This 50-dimensional space is flattened into a plane using principal components analysis (PCA). This results in a display of points that correspond to an author's style. If two literary works are placed on the same plane, the resulting pattern may show if both works were by the same author or different authors. 1. Gaussian statistics Stylometric data are distributed according the Zipf-Mandelbrot law. The distribution is extremely spiky and leptokurtic, reason why researchers had to turn their backs to statistics to solve e.g. authorship attribution problems. Nevertheless, usage of Gaussian", "but it is the first algorithm that was used by the company, and it is the best known. As of September 24, 2019, PageRank and all associated patents are expired. Description PageRank is a link analysis algorithm and it assigns a numerical weighting to each element of a hyperlinked set of documents, such as the World Wide Web, with the purpose of \"measuring\" its relative importance within the set. The algorithm may be applied to any collection of entities with reciprocal quotations and references. The numerical weight that it assigns to any given element E is referred to as the", "in words. Font Dyslexie uses a heavier line thickness to emphasize the bottom of most characters. This is to try to 'anchor' the letters since some people with dyslexia may see letters either moving or in three dimensions. Since dyslexics tend to get b, d, p, and q mixed up, it also emphasizes a slight slant downwards on the curvature of the letters. Letters such as c or e may gape slightly more, or slump slightly in one direction. Also, in letters such as n or h, the font slightly elongates or diminishes the stem on the letters. So the", "\"f. 150a\" and \"f. 150b\" are the left and right hand columns on the recto page, and \"f. 150c\" and \"f. 150d\" the left and right hand columns on the verso page). In the discussion of three-columned manuscripts, notation may make use of folio number + recto/verso + column a/b/c (e.g. \"f. 3 v. col. c\" references the third column on the verso side of the third folio). Size The actual size of a folio book depends on the size of the full sheet of paper on which it was printed, and in older periods these were not standardized,", "the web. Users with dyslexia can change the typeface to Open Dyslexic and colors to dyslexia-friendly colors, and visually impaired users can listen to the content available on a webpage. It also allows users to customize a webpage's typography and design based on their reading preferences. It is a free and open-source software available in the Chrome Web Store. Accelerator In early 2018, Oswald Labs announced Oswald Labs Accelerator, a startup accelerator for early-stage startups. The program is equity-free and offers coworking spaces, legal support, business development and technology consultancy, and partnerships with universities and companies. Oswald Labs has partnered", "traffic statistics. Alexa introduced these new features to compete with other web analytics services. Alexa Traffic Rank A key metric published from Alexa Internet analytics is the Alexa Traffic Rank also simply known as Alexa Rank. It is also referred to as Global Rank by Alexa Internet and is designed to be an estimate of a website's popularity. As of May 2018, Alexa Internet's tooltip for Global Rank says the rank is calculated from a combination of daily visitors and page views on a website over a 3-month period.\nThe Alexa Traffic Rank can be used to monitor the popularity", "font. Dupont responded that the use was simply a coincidence as it is a commonly used font.\nBecause of Knol's format, some said Knol would be more like About.com than Wikipedia. According to Wolfgang Hansson, a writer at DailyTech, Knol may have been planned for About.com originally when it was up for acquisition. Hansson reported that several sources close to the sale said Google was planning to acquire About.com, but the executives at About.com learned Google was planning to move from About.com's model to a wiki-style model. That would have meant layoffs for all 500 or so \"Guides\" at About.com.", "means. Structure Modern books are paginated consecutively, and all pages are counted in the pagination whether or not the numbers appear. The page number, or folio, is most commonly found at the top of the page, flush left verso, flush right recto. The folio may also be printed at the bottom of the page, and in that location it is called a drop folio. Drop folios usually appear either centered on each page or flush left verso and flush right recto. Front cover, spine, and back cover of the dust-jacket The front cover is the front of the book, and", "in 1934 and defined as \"the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents.\" The anglicised version bibliometrics was first used by Alan Pritchard in a paper published in 1969, titled Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics? He defined the term as \"the application of mathematics and statistical methods to books and other media of communication\". \nCitation analysis has a long history, the Science Citation Index began publication in 1961 and Derek J. de Solla Price discussed the citation graph describing the network of citations in his 1965 article \"Networks of Scientific Papers\". However this was", "has been a subsidiary of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1964. Services In 1996, Merriam-Webster launched its first website, which provided free access to an online dictionary and thesaurus.\nMerriam-Webster has also published dictionaries of synonyms, English usage, geography (Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary), biography, proper names, medical terms, sports terms, slang, Spanish/English, and numerous others. Non-dictionary publications include Collegiate Thesaurus, Secretarial Handbook, Manual for Writers and Editors, Collegiate Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Literature, and Encyclopedia of World Religions.\nOn February 16, 2007, Merriam-Webster announced the launch of a mobile dictionary and thesaurus service developed with mobile search-and-information provider AskMeNow. Consumers use the service to access" ]

[ "Also, you can think about companies like cows, and buying stock like buying part of a cow (and buying part not in the sense of the tail of the hooves, but owning a certain portion of the money the cow generates). The cow can make you money in two ways:\n\n1) Whenever the cow is milked the owners of the cow can give you some of the money they get by selling the milk (this money is called dividends). alternatively, the rancher can choose to use some, or even all, of that money to improve the value of the cow, maybe by feeding the cow better food or having a veterinarian give it a check up (retained earnings). You may be okay with not getting even of the milk money if you trust the rancher to use that money wisely to increase the value of the cow (Apple's cow is worth a TON of money despite the fact that, until recently, they never paid out any of their milk money to investors).\n\n2) At some point the cow can be sold (the company can be bought out) and you will be payed based on what percentage of the cow you own. Even if the whole cow is not sold, you can sell your portion of the cow to someone else if you want. \n\nThe value of the cow, and therefore your portion of the cow is decided by a couple things. First, the basic attributes of the cow are important. Is it a healthy cow? Does it produce a lot of milk? Does it produce good milk that people like to drink? Is it likely to grow in the future? How does it compare to other cows that are similar to it? These kind of things are the cow's (or company's) fundamentals.\nIn a perfect world, the price of the cow would perfectly reflect everything that you, or anyone else knows about the cow.\n\nSecond, what people think about your cow, and cows in general affects the price of the cow. Is there a mad cow scare brewing? Is veganism in fashion? Or on the positive end maybe you're expecting a hot summer where a lot more people than usual will want to barbeque hamburgers, or maybe you know of a new beef-based diet that you think will become all the rage and expect the value of your cow to increase. These kinds of things are the \"behavioral\" aspects of the price of your cow (or stock) and are important too, but much harder to see or measure.", "A share of stock is the right to receive a portion of the profits of a corporation, registered in the company's official list of stockholders. A corporation is a special type of business structure recognized by the law. When a corporation is started, a number of people (or other corporations) provide the money that's used to start the company. Those people are given stock shares in exchange for their money; those who put up more money get more shares than those who put less.\n\nGiving those initial investors shares of stock in exchange for the money is really just a formal way of recording the fact that since these guys are the ones who put up the money to start the business, they are the ones who should be paid if the company profits.\n\nThere are two ways a stockholder can get paid by the corporation:\n\n* The corporation makes a cash payment to each of its stockholders. This payment is called a dividend, and the amount is a fixed number per share, so people who own more shares get a bigger payment.\n* The corporation is liquidated; it goes out of business, everything that the corporation owns is sold off, all of the corporations debts are paid off, and the remaining money is split among the stockholders, each getting an amount proportional to the number of shares they own.\n\nIn either case, when the coroporation must pay out money, it uses the official list of shareholders and how much they own to figure out who to pay and how much to pay each of them.\n\nThose are the most basic facts about stocks. The buying and selling is a bit more complex than this, but not that much. The first thing to say about that is that the corporation's shareholders are not obligated to remain shareholders forever. They can, if they wish, sell any amount of the stock that they have to anybody else, at whatever price the seller and the buyer agree on. When the sale happens, the corporation is notified of it, and it changes its records to reflect that the seller sold that number of shares to the buyer; that way the corporation knows, in case of a dividend or liquidation, to pay the new guy instead of the original guy.\n\nStock selling and buying exists because society wants to make it easy for people to provide the money to start corporations: if giving some of my money to start a corporation meant that I had no way of getting any of my money back in 10 years, I would be much less willing to do so, because I may have an emergency that requires me to spend that money before then. If I can sell my stock at any time, then the risk is not as large.\n\nBut the fact that I can sell my stock to somebody else doesn't mean that they will pay me exactly the same amount as I paid for it originally. The amount that the buyer should pay, if they are rational, is based on these things:\n\n1. The value of all of the stuff the corporation owns, minus the all the money the corporation owes. This is called the \"book value.\"\n2. Their guess at how much profit the corporation is going to make in the future.\n\nIf the company has made profits since you bought the stock (making the book price go up) and the buyer is confident that the future profits will be good, they will likely be willing to pay more for the stock than what you paid for it. In that case, you sell at a profit. If the company has been losing money, or the buyer thinks that the future profits don't look very good, then they won't be willing to pay as much, and you may only be able to sell for less than you first paid.\n\nWe're almost done. The next thing to add is that our society, since it wants to make it easy for people to start corporations, has created institutions dedicated to making it possible to buy and sell stocks quickly and easily. These are the public stock exchanges like the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) or the NASDAQ. These exchanges, put simply, are just places where people who want to sell or buy stocks can go meet each other and agree on the price. Except that you don't actually have to go there and meet anybody: you just tell a stock broker that you want to buy (or sell) the amount you want of the stock you want at the price you want, and they use the stock exchange to find another person who wants to sell that amount of the same stock at a compatible price. As sales happen throughout the day, they publish the price that each stock most recently sold for. You can look up these prices online.\n\nThe last thing: society isn't as smart and rational as the above makes it sound. The stock market is full of people making mistakes of all kinds. People often overestimate or underestimate how much profit a company will make in the future, and then either pay too much to buy its stock, or sell it for too low of a price when they should have kept it. Or even worse: once in a while, the management of a corporation will lie about its profits, people who believe the lies will pay too much for the stock, and they will lose money. So over short periods of time, whether a stock is going up or down doesn't really mean a lot; a company that's not going to do that well may see its price go up a lot because a lot of people think it will do super-well, or the opposite.\n\nBut 10 to 20 years from now, it will be pretty obvious which of today's companies did well and which did badly; the stock prices of the good companies will have gone up to reflect that, and the bad ones will go down. So over the long term, stock prices go up or down because the company did well or badly. In the short term, it's a random mix of people's often misguided opinions.", "Since this is ELI5, let's do it playground style. If this seems patronizing, then you probably aren't really five. :-)\n\nImagine Susie opens a lemonade stand. She sets it up like this: In order to buy the lemons, and the sugar, and the magic marker to make her sign, she offers all the kids a chance to share in owning her stand. Anyone can buy 1/20th of it a buck. She is going to sell 10 shares, each worth a tenth of her whole business, for a dollar apiece. She will then keep the other ten shares.\n\nSusie gets out her notebook and writes 20 \"ownership\" certificates and signs each one. she keeps half of them for herself, then sells the rest to kids for a dollar apiece.\n\n(Please be aware that each share of the lemonade stand is *indivisible* - it's 1/20th of everything all at once; not, say, three lemons and the stirring spoon. )\n\nA few days later and Susie's stand is doing great. But now Jimmy wants to go buy some Nerds and he needs his dollar back. He offers to sell his share back to Susie. She declines the offer. Jenny says she will buy it for a dollar, though - she wouldn't mind owning two shares instead of one, and has a dollar in her pocket.\n\nHowever, Rudy overhears. He likes how Susie makes her lemonade and was absent the day she sold the shares. He wants in on the business. So he offers Jimmy $2 for his certificate. Jenny counters with $2.50; Rudy ups his offer to $3, and buys Jimmy's share.\n\nOver the two weeks, Susie's lemonade stand does very well. Everybody wants to own a piece of the business. Shares are hard to come by, as nobody seems to want to sell. But if a buyer offers enough, even a reluctant seller will be found. Jordan buys a share from Jenny (who now owns three) for $6.\n\nThen people begin to notice that Susie's sales are slipping. It's getting colder. Fall is coming. Nobody wants lemonade. People start to think that maybe the lemonade train has passed. When Timmy wants to sell a share he bought for $4 the best he can get for it is $2. A week later, Bobbi can't find a buyer for her share for even a dollar. And Jordan, unhappy child, sells her share for 50 cents, a loss of $5.50.\n\nThis little illustration didn't touch on stock splits or dividends, but I think it covers the basic reason prices go up or down. But keep in mind, the real stock market is not a perfect playground. Stocks may move for irrational reasons - deceit and fraud, rumors and manic speculation among them. Good stocks will decline in a falling market, and bad stocks will rise during a bubble." ]

[ "increase in price will do the opposite. This works well for most assets but it often works in reverse for stocks due to the mistake many investors make of buying high in a state of euphoria and selling low in a state of fear or panic as a result of the herding instinct. In case an increase in price causes an increase in demand, or a decrease in price causes an increase in supply, this destroys the expected negative feedback loop and prices will be unstable. This can be seen in a bubble or crash.", "For example, dropping prices on a product mean that there is less demand or more supply of that product. This leads to a buyer buying more, or a seller/producer starting to sell/produce something else, thereby reducing the supply of that product. As a reaction, assuming constant desirability, the price of the product rises again. So, the price, together with the market participants, builds up a feedback loop around a stable, \"ideal\" price. At this stable price, the market is ideal, no one pays too much or earns too little, and there are no tendencies from either party to change that", "in margins mean that leverage falls. Hence, price falls more than they otherwise would due to the existence of leverage. Therefore, due to the leverage cycle (over-leveraging in good times and de-leveraging in bad times) there exists a situation that can lead to a crash before or even when there is no crash in the fundamentals. This was true in the quant hedge fund crisis in August 2007, where hedge funds hit their capital constraints and had to reduce their positions, at which point prices were driven more by liquidity considerations rather than movement in the fundamentals.\nIn the financial crisis", "the stock price will increase, this is not a problem.\nWhen the stock price declines because of some bad news, the company's next report will have to measure, not only the financial results of the bad news, but also the increase in the dilution percentage. This exacerbates the problem and increases the downward pressure on the stock, increasing dilution. Some financing vehicles are structured to augment this process by redefining the conversion factor as the stock price declines, thus leading to a \"death spiral\". Share dilution scams A share dilution scam happens when a company, typically traded in unregulated markets such", "buyers and sellers are matched, one says that the \"market clears\".\nClassical economics and neoclassical economics posit that market clearing happens by the price adjusting—upwards if demand exceeds supply and downwards if supply exceeds demand. Therefore, it reaches equilibrium at a price that both buyers and sellers will accept, and, in the absence of outside interference (in a free market), this will happen.\nThis has not happened for many types of financial assets during the financial crisis that began in 2007, hence one speaks of \"the market breaking down\".\nOne can explain this alternately as the price not adjusting down—the price is too", "temporary, and that a stock's price tends to have an average price over time. An example of a mean-reverting process is the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck stochastic equation.\nMean reversion involves first identifying the trading range for a stock, and then computing the average price using analytical techniques as it relates to assets, earnings, etc.\nWhen the current market price is less than the average price, the stock is considered attractive for purchase, with the expectation that the price will rise. When the current market price is above the average price, the market price is expected to fall. In other words, deviations from the average", "prices subsequently fall, either slowly or more rapidly.\nWilliam O'Neil reported that, since the 1950s, a market top is characterized by three to five distribution days in a major stock market index occurring within a relatively short period of time. Distribution is a decline in price with higher volume than the preceding session. Market bottom A market bottom is a trend reversal, the end of a market downturn, and the beginning of an upward moving trend (bull market).\nIt is very difficult to identify a bottom (referred to as \"bottom picking\") before it passes. The upturn following a decline may be short-lived", "have a major effect on a stock's price. Company news, reports, and consumer’s attitudes can all have a positive or negative effect on the stock going up or down. According to Zweig (2006), “In an article in a women’s magazine many years ago we advised the readers to buy their stocks as they bought their groceries, not as they bought their perfume” (p. 8). This means doing the research to spot the best opportunities and leaving the emotion and outside appeal out of the decision to buy or sell. Simply watching the news or reading financial statements will not prepare", "and other signals/indicators). When he decides to buy a particular stock the next day, it is because he believes that the price will go up from that closing price. Thus his decision price is the close price.\nHowever the broker, unless she is explicitly told what levels to buy at or what prompted the desire to buy, does not know when or why the decision was made. Her best guess is that the current price at the time the order is received is what prompted the decision and thus her decision price is the arrival price. There is no common definition", "movement in the price. The series of \"lower highs\" and \"lower lows\" is a tell tale sign of a stock in a down trend. In other words, each time the stock moved lower, it fell below its previous relative low price. Each time the stock moved higher, it could not reach the level of its previous relative high price.\nNote that the sequence of lower lows and lower highs did not begin until August. Then AOL makes a low price that does not pierce the relative low set earlier in the month. Later in the same month, the stock makes a", "in a company. Additionally, it is often seen that companies, salespersons, entrepreneurs or freelancers are anxious to lose a deal when customer just takes the price down. Pricing confidence is an essential organizational characteristic which allows teams to sell the product confidently and believing in the price worthy value of a product (Liozu et al., 2011). Therefore, it is important that companies build up pricing confidence in a team, showing the team a better insight, creating more value on the product, and the product is worth the price. Furthermore, this leads to price confidence that leads from the confidence a", "enough either way. If the price goes up enough, he uses the call option and ignores the put option. If the price goes down, he uses the put option and ignores the call option. If the price does not change enough, he loses money, up to the total amount paid for the two options. The risk is limited by the total premium paid for the options, as opposed to the short straddle where the risk is virtually unlimited.\nIf the stock is sufficiently volatile and option duration is long, the trader could profit from both options. This would require the stock", "When stock prices rise, it is said to be due to a confluence of extraordinarily high levels of liquidity on household and business balance sheets, combined with a simultaneous normalization of liquidity preferences. On the margin, this drives a demand for equity investments. Proxies One way to calculate the liquidity of the banking system of a country is to divide liquid assets by short term liabilities.", "Making-up price A making-up price, in the London and other British Stock Exchanges, is the price at which speculative bargains are carried over from one account to the next. The carrying over of a \"bull\" position in Eries, for example, implies a sale for cash and a simultaneous repurchase for the new account, both bargains being done at the making-up price. This is fixed at noon on carry-over day, in accordance with the market price then current. The term is also used in New York City, where the making-up prices are fixed at the end of a day's business, in", "market value of a stock share at a certain point in time, depends on what someone is willing to pay for it, and the price of a stock share tends to change continually when the market for that share is open. If the price is relatively stable, the stock is said to have \"low volatility\". If the price often changes a great deal, the stock has \"high volatility\". Mutual fund and investment company returns Mutual funds, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), and other equitized investments (such as unit investment trusts or UITs, insurance separate accounts and related variable products such", "Momentum always changes direction before price.\"\nAs prices move down, the close of the day has a tendency to crowd the lower portion of the daily range. Just before you get to the absolute price low, the market does not have as much push as it did. The closes no longer crowd the bottom of the daily range. Therefore, Stochastics turns up at or before the final price low.", "Price skimming Reasons for price skimming Price skimming commonly occurs in technological markets as firms set a high price during the first stage of the product life cycle. The top segment of the market which are willing to pay the highest price are skimmed off first. When the product enters maturity the price is then gradually lowered.\nPrice skimming is frequently used when a new product just entered the market, the business may be able to charge high prices as some customers would want to be first to buy the product. Business usually start with a high price and it will", "Stock market prediction The Efficient Markets Hypothesis and the random walk The efficient market hypothesis posits that stock prices are a function of information and rational expectations, and that newly revealed information about a company's prospects is almost immediately reflected in the current stock price. This would imply that all publicly known information about a company, which obviously includes its price history, would already be reflected in the current price of the stock. Accordingly, changes in the stock price reflect release of new information, changes in the market generally, or random movements around the value that reflects the existing information", "shares of a certain stock, lower liquidity will force them to sell the stock slowly over a longer period of time, to avoid losses due to slippage. Legal implications In the United States, the Rule 144 of the Securities Act of 1933 restricts the buying or selling of an amount of a security that exceed a certain fraction of its average trading volume. Therefore, the calculation of the trading volume is regulated by the SEC.", "new class of assets (for example, stock in \"dot com\" companies) profit from rising asset values as other investors learn about the innovation (in our example, as others learn about the potential of the Internet), then still more others may follow their example, driving the price even higher as they rush to buy in hopes of similar profits. If such \"herd behaviour\" causes prices to spiral up far above the true value of the assets, a crash may become inevitable. If for any reason the price briefly falls, so that investors realize that further gains are not assured, then the", "In such models, if the price of a given asset rises for some period of time, investors may begin to believe that its price always rises, which increases their tendency to buy and thus drives the price up further. Likewise, observing a few price decreases may give rise to a downward price spiral, so in models of this type large fluctuations in asset prices may occur. Agent-based models of financial markets often assume investors act on the basis of adaptive learning or adaptive expectations. History A noted survey of financial crises is This Time is Different: Eight Centuries of Financial", "Short put A trader who expects a stock's price to increase can buy the stock or instead sell, or \"write\", a put. The trader selling a put has an obligation to buy the stock from the put buyer at a fixed price (\"strike price\"). If the stock price at expiration is above the strike price, the seller of the put (put writer) will make a profit in the amount of the premium. If the stock price at expiration is below the strike price by more than the amount of the premium, the trader will lose money, with the potential loss", "stock to inflate its price, then sells the shares at a higher price and shorts the profit from the resulting decline.", "a stock and therefore the greatest chance for quick profits (or losses). Determining whether news is \"good\" or \"bad\" must be determined by the price action of the stock, because the market reaction may not match the tone of the news itself. This is because rumors or estimates of the event (like those issued by market and industry analysts) will already have been circulated before the official release, causing prices to move in anticipation. The price movement caused by the official news will therefore be determined by how good the news is relative to the market's expectations, not how good", "the shareholder with effect from April 2016. Effect on stock price After a stock goes ex-dividend (when a dividend has just been paid, so there is no anticipation of another imminent dividend payment), the stock price should drop.\nTo calculate the amount of the drop, the traditional method is to view the financial effects of the dividend from the perspective of the company. Since the company has paid say £x in dividends per share out of its cash account on the left hand side of the balance sheet, the equity account on the right side should decrease an equivalent amount. This", "operator depresses the price by selling off its holdings. In the meantime, it must either store the commodity or otherwise keep it out of the market (for example, by destroying it). If a basket of commodities is stored, their price stabilization can in turn stabilize the overall price level, preventing inflation. This scenario is illustrated on the right. Taking the market for wheat as an example, here, in years with normal harvests (S1) the price is within the allowed range and the operator does not need to act. In bumper years (S3), however, the prices begins to fall, and the", "Implementation shortfall Decision price The decision price is the price of the stock that prompted the decision to buy or sell. The most common decision price is the close price or the arrival price. If we split the decision to buy a stock from the actual trading of the stock, as is often the case with fund managers (decision makers) and brokers (trade executors), you can see why both are used.\nFrom the fund manager's point of view, his decision to trade is often based on the closing price of the day's trading (along with the entire history of the stock", "the price trend was shown to be nonlinear, so that a small uptrend has a positive impact on prices (demonstrating underreaction), while a large uptrend has a negative influence. The measure of large or small is based upon the frequency of occurrence (measure in standard deviations). Using exchange traded funds (ETFs), they also showed (together with Prof. Akin Sayrak) that the concept of resistance—whereby a stock has retreats as it nears a yearly high—has strong statistical support [16].\nThe research shows the importance of two key ideas: (i) By compensating for much of the change in valuation, one can reduce the", "bet is \"Brent Oil will end down on the day\" the Buy and Sell prices will change throughout the course of the bet, but the proposition itself will remain the same.\nA Fixed Binary is a bet where the binary price remains fixed but the strike price (the price the market needs to reach for the event to occur and therefore make up at 100) is moving.\nFor example, if the bet is that \"GBP/USD will end up 25 points by the end of the betting period\", and you can buy this at 95, the buy price would remain at 95 though", "the stock at a significantly lower price. The difference between the value of the stock when it was sold and when it was repurchased is the profit that the investor makes. Examples of this can be seen when George Soros shorted Thailand stocks prior to the speculative attack that lead to the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997 and the shorting of Hong Kong stocks during the failed speculative attack in 1998. Risks for speculators A speculative attack has much in common with cornering the market, as it involves building up a large directional position in the hope of exiting" ]

[ "Depends on the species.\n\n1. They hibernate - like lady bugs in the leaf litter, or female queen bumblebees in the soil.\n\n2. They migrate south - like monarch butterflies\n\n3. The adults die, but leave their eggs/larvae in a safe space to \"hibernate\" over winter and their offspring hatch/emerge in the spring - like crickets\n\n4. A small number carry on as usual even in the very cold - like mites and spiders" ]

[ "flea beetles emerging in spring from hibernation depends on the severity of winter temperatures. Warm winter temperatures favor the survival of flea beetle vectors and increase the risk of Stewart’s disease. The numbers of emerging adults can be estimated by calculating a winter temperature index by averaging the mean temperatures (expressed in °F) for December, January, and February. If the sum of the mean temperatures is 90 °F or greater, the beetles will survive in high numbers and the disease risk is high; if the sum is between 85° and 90°, the risk is moderate to high; 80° to 85°,", "moderate to low; and a sum less than 80 °F represents low risk.\nFlea beetles do not survive in the northern half of Illinois due to low winter temperatures. Those found in late spring or summer have migrated from the south. Snow or other winter cover apparently provides insufficient shelter to enhance survival of the overwintering flea beetles. Prolonged periods of wet summer weather are unfavorable for beetle multiplication and feeding, while dry weather is favorable. Consequently, although this disease has been found throughout the world, the bacterium has never survived and spread other than in North America, because the", "late June up to September. These plant bugs are polyphagous, feeding on several different species of trees and shrubs. They mainly feed on blackberries (Rubus sp.), birch (Betula sp.), hazelnut (Corylus avellana), common honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum), blueberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and also on small insects. They overwinter as eggs, with just one generation per year.", "cold and even snowy climates by foraging for insects on substrates such as bark and fallen logs.\nIts movements as it creeps or climbs are incessant rather than rapid; its short flights swift and direct but not sustained, its tiny round wings whirring as it flies from bush to bush.\nAt night, usually in winter, it often roosts, true to its scientific name, in dark retreats, snug holes and even old nests. In hard weather it may do so in parties, either consisting of the family or of many individuals gathered together for warmth.\nFor the most part insects and spiders are its", "are scorpions, ants, pillbugs, millipedes, crickets, and spiders. Extreme drought does kill many populations of insects, but also drives surviving insects to invade more often.\nCold temperatures outside will cause invasions beginning in the late summer months and early fall. Box elder bugs, cluster flies, ladybugs, and silverfish are noticed some of the most common insects to seek the warm indoors. Modern techniques Many new techniques have been developed and are used in order to more accurately gather evidence, or reevaluate old information. The use of these newly developed techniques and evaluations have become relevant in litigation and appeals. Forensic", "Compsidolon salicellum Biology Sunny, dry as well as humid habitats are inhabited, such as forest edges or isolated bushes.\nThe bugs live mainly on common hazel (Corylus avellana), more rarely on other deciduous shrubs such as willow (Salix), alder (Alnus), honeysuckle (Lonicera), oak (Quercus ) or linden (Tilia ), occasionally Rubus species. They are zoophytophagous and suck both plant sap, as well as on mites, for example . The adult bugs can be observed from mid / late July to late September. The species has one generation per year.", "head and truncated tail, and have a quick wriggling motion. By the first of August they descend about half an inch into the earth, and remain there through the winter. The pupa is narrower, rufous, and sharp at both ends. History An insect considered by Harris the same appeared in northern New England about 1828, whence it spread to Canada, Massachusetts, and New York, and disappeared only by being starved out by a change of crop or the substitution of late sown spring wheat. (See Harris, On the Insects injurious to Vegetation.) Treatment In the late 19th century, the most", "discovered in similar localities, including a limestone cave in Wyoming. The beetles have been associated with humid, cold cave temperatures and ice, and they die when exposed to higher temperatures, which limits their distribution.", "the United States, the species is univoltine, but in southern Europe, it completes two generations a year, and in tropical Mexico even three. In the northern parts of its range, these bugs start to move about widely by September or so to seek crevices for overwintering; they may become a nuisance in areas with extensive conifer woods, as they will sometimes enter houses in considerable numbers. They have the potential to become structural pests, as it has been found that they will sometimes pierce PEX tubing with their mouthparts, resulting in leakage. Range and invasiveness This insect is common in", "imago and can be observed after hibernation from the end of April until the middle or the end of October. These bugs feed on various Asteraceae species. Distribution This species is widespread in most of Europe and east to Siberia and Central Asia. It prefers dry and warm grassland habitats and it is often found on meadows, wasteland or roadsides.", "can be found all year. They are not good fliers; their sluggish flight makes loud humming noises.\nThis species displays diurnal, thermophilic activity. As with most Pentatomidae, it produces only one generation per year. It likes to overwinter on walls covered with ivy. In its search for suitable winter quarters (splits and cracks) it often unwittingly finds its way into houses.\nThis species produces a plethora of eggs when disturbed in its habitat. Angering or threatening the bug makes it produce an off-white colored secretion that can be harmful if swallowed. Chemicals in the secretion allow the eggs to continue to fertilize", "ritual begins when the weather starts to get cold. The flies will inhabit the old tunnels created by past insects. They can also be found in old bird nests, under the bark of trees, or in homes. P. rudis will overwinter until spring, living off of its own fat. Food sources Earthworms are a major source of food for Pollenia rudis. The main species of earthworm that these cluster flies infect are Aporrectoda caliginosa, Aporrectoda chlorotica, Eisenia lucens, Lumbricus rubellus, and Lumbricus terrestris. Immediately after the larvae hatch, they begin looking for worms. The first instar larvae eat their", "Green shield bug Life cycle In Europe, the bright green shield bugs appear in April or May, having hibernated as imagos during the winter. They fatten for a month and then mate in June. The imago's coloration changes over the summer months from green to greenish browns even bronze, after which the life cycle will end. Mating is back-to-back. The female lays her eggs in hexagonal batches of 25 to 30, and a single female will lay three to four batches. After the eggs hatch, the green shield bug enter a larval stage (which is really their first nymphal stage)", "become lighter, especially at the hind body, with increasing age. Biology Forest bugs are polyphagous. Their main food source is any of several species of oaks, but they can also be found on alder, hazel, and other deciduous trees, including apple and cherry.\nThey are sap-feeders and use piercing mouthparts to withdraw the liquid. Occasionally, adults consume insects, especially caterpillars, as well as fruits. Adults can be found from July to November. Females lay eggs during the summer in the cracks of tree bark, or on a leaf top, and the larvae hatch the following spring. Forest bugs are also", "insect vectors cannot survive the harsh winter temperatures, then the bacteria cannot be spread. The toothed flea beetle, adult 12-spotted cucumber beetle, seed corn maggot, wheat wireworm, white grubs, and larvae of corn rootworms can also carry P. stewartii from one plant to another during the summer. These pests cannot overwinter and transmit this disease.\nAll sweet corn varieties are susceptible to wilt in the first leaf stage. Susceptibility decreases and natural control is obtained as plants grows older. External disease control is conducted by insecticide spraying to stop early feeding of overwintering flea beetles. Insecticides should be sprayed as soon", "on the surface of housefly eggs and deter fungi which compete with the fly larvae for nutrients.\nAdult houseflies are diurnal and rest at night. If inside a building after dark, they tend to congregate on ceilings, beams, and overhead wires, while out of doors, they crawl into foliage or long grass, or rest in shrubs and trees or on wires. In cooler climates, some houseflies hibernate in winter, choosing to do so in cracks and crevices, gaps in woodwork, and the folds of curtains. They arouse in the spring when the weather warms up, and search out a place to", "Virginia soybean fields. Several indigenous parasitoids and predators have been reported to attack stink bug eggs, nymphs and adults in North America and Europe. Researchers have also experimented with different spider species, as well as the wheel bug. Several spider species attacked both the eggs and adult stink bugs. Pill bugs eat stinkbug eggs. The wheel bug, however, was the most voracious predator and attacked the eggs and adults more consistently. In houses and structures The brown marmorated stink bug is more likely to invade homes in the fall than others in the family. The bug survives the winter as", "during autumn–winter takes place in waves. The favourable period for the growth of the sawfly is about five months during the spring–summer and about three months\nduring the autumn. The insect undergoes aestivation and/or diapause under certain combinations of climatic factors which are not clearly understood.\nDiapause occurs in the eonymph stage. Prolonged diapause in cocoons may sometimes continue through the winter, spring and summer, with the adults emerging in autumn–winter of the following year, or the diapause may continue over the summer, autumn and winter, with the adults emerging in the spring of the following year. In the active season, the", "for pollination purposes in fruit orchards. Summer By early summer, a larva has consumed all of its provisions and begins spinning a cocoon around itself and enters the pupal stage; the adult, flying mother dies off as the season progresses. Fall and winter The young bee is now a fully developed insect and undergoes diapause inside its cocoon for the duration of the winter. To stay warm, it burns through its fat reserves. If the weather stays cold for too long, the bee can die of starvation. Alternatively, if the temperature rises too fast, emergence may occur prematurely", "days as the insect digests its meal. Bed bugs may be mistaken for other insects, such as booklice, small cockroaches, or carpet beetles; however, when warm and active, their movements are more ant-like, and like most other true bugs, they emit a characteristic disagreeable odor when crushed.\nBed bugs use pheromones and kairomones to communicate regarding nesting locations, feeding, and reproduction.\nThe lifespan of bed bugs varies by species and is also dependent on feeding.\nBed bugs can survive a wide range of temperatures and atmospheric compositions. Below 16 °C (61 °F), adults enter semihibernation and can survive longer; they can survive for at least", "to follow dry seasons.\nInsects, including beetles, moths, wasps and flies, use the bark, leaves and flowers of the tree in various ways. Some feed or hide camouflaged in the skirt of dead leaves, a favourite dry place for weta to hide in winter. Many of the insect companions of the tree have followed it into the domesticated surroundings of parks and home gardens. If the leaves are left to decay, the soil underneath cabbage trees becomes a black humus that supports a rich array of amphipods, earthworms and millipedes.\nThere are nine species of insect only found on C. australis, of which", "Capsodes flavomarginatus Distribution This species can be found in most of Europe, but not in the very north. It is present in Belgium, British Isles, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. Habitat These bugs inhabit dry open lands, glades, damp woodlands, open marshes and the edges of woodlands. Description Capsodes flavomarginatus can reach a length of 6.9–7.7 millimetres (0.27–0.30 in). Body of these bugs is quite elongated and the dorsal surface is covered with fine clear bristles. They are usually black or dark brown, with yellow-orange markings on the pronotum, scutellum and on the tips of the hemielytra.", "and Ethiopia. Habitat These thermophile bugs leave in dry and warm areas with moderately dense herbaceous vegetation, in lawns, limestones, clay and sandy soils. In the Alps, it is particularly common in the valleys, but can be found in good conditions up to 1000 meters above sea level. Biology They mostly feed on legumes (Coronilla species, Lathyrus species) and other leguminous plants, such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa), birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), milkvetch (Astragalus), vetch (Vicia), Sainfoin (Onobrychis), broom (Genista) or restharrows (Ononis).\nThe species overwinters as larvae (in third or fourth instar) and develops in May or June in the adult", "manner. After foraging for the first half of the night, the “fog-trapping” beetle burrows into the sand. It returns to the surface late at night or early in the morning when the fog rolls across the Namib Desert. It digs a trench into the side of the dune and droplets of water build up on ridges of the trench. The “fog-trapping” beetles then lick off the droplets of water. Physical description Toktokkies are about 65mm in length and are black or dark brown in color. They are stout, wingless creatures with a tough outer casing. Although they once had wings,", "conducted by Bernard Greenberg and John Charles Kunich with the use of rabbit carcasses to study accumulation of degree days found that with temperature ranging in the mid 70s to high 80s the amount of developmental time for maggots was significantly reduced.\nIn contrast, bodies found in shaded areas will be cooler, and insects will require longer growth periods. In addition, if temperatures reach extreme levels of cold, insects instinctively know to prolong their development time in order to hatch into a more accepting and viable climate in order to increase the chance of survival and reproduction. Air exposure Hanged bodies", "Months A.H.) Winter begins in the Northern Hemisphere. Zoo animals that cannot survive it, such as elephants, must migrate to southern latitudes or die. Meanwhile, without artificial heating, cockroaches die by the billions. Animals from the forests seek refuge in human homes. During their stay, they damage furniture in the buildings while constructing their own temporary homes to shelter from the cold. (10-12 months A.H.) Spring rains wash away the radioactive particles from the surface and carry it further into the ground, cleaning plants and objects. Meanwhile, new plants and trees remove the artificial CO₂ from the atmosphere as the", "cycles.\nIts most recent appearance was in the spring and early summer of 2007, throughout an area roughly enclosed by northern Illinois, eastern Iowa, southern Wisconsin, and a narrow strip of Indiana bordering Lake Michigan and Michigan. It will emerge again in 2024 and 2041.\nThe 4-centimeter long black bugs do not sting or bite. Once they emerge, they spend their short two-week lives climbing trees, shedding their exoskeletons and reproducing. They can number up to a million per hectare. Ravinia In the northern Chicago suburb of Highland Park, there was a concern about how the cicadas might drown out the music", "Dolycoris baccarum Distribution and habitat This species is widespread in most of Europe and Central Asia. These shield bugs mainly inhabit hedgerows and woodland edges, fields, forests, parks and gardens. Description Dolycoris baccarum can reach a length of about 10–12.5 millimetres (0.39–0.49 in). The basic color of pronotum and elytra is quite variable, but usually it is reddish purple, while scutellum is ocher. During the winter the basic color is dull brown. The whole body is quite hairy. The antennae are made by 4-5 black and white sections and the margins of the abdomen (connexivum) are alternately mottled with whitish and", "on each of its wing-covers (called elytra). It has a shovel-shaped head which it used to move the earth when it burrows. Behaviour This species feeds and breeds in various types of dung, and in the British Isles it is usually seen between the months of April and October. The beetle is particularly sensitive to light. During the daytime hours or under artificial light, it instinctively burrows into the nearest moist soil or preferably fresh dung. From at least 4 centimetres (1.6 in) underneath the soil it is able to sense that night has fallen, since it soon emerges from the", "Piezodorus lituratus Distribution This species is present in Africa, in most of Europe, in Northern Asia (excluding China) and in North America. Habitat These shield bugs live in many habitats where host plants are present. They prefer dry and warm habitats, especially with sandy soil. Description Piezodorus lituratus can reach a length of 10–13 mm (0.39–0.51 in). These large shieldbugs occur in two adult colour forms. In the spring when they emerge and mate they are predominantly green, while the new generation that appears in the late summer has purplish-red markings on the pronotum and Corium. In autumn they have much paler" ]

[ "Mars spins slightly slower than the earth. A day on Mars is called a *Sol* and lasts 1^d 0^h 37^m 22.663^s , [NASA adjusts their timekeeping accordingly](_URL_0_)." ]

[ "Timekeeping on Mars Various schemes have been used or proposed for timekeeping on the planet Mars independently of Earth time and calendars.\nMars has an axial tilt and a rotation period similar to those of Earth. Thus, it experiences seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter much like Earth, and its day is about the same length. Its year is almost twice as long as Earth's, and its orbital eccentricity is considerably larger, which means among other things that the lengths of various Martian seasons differ considerably, and sundial time can diverge from clock time more than on Earth. The length", "is used by planetary scientists to refer to the duration of a solar day on Mars. The term was adopted during the Viking project in order to avoid confusion with an Earth day. By inference, Mars' \"solar hour\" is 1/24th of a sol, and a solar minute 1/60th of a solar hour. Time of day A convention used by spacecraft lander projects to date has been to enumerate local solar time using a 24-hour \"Mars clock\" on which the hours, minutes and seconds are 2.7% longer than their standard (Earth) durations. For the Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover (MER), Phoenix,", "i.e., a Martian day — is 24 hours, 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds. Equivalent to 1.02749125 Earth days.\nThe sidereal rotational period of Mars—its rotation compared to the fixed stars—is only 24 hours, 37 minutes and 22.66 seconds. The solar day lasts slightly longer because of its orbit around the sun which requires it to turn slightly further on its axis. Usage in Mars lander timekeeping When a spacecraft lander begins operations on Mars, the passing Martian days (sols) have been tracked using a simple numerical count. The two Viking missions, Mars Phoenix, Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity, and InSight", "of a Martian day is close to that of an Earth day, leading to the use of analogous time units. Sols The average length of a Martian sidereal day is 24 h 37 m 22.663 s (88,642.663 seconds based on SI units), and the length of its solar day is 24 h 39 m 35.244147 s (88,775.244147 seconds). The corresponding values for Earth are currently 23 h 56 m 4.0916 s and 24 h 00 m 00.002 s, respectively. This yields a conversion factor of 1.02749125170 days/sol. Thus Mars's solar day is only about 2.7% longer than Earth's.\nThe term sol", "to differ from the sidereal year. However, on Mars, this cycle is 83,600 years rather than 112,000 years as on Earth.\nOn both Earth and Mars, these two precessions are in opposite directions, and therefore add, to make the precession cycle between the tropical and anomalistic years 21,000 years on Earth and 56,600 years on Mars.\nAs on Earth, the period of rotation of Mars (the length of its day) is slowing down. However, this effect is three orders of magnitude smaller than on Earth because the gravitational effect of Phobos is negligible and the effect is mainly due to the Sun.", "from the average by a greater amount than that of Earth, and hence its equation of time shows greater variation than that of Earth: on Mars, the Sun can run 50 minutes slower or 40 minutes faster than a Martian clock (on Earth, the corresponding figures are 14m 22s slower and 16m 23s faster).\nMars has a prime meridian, defined as passing through the small crater Airy-0. However, Mars does not have time zones defined at regular intervals from the prime meridian, as on Earth. Each lander so far has used an approximation of local solar time as its frame of", "seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours.\nThe axial tilt of Mars is 25.19 degrees relative to its orbital plane, which is similar to the axial tilt of Earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like Earth, though on Mars they are nearly twice as long because its orbital period is that much longer. In the present day epoch, the orientation of the north pole of Mars is close to the star Deneb.\nMars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar", "years, thus effecting a perpetual calendar for Mars.\nWhereas previous proposals for a Martian calendar had not included an epoch, American astronomer I. M. Levitt developed a more complete system in 1954. In fact, Ralph Mentzer, an acquaintance of Levitt's who was a watchmaker for the Hamilton Watch Company, built several clocks designed by Levitt to keep time on both Earth and Mars. They could also be set to display the date on both planets according to Levitt's calendar and epoch (the Julian day epoch of 4713 BCE).\nCharles F. Capen included references to Mars dates in a 1966 Jet Propulsion Laboratory", "in 2017, which was later chosen by Wired as one of the best science talks. \"What time is it on Mars?\" has been viewed almost two million times. She visited Kuwait in 2018, discussing their 2021 Mars mission.", "is omitted. 20th century Edgar Rice Burroughs described, in The Gods of Mars (1913), the divisions of the sol into zodes, xats, and tals. Although possibly the first to make the mistake of describing the Martian year as lasting 687 Martian days, he was far from the last.\nIn the Robert A. Heinlein novel Red Planet (1949), humans living on Mars use a 24-month calendar, alternating between familiar Earth months and newly created months such as Ceres and Zeus. For example, Ceres comes after March and before April, while Zeus comes after October and before November.\nThe Arthur C. Clarke novel The", "technical report associated with the Mariner 4 flyby of Mars. This system stretches the Gregorian calendar to fit the longer Martian year, much as Lowell had done in 1895, the difference being that 20 March, 21 June, 22 September, and 21 December marks the northward equinox, northern solstice, southward equinox, southern solstice, respectively. Similarly, Conway B. Leovy et al. also expressed time in terms of Mars dates in a 1973 paper describing results from the Mariner 9 Mars orbiter.\nBritish astronomer Sir Patrick Moore described a Martian calendar of his own design in 1977. His idea was to divide up a", "reference, as cities did on Earth before the introduction of standard time in the 19th century. (The two Mars Exploration Rovers happen to be approximately 12 hours and one minute apart.)\nThe most widely used standard for specifying locations on Mars uses \"planetocentric coordinates\", which measure longitude 0°–360° East and latitude angles from the center of Mars. An alternative used in some scientific literature may use planetographic coordinates, which measure longitudes as 0°–360° West and determined latitudes as mapped onto the surface. Coordinated Mars Time Coordinated Mars Time (MTC) or Martian Coordinated Time is a proposed Mars analog to Universal", "Darian calendar Start of year The Martian year is treated as beginning near the equinox marking spring in the northern hemisphere of the planet. Mars currently has an axial inclination similar to that of the Earth, so the Martian seasons are perceptible, though the greater eccentricity of Mars' orbit about the Sun compared with that of the Earth means that their significance is strongly amplified in the southern hemisphere and masked in the northern hemisphere. Epoch Gangale originally chose late 1975 as the epoch of the calendar in recognition of the American Viking program as the first fully successful", "this \"timeslip\" becomes a sort of witching hour, a time when inhibitions can be shed, and the emerging identity of Mars as a separate entity from Earth is celebrated. (It is not said explicitly whether this occurs simultaneously all over Mars, or at local midnight in each longitude.) Also in the Mars Trilogy, the calendar year is divided into twenty-four months. The names of the months are the same as the Gregorian calendar, except for a \"1\" or \"2\" in front to indicate the first or second occurrence of that month (for example, 1 January, 2 January, 1 February, 2", "is analogous to the Julian Day count on Earth, in that it is a continuous numerical counting of days from an epoch. The Mars Julian sol epoch is the same as for the Darian calendar, thus Mars Julian sol 0 is 1 Sagittarius 0. Comparison with timekeeping systems in planetary science Since the Darian calendar is designed as a civil calendar for human communities on Mars, it has no precise analog in the scientific community, which has no need to mark Martian time in terms of weeks or months. Two unrelated epochs that have gained some traction in the scientific", "Bliss (1966), during the prison ship's journey to Mars: \"Nobody on board had any real idea how the people in the settlement would have organised their six-hundred-and-eighty-seven-day year.\"\nIn Ian McDonald's Desolation Road (1988), set on a terraformed Mars (referred to by the book's characters as \"Ares\"), characters follow an implied 24-month calendar whose months are portmanteaus of Gregorian months, such as \"Julaugust\", \"Augtember\", and \"Novodecember\".\nIn both Philip K. Dick's novel Martian Time-Slip and Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars Trilogy (1992–1996), clocks retain Earth-standard seconds, minutes, and hours, but freeze at midnight for 39.5 minutes. As the fictional colonization of Mars progresses,", "Time (UT1) on Earth. It is defined as the mean solar time at Mars's prime meridian. The prime meridian was first proposed by German astronomers Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler in 1830 as marked by the fork in the albedo feature later named Sinus Meridiani by Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli. This convention was readily adopted by the astronomical community, the result being that Mars had a universally accepted prime meridian half a century before the International Meridian Conference of 1884 established one for Earth. The definition of the Martian prime meridian has since been refined on the basis of", "sunset because Mars does not have the Earth's thick atmosphere and oceans that soften such fluctuations. Consensus as has recently been gained in the scientific community studying Mars to similarly define martian local hours as 1/24th of a Mars day.\nAs on Earth, on Mars there is also an equation of time that represents the difference between sundial time and uniform (clock) time. The equation of time is illustrated by an analemma. Because of orbital eccentricity, the length of the solar day is not quite constant. Because its orbital eccentricity is greater than that of Earth, the length of day varies", "Orbit of Mars Mars has an orbit with a semimajor axis of 1.524 astronomical units (228 million kilometers), and an eccentricity of 0.0934. The planet orbits the Sun in 687 days and travels 9.55 AU in doing so, making the average orbital speed 24 km/s.\nThe eccentricity is greater than that of every other planet except Mercury, and this causes a large difference between the aphelion and perihelion distances—they are 1.6660 and 1.3814 AU. Changes in the orbit Mars is in the midst of a long-term increase in eccentricity. It reached a minimum of 0.079 about 19 millennia ago, and will", "a number of days to estimate the length of day on Mars, which he did quite accurately to 24 1/2 hours. This figure is only a few minutes off of the actual length of the Martian day of 24 hours, 37 minutes. Cosmotheoros Shortly before his death in 1695, Huygens completed Cosmotheoros, published posthumously in 1698. In it he speculated on the existence of extraterrestrial life, on other planets, which he imagined was similar to that on Earth. Such speculations were not uncommon at the time, justified by Copernicanism or the plenitude principle. But Huygens went into greater detail,", "Sands of Mars (1951) mentions in passing that \"Monday followed Sunday in the usual way\" and \"the months also had the same names, but were fifty to sixty days in length\".\nIn H. Beam Piper's short story \"Omnilingual\" (1957), the Martian calendar and the periodic table are the keys to archaeologists' deciphering of the records left by the long dead Martian civilization.\nKurt Vonnegut's novel The Sirens of Titan (1959) describes a Martian calendar divided into twenty-one months: \"twelve with thirty sols, and nine with thirty-one sols\", for a total of only 639 sols.\nD. G. Compton states in his novel Farewell, Earth's", "Martian year into 18 months. Months 6, 12 and 18, have 38 sols, while the rest of the months contain 37 sols.\nAmerican aerospace engineer and political scientist Thomas Gangale first published regarding the Darian calendar in 1986, with additional details published in 1998 and 2006. It has 24 months to accommodate the longer Martian year while keeping the notion of a \"month\" that is reasonably similar to the length of an Earth month. On Mars, a \"month\" would have no relation to the orbital period of any moon of Mars, since Phobos and Deimos orbit in about 7 hours and", "and Mars Science Laboratory missions, the operations teams have worked on \"Mars time\", with a work schedule synchronized to the local time at the landing site on Mars, rather than the Earth day. This results in the crew's schedule sliding approximately 40 minutes later in Earth time each day. Wristwatches calibrated in Martian time, rather than Earth time, were used by many of the MER team members.\nLocal solar time has a significant impact on planning the daily activities of Mars landers. Daylight is needed for the solar panels of landed spacecraft. Its temperature rises and falls rapidly at sunrise and", "year 200,000, Mars is now stated to be home to a university of questionable reputation, although no further reference to the planet is made. Other appearances Mars has also made appearances in the various Doctor Who spin-off media. The canonicity of these stories is open to interpretation. \nIn many Doctor Who stories Mars has been terraformed for human habitation, though The Dying Days by Lance Parkin states this process is unnecessary as Mars can indeed support human life. The Dying Days, set in 1997, tells of a takeover of the United Kingdom by the Argyre Clan of Ice Warriors, whose", "its azimuth at about 3:00 a.m.\nBy the end of August when the two planets are closest, Mars will rise at nightfall and reach its highest point in the sky at 12:30 a.m. That's pretty convenient to see something that no human being has seen in recorded history. So, mark your calendar at the beginning of August to see Mars grow progressively brighter and brighter throughout the month. Share this with your children and grandchildren. NO ONE ALIVE TODAY WILL EVER SEE THIS AGAIN\nAlthough the e-mail itself is correct except for the statement that \"it may be as long as 60,000", " one representing Mars and the other Quirinus — as a dialectic relationship showing the interdependency of the military and economic functions in Roman society. Usener Because the earliest Roman calendar had begun with the month of March, Hermann Usener thought the ceremonies of the ancilia movere were a ritual expulsion of the old year, represented by the mysterious figure of Mamurius Veturius, to make way for the new god Mars born on March 1. On the Ides of March, a man ritually named as Mamurius Veturius was beaten with long white sticks in the sacrum Mamurii, in Usener's view", "community are the Mars sol date and the Mars year. In 1998 Michael Allison proposed the Mars sol date epoch of 29 December 1873 (Julian Day 2405521.502). In 2000 R. T. Clancy et al. proposed the Mars year 1 set to the epoch 11 April 1955 (Julian Day 2435208.456). The Clancy Mars year is reckoned from one Martian northward equinox to the next (Lₛ = 0°), and specific dates within a given year are expressed in Lₛ. The Clancy Mars year count is approximately equal to the Darian year count minus 183. The Allison Mars sol date epoch equates to", "the military gods worshipped by the Roman legions. \nMars orbits the Sun in 687 days, spending about 57.25 days in each sign of the zodiac. It is also the first planet that orbits outside of Earth's orbit, making it the first planet that does not set along with the Sun. Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25–30% of the atmosphere into slabs of CO₂ ice (dry ice).\nAstrologically speaking, Mars is associated with confidence and self-assertion, aggression, sexuality, energy, strength, ambition and impulsiveness.", "respect to the background stars. The duration of this retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days, and Mars reaches its peak luminosity in the middle of this motion. Relative The point at which Mars's geocentric longitude is 180° different from the Sun's is known as opposition, which is near the time of closest approach to Earth. The time of opposition can occur as much as 8.5 days away from the closest approach. The distance at close approach varies between about 54 and 103 million km (34 and 64 million mi) due to the planets' elliptical orbits, which causes comparable variation in angular size. The", "Thus, the MSD is a running count of sols since December 29, 1873 (coincidentally the birth date of astronomer Carl Otto Lampland). Numerically, the Mars Sol Date is defined as MSD = (Julian Date using International Atomic Time - 2451549.5 + k)/1.02749125 + 44796.0, where k is a small correction of approximately 0.00014 d (or 12 s) due to uncertainty in the exact geographical position of the prime meridian at Airy-0 crater. Terminology The word \"yestersol\" was coined by the NASA Mars operations team early during the MER mission to refer to the previous sol (the Mars version of \"yesterday\")," ]

[ "Sounds like you should look at the [Nexus 7.](_URL_1_) Good size for portability, amazing price and three different storage capacities (8GB, 16GB, 32GB), lots of free apps, and it starts at $199. There are plans for an even cheaper $100 8GB version in the future, but that is unconfirmed for now.\n\nIf that's too small, maybe look at the [Nexus 10.](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "a built-in app for e-book reading called iBooks and had the iBookstore for content sales and delivery. The iPad, the first commercially profitable tablet, was followed in 2011 by the release of the first Android-based tablets as well as LCD tablet versions of the Nook and Kindle. Unlike previous dedicated e-readers, tablet computers are multi-functional, utilize LCD touchscreen displays, and are more agnostic to e-book vendor apps, allowing for installation of multiple e-book reading apps. Many Android tablets accept external media and allow uploading files directly onto the tablet's file system without resorting to online stores or cloud services. Many", "Comparison of e-readers An e-reader, also known as an e-book reader, is a portable electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading e-books and periodicals. E-readers have a similar form factor to a tablet and usually refers to devices that use electronic paper resulting in better screen readability, especially in bright sunlight, and longer battery life when compared to a tablet. An e-reader's battery will typically last for multiple weeks. In contrast to an e-reader, a tablet has a screen capable of higher refresh rates which make them more suitable for interaction such as playing a video", "tablets is falling sharply compared to the traditional media (books, CD and DVD, etc.). One digital textbook, for instance, costs one-third to half the price of a paper textbook, with zero marginal cost.\nThe digital tablet today has potential uses that extend beyond the classroom. The American NGO WorldReader has set itself the goal of extending access to reading to the most underprivileged children by distributing readers designed by Amazon. With the financial support of USAID, Kindles have been made available to 600,000 children in nine States in sub-Saharan Africa. The NGO has stated that children using this system spend 50%", "E-reader An e-reader, also called an e-book reader or e-book device, is a mobile electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading digital e-books and periodicals.\nAny device that can display text on a screen may act as an e-reader, but specialized e-reader devices may optimize portability, readability, and battery life for this purpose. Their main advantages over printed books are portability, since an e-reader is capable of holding thousands of books while weighing less than one book, and the convenience provided due to add-on features. Overview An e-reader is a device designed as a convenient way to", "Reading (computer) Example For example, a computer may read information off a floppy disk and store it temporarily in random access memory before it is written to the hard drive to be processed at a future date. CMOS Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) is a non-volatile medium. It is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic circuits. Memory is read through the use of a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). In CMOS logic, a collection of n-type MOSFETs are arranged in a pull-down network between the output node and the lower-voltage power supply rail, named", "e-readers lack a card slot. History An idea similar to that of an e-reader is described in a 1930 manifesto written by Bob Brown titled The Readies, which describes \"a simple reading machine which I can carry or move around, attach to any old electric light plug and read hundred-thousand-word novels in 10 minutes\". His hypothetical machine would use a microfilm-style ribbon of miniaturized text which could be scrolled past a magnifying glass, and would allow the reader to adjust the type size. He envisioned that eventually words could be \"recorded directly on the palpitating ether\".\nThe establishment of the", "tablet-based and smartphone-based readers are capable of displaying PDF and DJVU files, which few of the dedicated e-book readers can handle. This opens a possibility to read publications originally published on paper and later scanned into a digital format. While these files may not be considered e-books in their strict sense, they preserve the original look of printed editions. The growth in general-purpose tablet use allowed for further growth in popularity of e-books in the 2010s.\nIn 2012, there was a 26% decline in sales worldwide from a maximum of 23.2 million in 2011. The reason given for this \"alarmingly precipitous", "a settlement concerning this and other patents Graffiti (Palm OS).\nA Tablet PC is a special notebook computer that is outfitted with a digitizer tablet and a stylus, and allows a user to handwrite text on the unit's screen. The operating system recognizes the handwriting and converts it into typewritten text. Windows Vista and Windows 7 include personalization features that learn a user's writing patterns or vocabulary for English, Japanese, Chinese Traditional, Chinese Simplified and Korean. The features include a \"personalization wizard\" that prompts for samples of a user's handwriting and uses them to retrain the system for higher accuracy recognition.", "Tablet computer A tablet computer, commonly shortened to tablet, is a mobile device, typically with a mobile operating system and touchscreen display processing circuitry, and a rechargeable battery in a single, thin and flat package. Tablets, being computers, do what other personal computers do, but lack some input/output (I/O) abilities that others have. Modern tablets largely resemble modern smartphones, the only differences being that tablets are relatively larger than smartphones, with screens 7 inches (18 cm) or larger, measured diagonally, and may not support access to a cellular network.\nThe touchscreen display is operated by gestures executed by finger or digital pen", "Booklet Booklet PCs are dual screen tablet computers that fold like a book. Typical booklet PCs are equipped with multi-touch screens and pen writing recognition abilities. They are designed to be used as digital day planners, internet surfing devices, project planners, music players, and displays for video, live TV, and e-reading. Slate Slate computers, which resemble writing slates, are tablet computers without a dedicated keyboard. For text input, users rely on handwriting recognition via an active digitizer, touching an on-screen keyboard using fingertips or a stylus, or using an external keyboard that can usually be attached via a wireless or", "the precursor to the Sony Reader, was the first e-reader to use electronic paper. The Ectaco jetBook Color was the first color e-reader on the market, but its muted colors were criticized.\nMany e-readers can use the internet through Wi-Fi and the built-in software can provide a link to a digital Open Publication Distribution System (OPDS) library or an e-book retailer, allowing the user to buy, borrow, and receive digital e-books. An e-reader may also download e-books from a computer or read them from a memory card. However, the use of memory cards is decreasing as most of the 2010s era", "than put down the pen and find a mouse. A popular game osu! allows utilizing a tablet as a way of playing.\nGraphic tablets are available in various sizes and price ranges; A6-sized tablets being relatively inexpensive and A3-sized tablets far more expensive. Modern tablets usually connect to the computer via a USB or HDMI interface. Similar devices Interactive whiteboards offer high-resolution wall size graphic tablets up to 95\" along with options for pressure and multiple input. These are becoming commonplace in schools and meeting rooms around the world.\nTouch screens like those found on some tablet computers, iPads, and the Nintendo", "can't do anything since no other company provides the technology that they need besides libraries. Also e-readers will have an option to have the book or material on the e-reader read out loud to the person.", "History of tablet computers The history of tablet computers and the associated special operating software is an example of pen computing technology, and thus the development of tablets has deep historical roots.\nThe first patent for a system that recognized handwritten characters by analyzing the handwriting motion was granted in 1914.\nThe first publicly demonstrated system using a tablet and handwriting recognition instead of a keyboard for working with a modern digital computer dates to 1956.\nIn addition to many academic and research systems, there were several companies with commercial products in the 1980s: Pencept, Communications Intelligence Corporation, and Linus were among", "read e-books. It is similar in form factor to a tablet computer, but features electronic paper rather than an LCD screen. This yields much longer battery life — the battery can last for several weeks — and better readability, similar to that of paper even in sunlight. Drawbacks of this kind of display include a slow refresh rate and (usually) a grayscale-only display, which makes it unsuitable for sophisticated interactive applications as those found on tablets. The absence of such apps may be perceived as an advantage, as the user may more easily focus on reading.\nThe Sony Librie, released in 2004 and", "non-network electronic publications such as encyclopedias on CD and DVD, as well as technical and reference publications relied on by mobile users and others without reliable and high speed access to a network. Electronic publishing is also being used in the field of test-preparation in developed as well as in developing economies for student education (thus partly replacing conventional books) - for it enables content and analytics combined - for the benefit of students. The use of electronic publishing for textbooks may become more prevalent with iBooks from Apple Inc. and Apple's negotiation with the three largest textbook suppliers in", "(Kobo Inc.). It offers customers about 2,000,000 book titles in electronic form that can be viewed on an electronic reader. A variety of electronic books or readers have gained a place in Canada beginning with the introduction of the Sony Librie reader in 2004 and the Kindle in 2009. Kobo intends to introduce its own reader in 2010 with code based on an open source concept. In 2010 a number of Canadian libraries, including the Ottawa Public Library began offering books on loan via a downloadable Kindle format.\nWith the release of the iPad in Canada in 2010, digital media providers", "Comparison of Android e-reader software The following tables detail e-book reader software for the Android operating system. Each section corresponds to a major area of functionality in an e-book reader software. The comparisons are based on the latest released version. Other software e-book readers for Android Other e-book readers for Android devices include: BookShout!, Nook e-Reader applications for third party devices and OverDrive Media Console. Additionally, Palmbookreader reads some formats (such as PDB and TXT) on Palm OS and Android devices. The Readmill app, introduced in February 2011, reads numerous formats on Android and iOS devices but shut down July", "can be read as a normal paper book or - enriched with multimedia elements - with Google Glass, Kindle, on Smartphone and Pads on the platforms iOS and Android.", "the following month. E-reader applications Many of the major book retailers and third-party developers offer e-reader applications for desktops, tablets and mobile devices, to allow the reading of e-books and other documents independent of dedicated e-book devices. E-reader applications are available for Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, iOS and Windows devices. Impact The introduction of e-readers brought substantial changes to the publishing industry, also awakening fears and predictions about the possible disappearance of books and print periodicals. Criticism The graphical design of ebooks underlies the format and technical limits of e-readers, because E-ink readers do not", "special edition of Windows 7 for netbooks. Tablet PCs A tablet PC is a laptop without a keyboard. The orientation of the screen is both horizontal and vertical. For reading purposes, the use of a tablet PC in a vertical position is preferable.\nAt the CES in Las Vegas in January 2009 Asus presented two netbooks with turnable screens. These products combine the advantages of a compact size with the advantage of a tablet PC and would be very suitable as mobile reader. Criticism Most modern computer screens are LCDs. To provide an image on a screen, LCD technology emits light", "a device with a screen that is optimised for reading text. Most e-readers use epaper technology for display. It is argued that issuing a newspaper using epaper has many cost advantages.\nThe market for these devices is heavily in development.\nAlthough Apple Inc. has succeeded to be successfully market a product with only one function – the iPod for playing music – the question is whether consumers will be prepared to buy a device with which only text can be read. iLiad The iLiad is an electronic handheld device, or e-book device, which can be used for document reading and editing. The iLiad is", "depicted fictional tablets in the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey) and prototyped and developed in the last two decades of that century. In 2010, Apple released the iPad, the first mass-market tablet to achieve widespread popularity. Thereafter tablets rapidly rose in ubiquity and soon became a large product category used for personal, educational and workplace applications, with sales stabilizing in the mid-2010s. History The tablet computer and its associated operating system began with the development of pen computing. Electrical devices with data input and output on a flat information display existed as early as 1888 with the", "Intel Reader The Intel Reader is a portable, handheld assistive technology device that allows users to take a photo of printed material and have it read back to them aloud.\nIt was released in November 2009, is currently available in English, and is sold in the U.S., Canada, the U.K. and Ireland. It also supports Open eBook.\nThe Intel Reader was discontinued in July 2013.", "academic libraries and special libraries, generally at a fixed charge. \nElectronic articles can be found in online-only journals (par excellence), but in the 21st century they have also become common as online versions of articles that also appear in printed journals. The practice of publishing of an electronic version of an article before it later appears in print is sometimes called epub ahead of print, particularly in PubMed.\nThe term can also be used for the electronic versions of less formal publications, such as online archives, working paper archives from universities, government agencies, private and public think tanks and institutes and", "the McKim building's Bates Hall and the Honan-Allston Branch's Adult Reading Room for up to 2 hours. Library-card holders can also borrow laptops for in-library use for 2 hours at any location. Digital services The library offers a variety of digital services and collections. The online catalog, also available for mobile devices, allows users to browse and place holds on materials including books, audiobooks, DVDs, and CDs. Users can also download ebooks, e-audiobooks, music, and video through BPL's OverDrive site and check out Zinio magazines for the computer, tablet, or smartphone. Library card holders and e-card holders can also stream", "to be presented on the internet. It is defined as not being previously printed material adapted, or retooled, and then delivered electronically.\nElectronic publishing will likely continue to exist alongside paper publishing for the foreseeable future, since whilst output to a screen is important for browsing and searching, it is not well suited for extensive reading. Formats suitable both for reading on paper, and for manipulation by the reader's computer will need to be integrated. Many journals are electronically available in formats readable on screen via web browsers, as well as in portable document format PDF, suitable for printing and storing", "is an e-book reader, an electronic book (e-book) reading device by Tianjin Jinke Electronics Co. Ltd. The device, much like others on the market, features a 6\" (15 cm), 4-level grayscale electrophoretic display (E Ink material) with a resolution of 600×800 pixels (167 ppi).\nThe Hanlin eReader V3 is sold under various names, such as lBook V3 (Ukraine), Walkbook (Turkey), BEBOOK (Netherlands), and Papyre 6.1 (Spain). It is also supported by the OpenInkpot firmware. Cybook Cybook Gen3 is a 6 inch e-Reader, specially designed for reading e-Books and e-News, or listening to MP3 music or audio-books. It is produced by the French", "tablet device, or in a PDF document on a computer. In some cases, the reader may print the content onto paper using a consumer-grade ink-jet or laser printer or via a print on demand system. Some users download digital content to their devices, enabling them to read the content even when their device is not connected to the Internet (e.g., on an airplane flight).\nDistributing content electronically as software applications (\"apps\") has become popular in the 2010s, due to the rapid consumer adoption of smartphones and tablets. At first, native apps for each mobile platform were required to reach all audiences,", "Electronic publishing Electronic publishing (also referred to as e-publishing or digital publishing or online publishing) includes the digital publication of e-books, digital magazines, and the development of digital libraries and catalogues. It also includes an editorial aspect, that consists of editing books, journals or magazines that are mostly destined to be read on a screen (computer, e-reader, tablet, smartphone). About Electronic publishing has become common in scientific publishing where it has been argued that peer-reviewed scientific journals are in the process of being replaced by electronic publishing. It is also becoming common to distribute books, magazines, and newspapers to consumers" ]

[ "An electron microscope works by passing electrons across the object that it's scanning. Basically, the object is coated with a heavy metal, and the electrons that bounce off get recorded, and it gets put into a computerized image that gets manually colored for effect.\n\nElectron microscopes require the object to be placed in a vaccuum, so no, it cannot be used on living objects.\n\nSource: Bio student" ]

[ "microscopy (EM) is a focused area of science that uses the electron microscope as a tool for viewing tissues. Electron microscopy has a magnification level up to 2 million times, whereas light microscopy only has a magnification up to 1000-2000 times. There are two types of electron microscopes, the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope.\nElectron microscopy is a common method that uses the immunolabeling technique to view tagged tissues or cells. The electron microscope method follows many of the same concepts as immunolabeling for light microscopy, where the particular antibody is able to recognize the location of the", "Scanning electron microscope A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography and composition of the sample. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the position of the beam is combined with the intensity of the detected signal to produce an image. In the most common SEM mode, secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam are detected", "microscopy is achieved by synthesizing a polymer system within a specimen. By then swelling this polymer network, the sample is expanded to be examined under conventional microscopic analysis tools without degrading the integrity of the sample. This allows a sample to be analyzed with a less powerful microscope than would be needed without expansion, and makes analysis of microscopic biological samples more accessible to labs that would otherwise have not been available to afford or obtain necessary powerful microscopy technology. Use Expansion microscopy is a method which improves the final image resolution during regular microscopy by physically enlarging the organism", "Electron tomography Electron tomography (ET) is a tomography technique for obtaining detailed 3D structures of sub-cellular macro-molecular objects. Electron tomography is an extension of traditional transmission electron microscopy and uses a transmission electron microscope to collect the data. In the process, a beam of electrons is passed through the sample at incremental degrees of rotation around the center of the target sample. This information is collected and used to assemble a three-dimensional image of the target. For biological applications, the typical resolution of ET systems are in the 5–20 nm range, suitable for examining supra-molecular multi-protein structures, although not the", "Environmental scanning electron microscope The environmental scanning electron microscope or ESEM is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) that allows for the option of collecting electron micrographs of specimens that are \"wet,\" uncoated, or both by allowing for a gaseous environment in the specimen chamber.\n Although there were earlier successes at viewing wet specimens in internal chambers in modified SEMs, the ESEM with its specialized electron detectors (rather than the standard Everhart-Thornley detector) and its differential pumping systems, to allow for the transfer of the electron beam from the high vacuums in the gun area to the high pressures attainable in", "an advantage over conventional electron microscopy in that it can view biological samples in their natural state. Electron microscopy is widely used to obtain images with nanometer to sub-Angstrom level resolution but the relatively thick living cell cannot be observed as the sample has to be chemically fixed, dehydrated, embedded in resin, then sliced ultra thin. However, it should be mentioned that cryo-electron microscopy allows the observation of biological specimens in their hydrated natural state, albeit embedded in water ice. Until now, resolutions of 30 nanometer are possible using the Fresnel zone plate lens which forms the image using the", "single atomic layer to many micrometers can be achieved. This technique is used in microelectronics, optics, and material research, and to produce solar cells and many other products. Curing Electron-beam curing is a method of curing paints and inks without the need for traditional solvent. Electron-beam curing produces a finish similar to that of traditional solvent-evaporation processes, but achieves that finish through a polymerization process. Electron microscopes An electron microscope uses a controlled beam of electrons to illuminate a specimen and produce a magnified image. Two common types are the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the transmission electron microscope (TEM).", "bilayers, researchers often use fluorescence microscopy. A sample is excited with one wavelength of light and observed in a different wavelength, so that only fluorescent molecules with a matching excitation and emission profile will be seen. Natural lipid bilayers are not fluorescent, so a dye is used that attaches to the desired molecules in the bilayer. Resolution is usually limited to a few hundred nanometers, much smaller than a typical cell but much larger than the thickness of a lipid bilayer. Electron microscopy Electron microscopy offers a higher resolution image. In an electron microscope, a beam of focused electrons interacts", "Demkov and colleagues in the early 1980s. The researchers suggested that electron waves could be imaged when interacting with a static electric field as long as the de Broglie Wavelength of these electrons was large enough. It was not until 1996 that anything resembling the microscopy images proposed by Demkov and colleagues came to fruition. In 1996 a team of French researchers developed the first photodetachment microscope. The development of this microscope allowed for a direct observation of the oscillatory structure of a wave function to become possible. Photodetachment is the removal of electrons from an atom using interactions with", "Cathodoluminescence microscope A cathodoluminescence (CL) microscope combines methods from electron and regular (light optical) microscopes. It is designed to study the luminescence characteristics of polished thin sections of solids irradiated by an electron beam.\nUsing a cathodoluminescence microscope, structures within crystals or fabrics can be made visible which cannot be seen in normal light conditions. Thus, for example, valuable information on the growth of minerals can be obtained. CL-microscopy is used in geology, mineralogy and materials science (rocks, minerals, volcanic ash, glass, ceramic, concrete, fly ash, etc.). More recently, scientists have begun to investigate its application for studying biological samples, using", "Electron Microscopy Low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM) and photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) are techniques suited to performing dynamic observations of surfaces with nanometer resolution in a vacuum. With LEEM, it is possible to carry out low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) and micro-LEED experiments. LEED is the standard method for studying the surface structure of a crystalline material. Low-energy electrons (20–200 eV) impact the surface and elastically backscattered electrons illuminate a diffraction pattern on a fluorescent screen. The LEED method is a surface-sensitive technique as electrons have low energy and are not able to penetrate deep into the sample. For example, a micro-sized", "that would irreversibly change or damage the sample, and does not typically suffer from charging artifacts in the final image. While an electron microscope needs an expensive vacuum environment for proper operation, most AFM modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment. This makes it possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms. In principle, AFM can provide higher resolution than SEM. It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and, more recently, in liquid environments. High resolution AFM is comparable in resolution to", "microscopes and scanning probe microscopes enables scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations.", "Transmission electron microscopy Transmission electron microscopy (TEM, an abbreviation which can also stand for the instrument, a transmission electron microscope) is a microscopy technique in which a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to form an image. The specimen is most often an ultrathin section less than 100 nm thick or a suspension on a grid. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sample as the beam is transmitted through the specimen. The image is then magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen, a layer of photographic film, or", "and 1950. \nOne of his Important projects was the study of the structure of the human nervous system. The use of conventional microscopes for this work was an obstacle due to the limited resolution capability of the common optical microscope. In order to facilitate the use of the more sophisticated electron microscope it was necessary to cut thinner slices of tissue. Thus, David Danon developed the Microtome (a device for cutting extremely thin slices of tissue) for use on the electron microscope. The University of Geneva recognized David for his development of this innovative device by awarding him", "Electron beam-induced deposition Electron-beam-induced deposition (EBID) is a process of decomposing gaseous molecules by an electron beam leading to deposition of non-volatile fragments onto a nearby substrate. The electron beam is usually provided by a scanning electron microscope, which results in high spatial accuracy (potentially below one nanometer) and the possibility to produce free-standing, three-dimensional structures. Process The focused electron beam of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) or scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) is commonly used. Another method is ion-beam-induced deposition (IBID), where a focused ion beam is applied instead. Precursor materials are typically liquid or solid and gasified prior", "nm) of the specimen in order to produce electrons from said specimen. These secondary electrons are detected by a sensor, and the image of the specimen is generated over a certain time period. \nScanning electron microscopy is a frequently used immunolabeling technique. SEM is able to detect the surface of cellular components in high resolution. This immunolabeling technique is very similar to the immuno-fluorescence method, but a colloidal gold tag is used instead of a fluorophore. Overall, the concepts are very parallel in that an unconjugated primary antibody is used and sequentially followed", "group successfully generated magnified images of mesh grids placed over the anode aperture. The device used two magnetic lenses to achieve higher magnifications, arguably creating the first electron microscope. In that same year, Reinhold Rudenberg, the scientific director of the Siemens company, patented an electrostatic lens electron microscope. Improving resolution At the time, electrons were understood to be charged particles of matter; the wave nature of electrons was not fully realized until the publication of the De Broglie hypothesis in 1927. Knoll's research group was unaware of this publication until 1932, when they quickly realized that the De Broglie", "Microscopy Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy, along with the emerging field of X-ray microscopy.\nOptical microscopy and electron microscopy involve the diffraction, reflection, or refraction of electromagnetic radiation/electron beams interacting with the specimen, and the collection of the scattered radiation or another signal in order to create an image. This process may be carried out by wide-field irradiation", "microscopy allows imaging of cell structures below the optical resolution of light. Combining novel experimental tools with mathematical models grounded in the physical sciences has enabled significant recent breakthroughs in the field. Multiple centers across the world are advancing the research area", "adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning-tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the Fermi level local density of states.\nAn atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend", "Scanning transmission electron microscopy A scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) is a type of transmission electron microscope (TEM). Pronunciation is [stɛm] or [ɛsti:i:ɛm]. As with a conventional transmission electron microscope (CTEM), images are formed by electrons passing through a sufficiently thin specimen. However, unlike CTEM, in STEM the electron beam is focused to a fine spot (with the typical spot size 0.05 – 0.2 nm) which is then scanned over the sample in a raster illumination system constructed so that the sample is illuminated at each point with the beam parallel to the optical axis. The rastering of the beam", "to restoring the function of the electron microscope, he developed and prepared the microtome and other devices necessary for the operation of the electron microscope. Later he founded the Electron Microscopy Laboratory at the Weizmann Institute. His pearly research in the Institute's Electron Microscopy Laboratory involved the membrane structure of erythrocytes, their adherence and thrombocytes. In 1957, while working at the Weizmann Institute David Danon founded with Dr. Kalman the Department of Physiology and Anatomy of Animals, at the Faculty of Agriculture in Rehovot where he taught until 1962. His research during this period continued to focus on erythrocytes and", "or molecule itself. After the enlargement of the organism or molecule, more standard microscopes can achieve higher resolution imaging. The primary fields this method is used in are those involved in analyzing biological samples. However, this technique has since been adopted into many different fields of research and continues to grow and be applied in more and more laboratory settings. Disease and Diagnoses Previously, before the discovery of expansion microscopy, examination of cellular structures and biomolecules were done using diffraction-limited microscopy. They were mainly used to diagnose or investigate the pathogenesis of a wide variety of predecease and disease states.", "of the most common microscopy techniques used are X-ray diffraction, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy.\nPolymer morphology on a mesoscale (nanometers to micrometers) is particularly important for the mechanical properties of many materials. Transmission Electron Microscopy in combination with staining techniques, but also Scanning Electron Microscopy, Scanning probe microscopy are important tools to optimize the morphology of materials like polybutadiene-polystyrene polymers and many polymer blends.\nX-ray diffraction is generally not as powerful for this class of materials as they are either amorphous or poorly crystallized. The Small-angle scattering like Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS)", "Microscopy with UV surface excitation Microscopy with UV Surface Excitation (MUSE) is a novel microscopy method that utilize the shallow penetration of UV photons (230 - 300 nm) excitation. Compared to conventional microscopes, which usually require sectioning to exclude blurred signals from outside of the focal plane, MUSE’s low penetration depth limits the excitation volume to a thin layer, and removes the tissue sectioning requirement. The entire signal collected is the desired light, and all photons collected contribute to the image formation. Mechanism The microscope setup is based on an inverted microscope design. An automated stage is used to record", "developed as the ability to machine ultra-fine probes and tips has advanced. Fluorescence microscopes The most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of fluorescence microscopy in biology. During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in the post-genomic era, many techniques for fluorescent staining of cellular structures were developed. The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound DAPI to label DNA, use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, see\nimmunofluorescence, and fluorescent proteins, such as green fluorescent protein. These techniques use these different fluorophores for analysis", "biological research to image and investigate whole body of mouse, structure and function of mouse brain, stem cells, tumor tissues, developmental processes or whole human embryos. History and development of method Use of organic solvents for clearing (making transparent) the tissue was first mentioned more than century ago by German anatomist Werner Spalteholz. But with some exceptions (reviewed in ) was clearing techniques for whole 20th century almost forgotten. Their renaissance came in last decade, probably thank to spread of advanced techniques of fluorescence microscopy which allow optical sectioning of the specimen (confocal, multiphoton or light sheet", "light as in traditional microscopy. Electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light so electron microscopy has much higher resolution than light microscopy, potentially down to the atomic scale. Because lipid bilayers are arranged on the molecular level, this higher resolution has been invaluable. In 1960, when the structure of the bilayer was still debated, it was electron microscopy that offered the first direct visualization of the two apposing leaflets. In conjunction with rapid freezing techniques, electron microscopy has also been used to study the mechanisms of inter- and intracellular transport, for instance in demonstrating that exocytotic vesicles are the", "binding, particularly in immunohistochemistry. Immunolabeling for light microscopy Light microscopy is the use of a light microscope, which is an instrument that requires the usage of light to view the enlarged specimen. In general, a compound light microscope is frequently used, where two lenses, the eyepiece, and the objective work simultaneously to generate the magnification of the specimen. Light microscopy frequently uses immunolabeling to observe targeted tissues or cells. For instance, a study was conducted to view the morphology and the production of hormones in pituitary adenoma cell cultures via light microscopy and other electron microscopic methods." ]

[ "Poverty\n\nJobs left the city at an ever accelerating pace over the past few years and this has led to lower and lower incomes and, consequently, higher crime and lower property values. \n\nAs it gets worse fewer companies would think of moving in and bringing back jobs and the situation worsens and worsens. Their economy was heavily reliant on manufacturing and that is the way of the past for this country as factories move to the employer friendly south." ]

[ "Pretext for founding In the 20th century, Detroit was considered an example for technological advancement thanks to the automobile industry. However, due to economic decline, the city is no longer a standard for modernization and is currently an example of urban decay. Detroit’s decline is well documented: the city entered a recession prior to the U.S. financial crisis of 2008, posting deficits of up to $150 million dollars annually starting in 2005. This debt has resulted in increased crime and poverty rates, and a rapidly decreasing population due to white flight. Detroit is still in crisis today. \nDetroit has", "seen a decline during the 21st century), and vast areas of the city are in a state of severe urban decay. In 2013, Detroit filed the largest municipal bankruptcy case in U.S. history, which it successfully exited on December 10, 2014. Poverty, crime, shootings, drugs and urban blight in Detroit are ongoing problems.\nAs of 2017 median household income is rising, criminal activity is decreasing by 5% annually as of 2017, and the city's blight removal project is making progress in ridding the city of all abandoned homes that cannot be rehabilitated. Contributors to decline The deindustrialization of Detroit has been", "edition is expected to address issues currently facing Detroit as well such as its recent bankruptcy and the current challenges this city faces thanks to record rates of incarceration.", "than half of total residential lots in large portions of the city. With at least 70,000 abandoned buildings, 31,000 empty houses, and 90,000 vacant lots, Detroit has become notorious for its urban blight.\nIn 2010, Mayor Bing put forth a plan to bulldoze one fourth of the city. The plan was to concentrate Detroit's remaining population into certain areas to improve the delivery of essential city services, which the city has had significant difficulty providing (policing, fire protection, trash removal, snow removal, lighting, etc.). In February 2013 the Detroit Free Press reported the Mayor's plan to accelerate the program. The project", "jobs, the city suffered many of the same difficulties as Detroit: declines in population and tax base accompanied by an increase in street crime. White flight from the city accelerated after the 1967 Detroit 12th Street Riot. Ford's last operation at the factory, the production of tractors at its Model T plant, was discontinued in 1973, and a year later the entire property was sold to a private developer for general industrial usage. The city population was majority black and impoverished by the 1980s. Chrysler, the city's last major private sector employer, moved its corporate headquarters from Highland Park to", "recession. After the country-wide recession struck, Detroit's depression worsened, which resulted in increases in unemployment, crime, and poverty levels.\nOne third of Detroit residents do not own automobiles and many passengers of public transportation wait an hour at bus stops. The low economic status of the city is illustrated by the following statistics: 30% of Detroit's residents remain unemployed, and 36% live in poverty. Additionally, the Food Access Research Atlas (FARA) has designated Detroit as a low income and low food access region. Classified as a food desert, 80% of Detroit residents rely on \"fringe food\" provided by fast food chains,", "in Detroit, and a lack of social mobility for remaining residents, the effects of shrinkage were dire. From 2000 to 2004, Detroit lost 5.1% of its overall population, a dramatic decline in such a short period of time. Social equity and environmental justice issues The causes and effects above lend insight into shrinkage as an environmental justice issue resulting from uneven development and investment disparities in urban planning. Economic development has been disproportionately skewed toward the suburbs instead of the city's core, in part because of political agency held by predominantly white suburbs. Many minority residents in the city's urban", "2014. Poverty, crime, shootings, drugs and urban blight in Detroit continue to be ongoing problems.\nAs of 2017 median household income is rising, criminal activity is decreasing by 5% annually as of 2017, and the city's blight removal project is making progress in ridding the city of all abandoned homes that cannot be rehabilitated. Roxbury, Boston Planned shrinkage in Roxbury is not unique to the RAND policies enacted in the 70s and 80s. The area succumbed to numerous fires as out-of-town landlords sought out the only way to earn back some profit on homes that no longer sold. However, the neighborhood's", "Downtown Detroit Overview In recent years the downtown area has seen tremendous growth and redevelopment. Since 2000 a number of major construction projects have been completed including the new Compuware Headquarters at Campus Martius Park and two new stadiums: Comerica Park and Ford Field. General Motors moved their headquarters into the Renaissance Center, and the Detroit Lions have relocated from Pontiac to Downtown Detroit. High-profile events like the 2005 MLB All-Star Game, Super Bowl XL, and the 2006 and 2012 World Series have taken place in downtown, generating income for local businesses and spurring more growth. As a result, new", "35 buildings were burned to the ground, and a number of other buildings were damaged by fire. Rise of industry and commerce Detroit's central location in the Great Lakes Region has contributed to its status as a major center for commerce and global trade. As Detroit grew, it emerged as a U.S. transportation hub linking the Great Lakes system of waterways to the Erie Canal and to rail lines. Pharmaceutical firms such as Parke-Davis in the 1870s and the Frederick Stearns Company in the 1890s established centers between East Jefferson Avenue. Globe Tobacco built a manufacturing facility closer to", "for the city.\"\nPoliticians have commented on the bankruptcy. Bing said that the people of Detroit \"have to make the best of it\". Snyder stated that \"I know many will see this as a low point in the city’s history,\" \"If so, I think it will also be the foundation of the city’s future—a statement I cannot make in confidence absent giving the city a chance for a fresh start, without burdens of debt it cannot hope to fully pay.\" President Barack Obama said that he is following the developments and that he is \"committed to continuing our strong partnership\"", "Architecture of metropolitan Detroit The architecture of metropolitan Detroit continues to attract the attention of architects and preservationists alike. With one of the world's recognizable skylines, Detroit's waterfront panorama shows a variety of architectural styles. The city's historic Art Deco skyscrapers blend with the post-modern neogothic spires of One Detroit Center. Together with the Renaissance Center, they form the city's distinctive skyline.\nDetroit's architecture is recognized as being among the finest in the U.S. with the National Trust for Historic Preservation listing many of Detroit's skyscrapers and buildings as some of America's most endangered landmarks. Detroit has one of the largest", "has hopes \"for federal funding to replicate it [the bulldozing plan] across the city to tackle Detroit’s problems with tens of thousands of abandoned and blighted homes and buildings.\" Bing said the project aims \"to right-size the city’s resources to reflect its smaller population.\"\nThe average price of homes sold in Detroit in 2012 was $7,500. As of January 2013, 47 houses in Detroit were listed for $500 or less, with five properties listed for $1. Despite the extremely low price of Detroit properties, most of the properties have been on the market for more than a year as the boarded up,", "people left Detroit for the nearby suburbs. The decline lasted through the 1970s, and into the 1980s. During the 1990s, there was reinvestment in the area, with new residential and retail construction growth.\nThe district has recently seen a resurgence, with a Michigan Cool Cities grant, five million dollars worth of streetscape improvements, and rehabilitation of a number of anchor buildings in the district, such as the Platte Warehouse at Jefferson and Ashland, and the Chalmers Building at Jefferson and Chalmers. Description The Jefferson–Chalmers Historic Business District contains 57 buildings bordering East Jefferson Avenue, running for eight blocks between Eastlawn Street", "poverty and crime rates. The resulting phenomenon of urban shrinkage and vacant lots only serve to perpetuate the unemployment and poverty plaguing the Detroit inner city. In response to the issues of “urban blight,” Detroit has accelerated demolition projects with faster, less cumbersome guidelines, demolishing 3,739 vacant buildings in 2014. Detroit Demolition Program Mission The Detroit Demolition Project was founded in 2014 to remove blight from the city’s urban properties with the goals of minimizing adverse environmental and health risks, safely salvaging or disposing unused material, and leaving sites in suitable condition for redevelopment.  Working in conjunction with EPA Region", "a major factor in the population decline of the city. Role of the automobile industry Before the advent of the automobile, Detroit was a small, compact regional manufacturing center. In 1900, Detroit had a population of 285,000 people, making it the thirteenth-largest city in the U.S. Over the following decades, the growth of the automobile industry, including affiliated activities such as parts manufacturing, came to dwarf all other manufacturing in the city. The industry drew a million new residents to the city. At Ford Motor's iconic and enormous River Rouge plant alone, opened in 1927 in Detroit's", "considered 'miniature', strove to capture the energy, people and personalities of the Detroit streets as the city rallied to meet pivotal industrial demand during World War II. When it became the centre of automobile manufacture in the United States his street photography incidentally documented the massive urban renewal projects and social changes that were prevalent in Detroit from the 1950s to 1970s, before a late decline in population and the largest municipal bankruptcy in American history led to a catastrophic collapse of its economy.\nAmong the subjects of Rauhauser's portraits of Detroit personalities are Dr. Ernst Scheyer, art collectors Gertrude Kasle,", "Detroit.", "of the auto industry. The Great Depression With the Great Depression, consumers quickly lost faith in the economic boom in Detroit, which was augmented by the eventual market collapse in October 1929. The huge population of Detroit began to deplete as people lost their homes, savings, and jobs. Few cities were hit as hard by the Depression as Detroit, and by July 1930, a third of the automobile jobs were lost. The decline in job availability increased homelessness, unemployment, foreclosures, and out-migration from the city. As working and living conditions declined, particular groups were often targeted for evictions. One of", "abandoned houses of the city are seldom attractive to buyers. The Detroit News reported that more than half of Detroit property owners did not pay taxes in 2012, at a loss to the city of $131 million (equal to 12% of the city's general fund budget).\nThe first comprehensive analysis of the city's tens of thousands of abandoned and dilapidated buildings took place in the spring of 2014. It found that around 50,000 of the city's 261,000 structures were abandoned, with over 9,000 structures bearing fire damage. It further recommended the demolition of 5,000 of these structures. Population decline Long a", "services city residents receive, as well as how much bondholders would recover from Detroit.\nBusiness and labor leaders reacted to the filing. Detroit union leaders called Orr's move to declare bankruptcy premature due to ongoing financial negotiations with creditors, unions, and pension boards, but also stated that employees will continue to work in a typical fashion. The only major U.S. automaker headquartered in Detroit itself, General Motors, said it \"is proud to call Detroit home and ... (this is) a day that we and others hoped would not come. We believe, however, that today also can mark a clean start", "to the more affluent neighborhoods of Indian Village, North Woodward, and Grosse Point on the outskirts of the city. Political restructuring and the introduction of new housing commissioners allowed for more public housing to be built.\nAfter World War II, Detroit experienced another economic boom that was accompanied by increased social pressures. Automakers profited $1.1 billion between 1945 and 1950, a significant sum as the U.S. became a world superpower in the second half of the century. The ubiquity of cars and highways in Detroit encouraged further sprawl, and created segregated suburbs outside of the city limits. Martelle argues, \"While Detroit", "was taking financial control of the city of Detroit, as it viewed that Detroit failed to meet deadlines set by the state government. In accordance with Public Act 72 of 1990, the state government's Local Emergency Financial Assistance Loan Board appointed Kevyn Orr emergency financial manager of Detroit following a declaration of financial emergency. As emergency manager, Orr was granted the power to rewrite Detroit's contracts and to liquidate city assets.\nA report on the financial health of Detroit was released by Orr in May 2013. The report stated that Detroit is \"clearly insolvent on a cash flow basis\" and that", "expanded to allow any individual to purchase a property if that person or a family member would live there. The impact of the program, however, was unevenly distributed throughout the city. Although black neighborhoods in the low-laying topographical regions were hit the hardest by Katrina, affluent neighborhoods with high rates of owner occupancy better absorbed vacant and abandoned properties than areas with more rental units. Detroit Perhaps the city most commonly associated with the concept of shrinking cities, Detroit too has grappled with issues of environmental justice. Detroit's current circumstances, as it struggles to deal with a population less than", "between Detroit and its suburbs had become a chasm between two social classes. In some places, usually where the road was wide, it divided slum from new, upscale housing development. At other spots, once similar houses on either side of the street now looked like pictures before and after a natural disaster.\"\nAs reported in the Detroit News of October 30, 2005, former Secretary of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development Henry Cisneros stated: \"There is the perception that all the rich people live in Grosse Pointe and all the poor people live in Detroit, and Alter Road", "Young of Detroit developed and implemented the Farm-A-Lot program in 1975 to encourage urban agriculture in the city, but the impact of this effort faded at the turn of the century.\nOutside and foreign investors, white flight, and the collapse of the automobile industry have made it difficult for local Detroit residents to own land, a reflection of the trend since 1910 of African American land ownership. The 1980s of Detroit maintained a trend of supermarket closures, with Farmer Jack, the last chain grocery store in Detroit in 2007. Years before the United States financial crisis of 2008, Detroit entered a", "47% of owners had not paid their 2011 property taxes, and government corruption. Two city workers pension plans had for nearly 25 years been paying out \"13th month\" checks.\nBankruptcies of cities, towns, villages and counties since the Great Depression are rare (about 60 since 1950, i.e. around 1 per year; special district bankruptcies have been more numerous), and how Detroit will be affected is unclear. Detroit's estimated long-term debt was more than $14 billion and could be between $18 and $20 billion, far exceeding the $4 billion in debt of Jefferson County, Alabama, that had been the largest American municipal", "east side, Jefferson North Assembly, which employs 4,600 people. These efforts, however, were an uphill struggle against overall trends in the industry. In 2009 Chrysler filed a Chapter 11 bankruptcy case, and survives in a partnership with Fiat of Italy. while GM filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on June 1, 2009, and survives as a much smaller company - smaller now than Japan's Toyota Motor Corporation. A little over two years after these major blows to the U.S. auto industry, the city itself went into Chapter 9 bankruptcy. Rise of the suburbs By the 1930s, Detroit had essentially reached", "ranging from the average person up to state bureaucrats. Integrating the city of Detroit took a lot of time & lawsuits; despite the progress made, much more remains to be done. 1950s job losses In the postwar period, the city had lost nearly 150,000 jobs to the suburbs. Factors were a combination of changes in technology, increased automation, consolidation of the auto industry, taxation policies, the need for different kinds of manufacturing space, and the construction of the highway system that eased transportation for commuters. Major companies like Packard, Hudson, and Studebaker, as well as hundreds of smaller companies,", "Planning and development in Detroit Planning and development in Detroit includes efforts aimed at enhancing the economy and quality of life of Detroit, Michigan, United States. In 1970, the private group Detroit Renaissance began to facilitate development in the city, while its successor, Business Leaders for Michigan, has continued to facilitate development into the 21st century. Projects have included new commercial facilities, revitalization of neighborhoods, hospitality infrastructure, and improvements to recreational and public facilities, such as the QLine light rail project. History In 1970, Henry Ford II conceived of the Renaissance Center as way to help the city retain residents" ]

[ "they could. but what would be the benefit to the owners of the company by having less profit?\n\nwhat would be the benefit to shareholders who are looking for the company to maximize profits?", "It's an economic decision on both sides. The company wants to make a profit, as much as possible. But whoever they hire wants to be paid, as much as possible. That's why you negotiate with your employer for a certain wage or raise. But that all depends on how valuable you are to the company and whether or not they want to replace you. Nobody is eternal at any company and everyone can be replaced. So if you don't want to work for $7.25 then don't. But someone out there is willing to. So they will continue to maximize their profit while someone works for the wage they offered. If nobody would work for the wage then they would be inclined to increase it to fill the position. But why would they raise the wage if there are people who will fill it willingly?", "**tl;dr: The economy is tied together in a bunch of ways and money doesn't just come out of nowhere. It need to come from somewhere and that could have bad repercussions.**\n\n--\n\nIt wouldn't necessarily \"wreck the economy\" but wouldn't be without repercussions.\n\nTake McDonalds as an example and look at their [2015 financials](_URL_0_), in particular page 30.\n\n(I'm going to focus on company-owned revenues and expenses. Franchising is different)\n\nA few numbers to note:\n\n* Operating revenue: $16.4 B\n* Operating expenses (excluding franchising and G & A): $14.0 B\n * Payroll and employee: $4.4 B\n* Net income on company-owned: $2.4 B\n\nSo already you can see that it would be impossible for McDonalds to give their employees more than a 54% raise without losing money. Let's take that as the highest they can go.\n\nBut hey, I'd like a 50% raise. Why not do that? Who is going to miss that money?\n\nWell, also note:\n\n* Earnings Per Share: $4.80\n* Declared Dividend Per Share: $3.44\n\nJust over 70% of what McDonald's earned last year was given back to shareholders as a dividend. So those people would lose money.\n\nBut isn't that just rich fatcats that own stock? Not really.\n\nMCD (McDonalds) is in the DJIA and S & P 500, two of the most common stock indexes, which means they're owned by just about anyone who almost any stock holdings. This includes:\n\n* 401ks\n* Pension Plans\n* Random Small Investors\n\nStocks that pay dividends are more commonly held by retirees. Taking this away would literally impact their income and the value of their holdings (if McDonalds stopped paying a dividend, the stock would tank).\n\n*So if McDonalds gave all their employees raises it would hurt a large large number of American's savings and retirement plans.*\n\nOther potential consequences:\n\n* Increasing the cost of labor could just cause them to raise prices. In the long run this causes inflation. I.e. You have more absolute dollars, but they can only by the same amount (or less).\n* You make the cost of automation more efficient. E.g. At $7/hour it is worth it to pay someone to flip burgers; at $15/hour the $500k Flip-o-tron 4000 starts to look good. MickeyDs buys a bunch of Flip-o-trons and fires a ton of employees.\n\nProbably others.", "Less profit means fewer investors and fewer resources, and a greater likelihood that a competitor who pays market rate wages (rather than artificially inflated ones) will be able to take all of your business.", "The other side is that people will shift and move their business based on small differences in prices- and move to the stores that have the lowest prices. Wal-mart is a great example of 'everyone' complaining about them paying low wages and bringing in foreign made goods all so they can sell stuff at a lower price. The key is that people buy that stuff.\n\nSo the flip side- and the real driver for overall question- is why do we as consumers move towards the low cost providers? That is what is driving the way businesses are run. To call the billionaire companies the problem is to overlook the role and impact of the consumer.\n\nBuy more stuff and eat at local (or even big) businesses that pay their people more.\n\n\"But the Big stores and chains have economic scale on their side\"- Uhm, how do you think they got that big, by people buying things from them.\n\n'Everyone' complains about Wal-mart, but it's the people that shop there that are complicit in that economic model.\n\nThat is the short answer that few people talk about. The longer answer has to do with how companies get money to operate and expand- and how they compete for those resources. But for any large successful 'evil' corporation the other side of the same coin are the people willing to buy from them.\n\nBlaming corporations for these problems is like cracking down on prostitutes while ignoring the influence of the johns.", "The purpose of companies is not to improve (or wreck) the economy. The purpose of companies is to make as much money as possible for the people who own them, their stockholders. It's actually against the law (a violation of fiduciary responsibility) to earn less than the most money you can, officials can be sued (and are) by stockholders.\n\nSo, the \"could\" question isn't relevant, it's not going to happen.", "English is not my first language, so I apologize for any mistakes.\n\nYou are a farmer. You make apples and sell them. You have people helping you make apples.\n\nEvery month, you receive $2000. But after paying all of your expenses (seeds, machines, paying the employees, etc.), you end up with a profit of $1000.\n\nBut now your employees want you to increase their salary by $2.50\n\nLets say you have 100 employees. For them, $2.50 ain't much. But for you, you just lost (2.50 x 100)= $250.\n\nSo your profit will now be $750. You just lost 1/4 of your profits. Because of that, it will take you way longer to expand, it'll be harder for you to hire more people, and it can potentially ruin the business because the profit you make it's just not worth it.\n\nYou see, when you are a big company, the reason you pay your employees such a small amount of money, is not because you don't care about them. Its because you literally cant afford to give one extra dollar to every single one of your thousands of employees without hurting your profits by a significant amount. \n\nMy father works on this (managing businesses). And he explained to me that:\nWhen you start a company you have to take into account:\n resources you are going to need, time you are going to spend on making the product, distribution of the product, and a lot of stuff more I can't remember right now because it's late. But in the end, after taking aaaall of that into account, every single expense and all the time you are going to spend on it, you have to ask yourself: Is it really worth it? You don't pay your employees more because if you do that, it's no longer worth it, you close the company and every one loses.\n\nThe reason it crashes it's because it ends in communism (if that makes sense). Instead of everyone working together to build a ladder and reach the top, everyone decides to create their own ladder and no one reaches it.\n\nI know it's a bit more complex than that, but I need some sleep and I want to keep it simple.\n\nAgain, sorry for any mistakes and if it doesn't make sense.\n\nEdit: this is not the case with all companies. Sometimes they are just greedy. \n\nAnd yes, if you don't like the salary, either negotiate or quit. But before going all out and start a fight with the company, take what I said into account.", "The management of publicly traded companies are legally required to maximize the return on investment of their share holders. \"Giving away\" the profits to increase the wages of the workers would quickly get a CEO removed from power by the board of directors.\n\nWages are largely driven by the scarcity of the underlying skillset. If you hold a skillset that 90% of the population can emulate with little trouble, it would never make sense to the board of directors to pay you anything more than minimum wage. If you hold a skillset that is highly valuable to the company (that is, a skillset that brings in profit a multiple of the cost to keep you as an employee) and is at the same time can only emulated by less than 0.1% of the population, it makes sense to the board of directors to pay you a multiple of the average salary. If that skillset suddenly becomes less valuable, they will start to pay you less until a Nash equilibrium is reached between the need for the skillset, and the minimum salary accepted by employees with that skillset.\n\nBy this method, any easy to get job will never reach a multiple of the average salary unless 1: you bring more value to the company (e.g. a really kickin' salesperson), 2: nepotism in it's many many forms.", "They *could* do so (at least many could, quite easily). It would not ruin the economy. It may well *improve* the economy, especially in slow times, because poor people spend more of their income, helping any number of other businesses.\n\nHowever, in general they will not willingly do so without some substantial external requirement (minimum wage laws, for example) or leadership from their shareholders. They're owned by their shareholders, who generally would object to having the value of their investment reduced.\n\nHenry Ford paid his workers double what car workers of the time earned *so they could afford to buy his cars*. He also gave more time off (shorter working week); that too helped sales ... partly because his workers had time in which to use the cars they could afford to buy. It helped change the culture.\n \nWas he some pinko philanthropist? Nothing of the kind. He was simply smart enough to figure out that if people can't afford your product you're eventually screwed. He could see beyond a one-year time horizon.", "Generally, companies don't think about the entire economy (unless it effects them). They are more concerned about their own bottom line. And why should they? The job of managers and corporate is to maximize profits. Two things:\n & nbsp;\n\n* For large companies like McDonalds who have a lot of employees, increasing wages -- even slightly -- would dramatically lower profits because of how many employees they have.\n\n* People are willing to work that much. \n\nIts best to think of it if you were a Chief Financial Officer of a company. What would you do to maximize profits for a company?\n & nbsp;\n\n[source ](_URL_1_)" ]

[ "is limited by the power elite. Companies like Apple and Nike outsource jobs overseas so they can have cheaper labor to make their products and keep from raising prices in the States.\nThe deliberate reduction of permanent employees in an effort to provide an organization more efficient operations and to cut costs. Large firms like IBM, AT&T, and GM are reducing their heavily middle class workforce by 10 to 20 percent because of the advancement of technology and the closing of work facilities. Downsizing has grown significantly in the States due to the rising debt has forced companies to downsize so", "country's biggest employer, General Motors, was also its most profitable company and one of its best-paying. It had high profit margins and real pricing power, even as it was paying its workers union wages. And it was not alone: firms like Ford, Standard Oil, and Bethlehem Steel employed huge numbers of well-paid workers while earning big profits. Today, the country's biggest employers are retailers and fast-food chains, almost all of which have built their businesses on low pay—they've striven to keep wages down and unions out—and low prices. \n\nWhile these retailers and fast-food chains are profitable, their profit margins are", "those who belittle large corporate compensation arguing that it is \"no more surprising or outrageous\" in a free market that \"some types of labor command thousands of times more market value\" than the fact that some goods \"(such as a house) have a price hundreds of thousands of times higher than the prices of other goods (such as a pack of gum).\" \"Scoffers\" like Warren Buffett, who complain of big executive pay packages (salary, bonuses, perks) even when a company has done poorly, fail to appreciate that this \"doesn’t seem outrageous when the numbers are lower. For example, when GM", "if not all industry in the United States.”\nA number of consequences result, the fifth being that,\n“The economic power in the hands of the few persons who control a giant corporation is a tremendous force which can harm or benefit a multitude of individuals, affect whole districts, shift the currents of trade, bring ruin to one community and prosperity to another. The organizations which they control have passed far beyond the realm of private enterprise - they have become more nearly social institutions.” IV The dispersion of stock ownership In this Chapter, Berle and Means present considerable statistical evidence of the", "large companies, the individual has no protection against fraud nor harm caused by products that maximize income by imposing externalities on the individual consumer as well as society. \nHistorian Edward E. Baptist contends \"unrestrained domination of market forces can sometimes amplify existing forms of oppression into something more horrific\", such as slavery, and that \"market fundamentalism doesn't always provide the best solution for every economic or social problem\".", "corporations). Large companies have factories or production facilities in less developed countries, these factories create wealth for the company which is then not transferred to the economy of the host country and instead to that of the corporation involved. The economic value of goods and/or profits lost here is leakage.", "for productive behavior would be eliminated, and our market-based economy ... would function far less effectively.\"\nSince abundant supply decreases market value, the possession of scarce skills considerably increases income.\nAmong the American lower class, the most common source of income was not occupation, but government welfare. Stock buybacks Writing in the Harvard Business Review in September 2014, William Lazonick blamed record corporate stock buybacks for reduced investment in the economy and a corresponding impact on prosperity and income inequality. Between 2003 and 2012, the 449 companies in the S&P 500 used 54% of their earnings ($2.4 trillion) to buy back", "revenue and profit in the first half of the year, the first reported decrease in 13 years. The revenue losses are due to a more competitive environment, where the company has to compete not only against its traditional competitors Mattel and Hasbro, but also against technology companies such as Sony or Microsoft as more children use mobile devices for entertainment. The job cuts account for 8 percent of the company's total work force.\nOn May 2018, the company made it to Forbes top 100 World's Most Valuable Brands 2018 , being 97th on the list.", "the company may receive from a bad year or slow period in the company profits. Closely held companies often have a better relationship with workers. In larger, publicly traded companies, often after only one bad year, the first area to feel the effects is the workforce with layoffs or worker hours, wages or benefits being cut. Again, in a closely held business the shareholders can incur the profit damage rather than passing it to the workers.\nThe affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations", "invest more because of the tax cuts : \"Corporations are sitting on a record amount of cash reserves: nearly $2.3 trillion. That figure has been climbing steadily since the recession ended in 2009, and it's now double what it was in 2001. The reason CEOs aren't investing more of their liquid assets has little to do with the tax rate.\"\nBill Gates and Warren Buffett also thought that Trump's tax cut would not help businesses. In a CNBC interview, Buffett even said: \"I don't need a tax cut in a society with so much inequality\".\nIn a letter made public on the November", "shaped by the quest for surplus-profits in monopolistic and oligopolistic markets in which a few large corporations dominate supply. Thus, the extra or above-average profits do not arise so much from real productivity gains, but from corporations monopolising access to resources, technologies and markets. It is not so much that enterprises with superior productivity outsell competitors, but that competitors are blocked in various ways from competing, for example through cartellisation, mergers, fusions, take-overs, government-sanctioned licensing, exclusive production and selling rights. In that case, the extra profits have less to do with reward for entrepreneurship than with market position and market", "with benefits they would be given at larger firms. Research from the U.S. Small Business Administration indicates that employees of large firms are 17% more likely to receive benefits including salary, paid leave, paid holidays, bonuses, insurance, and retirement plans. Both lower wages and fewer benefits combine to create a job turnover rate among U.S. small businesses that is three times higher than large firms. Employees of small businesses also must adapt to the higher failure rate of small firms, which means that they are more likely to lose their job due to the firm going under. In the U.S.", "\"bad billionaires\" who make money by \"digging stuff out of the ground,\" at the expense of \"good billionaires\", who work in productive industries like technology.\nRecently he has written that the \"China-commodity connection\" is breaking, and that the retreat of commodity prices will undercut commodity economies that thrived in the last decade based on spiking prices. Those include Russia, Brazil and \"nasty petro states\", and their retreat will greatly help commodity importers such as the United States. He says that, if anything, Americans underestimate the negative impact of high oil prices, noting that a sharp increase in oil prices has laid", "cannot leading the market, then under the less profit situation, may turn into a loss, more seriously, even gradually affecting the survival of the enterprise. Pressure of value-added The value-added of an enterprise can be said that the potential for profit. Mature technology, low requirement to entry, and universalization of technology is easy to become so-called \"low-profit\" enterprise, also known as low-value-added industries. Normal manufacturing, assembly enterprise is called low-value-added industries, in order to survive, only to keep expanding production capacity to maintain profits. But as long as the market is shrinking, product prices is decreasing, product sales will no", "average total costs. Firms in such industries become more profitable with size. Therefore over time the industry is dominated by a few large firms. This dominance makes it difficult for start up firms to succeed. Firms like power companies, cable television companies and wireless communication companies with large start up costs fall within this category. A company wishing to enter such industries must have the financial ability to spend millions of dollars before starting operations and generating any revenue. Similarly established firms also have a competitive advantage over new firms. An established firm threatened by a new competitor can lower", "A company which is heavily dependent on a resource supply of a fixed or relatively-fixed size will have trouble increasing production. For instance, a timber company cannot increase production above the sustainable harvest rate of its land (although it can still increase production by acquiring more land). Similarly, service companies are limited by available labor (and thus tend to concentrate in large, densely-populated metropolitan areas); STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) professions are often-cited examples. Reputation Larger firms have a reputation to uphold and as a result may place more restrictions on employees, limiting their efficiency. This will", "of the S&P 500 companies spent $4 trillion on stock buybacks, about 50% of profits, with another 40% going to dividends. During 2018 alone, a record $1 trillion was spent on buybacks. Stock buybacks shift wealth upwards, because the top 1% own about 40% of shares and the top 10% own about 85%. Further, corporations directing profits to shareholders are not reinvesting the money in the firm or paying workers more. They wrote: \"If corporations continue to purchase their own stock at this rate, income disparities will continue to grow, productivity will suffer, the long-term strength of companies will diminish", "negotiate with suppliers. Also, larger companies may be able to operate at low or even negative profits for extended periods of time, thus pushing out competition. More progressive taxation of profits, however, would reduce such barriers for new entrants, thereby increasing competition and ultimately benefiting consumers. Perverse incentives Complexity of the tax code in developed economies offer perverse tax incentives. The more details of tax policy there are, the more opportunities for legal tax avoidance and illegal tax evasion. These not only result in lost revenue, but involve additional costs: for instance, payments made for tax advice are essentially deadweight", "workers (i.e. the amount of money the products are sold for). This profit first goes towards covering the initial investment in the business. In the long-run, however, when one considers the combined economic activity of all successfully-operating business, it is clear that less money (in the form of wages) is being returned to the mass of the population (the workers) than is available to them to buy all of these goods being produced. Furthermore, the expansion of businesses in the process of competing for markets leads to an abundance of goods and a general fall in their prices, further exacerbating", "and that the government-owned companies are very large compared to the rest of the economy.", "was forced to pay. In this case, Primark's human resources systems became spread out and difficult to monitor. This is why large corporations have a number of issues when it comes to ethics and accountability. Companies such as Primark are so large that one part of their business may be dealing with a corrupt or negligent foreign firm and the stakeholders, CEO, or other employees may not have sufficient information about the firm or factory abroad.\nIf an organization owes money to an employee as compensation because of mistreatment, then this counts as a liability for the business. Slow or non-payment", "the very small to the very large. There are no very large businesses which are not companies. (Even the John Lewis Partnership in the United Kingdom, which promotes itself as \"the world's largest partnership,\" is in fact a company.) Part of what allows companies to become so much bigger than other businesses is their ability to raise capital more easily (which is in turn connected to their separation from their owners and their immortality), and the fact of their being better regulated than other businesses, which gives confidence to investors. Shareholders It is important at the outset to appreciate what,", "companies where small companies are regularly forming, often start-ups which are very volatile, if it survives a period of time then it is likely to continue to grow, once it becomes large enough it is able to buy other smaller companies increasing its own size. This is much like larger companies buying their competitors out to increase their own market share and so on and so forth, until the market becomes saturated. Examples in the natural world It is not possible for systems in the real world to remain in permanent equilibrium as there are too many external factors contributing", "company, and the last to offshoring of employment to low-wage nations—have eroded the availability of middle-class jobs in the U.S. economy. Initially these changes in employment were corporate reactions to changes in externally imposed industrial conditions. Subsequently, however, many major U.S. corporations have implemented these employment practices purely for financial gain. The increased profits have been distributed to shareholders as huge stock repurchases on top of generous dividend payments. Lazonick argues that U.S.-style stock-based compensation gives top corporate executives a vested interest in this financialized mode of corporate resource allocation. A full articulation of the thesis that", "not large, which limits their ability to follow the lead of successful companies in high-growth industries that pay relatively generous salaries, such as Apple Inc.\nThe combined profits of all the major retailers, restaurant chains, and supermarkets in the Fortune 500 are smaller than the profits of Apple alone. Yet Apple employs just 76,000 people, while the retailers, supermarkets, and restaurant chains employ 5.6 million.\nThe International Labour Organization's annual \"World of Work Report\", predicted that the potential for social unrest in the European Union is the highest in the world.", "a distant second, with receipts of $31.6 billion in 2013. The United States' payments for use of intellectual property amounted to $39.0 billion in 2013, exceeded only by Ireland ($46.4 billion). Notable companies and markets In 2011, the 20 largest U.S.-based companies by revenue were Walmart, ExxonMobil, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Fannie Mae, General Electric, Berkshire Hathaway, General Motors, Ford Motor Company, Hewlett-Packard, AT&T, Cargill, McKesson Corporation, Bank of America, Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, Apple Inc., Verizon, JPMorgan Chase, and Cardinal Health.\nIn 2013, eight of the world's ten largest companies by market capitalization were American: Apple Inc., ExxonMobil, Berkshire Hathaway, Walmart,", "operate. This is particularly true when senior executives can make millions of dollars in based on the short-term performance of their companies without having to return that money if the company subsequently fails due to behavior that is short sighted at best and often fraudulent. In many cases, this includes corruption in government described in Republic, Lost. This corruption has led to substantial deregulation of many industries, especially finance, which even extended to the \"de facto decriminalization of elite financial fraud,\" in the words of William K. Black. Black was a lead litigator during the Savings", "salaries has been approximately zero.\" Four years after the Frank Dodd \"say-on-pay\" was instituted, shareholder votes have shown that \"ordinary shareholders are pretty much as generous as boards are. And even companies with a single controlling shareholder, who ought to be able to dictate terms, don’t seem to pay their C.E.O.s any less than other companies.\" Market forces Defenders of executive pay in America say that lucrative compensation can easily be explained by the necessity to attract the best talent; the fact that the demands and scope of a CEO are far greater than in earlier eras; and that the", "trillion was spent on buybacks. Stock buybacks shift wealth upwards, because the top 1% own about 40% of shares and the top 10% own about 85%. Further, corporations directing profits to shareholders are not reinvesting the money in the firm or paying workers more. They wrote: \"If corporations continue to purchase their own stock at this rate, income disparities will continue to grow, productivity will suffer, the long-term strength of companies will diminish — and the American worker will fall further behind.\" Their proposed legislation would prohibit buybacks unless the corporation has taken other steps first, such as paying workers", "to advance their own agendas.\"\nWhile admitting there is \"little correlation between CEO pay and stock performance—as detractors delight in pointing out,\" business consultant and commentator Dominic Basulto believes \"there is strong evidence that, far from being paid too much, many CEOs are paid too little.\" Elites in the financial industry (where the average compensation for the top 25 managers in 2004 was $251 million—more than 20 times as much as the average CEO), not to mention the entertainment and sports industry, are often paid even more.\nRobert P. Murphy, author and adjunct scholar of the libertarian Ludwig von Mises Institute, challenges" ]

[ "Many especialy night active animals have a layer of reflective tissue behind the light sensing cells at the back of the eye. That allows them to caputer more light in their light sensing cells. Additionaly that makes the eyes act as a retroreflector (meaning they will reflect light back paralell to the incomming light) like in the bottom image here: _URL_0_ . The color comes from the tissue that surrounds the lightsensing cells absorbing some of the light." ]

[ "scotopic vision.\nFor the same reason, zoo displays of nocturnal animals often are illuminated with red light. History The effect was discovered in 1819 by Jan Evangelista Purkyně. Purkyně was a polymath who would often meditate at dawn during long walks in the blossomed Bohemian fields. Purkyně noticed that his favorite flowers appeared bright red on a sunny afternoon, while at dawn they looked very dark. He reasoned that the eye has not one but two systems adapted to see colors, one for bright overall light intensity, and the other for dusk and dawn.\nPurkyně wrote in his Neue Beiträge:\nObjectively, the degree", "retina so it cannot bounce to other parts of the retina. In many vertebrates, such as cats, where high visual acuity is not a priority, there is a reflecting tapetum layer that gives the photoreceptors a \"second chance\" to absorb the light, thus improving the ability to see in the dark. This is what causes an animal's eyes to seemingly glow in the dark when a light is shone on them. The RPE also has a vital function of recycling the chemicals used by the rods and cones in photon detection. If the RPE is damaged and does not clean", "Animal coloration Animal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly colored, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the peafowl, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colors and is iridescent, while the female is far less visible.\nThere are several separate reasons why animals have evolved colors. Camouflage enables an animal to remain hidden from view. Animals use color to advertise services such as cleaning to animals of other species; to signal their sexual status to other members of the same", "that create a sparkling glow. This provides counter-illumination camouflage, preventing the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below.\nSome anglerfish of the deep sea, where it is too dark to hunt by sight, contain symbiotic bacteria in the 'bait' on their 'fishing rods'. These emit light to attract prey.", "species; and in mimicry, taking advantage of the warning coloration of another species. Some animals use flashes of color to divert attacks by startling predators. Zebras may possibly use motion dazzle, confusing a predator's attack by moving a bold pattern rapidly. Some animals are colored for physical protection, with pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn, while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for temperature regulation. Finally, animals can be colored incidentally. For example, blood is red because the heme pigment needed to carry oxygen is red. Animals colored in these ways can have striking natural", "the quantity of light passing through the retina. In the cat, the tapetum lucidum increases the sensitivity of vision by 44%, allowing the cat to see light that is imperceptible to human eyes.\nIt has been speculated that some flashlight fish may use eyeshine both to detect and to communicate with other flashlight fish. Eyeshine Eyeshine is a visible effect of the tapetum lucidum. When light shines into the eye of an animal having a tapetum lucidum, the pupil appears to glow. Eyeshine can be seen in many animals, in nature and in flash photographs. In low light, a hand-held flashlight", "predator difficult because the reflected light is similar to the incident light in the absence of the prey (Fig. 1). Focusing light The eyes of some bivalve mollusks, such as the scallop (Pecten) use a concave mirror, the argentea, at the back of the eye, to create an image on the retina. The deep-sea ostracod Gigantocypris has eyes with parabolic reflectors. The compound eyes of long-bodied decapod crustaceans, such as shrimps and lobsters, use mirrors in square boxes Increasing retinal sensitivity Most nocturnal vertebrates have a reflecting tapetum lucidum behind the retina, which produces the 'eyeshine' seen in cats and", "changes in rapid motion made by its prey by as much as ten times.\nSome fish have eyeshine. Eyeshine is the result of a light-gathering layer in the eyes called the tapetum lucidum, which reflects white light. It does not occur in humans, but can be seen in other species, such as deer in a headlight. Eyeshine allows fish to see well in low-light conditions as well as in turbid (stained or rough, breaking) waters, giving them an advantage over their prey. This enhanced vision allows fish to populate the deeper regions in the ocean or a lake. In particular,", "animals in the dark, and deploying trained search dogs and search horses at night, as these animals benefit from improved night vision through this effect.\nUsing eyeshine to identify animals in the dark employs not only its color but also several other features. The color corresponds approximately to the type of tapetum lucidum, with some variation between species. Other features include the distance between pupils relative to their size; the height above ground; the manner of blinking (if any); and the movement of the eyeshine (bobbing, weaving, hopping, leaping, climbing, flying). Artificial tapetum lucidum Manufactured retroreflectors modeled after a tapetum lucidum", "Eyespot (mimicry) An eyespot (sometimes ocellus) is an eye-like marking. They are found in butterflies, reptiles, cats, birds and fish.\nEyespots may be a form of mimicry in which a spot on the body of an animal resembles an eye of a different animal to deceive potential predator or prey species; a form of self-mimicry, to draw a predator's attention away from the most vulnerable body parts; or to appear as an inedible or dangerous animal. Eyespots may play a role in intraspecies communication or courtship; the best-known example is probably the eyespots on a peacock's display feathers.\nEyespots are not necessarily", "eyes have many rods, receptors in the retina that help animals see in dim light. Together, the rods and tapetum help the fish see better in dark water.\nCoelacanths are opportunistic feeders, hunting cuttlefish, squid, snipe eels, small sharks, and other fish found in their deep reef and volcanic slope habitats. Coelacanths are also known to swim head down, backwards or belly up to locate their prey, presumably using their rostral glands.\nScientists suspect that one reason this fish has been so successful is that specimens are able to slow down their metabolisms at will, sinking into the less-inhabited depths and minimizing", "and daily synchronization of circadian rhythms. They are insufficient for vision, as they cannot distinguish shapes or determine the direction light is coming from. Eyespots are found in nearly all major animal groups, and are common among unicellular organisms, including euglena. The euglena's eyespot, called a stigma, is located at its anterior end. It is a small splotch of red pigment which shades a collection of light sensitive crystals. Together with the leading flagellum, the eyespot allows the organism to move in response to light, often toward the light to assist in photosynthesis, and to predict day and", "rather than guanine. Counter-illumination Counter-illumination through bioluminescence on the underside (ventral region) of the body is found in many species that live in the open ocean down to about 1000 metres. The generated light increases an animal's brightness when seen from below to match the brightness of the ocean surface; it is an effective form of active camouflage. It is notably used by some species of squid, such as the midwater squid, Abralia veranyi. These have light-producing organs (photophores) scattered all over their undersides, creating a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen", "light is desirable it is not essential. Even if the eyes of fish or members of its food chain have color receptors most sensitive to the blue or green, these same receptors have a broad but decreased sensitivity to other colors. So, if a fishing light source is intense enough, other light colors will also attract. For example, a sodium vapor light with its characteristic yellow color will attract fish — if intense enough. A fishing light attractor can also be white light because a portion of its total energy is in the blue to green region.\nThe perfect fishing light", "vertebrate eyes. Colour perception \"Colour vision is the faculty of the organism to distinguish lights of different spectral qualities.\" All organisms are restricted to a small range of electromagnetic spectrum; this varies from creature to creature, but is mainly between wavelengths of 400 and 700 nm.\nThis is a rather small section of the electromagnetic spectrum, probably reflecting the submarine evolution of the organ: water blocks out all but two small windows of the EM spectrum, and there has been no evolutionary pressure among land animals to broaden this range.\nThe most sensitive pigment, rhodopsin, has a peak response at 500 nm. Small changes", "Various hypotheses have been put forward to explain the lights, including: Bioluminescence It has been hypothesized that the lights may be the result of insects swarming that have taken on bioluminescent characteristics after being contaminated by naturally occurring agents found in local fungi, or of species of owl with their own naturally occurring source of bioluminescence. To date, no one has captured or observed an animal with these characteristics. There is also no known bioluminescent source bright enough. Geophysical lights A second hypothesis is that the lights are the result of known geophysical phenomena, such as piezoelectrics or marsh gas.", "from inhalant structures, thence drawing the ostracod prey in by a violent suction action. Predation from higher animals also occurs; for example, amphibians such as the rough-skinned newt prey upon certain ostracods. Bioluminescence Some ostracods, such as Vargula hilgendorfii, have a light organ in which they produce luminescent chemicals. Most use the light as predation defense, while some use the light for mating (only in the Caribbean). These ostracods are called \"blue sand\" or \"blue tears\" and glow blue in the dark at night. Their bioluminescent properties made them valuable to the Japanese during World War II, when the Japanese", "predators. Albino animals have characteristic pink or red eyes because the lack of pigment in the iris allows the blood vessels of the retina to be visible. Familiar albino animals include in-bred strains of laboratory animals (rats, mice and rabbits), but populations of naturally occurring albino animals exist in the wild, e.g. Mexican cave tetra. Albinism is a well-recognized phenomenon in molluscs, both in the shell and in the soft parts. It has been claimed by some, e.g. that \"albinism\" can occur for a number of reasons aside from inheritance, including genetic mutations, diet, living conditions, age, disease,", "in agonistic displays and in camouflage. Some animals, including many butterflies and birds, have microscopic structures in scales, bristles or feathers which give them brilliant iridescent colors. Other animals including squid and some deep-sea fish can produce light, sometimes of different colors. Animals often use two or more of these mechanisms together to produce the colors and effects they need. History Animal coloration has been a topic of interest and research in biology for centuries. In the classical era, Aristotle recorded that the octopus was able to change its coloration to match its background, and when it was alarmed.\nIn his", "back, would maximise contrast by adding to the natural fall of light. This pattern of animal coloration is found in animals such as the skunk and honey badger with strong defences—the offensive stink of the skunk, and the sharp claws, aggressive nature and stink of the honey badger. These animals do not run when under attack, but move slowly, often turning to face the danger, and giving deimatic or threat displays either to startle inexperienced predators, or as an aposematic signal, to warn off experienced ones.\nThe caterpillar of the Luna moth, as discovered by Thayer, is in Cott's phrase \"countershaded", "investigated.\nPoisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad (Bombina spp.), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog Allobates zaparo is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance", "allows the fish to see red-pigmented prey, which are normally invisible in the deep ocean environment where red light has been filtered out by the water column.\nThe black dragonfish (also called the northern stoplight loosejaw) Malacosteus niger is believed to be one of the only fish to produce a red glow. Its eyes, however, are insensitive to this wavelength; it has an additional retinal pigment which fluoresces blue-green when illuminated. This alerts the fish to the presence of its prey. The additional pigment is thought to be assimilated from chlorophyll derivatives found in the copepods which form part of its", "example, light is mainly (but not only, e.g. plants can grow in the direction of the lightsource) a causal input to plants but for animals it only provides information. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function. As representation and complexity The cognitive scientist and applied mathematician Ronaldo Vigo argues that information is", "distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\nOne theory for why primates developed sensitivity to red is that it allowed ripe fruit to be distinguished from unripe fruit and inedible vegetation. This may have driven further adaptations by species taking", "are called crepuscular. The subdued morning and evening light helps make them less visible to predators, but is bright enough to allow them to locate food. Some animals are crepuscular mainly because their prey is. Crepuscular animals in the area include mule deer, coyotes, porcupines, mountain cottontails, jackrabbits, and many songbirds.\nSome desert animals are diurnal, or primarily active during the day. These include ground squirrels, marmots, chipmunks, lizards, snakes, hawks, and eagles.\nMany animals have a specific temperature range where they are active, meaning the times they are active vary with the seasons. Snakes and lizards hibernate during the winter months,", "conspicuous eyespots when disturbed, in a display effective against insectivorous birds (flycatchers).\nAn experiment by the Australian zoologist A. D. Blest demonstrated that the more an eyespot resembled a real vertebrate eye in both colour and pattern, the more effective it was in scaring off insectivorous birds. In another experiment using peacock butterflies, Blest showed that when the conspicuous eyespots had been rubbed off, insectivorous birds (yellow buntings) were much less effectively frightened off, and therefore both the sudden appearance of colour, and the actual eyespot pattern, contribute to the effectiveness of the deimatic display.\nSome noctuid moths, such as the large", "ocelli with lenses, one directed upwards and the other downwards and inwards towards the manubrium. This enables the animal to see specific points of light, as opposed to simply distinguishing between light and dark. Box jellyfish also have twenty ocelli (simple eyes) that do not form images, but detect light and dark; they therefore have a total of twenty-four eyes. Near the rhopalia are statoliths which detect gravitational pull and help the animal to orient itself.\nBox jellyfish also display complex, probably visually-guided behaviors such as obstacle avoidance and fast directional swimming. Research indicates that, owing to the number of rhopalial", "Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom, stating that this was found mainly in birds, such as plovers, and predatory mammals. He noted that \"it is very effective .. as it completely breaks the eye's otherwise conspicuous circular or oval outline.\nThe zoologist Hugh Cott identified the value of concealing the eye in his 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals. He notes the \"inherent conspicuousness of an eye-spot\", which \"stands out from everything else, and rivets the attention\", making the point with a diagram containing one small eyespot and many larger features: the eyespot immediately attracts the viewer's attention. The image has been", "by males. Startle Some animals such as many moths, mantises and grasshoppers, have a repertory of threatening or startling behaviour, such as suddenly displaying conspicuous eyespots or patches of bright and contrasting colors, so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator. This gives the prey animal an opportunity to escape. The behaviour is deimatic (startling) rather than aposematic as these insects are palatable to predators, so the warning colors are a bluff, not an honest signal. Motion dazzle Some prey animals such as zebra are marked with high-contrast patterns which possibly help to confuse their predators, such as", "Evolution of the eye Many researchers have found the evolution of the eye attractive to study, because the eye distinctively exemplifies an analogous organ found in many animal forms. Simple light detection is found in bacteria, single-celled organisms, plants and animals. Complex, image-forming eyes have evolved independently several times.\nComplex eyes first appeared during the Cambrian explosion. Prior to the Cambrian, no evidence of eyes has survived, but diverse eyes are known from the Burgess shale of the Middle Cambrian, and from the slightly older Emu Bay Shale.\nEyes are adapted to the various requirements of their owners. They vary in their" ]

[ "It is usually caused by a staph infection, and can be treated by putting a warm compress on it around four times a day and just leaving it alone. Let it resolve on its own and just take painkillers, or if it is very painful seek medical care." ]

[ "Angular cheilitis Signs and symptoms Angular cheilitis is a fairly non specific term which describes the presence of an inflammatory lesion in a particular anatomic site (i.e. the corner of the mouth). As there are different possible causes and contributing factors from one person to the next, the appearance of the lesion is somewhat variable. The lesions are more commonly symmetrically present on both sides of the mouth, but sometimes only one side may be affected. In some cases, the lesion may be confined to the mucosa of the lips, and in other cases the lesion may extend past the", "Chorioretinitis Symptoms Symptoms may include the presence of floating black spots, blurred vision, pain or redness in the eye, sensitivity to light, or excessive tearing. Causes Chorioretinitis is often caused by toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus infections (mostly seen in immunodeficient subjects such as people with HIV/AIDS or on immunosuppressant drugs). Congenital toxoplasmosis via transplacental transmission can also lead to sequelae such as chorioretinitis along with hydrocephalus and cerebral calcifications. Other possible causes of chorioretinitis are syphilis, sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, Behcet's disease, onchocerciasis, or West Nile virus. Chorioretinitis may also occur in presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS); despite its name, the relationship of", "stressed chloroplasts, plastoglobuli tend to occur in linked groups or chains, still always anchored to a thylakoid.\nPlastoglobuli form when a bubble appears between the layers of the lipid bilayer of the thylakoid membrane, or bud from existing plastoglubuli—though they never detach and float off into the stroma. Practically all plastoglobuli form on or near the highly curved edges of the thylakoid disks or sheets. They are also more common on stromal thylakoids than on granal ones. Starch granules Starch granules are very common in chloroplasts, typically taking up 15% of the organelle's volume, though in some other plastids like amyloplasts,", "be associated with angular cheilitis. In Crohn's, it is likely the result of malabsorption and immunosuppressive therapy which gives rise to the sores at the corner of the mouth. Glucagonomas are rare pancreatic endocrine tumors which secrete glucagon, and cause a syndrome of dermatitis, glucose intolerance, weight loss and anemia. AC is a common feature of glucagonoma syndrome. Infrequently, angular cheilitis may be one of the manifestations of chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, and sometimes cases of oropharyngeal or esophageal candidiasis may accompany angular cheilitis. Angular cheilitis may be present in human immunodeficiency virus infection, neutropenia, or diabetes. Angular cheilitis is more", "thought to cause fibroblasts to produce more elastin fibers, which are more twisted than normal elastin fibers and may lead to the degradation of the collagen fibers. Alternatively, it has been postulated that the sub-epithelial collagen fibers undergo degradation and assume the qualities of elastic tissue while fragmenting and twisting in a different configuration from their normal state.\nIt is thought that the high reflectivity of the solid white scleral tissue underlying the conjunctival tissue may result in additional UV exposure to the back side of the tissue. The side of the nose also reflects sunlight on to the conjunctiva. As", "stenosing ulceration of the small intestine. The ulcers are circular or irregular in shape and their margins are always clear. The intervening mucosa appears normal. The lesions involve only the mucosa and submucosa and are confined to the jejunum and proximal ileum. Nonspecific inflammatory changes are present. Giant cells or other typical features of granulomatous inflammation are not found. Multiple stenoses are typically present (mean 8: range 1-25). Diagnosis This may be difficult given the non specific nature of the presenting symptoms and the rarity of the condition itself. It is normally made by the combination of the clinical picture,", "Tracheoesophageal stripe The tracheoesophageal stripe is formed by the posterior wall of the trachea and the anterior wall of the esophagus. This line is best identified on the lateral chest x-ray. When this line is greater than 5 mm it is considered abnormal.\nThe most common cause of a thickened tracheoesophageal stripe is esophageal carcinoma, however, lymphadenopathy likely cannot be excluded and further evaluation with additional imaging is recommended.", "comedones where they proliferate to form micro-comedones, not visible to the naked eye, which can later form structures such as closed comedones (white heads) and open comedones. These comedones can rupture, releasing the follicular material inside the dermis. The cause of this rupture was thought to be the indirect effect of fat metabolism by the bacteria, however it was later found that bacteria are directly involved in comedome rupturing by producing factors such as proteases, hyaluronidases and neuraminidases which might be involved in thinning of the epithelium. C. acnes can also produce immune factors such as proinflammatory cytokine inducing-factors and", "Vitreomacular adhesion Symptom/signs Traction caused by VMA is the underlying pathology of an eye disease called symptomatic VMA. There is evidence that symptomatic VMA can contribute to the development of several well-known eye disorders, such as macular hole and macular pucker, that can cause visual impairment, including blindness. It may also be associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD), diabetic macular edema (DME), retinal vein occlusion, and diabetic retinopathy (DR). Pathology Over time, it is common for the vitreous within the human eye to liquify and collapse in processes known as syneresis and synchisis respectively. This creates fluid-filled areas that can", "annelids, and lies in the upper part of the head. An endocrine gland is attached to the ventral posterior surface of the brain, and appears to be involved in reproductive activity. In addition to the sensory organs on the head, photosensitive eye spots, statocysts, and numerous additional sensory nerve endings, most likely in involved with the sense of touch, also occur on the body.\nPolychaetes have a varying number of protonephridia or metanephridia for excreting waste, which in some cases can be relatively complex in structure. The body also contains greenish \"chloragogen\" tissue, similar to that found in oligochaetes, which appears", "in contact with each other, forming a raft-like region, while in the latter, the isomers are isolated from each other and do not touch. In Lossinia, the center undivided region has no visible isomers, instead having the lobe-like isomers emanate from the periphery of the undivided region as \"transverse articulations.\"", "Chromonychia Chromonychia is an abnormality in color of the substance or surface of the nail plate or subungual tissues.\nChromonychia can be induced by antineoplastic drugs with few distinct forms, the most frequently seen is melanonychia. Although a few cytostatics may cause these changes, the drugs most commonly involved are adriamycin, cyclophosphamide and vincristine, or in polychemotherapy\nAlso chromonychia is associated with AIDS. A significant association (p<0.05) was found between chromonychia and CD4 counts of below 200 per cubic millimeter.", "peripheral part of a visual field may go unnoticed by the bearer because of the normal reduced optical resolution in the peripheral visual field. Causes Common causes of scotomata include demyelinating disease such as multiple sclerosis (retrobulbar neuritis), damage to nerve fiber layer in the retina (seen as cotton wool spots) due to hypertension, toxic substances such as methyl alcohol, ethambutol and quinine, nutritional deficiencies, vascular blockages either in the retina or in the optic nerve, stroke or other brain injury, and macular degeneration, often associated with aging. Scintillating scotoma is a common visual aura in migraine. Less common,", "type of inflammation of the bile ducts.\nPerianal discomfort may also be prominent in Crohn's disease. Itchiness or pain around the anus may be suggestive of inflammation, fistulization or abscess around the anal area or anal fissure. Perianal skin tags are also common in Crohn's disease and may appear with or without the presence of colorectal polyps. Fecal incontinence may accompany perianal Crohn's disease. The mouth may be affected by recurrent sores (aphthous ulcers). Rarely, the esophagus, and stomach may be involved in Crohn's disease. These can cause symptoms including difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), upper abdominal pain, and vomiting. Systemic Like many", "spasm causing the elongation, or lengthening, of parts of the iris. These spasms can affect any segment, or portion, of the iris and involve the iris dilator muscle. Contractions of the iris dilator muscle, a smooth muscle of the eye running radially in the iris, can cause irregular distortion of the pupil, thus making the pupil look tadpole shaped and giving this condition its name. Episodic segmental iris mydriasis was first described and termed “tadpole pupil” in 1912 by HS Thompson Symptoms The primary symptom is pupillary distortion (changing of the size or shape of the pupil). Distortion can", "with a yellow-grey fibrinous membrane that can be scraped away. A reddish \"halo\" surrounds the ulcer. The size, number, location, healing time, and periodicity between episodes of ulcer formation are all dependent upon the subtype of aphthous stomatitis. Causes The cause is not entirely clear, but is thought to be multifactorial. It has been suggested that aphthous stomatitis is not a single entity but rather a group of conditions with different causes. Multiple research studies have attempted to identify a causative organism, but aphthous stomatitis appears to be non-contagious, non-infectious, and not sexually transmissible. The mucosal destruction is thought to", "brush it away. The resulting inflammation will also be linear. Because Paederus species are widely dispersed around the world, this syndrome has many different local nicknames including \"whiplash dermatitis\", \"spider lick\", and \"Nairobi fly dermatitis\". In East Africa, conjunctivitis from getting pederin in the eye is called \"Nairobi eye\".\nOnce pederin is on the skin from the initial beetle contact, it may also be spread elsewhere on the skin. \"Kissing\" or \"mirror-image\" lesions where two skin areas come in contact (for example, the elbow flexure) are often seen. Washing the hands and skin with soap and water is strongly recommended", "have been proposed for contact lens-induced stromal thinning. It is thought that contact lens-induced edema may inhibit stroma tissue synthesis. Alternatively, contact lens-induced hypoxia may trigger a lactic acid buildup that leads to the erosion of stromal tissue. The mechanism behind contact lens-induced polymegethism is unknown, though it is also thought to be a byproduct of corneal edema and epithelial hypoxia.\nIt is thought that constant adhesion of contact lenses to the cornea may lead to adaptation to mechanical stimuli, thus decreasing corneal sensitivity to tactile stimuli. A proposed explanation for the reduced sensitivity is the induced quiescence of free nerve", "and contact with an individual with known HSV infection. The appearance and distribution of sores is typically presents as multiple, round, superficial oral ulcers, accompanied by acute gingivitis. Adults with atypical presentation are more difficult to diagnose. Prodromal symptoms that occur before the appearance of herpetic lesions help differentiate HSV symptoms from the similar symptoms of other disorders, such as allergic stomatitis. When lesions do not appear inside the mouth, primary orofacial herpes is sometimes mistaken for impetigo, a bacterial infection. Common mouth ulcers (aphthous ulcer) also resemble intraoral herpes, but do not present a vesicular stage.\nGenital herpes can be", "ciliary epithelium, or the peripheral anterior lens epithelium. A similar report suggests that the proteins come from the lens, iris, and other parts of the eye. A report in 2010 found indications of an abnormal ocular surface in PEX patients, discovered by an eye staining method known as rose bengal.\nPEX can become problematic when the flakes become enmeshed in a \"spongy area\" known as the trabecular meshwork and block its normal functioning, and may interact with degenerative changes in the Schlemm's canal and the juxtacanalicular area. The blockage leads to greater-than-normal elevated intraocular pressure which, in turn, can damage the", "Bier spots Bier spots are small, light macules usually found on the arms and legs of young adults, in which the intervening skin may seem erthematous but blanches with pressure so that these light macules disappear. This is a benign physiologic vascular anomaly of no significance clinically.", "of cases of denture related stomatitis. Median rhomboid glossitis This is an elliptical or rhomboid lesion in the center of the dorsal tongue, just anterior (in front) of the circumvallate papillae. The area is depapillated, reddened (or red and white) and rarely painful. There is frequently Candida species in the lesion, sometimes mixed with bacteria. Linear gingival erythema This is a localized or generalized, linear band of erythematous gingivitis (inflammation of the gums). It was first observed in HIV infected individuals and termed \"HIV-gingivitis\", but the condition is not confined to this group. Candida species are involved, and in", "Plica syndrome Cause This inflammation is typically caused by the plica being caught on the femur, or pinched between the femur and the patella. The most common location of plica tissue is along the medial (inside) side of the knee. The plica can tether the patella to the femur, be located between the femur and patella, or be located along the femoral condyle. If the plica tethers the patella to the femoral condyle, the symptoms may cause it to be mistaken for chondromalacia.\nThe plica themselves are remnants of the fetal stage of development where the knee is divided into three", "mixed inflammatory infiltrate composed of lymphocytes, histiocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. The epithelium on the margins of the ulcer shows spongiosis and there are many mononuclear cells in the basal third. There are also lymphocytes and histiocytes in the connective tissue surrounding deeper blood vessels near to the ulcer, described histologically as \"perivascular cuffing\". Classification Aphthous stomatitis has been classified as a type of non-infectious stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth). One classification distinguishes \"common simple aphthae\", accounting for 95% of cases, with 3–6 attacks per year, rapid healing, minimal pain and restriction of ulceration to the mouth; and \"complex aphthae\", accounting", "Toxoplasmic chorioretinitis Toxoplasma chorioretinitis, more simply known as ocular toxoplasmosis, is possibly the most common cause of infections in the back of the eye (posterior segment) worldwide. The causitive agent is Toxoplasma gondii, and in the United States, most cases are acquired congenitally. The most common symptom is decreased visual acuity in one eye. The diagnosis is made by examination of the eye, using ophthalmoscopy. Sometimes serologic testing is used to rule out the disease, but due to high rates of false positives, serologies are not diagnostic of toxoplasmic retinitis.\nIf vision is not compromised, treatment may", "or the gingiva (gums). The soft palate or the fauces (back of the throat) may also be involved, the latter being part of the oropharynx rather than the oral cavity. Compared to minor aphthous ulceration, major aphthae tend to have an irregular outline. Herpetiform ulceration Herpetiform ulcers, (also termed stomatitis herpetiformis, or herpes-like ulcerations) is a subtype of aphthous stomatitis so named because the lesions resemble a primary infection with herpes simplex virus (primary herpetic gingivostomatitis). However, herpetiform ulceration is not caused by herpes viruses. As with all types of aphthous stomatitis, it is not contagious. Unlike true herpetic ulcers,", "FOV. The User's eye has a viewing angle of 94° from the center and 62° on the nose side. The vertical angle is about 60° upwards and 75° downwards. HMDs often do not cover the whole FOV, which is also a reason for increased cybersickness. Binocular Rivalry Describes the phenomenon, which occurs when dissimilar images are presented to the human eye. As the two images captured by each eye is incompatible for stereo processing, they fight for visual dominance over the other eye's side view, resulting in alternating views from the two eyes, where the non-dominant view is almost unseen.", "Fibroma Hard fibroma The hard fibroma (fibroma durum) consists of many fibres and few cells, e.g. in skin it is called dermatofibroma (fibroma simplex or nodulus cutaneous). A special form is the keloid, which derives from hyperplastic growth of scars. Soft fibroma The soft fibroma (fibroma molle) or fibroma with a shaft (acrochordon, skin tag, fibroma pendulans) consist of many loosely connected cells and less fibroid tissue. It mostly appears at the neck, armpits or groin. The photo shows a soft fibroma of the eyelid. Other types of fibroma The fibroma cavernosum or angiofibroma, consists of many often dilated", "usually involving the areas adjacent to the intervertebral disc spaces) the condition is called spondylodiscitis. Causes There is debate as to the cause, although hematogenous seeding of the offending organism is favored as well as direct spread. It is important to differentiate between spontaneous discitis which is usually from hematologic spread from a urinary or respiratory infection versus that from a post-operative complication which usually involves skin flora such as staph aureus.\nIt can be caused due to spinal tuberculosis and spread along spinal ligament to involve the adjacent anterior vertebral bodies, causing angulation of the vertebrae with subsequent kyphosis.\nThe", "and lobule prominence. The latter feature of conchal shape, while not the sole cause of lobular prominence, appears to play a key role. As the cartilage angle, between the concha cavum and the antitragus, becomes more acute (i.e. as the antitragus tips closer towards the concha), this supporting structure outwardly projects the lobule and the lower-third of the ear. This feature has a greater influence upon the lobule position than does the commonly described helical tail. Protruding antihelix and protruding concha combined The combined effects of an effaced antihelix and a deep concha also contribute to severe auricular protrusion, that" ]

[ "We could now. But this probe was launched 10 years ago, and was designed and built mostly during the 90s.", "To put it simply, more megapixels = higher resolution = larger filesize = more 1s/0s. I'm not sure about the data transfer rate between the probe and Earth, but I'm assuming that it's not a quick process. The lower resolution image probably took a little while to send, therefore a higher resolution image will take a significantly longer time to send.", "1) we don't send probes around the galaxy\n\n2) I don't see the point for a colour camera to shoot an object that it's mostly black/dark grey\n\n3) space exploration is not for pretty youtube videos, it's for acquiring valuable scientific data. This includes high quality images at the wavelengths needed for research. CCDs with RGB filters would be just a way to waste precious weight.", "I'm quoting the answer I gave to [this similar question](_URL_0_).\n\n > /u/Falcon9857 is pretty close to being correct.\n\n > The 28 minute delay isn't so much a problem as it is signal strength/quality. Rosetta and Philae are over 500 million km away from Earth - at those distances it's very very hard to transmit a clear signal that can be picked out from background noise.\n\n > One of the ways we combat this is by setting the transmission rate very very slowly. Iiiiidffff yyyyyooofouuuuu ssssstttttrrrrreeenetttttccccchhhhh ooooobuuuuttttt the signal it makes it a lot easier to ignore the noise and not have bad data. Note that even though I introduced the occasional wrong letter in that sequence you still had enough information to read what I was saying.\n\n > The problem is that for deep space missions like Rosetta they have to slow the data transmission way way WAAAYYYY down... like slower than a dial-up modem if you're old enough to remember those. That helps makes the data crystal clear when we receive it, but comes at the expense of not being able to do high-bandwidth things like send video feeds.\n\nThe point is, sending data at interplanetary distances is really really hard and often extremely slow. This means we have to make tough decisions about what data we want from the probe. Things like color and video and ultra high-def images don't have that much scientific value (on a lot of probes the only reason there's cameras at all is to aid navigation and for PR). Space agencies would much rather save their limited bandwidth for things like sensor data and experiment results.", "As others have said, transmission of the data back to Earth is really slow and error-prone so you're not going to send back a 2GB video file. So, you might as well save the weight since every ounce counts. \n\nOn the other hand, if the spaceship or satellite is going to eventually come back around to orbit the Earth then you could have a hi-res camera and take a ton of hi-resolution video. Then, when you get back to Earth you can broadcast it back easily enough. The problem is that Rosetta took 10 years to get to the comet so a round trip is another decade. It's possible that's the plan but I doubt it." ]

[ "highly precise remote landing operations. By immediately returning a 3D elevation mesh of target landscapes, a flash sensor can be used to identify optimal landing zones in autonomous spacecraft landing scenarios.\nSeeing at a distance requires a powerful burst of light. The power is limited to levels that do not damage human retinas. Wavelengths must not affect human eyes. However, low-cost silicon imagers do not read light in the eye-safe spectrum. Instead, gallium-arsenide imagers are required, which can boost costs to $200,000. Gallium-arsenide is the same mineral used to produce solar panels in China. Phased arrays A phased array can illuminate", "telescopes. Unaffected by weather or airglow they can also operate 24 hours per day all year round. Finally, telescopes in space have the advantage of being able to use infrared sensors without the interference of the Earth's atmosphere. These sensors are better for detecting asteroids than optical sensors, and although there are some ground based infrared telescopes such as UKIRT, they are not designed for detecting asteroids. Space-based telescopes are more expensive, however, and tend to have a shorter lifespan. Therefore, Earth-based and space-based technologies complement each other to an extent. Although the majority of the IR spectrum is blocked", "the Jet Propulsion Laboratory was thinking about how to use a mosaic photosensor to capture digital images. His idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts' position. As with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcock's film-less camera (US patent 4,057,830) in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept.\nThe Cromemco Cyclops was an all-digital camera introduced as a commercial product in 1975. Its design was published as a hobbyist construction project in the February 1975 issue of Popular Electronics magazine. It used a 32×32 metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS)", "and tracks very accurately, yet is fast enough to track both low-Earth satellites and ballistic missiles. AEOS can be used simultaneously by many groups or institutions because its light can be channeled through a series of mirrors to seven independent coudé rooms below the telescope. Employing sophisticated sensors that include an adaptive optics system, radiometer, spectrograph, and long-wave infrared imager, the telescope tracks man-made objects in deep space and performs space object identification data collection.\nAEOS is equipped with an adaptive optics system, the heart of which is a 941-actuator deformable mirror that can change its shape to remove the atmosphere's", "less than one cubic meter and weighs 150 kg (bus + payload).\nEach of RapidEye's five satellites contain identical sensors, are equally calibrated and travel on the same orbital plane (at an altitude of 630 km). Together, the 5 satellites are capable of collecting over 4 million km² of 5 m resolution, 5-band color imagery every day.\nSensors: The Jena-Optronik multi-spectral imager, the Jena Spaceborne Scanner JSS 56, is a pushbroom sensor carried on each satellite. Each sensor is capable of collecting image data in five distinct bands of the electromagnetic spectrum: Blue (440-510 nm), Green (520-590 nm), Red (630-690 nm), Red-Edge (690-730 nm) and Near-Infrared (760-880 nm). The nominal", "the ability to collect images at 0.41-meter panchromatic (black and white) and 1.65-meter multispectral (color) resolution. GeoEye-1 can precisely locate an object to within three meters of its true location on the Earth's surface. The satellite will also be able to collect up to 700,000 square kilometers of panchromatic imagery per day.", "rejected by their small size, clouds for their larger size, etc. Imaging systems Modern heat-seeking missiles utilise imaging infrared (IIR), where the IR/UV sensor is a focal plane array which is able to produce an image in infra-red, much like the CCD in a digital camera. This requires much more signal processing but can be much more accurate and harder to fool with decoys. In addition to being more flare-resistant, newer seekers are also less likely to be fooled into locking onto the sun, another common trick for avoiding heat-seeking missiles. By using the advanced image processing techniques, the target", "the designers of the system could not use the film-canister dropping system that had been pioneered by the Discoverer/Corona/Samos series of reconnaissance satellites. In that system, the cameras aboard the satellites used photographic film capsules that physically re-entered the atmosphere before being retrieved mid-air by a military airplane. The MIDAS satellites would instead have to transmit their warning signals earthward via radio waves. Actual infrared images would not be transmitted due to the limited RF channel capacity that was available then. Instead, the satellite would simply send radio messages that it had detected a suspected missile launch as well as", "five satellites contain identical Jena-Optronik Spaceborne Scanner JSS 56 multi-spectral pushbroom sensor imagers. The 5 satellites travel on the same orbital plane (at an altitude of 630 km), and together are capable of collecting over 4 million km (2.5 million mi) of 5-metre (16 ft) resolution, 5-band color imagery every day. They collect data in the Blue (440-510 nm), Green (520-590 nm), Red (630-690 nm), Red-Edge (690-730 nm) and Near-Infrared (760-880 nm). SkySat SkySat is a constellation of sub-meter resolution Earth observation satellites that provide imagery, high-definition video and analytics services. Planet acquired the satellites with their purchase of Terra Bella (formerly Skybox Imaging), a Mountain View, California-based company founded in", "tracking of the Atlas 5 Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles, similar in design to ICBMs, picked up both the missile body and plumage. Space-based imaging Most radiometers for remote sensing (RS) acquire multispectral images. Dividing the spectrum into many bands, multispectral is the opposite of panchromatic, which records only the total intensity of radiation falling on each pixel. Usually, Earth observation satellites have three or more radiometers. Each acquires one digital image (in remote sensing, called a 'scene') in a small spectral band. The bands are grouped into wavelength regions based on the origin of the light and the interests", "image compression format.\nEuropean Space Agency Rosetta spacecraft uses a single camera with 5 degree field of view and 12 bit 1024x1024px resolution allowing for visual tracking on each of spacecraft approaches to the asteroids and finally the comet.", "one of the last solar observing instruments to use photographic film rather than a digital camera system such as a CCD. MSSTA used film instead of a CCD in order to achieve the highest possible spatial resolution and to avoid the electronics difficulty presented by the large number of detectors that would have been required for its many telescopes.\nMSSTA and its sister rocket, NIXT, were prototypes for normal incidence EUV imaging telescopes that are in use today, such as the EIT instrument aboard the SOHO spacecraft, and the TRACE spacecraft. MSSTA flew three times: once in 1991 (NASA Sounding", "about the use of radar reflectors as decoys in space, suggesting that because they would slow down rapidly in the lower atmosphere, they could begin to be picked out at about 200,000 feet (61,000 m), but might not be fully distinguished until 75,000 feet (23,000 m). This represented a serious problem for systems like Violet Friend, as there was no way to distinguish the decoys until long after the missiles had to be launched; the only solution would be to launch a volley of missiles at all the potential targets.\nSumming up the meeting, Robert Cockburn noted that the three countries had concepts", "to the viewer they can be difficult to find and are not typically sought when satellite watching.\nAlthough to the observer low Earth orbit satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails, nor have red and green navigation lights. They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces. A satellite's brightness sometimes changes", "on target payloads. This is not always practical or even possible. For example, servicing existing satellites that do not have reflectors installed would require a targetless tracking capability. STS-128 TriDAR was tested for the first time in Space on board Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-128 mission to the ISS. The objective of the test was to demonstrate the capability of the TriDAR system to track an object in space without using targets markers such as retro-reflectors. For this mission, TriDAR was located in the payload bay on the Orbiter Docking System (ODS) next to the Shuttle's", "recently a simple \"Space Radar\". In an era of budget demands, however, this extremely costly new generation has not been launched.\nISAR can produce actual images, but the discipline is generally called MASINT rather than IMINT.A much more modest ISAR capability is on the Navy's SH-60 multimission helicopter, carried on destroyers, cruisers, and aircraft carriers. If budgets permit, the proposed E-8 aircraft, the replacement for the P-3 maritime surveillance aircraft, will carry ISAR.\nP-3 aircraft carry the AN/APS-137B(V)5 radar, which has SAR and ISAR capability. This is part of the general upgrading of the P-3 to make it a capable land", "Scattered disc Discovery Traditionally, devices like a blink comparator were used in astronomy to detect objects in the Solar System, because these objects would move between two exposures—this involved time-consuming steps like exposing and developing photographic plates or films, and people then using a blink comparator to manually detect prospective objects. During the 1980s, the use of CCD-based cameras in telescopes made it possible to directly produce electronic images that could then be readily digitized and transferred to digital images. Because the CCD captured more light than film (about 90% versus 10% of incoming light) and the blinking could now", "developed for multiple-sensor imaging systems in planetary satellites use statistical-based methods to match signal distribution across multiple sensors. More recently, a new class of approaches leverage compressed sensing, to regularize an optimization problem, and recover stripe free images. In many cases, these destriped images have little to no artifacts, even at low signal to noise rations.", "nearly 20 pounds for smaller UAVs, or Group 2 unmanned aircraft systems. Capabilities When flown 12,000 feet above ground level, Redkite images a 12-square kilometer area in real time and medium resolution—allowing the WAMI system to detect and track multiple, geographically dispersed targets at once. Redkite can also cue a narrow-field, high-resolution video cameras to identify people and vehicles that have been detected. Users on the ground can access up to 10 different video feeds, or “chip-outs,” pulled from the WAMI system’s vast field of view and have them displayed in windows on their mobile devices while the", "receiving and processing, as well as added value options. BlackBridge BlackBridge, previously known as RapidEye, operates a constellation of five satellites, launched in August 2008, the RapidEye constellation contains identical multispectral sensors which are equally calibrated. Therefore, an image from one satellite will be equivalent to an image from any of the other four, allowing for a large amount of imagery to be collected (4 million km² per day), and daily revisit to an area. Each travel on the same orbital plane at 630 km, and deliver images in 5 meter pixel size. RapidEye satellite imagery is especially suited for", "fleet of low-cost space telescopes observing multiple targets at once to refine long-term mission goals by identifying new objects for other telescopes to observe. The miniaturization of a photometric detection system into a CubeSat could enable a constellation of multiple orbiting observatories for a continuous study of the brightest Sun-like stars which is not possible by conventional space observatories given their cost. Having one or more CubeSats pointed at a target star for extended duration could reveal long-transiting exoplanets. This mission will also provide additional information in the design of future space telescopes. Launch ASTERIA was launched on board a", "those images (sometimes decades old) are searched to see if it had been in fact photographed already. If so, a far longer observation arc can allow a far more precise orbital calculation.\nUntil fast computers were widely available, it was impractical to analyze and measure images for possible minor planet discoveries because this involved a considerable amount of manual labor. Usually, such images were made years or decades earlier for other purposes (studies of galaxies, etc.), and it was not worth the time it took to look for precovery images of ordinary asteroids. Today, computers can easily analyze digital astronomical", "optics materials, respectively. There were also four in-cabin experiments, three of them part of the Shuttle Student Involvement Program. The shuttle carried an experiment called the Comet Halley Active Monitoring Program (CHAMP), consisting of a 35 mm camera intended to photograph Halley's Comet through the aft flight deck overhead window. This experiment proved unsuccessful because of battery problems.\nAccording to Bolden, in addition to deploying the RCA satellite, Cenker operated a classified experiment for the United States Air Force during the mission. Bolden was only told that it was a prototype for an infrared imaging camera.\nSTS-61-C was originally scheduled to last seven", "circumstances. Specifically, it is easier to obtain images when the planet is especially large (considerably larger than Jupiter), widely separated from its parent star, and hot so that it emits intense infrared radiation. However, in 2010 a team from NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated that a vortex coronagraph could enable small telescopes to directly image planets. They did this by imaging the previously imaged HR 8799 planets using just a 1.5 m portion of the 5 meter Hale Telescope.\nVortex coronographs have been used in conjunction with adaptive optics for astronomy.\nA vortex coronograph was used on the Keck Observatory by 2017.", "diameter of around 2.9–3.1 m. Jane's Defence Weekly indicates that the secondary mirror in the Cassegrain reflecting telescope system could be moved, allowing images to be taken from angles unusual for a satellite. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every five seconds. Imaging sensors and camera modes The initial KH-11 camera system offered frame and strip modes.\nKH-11 Block II might have been the first reconnaissance satellite equipped for imaging with a 800 × 800 pixels charge-coupled device (CCD). Later block satellites may include signals intelligence capabilities and greater sensitivity in broader light spectrums (probably into", "for most of its orbit. Spitzer history By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an infrared telescope above the obscuring effects of Earth's atmosphere. Most of the early concepts, envisioned repeated flights aboard the NASA Space Shuttle. This approach was developed in an era when the Shuttle program was presumed to be capable of supporting weekly flights of up to 30 days duration. In 1979, a National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences report, A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, identified a Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) as", "aircraft and satellites carry out surveying and mapping – a recent example being the U.S. Geological Survey Experimental Advanced Airborne Research Lidar. NASA has identified lidar as a key technology for enabling autonomous precision safe landing of future robotic and crewed lunar-landing vehicles.\nWavelengths vary to suit the target: from about 10 micrometers (infrared) to approximately 250 nm (UV). Typically, light is reflected via backscattering, as opposed to pure reflection one might find with a mirror. Different types of scattering are used for different lidar applications: most commonly Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering, Raman scattering, and fluorescence. Suitable combinations of wavelengths can", "a color palette to the images which simulates visible light coloring. If the decoding software knows exactly where the satellite was, it can also overlay outlines and boundaries to help in utilizing the resulting images. Future With improvements in electronics, analog transmission systems have given way to digital transmissions systems. NOAA-19, called NOAA-N' prior to its launch on 6 February 2009, is the last satellite to carry an APT system. The MetOp program, a collaboration between NOAA and EUMETSAT, has switched to Low Rate Picture Transmission (LRPT) for its new polar-orbit satellites.", "two solar panels, a debris shield, and several science instruments for imaging, infrared spectroscopy, and optical navigation to its destination near the comet. The spacecraft also carried two cameras, the High Resolution Imager (HRI), and the Medium Resolution Imager (MRI). The HRI is an imaging device that combines a visible-light camera with a filter wheel, and an imaging infrared spectrometer called the \"Spectral Imaging Module\" or SIM that operates on a spectral band from 1.05 to 4.8 micrometres. It has been optimized for observing the comet's nucleus. The MRI is the backup device, and was used primarily for navigation during", "coronagraph in 2004 and 2006 . The dark area hidden by the coronagraph mask can be seen on the images, though a bright dot has been added to show where the star would have been.\nUp until the year 2010, telescopes could only directly image exoplanets under exceptional circumstances. Specifically, it is easier to obtain images when the planet is especially large (considerably larger than Jupiter), widely separated from its parent star, and hot so that it emits intense infrared radiation. However, in 2010 a team from NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory demonstrated that a vector vortex coronagraph could enable small" ]

[ "CVV codes are not mandatory, it is up to the person/company as to whether or not they want to require it or not. In some cases their Merchant provider will offer cheaper rates on transaction when CVV is used, as it leads to less fraud however some retailers choose not to do that. Many merchants still refuse to include a security code field in their online checkout forms, because they believe that doing so may confuse some of their customers or otherwise put them off and lead to lost sales. It's also a violation of PCI compliance to store CVV numbers, which helps reduce fraud but since the CVV can't be stored it means that the buyer has to have their card with them at time of purchase (again that is good in terms of anti-fraud), but some companies do believe that can hurt sales.", "Jaymef is correct. But put another way, it's all about risk. The less data you require to authenticated a credit or debit card, the greater the chances of a fraudulent transaction. Some retailers are less concerned than others...", "Zip code is used to check against the billing address of the card. Just an additional safety check." ]

[ "on the way a merchant will be accepting a majority of their credit cards. For example, for an Internet merchant, the Internet interchange categories will be defined as qualified, while for a physical retailer only transactions swiped through or read by their terminal in an ordinary manner will be defined as qualified. Six-tier pricing As a result of the Walmart Settlement and to compete against PIN-based debit cards (which are processed outside of the Visa and MasterCard networks), Visa and MasterCard lowered the interchange rates for debit cards well below those for credit cards. Some providers can pass on", "retailers without any association to a national network such as Visa, MasterCard or Amex. The retailer has complete control over the issuing of the cards to their customers and the processing of the payment. By definition, decoupled debit cards are processed via the Federal Reserve ACH System as the mechanism for reaching a consumer’s checking account as a debit to their account for their purchase. The payment side of the product operates like an electronic check, but the product is more than just a payment card.\nWhen the Durbin Amendment became law in October 2011, there was new speculation that", "value, and also because cash withdrawals are treated differently from purchase transactions by the credit card company. (However, though inconsistent with a merchant's agreement with each credit card company, the merchant may treat a cash withdrawal as part of an ordinary credit card sale.) Cardholder verification EFTPOS transactions involving a debit, credit or prepaid card are primarily authenticated via the entry of a personal identification number (PIN) at the point of sale. Historically, these transactions were authenticated by the merchant using the cardholder's signature, as signed on their receipt. However, merchants had become increasingly lax in enforcing this verification, resulting", "establishments usually do not settle the transactions until after the customer has checked out or returned the rental car. Some hotels and car rental agencies do not accept Visa or MasterCard-branded debit cards, as the authorization holds can expire before the transaction is settled. Additionally, some agencies use the requirement of a credit card as a tool to screen high-risk customers, as credit cards usually require a good credit history, and all that is needed for a debit card is a checking account.\nAnother example of a transaction that may settle for an amount different from the amount authorized is a", "address. Companies face fines of $250–1000 for each violation. Requiring a \"personal identification number\" (PIN) may also be a violation.\nCard issuers have several countermeasures, including sophisticated software that can, prior to an authorized transaction, estimate the probability of fraud. For example, a large transaction occurring a great distance from the cardholder's home might seem suspicious. The merchant may be instructed to call the card issuer for verification or to decline the transaction, or even to hold the card and refuse to return it to the customer. The customer must contact the issuer and prove who they are to get", "accounts (MSA), and health savings accounts (HSA) as well. They have Visa or MasterCard logos, but cannot be used as \"debit cards\", only as \"credit cards\". Furthermore, they are not accepted by all merchants that accept debit and credit cards, but only by those that specifically accept FSA debit cards. Merchant codes and product codes are used at the point of sale (required by law by certain merchants by certain states in the US) to restrict sales if they do not qualify. Because of the extra checking and documenting that goes on, later, the statement can be used to substantiate", "carry cash, and the availability of automated bank machines (ABMs) and direct payment merchants on the network.\nDebit cards may be considered similar to stored-value cards in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder. They are different in that stored-value cards are generally anonymous and are only usable at the issuer, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual's bank account and can be used anywhere on the Interac network.\nIn Canada, the bank cards can be used at POS and ABMs. Interac Online has also been introduced in recent years allowing", "for Internet transactions (though some banks employ additional security measures for online transactions such as Verified by Visa and MasterCard Secure Code), nor for most contactless transactions.\nIn the United Kingdom, banks started to issue debit cards in the mid-1980s in a bid to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process; the first bank to do so was Barclays with the Barclays Connect card. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the United Kingdom to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which", "card, the merchant would have to call their bank, who in turn had to call the credit card company, which then had to have an employee manually look up the customer's name and credit balance. This system was computerized in 1973 under the leadership of Dee Hock, the first CEO of Visa, allowing transaction time to decrease substantially to less than one minute. However, until always-connected payment terminals became ubiquitous at the beginning of the 21st century, it was common for a merchant to accept a charge, especially below a threshold value or from a known and trusted customer,", "credit card to make a purchase at a retail store for $30, then the available credit will immediately decrease to $70, because the merchant has obtained an authorization from the individual's bank by swiping the card through its credit card terminal.\nIf the billing statement were then sent out immediately, the actual charges would still be $0, because the merchant has not actually collected the funds in question. The actual charge is not put through until the merchant submits their batch of transactions and the banking system transfers the funds.\nA debit card works differently. Like in the previous example, if one", "privacy of the credit card number. Therefore, whenever a person other than the card owner has access to the card or its number, security is potentially compromised. Once, merchants would often accept credit card numbers without additional verification for mail order purchases. It's now common practice to only ship to confirmed addresses as a security measure to minimise fraudulent purchases. Some merchants will accept a credit card number for in-store purchases, whereupon access to the number allows easy fraud, but many require the card itself to be present, and require a signature (for magnetic stripe cards). A lost or stolen", "like a credit card (with payer's signature). This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, and/or a maximum limit equal to the current/checking account balance from which it draws funds. Transactions conducted with offline debit cards require 2–3 days to be reflected on users’ account balances.\nIn some countries and with some banks and merchant service organizations, a \"credit\" or offline debit transaction is without cost to the purchaser beyond the face value of the transaction, while a fee may be charged for a \"debit\" or online debit transaction (although it is often absorbed by the retailer).", "1971 to protect consumer information in credit card transactions. Under the act, companies may not collect personally identifiable information from consumers who purchase goods or services using credit cards. Companies cannot set conditions in which consumers must consent to sharing their information in order to use their credit cards for a transaction. However, consumer information can be requested in order to complete a credit card transactions as long as the information is never recorded. The act also set a redundant state level requirement that companies must shorten a consumer's credit and debit card information on receipts.\nThere are exceptions to the", "be checked on the scanner unit whenever a transaction is made or using an EasyCard Reader located at all Taipei Metro stations. Debit and co-branded credit cards Joint-branded cards allow for an EasyCard to be linked with a credit or ATM account to automatically add value. This allows for consumers to pay for products, services, or government fees with the card. The option remains popular with users in spite of handling fees and a limit of how much money can be added per day (NT$500).\nAuto-recharge applied to debit card to make up to 3 times of each NT$500 at all", "Other differences are that online debit purchasers may opt to withdraw cash in addition to the amount of the debit purchase (if the merchant supports that functionality); also, from the merchant's standpoint, the merchant pays lower fees on online debit transaction as compared to \"credit\" (offline). Electronic purse card system Smart-card-based electronic purse systems (in which value is stored on the card chip, not in an externally recorded account, so that machines accepting the card need no network connectivity) are in use throughout Europe since the mid-1990s, most notably in Germany (Geldkarte), Austria (Quick Wertkarte), the Netherlands (Chipknip), Belgium (Proton),", "swiped at a turnstile, the value of the card is read, the new value is written, the customer is let through, and then the central database is updated with the new transaction as soon as possible. Cards are not validated in real time against the database when swiped to pay the fare. The AFC Database is necessary to maintain transaction records to track a card if needed. It has actually been used to acquit criminal suspects by placing them away from the scene of a crime. The database also stores a list of MetroCards that have been invalidated for various", "merchants lower rates on transactions if the customer provides a ZIP code.\nIn Europe and Canada, most cards are equipped with an EMV chip which requires a 4 to 6 digit PIN to be entered into the merchant's terminal before payment will be authorized. However, a PIN isn't required for online transactions and is often not required for transactions using the magnetic strip. However magnetic strip transactions are banned under the EMV system (which requires the PIN). In many/most European countries, if you don't have a card with a chip, you will usually be asked for photo-ID - e.g.", "Merchant account Methods of processing credit cards Today a majority of credit card transactions are sent electronically to merchant processing banks for authorization, capture and deposit. Various methods exist for presenting a credit card sale to \"the system.\" In all circumstances either the entire magnetic strip is read by a swipe through a credit card terminal/reader, a computer chip is read (an \"EMV\"), or the credit card information is manually entered into a credit card terminal, a computer or website. The earliest methods, submitting credit card slips to a merchant processing bank by mail, or by accessing an Automated Response", "until the merchant submits the batch of transactions, and the banking system transfers the funds. Process When a merchant swipes a customer's credit card, the credit card terminal connects to the merchant's acquirer, or credit card processor, which verifies that the customer's account is valid and that sufficient funds are available to cover the transaction's cost. At this step, the funds are \"held\" and deducted from the customer's credit limit (or available bank balance, in the case of a debit card), but are not yet transferred to the merchant. At the time of the merchant's choosing, the merchant instructs the", "rate for CNP, because of the greater risk.\nIt is difficult for a merchant to verify that the actual cardholder is indeed authorizing the purchase. Shipping companies can guarantee delivery to a location, but they are not required to check identification and they are usually not involved in processing payments for the merchandise. A common recent preventive measure for merchants is to allow shipment only to an address approved by the cardholder, and merchant banking systems offer simple methods of verifying this information. Before this and similar countermeasures were introduced, mail order carding was rampant as early as 1992. A carder", "either for \"Electronic Use Only\" (Visa/MasterCard) or \"Valid only where MasterCard Electronic is Accepted\" (MasterCard Electronic). However, EastWest Bank started to offer embossed Visa Debit Cards without the for \"Electronic Use Only\" mark. Paypass Debit MasterCard from other banks also have embossed labels without the for \"Electronic Use Only\" mark. Unlike credit cards issued by some banks, these Visa and MasterCard-branded debit cards do not feature EMV chips, hence they can only be read by the machines through swiping.\nBy March 21, 2016, BDO has started issuing sets of Debit MasterCards having the EMV chip and is the first Philippine bank", "to $50). The Fair Credit Billing Act gives details of the U.S. regulations.\nMany banks now also offer the option of electronic statements, either in lieu of or in addition to physical statements, which can be viewed at any time by the cardholder via the issuer's online banking website. Notification of the availability of a new statement is generally sent to the cardholder's email address. If the card issuer has chosen to allow it, the cardholder may have other options for payment besides a physical check, such as an electronic transfer of funds from a checking account. Depending on the issuer,", "cards generally costing the merchants more to process. The interchange fee that applies to a particular transaction is also affected by many other variables including: the type of merchant, the merchant's total card sales volume, the merchant's average transaction amount, whether the cards were physically present, how the information required for the transaction was received, the specific type of card, when the transaction was settled, and the authorized and settled transaction amounts. In some cases, merchants add a surcharge to the credit cards to cover the interchange fee, encouraging their customers to instead use cash, debit cards, or even cheques.", "the cards. Governments As of 2013, several city governments (including Oakland, California and Chicago, Illinois) are now offering prepaid debit cards, either as part of a municipal ID card (for people such as illegal immigrants who are unable to obtain a state driver's license or DMV ID card) in the case of Oakland, or in conjunction with a prepaid transit pass (Chicago). These cards have been heavily criticized for their higher-than-average fees, including some (such as a flat fee added onto every purchase made with the card) that similar products offered by Green Dot and American Express do not have.\nThe", "swipe or chip systems. These networks are operated by MasterCard and Visa, and not by the banks as is the EFTPOS network, through EFTPOS Payments Australia Limited (ePAL).\nThese cards are based on EMV technology and contain a RFID chip and antenna loop embedded in the plastic of the card. To pay using this system, a customer passes the card within 4 cm of a reader at a merchant checkout. Using this method, for transactions under $100, the customer does not need to authenticate his or her identity by PIN entry or signature, as on a regular EFTPOS machine. For transactions over", "is suited even for one-time payments. A customer might just give the authorisation at the same time she or he orders goods or services from an organisation. Compared to payments by credit cards, which allow similar usage, bank fees for successful collections are much lower. Often retailers such as supermarkets will process Girocards as direct debit (ELV) transactions after performing a real-time risk analysis when the card is swiped. This is possible because the bank account number and routing code of the giro account form part of every Girocard's card number (PAN), similar to early 1990s 19 digit Switch card", "numbers. The customer agrees to the direct debit by signing the back of the receipt, which normally contains a long contractual text that also allows the retailer to contact the customer's bank and get their address in the case the debit is returned (\"Rücklastschrift\"). Direct debits are practically free for the retailer, allowing them to save the Girocard interchange fees (approx. 0.3%) that would be associated with PIN based transactions, but incur a higher risk as the payment can be returned for any reason for up to 45 days. Therefore, they are used usually for returning customers that have already", "their card function whenever they want, with a swipe on the credit card app. Limit, on the other hand, can be used to set credit limits for certain time periods. The Virtual Card Numbers prevent card identity theft online by providing users with a set of numbers that can replace the customers’ actual credit card information online. The PayShot makes online shopping easier by simplifying the payment process. Shoppers only need to log into one of seven different online shopping malls when using their Hyundai cards. Chameleon allows the user to have multiple Hyundai cards on one card and select", "a non-pin-based credit-card transaction if the merchant is affiliated with the credit or debit card network of the card's issuer. Banks have long argued with merchants over the fees that can be charged by the bank for such transactions. Despite the fact that ATM cards require a PIN for use, banks have decided to permit the use of a non-PIN based card (debit or credit) for all merchant transactions.\nPrior to the development of debit cards, ATM cards also sometimes fulfilled a dual purpose by serving as a cheque guarantee card.\nFor other types of transactions through telephone or online banking, this", "the same entity as the card issuer. The cardholders can then use it to make purchases at merchants accepting that card. When a purchase is made, the cardholder agrees to pay the card issuer. The cardholder indicates consent to pay by signing a receipt with a record of the card details and indicating the amount to be paid or by entering a personal identification number (PIN). Also, many merchants now accept verbal authorizations via telephone and electronic authorization using the Internet, known as a card not present transaction (CNP).\nElectronic verification systems allow merchants to verify in a few seconds that" ]

[ "Hi there i tattoo and its exactly how they said. The needles dont need to penetrate too deep and the more times you go over it the darker it becomes you want to go from lightest to dark. You cant take dark back. We water down the black in different amounts or whatever colors and just like water color painting we blend in the shading/colors. White is not the proper way to do a greyscale tattoo. White is meant for accenting and highlighting. Multiple needles at different sizes are also key to this process with the right amount of voltage and speed, and plenty of lubrication for the skin to not be damaged." ]

[ "Inline caching Inline caching is an optimization technique employed by some language runtimes, and first developed for Smalltalk. The goal of inline caching is to speed up runtime method binding by remembering the results of a previous method lookup directly at the call site. Inline caching is especially useful for dynamically typed languages where most if not all method binding happens at runtime and where virtual method tables often cannot be used. Runtime method binding The following ECMAScript function receives an object, invokes its toString-method and displays the results on the page the script is embedded in.\nfunction dump(obj) {\n ", "gradient program may include sudden \"step\" increases in the percentage of the organic component, or different slopes at different times – all according to the desire for optimum separation in minimum time.\nIn isocratic elution, the selectivity does not change if the column dimensions (length and inner diameter) change – that is, the peaks elute in the same order. In gradient elution, the elution order may change as the dimensions or flow rate change.\nThe driving force in reversed phase chromatography originates in the high order of the water structure. The role of the organic component of the mobile phase is to", "Usage Gradient boosting can be used in the field of learning to rank. The commercial web search engines Yahoo and Yandex use variants of gradient boosting in their machine-learned ranking engines. Names The method goes by a variety of names. Friedman introduced his regression technique as a \"Gradient Boosting Machine\" (GBM). Mason, Baxter et al. described the generalized abstract class of algorithms as \"functional gradient boosting\". Friedman et al. describe an advancement of gradient boosted models as Multiple Additive Regression Trees (MART); Elith et al. describe that approach as \"Boosted Regression Trees\" (BRT).\nA popular open-source implementation for R calls", "to the limbs. Flow Pilates aims for elegant economy of movement, creating flow through the use of appropriate transitions. Once precision has been achieved, the exercises are intended to flow within and into each other in order to build strength and stamina. In other words, the Pilates technique asserts that physical energy exerted from the center should coordinate movements of the extremities. Postural alignment Using correct posture while doing Pilates exercises improves safety by correcting muscle imbalances and optimizing coordination. Precision Precision is essential to correct Pilates. The focus is on doing one precise and perfect movement, rather than many", "Slider (computing) A slider or track bar is a graphical control element with which a user may set a value by moving an indicator, usually horizontally. In some cases user may also click on a point on the slider to change the setting. It is different from a scrollbar in that it is not continuous but used to adjust a value without changing the format of the display or the other information on the screen. Usage with progress bars Sliders are also combined with progress bars in the playback of streaming media over a network connection (e.g., YouTube videos)", "angle allows a space for a wedge to fit against the back side of the vertical and the horizontal plane of the stringer. This jig can be used to lay out different rise (vertical) and tread (horizontal) widths. The jig is used with a plunge router and a bushing guide. The router plows out a precise groove into the finished product that allows all the parts to fit together. Uses of jig The jig is used to make finish stringers, in interior staircase fabrication. The stringer is also referred to as a skirtboard. It can be used in a closed", "drip tank allows the user to choose a drip rate via spigot and to position the spigot over the lap, nearer or farther from the arbor. 2) The dust produced from grinding minerals can cause pulmonary disease if inhaled. The flow of water captures the particles in a slurry, which drains into a rubber container around and below the lap. This container has an exit tube that drains into a second receptacle.\nControls: The controls are generally simple and control the rotational velocity of the lap—the key control—and sometimes the direction of spin, i.e. clockwise or counterclockwise. Mast", "Clitoral pump Structure and action A clitoral pump usually consists of the cylinder (cup) and a hand pump (hand-squeeze bulb) with a tube. The cylinder can be round or oval and is available in different sizes depending on the size of the area stimulated. The smaller variants are intended only for clitoral and clitoral hood sucking.\nTo use the device, the cylinder is placed over the clitoris and a vacuum is created between the skin and device by operation of the hand pump. The sucking effect makes the clitoris throb due to increased blood and skin tension. The hand pump allows", "and the ride cymbals on Portishead's \"Pedestal\".\nSide-chain pumping is a more advanced technique using a compressors 'side-chain' feature which, \"uses the amplitude envelope (dynamics profile) of one track as a trigger for a compressor used in another track.\" When the amplitude of a note of the side-chained instrument surpasses the threshold setting of the compressor it attenuates the compressed instrument, producing volume swells offset from the side-chained note by a selected release time. Found in house, techno, IDM, hip hop, dubstep, and drum 'n' bass, Eric Prydz's \"Call On Me\" is credited with popularizing the technique, though Daft Punk's \"One", "Early stopping also belongs to this class of methods. Gradient descent methods Gradient descent methods are first-order, iterative, optimization methods. Each iteration updates an approximate solution to the optimization problem by taking a step in the direction of the negative of the gradient of the objective function. By choosing the step-size appropriately, such a method can be made to converge to a local minimum of the objective function. Gradient descent is used in machine-learning by defining a loss function that reflects the error of the learner on the training set and then minimizing that function. Early stopping in boosting Boosting", "discussed above, this does not exactly happen: the vertical sweep continues at a steady rate over a scan line, creating a small tilt. Steady-rate sweep is done, instead of a stairstep of advancing every row, because steps are hard to implement technically, while steady-rate is much easier. The resulting tilt is compensated in most CRTs by the tilt and parallelogram adjustments, which impose a small vertical deflection as the beam sweeps across the screen. When properly adjusted, this deflection exactly cancels the downward slope of the scanlines. The horizontal retrace, in turn, slants smoothly downward as the tilt deflection is", "up or down, barber pole flanging uses a cascade of multiple delay lines, fading each one into the mix and fading it out as it sweeps to the delay time limit. The effect is available on various hardware and software effect systems. Comparison with phase shifting Flanging is one specific type of phase-shifting, or \"phasing\". In phasing, the signal is passed through one or more all-pass filters with non-linear phase response and then added back to the original signal. This results in constructive and destructive interference that varies with frequency, giving a series of peaks and troughs in the", "Flushometer Function It uses water pressure from the water supply system rather than gravity from a raised tank like in previous models. \nA diaphragm separates a pressure chamber from the main water supply. A narrow passageway leads from the main water supply into the pressure chamber. It is the narrowness of this passage that meters the flow by slowing repressurizing of the pressure chamber after the action of a flush. The diaphragm technology allows the flush valve to open and let water into the bowl. A main cylinder valve operates up and down. A groove in this", "which limit the maximum cant. This is to control the unloading of the wheels on the outside rail (high rail), especially at low speeds. Cant gradient Cant gradient is the amount by which cant is increased or decreased in a given length of track. The change in cant is required in order to connect a tangent track (no cant) to a curved track (with cant) through a transition curve. The rate of change of cant is used to determine the suitable cant gradient for a given design speed. Track twist may also be used to describe cant gradient which may", "ARS (bodyboard) An ARS, which stands for Air - Roll - Spin, is a bodyboarding trick that combines an El Rollo with a 360° spin while the bodyboarder is in the air. The bodyboarder starts off by approaching the lip and doing the El Rollo, and during the rotation throws him/herself into a forward 360° spin. Michael Eppelstun invented the trick. The move was revolutionary and ushered in whole new gymnastic approach to riding a bodyboard. Kelly Slater credits the Rodeo Clown move was adapted from the ARS.", "rhythm section tacet creates a change of texture and gives the soloist great rhythmic freedom to speed up, slow down, or play with a varied tempo.", "Slutdrop Slutdrop is a dance move. The move involves squatting as quickly and as low as possible and immediately popping back up. A hand is often put straight up to steady oneself, and the move is often performed whilst grinding a dance partner that the dropper is trying to impress. The term is a compound word combining the words \"slut\" and \"drop\", reflecting the sexual nature of the move and the act of dropping one's body lower to the ground. Then the term was attributed to stars from the reality television show Geordie Shore, and the move has also been", "Roundoff Description The roundoff is a gymnastic technique that turns horizontal speed into vertical speed (to jump higher); it is also used effectively to turn forward momentum from a run into backwards momentum, giving speed and power to backwards moves such as flips and somersaults.\nThe roundoff is similar to a cartwheel, except the gymnast lands with two feet placed together on the ground instead of one foot at a time, facing the direction they arrived from. This is achieved by twisting the hands and shoulders as the hands are placed on the ground. The two hands are generally placed down", "horizontally, monobolos can be manipulated to be like a spinning top. To start a monobolo, twist the string around the axle and then let it gain some speed. Performances Cirque du Soleil has combined diabolos with acrobatics during feature acts in five shows: Quidam, La Nouba, Dralion, Ovo and Viva Elvis.\nIn 2006 Circus Smirkus presented a duo diabolo act starring Jacob and Nate Sharpe, with advanced tricks including the first double sprinkler pass in a performance as well as some five-diabolo passing.\nThe diabolo programs of many Chinese schools provide performances during the Chinese New Year or near the end of", "Bunny hop (cycling) Technique The bunny hop is executed by approaching an obstacle with a medium rolling speed, arms and legs slightly bent. Upon reaching the obstacle, the rider first needs to shift their center of gravity towards the rear wheel of the bike and pull back on the handlebars, causing the front wheel to lift as if doing a manual. As the front wheel reaches maximum height, they 'scoop' up the rear of the bike by pointing their toes downwards and applying backwards and upwards force to the pedals, while pushing down and forward on the handlebars. It helps", "Stroop effect In psychology, the Stroop effect is a demonstration of cognitive interference where a delay in the reaction time of a task occurs due to a mismatch in stimuli.\nThe effect has been used to create a psychological test (Stroop test) that is widely used in clinical practice and investigation.\nA basic task that demonstrates this effect occurs when there is a mismatch between the name of a color (e.g., \"blue\", \"green\", or \"red\") and the color it is printed on (i.e., the word \"red\" printed in blue ink instead of red ink). When asked to name the color of the", "engage the \"pop\" motion in order for the board to rise. This is In contrast to a \"Fakie Ollie\" where the pop motion is performed by the rear foot on the tail, similarly to a normal Ollie, however the rider is traveling backwards when performing a Fakie Ollie. Where in a Nollie the rider is traveling forward with their front foot on the nose to apply the initial force \"pop\".", "Z-tube The Z-tube is an experimental apparatus for measuring the tensile strength of a liquid.\nIt consists of a Z-shaped tube with open ends, filled with a liquid, and set on top of a spinning table. If the tube were straight, the liquid would immediately fly out one end or the other of the tube as it began to spin. By bending the ends of the tube back towards the center of rotation, a shift of the liquid away from center will result in the water level in one end of the tube rising and thus increasing the pressure in that", "hopper to force any balls reaching the bottom of the hopper into the feed neck. Agitated Feeders need gravity to keep the balls rolling toward the bottom of the hopper before they can reach the loading mechanism. The 'Revo' with 'Z-Board' uses an electric motor to spin the paddle wheel at high speed and this method remains one of the fastest loading systems as of March 2013.\nForce Feed loaders create a stack of paint balls leading into the marker. Most of these hoppers maintain a constant tension on the ball stack to ensure that once a paintball is", "Clean and press Clean phase In the clean movement, after taking a big breath and setting the back, the lifter jumps the bar up through triple extension (in very quick succession) of the hips, knees and then ankles. When the legs have driven the bar as high as possible, the lifter pulls under the bar by violently shrugging (contracting) the trapezius muscles of the upper back (\"traps\") dropping into a deep squat position and spinning the hands around the bar so the elbows are extended in front.\nAt the same time, the arms are brought up with the elbows extended in", "rather like that of a Mexican wave. From each balancer in the statocyst a ciliary groove runs out under the dome and then splits to connect with two adjacent comb rows, and in some species runs along the comb rows. This forms a mechanical system for transmitting the beat rhythm from the combs to the balancers, via water disturbances created by the cilia. Lobates The Lobata has a pair of lobes, which are muscular, cuplike extensions of the body that project beyond the mouth. Their inconspicuous tentacles originate from the corners of the mouth, running in convoluted grooves and spreading", "In-crowd algorithm The in-crowd algorithm is a numerical method for solving basis pursuit denoising quickly; faster than any other algorithm for large, sparse problems. This algorithm is an active set method, which minimizes iteratively sub-problems of the global basis pursuit denoising:\nwhere is the observed signal, is the sparse signal to be recovered, is the expected signal under , and is the regularization parameter trading off signal fidelity and simplicity. The simplicity is here measured using the sparsity of the solution , measure through its -norm. The active set strategies are very efficient in this context as", "exercises such as parallel horizontal handles for performing dips, a pull-up bar attached to the top for chin-ups and pull-ups, and push-up handles that are usually found on the bottom for Atlas (\"deep\") push-ups.", "truck throughout the entire transition. Slalom Flatland pumping is essentially carving with the proper amount of weight application in order to gain momentum. It involves shifting weight in sync with the board's movements in order to gain momentum, like pivoting, but with all four wheels on the ground. By proper timing, the proper foot position, and the proper set up, impressive results can be achieved. Long Distance Pumping Long Distance Pumping (LDP), is the name given to Skateboard pumping for any sustained distance (Slalom by contrast is through cones and usually a short distance, maybe 100 cones 6-12ft separation).\nLDP riders", "indicators and rate of climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber. Magnetic coupling These gauges use the attraction of two magnets to translate differential pressure into motion of a dial pointer. As differential pressure increases, a magnet attached to either a piston or rubber diaphragm moves. A rotary magnet that is attached to a pointer then moves in unison. To create different pressure ranges, the spring rate can be increased or decreased. Spinning-rotor gauge The spinning-rotor gauge works by measuring the amount a rotating ball is slowed" ]

[ "The Russian Revolution is actually two revolutions, the February revolution and the October revolution (Stalin, btw, was involved in neither).\n\nDuring World War 1, in February 1917, a bunch of workers in Russia started a strike, and basically everybody ended up joining it, including the army and eventually some key figures of the Czar's government. They forced the Czar to step down and give power to the Provisional Government, that was supposed to organize free elections, but ended up being removed from power in November by a group of Bolsheviks, lead by Lenin and Trotsky.\n\nThe basic reasons were that the Russians were losing WW1, and that there was a lot of poverty and hunger. Also, the Czar was very unpopular because he taxed heavily and was very dictatorial. It turned out that the Provisional Government really didn't do that much better, so that gave Lenin the chance he took to get some support for this second revolution." ]

[ "Russian Revolution Background The Russian Revolution of 1905 was said to be a major factor contributing to the cause of the Revolutions of 1917. The events of Bloody Sunday triggered nationwide protests and soldier mutinies. A council of workers called the St. Petersburg Soviet was created in this chaos. While the 1905 Revolution was ultimately crushed, and the leaders of the St. Petersburg Soviet were arrested, this laid the groundwork for the later Petrograd Soviet and other revolutionary movements during the lead up to 1917. The 1905 Revolution also led to the creation of a Duma (parliament), that would later", "Russian Revolution finally broke out, it was when the tsarist state had already been destroyed by the seemingly never-ending involvement and defeats of World War I.\nDilemmas for the Provisional Government: Various attempts were being made by leaders of political parties in 1917 to stabilize the Russian Revolution in a liberal-democratic manner. “The Provisional Government declared itself head of government…until a Constituent Assembly could be elected to create a new constitution”. The tsarist regime was effectively replaced with a network of councils, of which the Provisional Government relied most on the Petrograd Soviet. However, as problems continued to pile up, it", "government.\nThe Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of the Russian Empire. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included terrorism, worker strikes, peasant unrests, and military mutinies. It led to the establishment of the limited constitutional monarchy, the establishment of State Duma of the Russian Empire, and the multi-party system.\nIn China, the Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution. The Xinhai Revolution began with the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911, and ended with the abdication of Emperor Puyi on February 12, 1912. The", "February Revolution Long-term causes Despite its occurrence at the height of World War I, the roots of the February Revolution date further back. Chief among these was Imperial Russia's failure, throughout the 19th and early 20th century, to modernise its archaic social, economic and political structures while maintaining the stability of ubiquitous devotion to an autocratic monarch. As historian Richard Pipes writes, \"the incompatibility of capitalism and autocracy struck all who gave thought to the matter\".\nThe first major event of the Russian Revolution was the February Revolution, which was a chaotic affair, caused by the culmination of over a century", "cause the resumption of the revolutionary movement. While SRs resumed the acts of individual terror, the number of such acts was relatively small. Since Russia remained relatively quiet, even in the face of the Tsar's contravening of the new Russian Constitution, June 3, 1907 is considered the date of the end of the first Russian revolution.\nThe Tsar's new electoral law ensured that all future Dumas would remain under the control of the higher classes of society, but this did not ultimately prevent the Duma from taking an important role in the Tsar's eventual overthrow in the February Revolution of 1917.", "Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War Revolution In 1917, the Russian Empire was in a state of political strife, and public support for World War I and Tsar Nicholas II was dwindling. The country was on the brink of revolution. The February Revolution changed the course of the war; under intense political pressure, the Tsar abdicated and the Russian Provisional Government was formed, led initially by Georgy Lvov and later by Alexander Kerensky. The Provisional Government pledged to continue fighting the Germans on the Eastern Front.\nThe Allied Powers had been shipping supplies to Russia since the beginning of the", "Revolutions of 1917–1923 Russia In war-torn Imperial Russia, the liberal February Revolution toppled the monarchy. A period of instability followed, and the Bolsheviks seized power in the October Revolution. The ascendant communist party soon withdrew from the war with large territorial concessions by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It then battled its political rivals in the Russian Civil War, including invading forces from the Allied Powers. In response to Lenin, the Bolshevik Party and the emerging Soviet Union, anti-communists from a broad assortment of ideological factions fought against them, particularly through the counter-revolutionary White movement and the peasant Green Army, the", "Russian Revolution and the subsequent unrest.", "authorities. Preliminary conference The February Revolution of 1917 which overthrew the Tsarist regime came comparatively easily. So, too, did the October Revolution which followed, events which overthrew the Russian Provisional Government of Alexander Kerensky and brought Lenin and the Bolsheviks to the seat of power. The Russian Civil War was another matter altogether — a long and brutal struggle which strained every sinew.\nThe radical intelligentsia of Russia was mobilized by these events. Anatoly Lunacharsky, who had briefly broken with Lenin and the Bolshevik Party to become a newspaper correspondent in France and Italy, returned to Russia in May 1917 and", "Russian Civil War World War I The Russian Empire fought in World War I from 1914 alongside France and the United Kingdom (Triple Entente) against Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire (Central Powers). February Revolution The February Revolution of 1917 had resulted in abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. As a result, the Russian Provisional Government was established, and soviets, elected councils of workers, soldiers, and peasants, were organized throughout the country, leading to a situation of dual power. Russia was proclaimed a republic in September of the same year. October Revolution The Provisional Government, led by Socialist Revolutionary", "revolutionary workers, sailors and soldiers; the Soviet government was able to storm The Winter Palace and officially abolishing the Provisional government. \nThe revolution was not uniformly accepted among all Russians, resistance and disruption would occur routinely leading up to The Russian Civil War. A particular issue that Lenin covers in The State and Revolution was the right of nations to secession (The right to self determination); during the composition of this book The Mensheviks of Georgia declared independence soon after The Revolution forming The Democratic Republic of Georgia.\nBy November 25, the 1917 Constitutional Assembly was elected, with a majority of", "as the government of the Russian Autocracy. \nThe conflict created by Russia’s economic and political issues climaxed in the months prior to October 1905, also known as the Russian Revolution of 1905. On 22 January 1905, peaceful protesters attempted to bring a petition to the Tsar, as was the tradition. However this protest was violently put down outside the winter palace when guards were ordered to fire on the protesters. The result of the violent revolt of the protest would be known as \"Bloody Sunday\". The violent reaction to the protest increased the tension throughout Russia further. Unrest", "The ABC of Communism Background In the October Revolution, part of the Russian Revolution, an armed insurrection occurred. It is traditionally dated to 25 October 1917 Julian calendar (7 November 1917 Gregorian calendar). It was the second phase of the overall Russian Revolution of 1917, after the February Revolution of the same year. The October Revolution overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and gave the power to the Soviets dominated by Bolsheviks. It was followed by the Russian Civil War (1917–1922) and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.\nThe revolution was led by the Bolsheviks. Bolshevik armed forces began the", "Hyperinflation in early Soviet Russia Overview After three years of participation in World War I, the economy of the Russian empire was in crisis. In March 1917 the so-called February Revolution overthrew the regime of Tsar Nikolai II and replaced it with a fledgling constitutional democracy headed by a succession of leaders ending with Alexander Kerensky. The economy remained disrupted and Russia failed to disengage from the bloody European war, and on November 7, 1917 the Kerensky government fell in a second revolution, this time led by the Bolshevik Party of revolutionary socialist Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin).\nCivil War ensued and the", "1906 Russian legislative election History The State Duma was created in a wave of violent attacks against imperial officials and public upheaval, which culminated in a national strike in October 1905 known as Russian Revolution of 1905, paving the way for Russia's first parliament. With the nation's infrastructure all but paralyzed, Tsar Nicholas II signed a historic manifesto of 17 October 1905, promising civil rights to the population and creating Russia's first parliament. Electoral legislation The electoral laws were promulgated in December 1905 and introduced franchise to male citizens over 25 years of age, and electing through four electoral colleges.", "entered Moscow on 21 September [O.S. 11 September] 1610. Moscow revolted but riots there were brutally suppressed and the city was set on fire.\nThe crisis provoked a patriotic national uprising against the invasion, both in 1611 and 1612. Finally, a volunteer army, led by the merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky, expelled the foreign forces from the capital on 4 November [O.S. 22 October] 1612.\nThe Russian statehood survived the \"Time of Troubles\" and the rule of weak or corrupt Tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling", "the opening date of the Congress from October 20 to October 25. After the October Revolution The congress opened on November 7 at 10:40 pm, at the height of the armed uprising that began in Petrograd. The peasant councils and all the soldier-level committees of the army refused to participate in the activities of the congress. The Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries condemned the Bolshevik's actions as an \"illegal coup\". The old composition of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee also condemned the Bolsheviks, saying that\nThe Central Executive Committee considers the Second Congress failed and regards it as a private meeting of", "When the Revolutions of 1848 swept Europe, however, Russia was quiet. The Tsar sent his army into Hungary in 1849 at the request of the Austrian Empire and broke the revolt there, while preventing its spread to Russian Poland. The Tsar cracked down on any signs of internal unrest.\nRussia expected that in exchange for supplying the troops to be the policeman of Europe, it should have a free hand in dealing with the decaying Ottoman Empire—the \"sick man of Europe.\" In 1853 Russia invaded the Crimea peninsula and other regions, leading to the Crimean War, and Britain and France came", "underwent a tremendous shift as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution. The Bolshevik coup d'etat began in 1917 when Vladimir Lenin and his followers deposed Alexander Kerensky's Russian Provisional Government and established a Communist regime.\nIn the time leading to the Bolshevik Revolution, there was a substantial amount of distress amongst Soviet peasants—so much so that many analysts \"have focused upon the Russian rural economy for the light that such an investigation might shed upon political and economic forces leading to the Revolution of 1917.\" It is a bit ambitious to assume that the Revolution of 1917 completely sparked", "collapse of Czarist Russia, the Bolsheviks seized control of the government and signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central powers, which marked their exit from World War I. (These events precipitated the Russian Civil War which would lead to the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.) Prior to the formal signing of the treaty, the United States partially evacuated their embassy, but Armour remained as part of the limited staff. On July 25, the Russian authorities ordered the diplomats out of Petrograd and a new legation was set up in Vologda. The North Russia Campaign, an Allied Intervention", "Nabat Background In 1917 the February Revolution led to the abdication of the Russian Emperor, Tsar Nicholas II (March 1917). The collapse of a central government and ruling power in Petrograd led to the formation of a vast number of new groups and organizations which attempted to fill the power-vacuum. As the Tsarist government ceased to exist, a committee of Duma members swiftly created the Russian Provisional Government. The Provisional Government almost immediately found itself sharing power with a new assembly, the Petrograd Soviet. \nOn April 16, 1917, Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile from Europe", "the Russian Revolution of 1917, and took over military and civil powers in many cities. On 7 November, the revolution had reached Munich, causing Ludwig III of Bavaria to flee.", "February 1917 Revolution broke out in Russia and in the summer the Russian army collapsed. By this time the Riflemen had overwhelmingly transferred their allegiances to the Bolsheviks. The following German offensive was successful and on September 3, 1917 they entered Riga.\nIn November 1917, the Communist Bolsheviks took power in Russia. Even though ethnic Latvians had become important assets in the task of securing Soviet power military (with the first ever commander-in-chief of the Red Army being Latvian Jukums Vācietis) the Bolshevik government tried to end the war and in March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed which gave", "5th Rifle Division (Poland) Early days During World War I Russia entered a period of rapid decline. Internal problems led to an outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Initially the revolutionists promised new world order and putting a bloody war to an end. However, their rule provoked many protests and uprisings led by a variety of generals and political parties, from monarchists through anarchists to republicans.\nIn the turmoil of the Russian Civil War many nations started to form their own military units. Among them was a large number of Czechs and Slovaks that defected on the Russian front or", "Mexican revolutions in the early 20th century. The authors show that the post-communist transformation in Russia can be better understood based on historical analysis. It is proved that Russia experienced a full-scale revolution in the late 20th century, which, in its main features, is remarkably similar to the great revolutions of the past. This concept not only explains the causes and consequences of many key events in the country since 1985, but makes it possible to understand the logic of further events in contemporary Russia.\nCrises and lessons. Russia's economy in an age of turbulence (Moscow: Gaidar Institute Publishing House, 2016)", "sparked the first Russian Revolution of 1905.\nGapon and Rutenberg fled abroad, being welcomed in Europe both by prominent Russian emigrants Georgy Plekhanov, Vladimir Lenin, and French socialist leaders Jean Jaurès and Georges Clemenceau. Before the end of 1905, Rutenberg returned to Russia, and Gapon followed him.\nGapon soon revealed to Rutenberg his contacts with the police and tried to recruit him, too, reasoning that double loyalty is helpful to the workers’ cause. However, Rutenberg betrayed his trust and reported this provocation to his party leaders, Yevno Azef and Boris Savinkov. Azef demanded that the traitor be put to death. Ironically,", "war finally caused a complete collapse of the economy and a change in the political system. The Russian Revolutions On February 17, 1917, the Tsar Nicholas II, the last Emperor of Russia, was forced to sign his abdication and the end of the Russian Imperial Government and of the Romanov dynasty. The new government decided to continue the war, which meant more military spending. To increase budget revenues, a state monopoly was introduced on the sales of sugar, tea, matches, tobacco, and other consumer products. Still, the printing press remained the main source of revenues. This was a period of", "and the revolution was proclaimed in the late evening of 26 January by lighting a red lantern as a sign to the tower of the Helsinki Workers' Hall. The order for the mobilization came on the next morning from the executive committee of the Trade Union Federation, coincided with the spontaneous clashing of Red Guards and the Protection Corps. Commanders The first commander-in-chief of the Red Guards was the former Russian Army lieutenant Ali Aaltonen, who was elected during the general strike in November 1917. As the Civil War started, the task was given to Eero Haapalainen, with the Russian", "by informing the situations of the Stavka and reported it to Alekseyev. February Revolution On February 27 (March 12), 1917, the February Revolution broke out in Russia, and was Centred in Petrograd, the capital. General Alekseyev proposed to send a detachment by its commander with full power, to restore order in the capital. The tsar then ordered to allocate an infantry and cavalry brigade from the Northern and Western Fronts, and appointed Ivanov as the head of the general-adjutants and commander-in-chief of the Petrograd Military District, replacing Lieutenant-General Sergei Khabalov. Later on, the tsar ordered him to take command of", "Russian Peasants' uprising of 1905–6 Background The peasants uprising was connected to the 1905 Revolution and the October Manifesto, as the country was gripped by a revolutionary and rebellious atmosphere following Tsar Nicholas II reactionary policies. After Bloody Sunday in February, large instances of rebellion exploded throughout the country, initiating the 1905 Revolution. The revolution forced the reactionary Tsar to make concessions, and in October he issued a manifesto granting some civil liberties to prevent the national from slipping into chaos, trying to 'pacify' the country. The 'Jacquerie' The general 'mood of rebellion' riding the country quickly spread to the" ]

[ "Nuclear engineer here. He was sucked from he ocean to the intake bay. At the far end of the intake bay is where the pumps push water through the plant. \n\nThe intake bay water level is at a slightly lower elevation than the ocean, which created the pressure that sucked him through. He didn't pass through any pumps or the plant, just an intake pump to the bay.", "The inlet leads to a holding pond below sea level, the water in the pipe he entered was flowing due to gravity alone. The water is pumped from the holding pond maintaining the lower level. That pond is where the diver was found.", "I am just offering my wild ass guess, but maybe just pressure from the pipes being lower than the outlet mixed with temperature differential?" ]

[ "A secondary loop of water which enters the tube side of the condenser is non-radioactive. It flows to two large cooling towers which stand 400 feet tall where the hot water is cooled by natural circulation with ambient air. This is a closed loop with only a small amount of make-up water needed from Lake Erie to replace any evaporation.\nTwo 345 kV lines send power to the customers. Those same lines are used to supply electricity to the site's safety equipment. Three additional 120 kV lines are also available to supply any needed back-up power to safety equipment. Additionally, four", "water intake line was 1,600mm (63\") in diameter, 15,000 m (49,213 ft) long and installed at a depth of 85 m (278 ft) allowing access to water temperatures of between 3-5 C (37-41 F). The selected pipe was Sclairpipe, made from high density polyethylene (HDPE) resin.\nThe cold water drawn from Lake Ontario's deep layer in the Enwave system is not returned directly to the lake once it has been run through the heat exchange system. The Enwave system only uses water that is destined to meet the city's domestic water needs. Therefore, the Enwave system does not pollute the lake with", "to use powered feedwater pumps. The water in the open pool slowly boils off, venting clean steam to the atmosphere. This makes it unnecessary to run mechanical systems to remove heat. Periodically, the pool must be refilled, a simple task for a fire truck. The (E)SBWR reactors provide three days' supply of water in the pool. Some older reactors also have IC systems, including Fukushima Dai-ichi reactor 1, however their water pools may not be as large.\nUnder normal conditions, the IC system is not activated, but the top of the IC condenser is connected to the reactor's steam lines through", "(7.9 metres) deep. The foundations are provided by isolated bases and strip footings with a designed maximum bearing pressure of 3 tons per square foot.\nThe pumphouse which supplied the main turbines with 27 million gallons of cooling water per hour drew sea water from an intake structure about 1,350 feet (410 metres) offshore via twin 10 feet (3 metres) diameter tunnels. This water was returned to the sea through similar tunnels discharging 350 feet (107 metres) offshore. Decommissioning The power station was shut down on 31 December 2006. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) is responsible for placing contracts", "A volume of 1890 m³ (500,000 USgal) of fresh water was brought to the plant by a barge provided by the US Navy. On 29 March, the fire trucks which had been used to inject water into the reactor were replaced by electrical pumps.\nOn 28 March, pumping began to remove water contaminated with radioactive ¹³⁷Cs and ¹³¹I from basement areas, storing it in the condenser system. By 29 March, pumping was halted because condensate reservoirs were almost full and plans were being considered to transfer water to the suppression pool surge tanks.\nOn 7 April, TEPCO began injecting nitrogen into the containment", "are separated by an elevation of 700 ft (210 m). Water is conveyed between the plant and the Upper Reservoir via an 18’ diameter 1,800’ long exposed steel pipe. At full station load, approximately 4 million gpm of water is released (9000 cfs) 5,800 MGD, Velocity: 35 ft/sec, or 24 mph. The full upper reservoir will\nlast 5.7 hours at Hydraulic Turbine nameplate capacity. The storage facility provides energy regulation and spinning reserve during on-peak hours, and it provides an energy sink off-peak (11P.M. -7 A.M.) to allow fossil and nuclear plants to remain more fully loaded.", "coils. Condensate from the coil outlet provides the fresh water supply. To start the cycle, an electric pre-heater is used to heat the first water supply. The main energy input to the plant is in mechanically driving the compressor, not as heat energy.\nBoth the fresh water production and the waste brine from the evaporator are led through an output cooler. This acts as a heat exchanger with the inlet seawater, pre-heating it to improve efficiency. The plant may operate at either a low pressure or slight vacuum, according to design. As the evaporator works at pressure, not under vacuum, boiling", "heat water into the canal was exceeded on several occasions, totalling about 44 hours. Incidents In July 2008, 18,000 litres (4,755 gallons) of uranium solution containing natural uranium were accidentally released on the Tricastin Nuclear Site. Due to cleaning and repair work the containment system for a uranium solution holding tank was not functional when the tank filled. The inflow exceeded the tank's capacity and 30 cubic metres of uranium solution leaked with 18 cubic metres spilled to the ground. Testing found elevated uranium levels in the nearby rivers Gaffière and Lauzon. The liquid that escaped to the ground contained", "the pipe, which causes the water velocity to decrease and so enables any bubbles of gas to be collected in a small chamber fitted with a float-operated alarm switch. A header tank, which contains enough water for a complete refill of the system, is connected into the inlet pipe to the winding. A small demineralising plant is provided to treat the water, should the conductivity of the make-up water supply be too high.\nThe main exciter is a 3,000 rpm 3-phase machine directly coupled to the main generator shaft. Cooling is effected by a closed air ventilation circuit with pannier mounted", "a valve at the bottom of the IC condenser is opened which connects to a lower area on the reactor. The water falls to the reactor via gravity, allowing the condenser to fill with steam, which then condenses. This cycle runs continuously until the bottom valve is closed.", "The pipes terminate at a tunnel portal which is about 200 yards (180 m) from the main building. The final pipes into the station are 7 feet 6 inches (2.29 m) in diameter, and are made of high-tensile steel, 1 inch (25 mm) thick, which are encased in 2 feet 3 inches (0.69 m) of pre-stressed concrete. Each pipe forks, with the upper branch supplying the turbine, when the station is generating, and the lower branch receiving water from the pump when it is returning water to Llyn Stwlan. Valves of 6 feet (1.8 m) and 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) diameter are used to route the water appropriately. Equipment The", "roughly a fifth of them are switched out. Water is drawn from the river via a canal 1.4 km in length and condenses in the cooling towers at a rate of 0.7 cubic meters per second. It is returned to the river through an underground pipe.\nUnits B and C are, like unit A, boiling water reactors. In this type of reactor, the water flows around the fuel elements, boils, and the steam directly drives the turbines. Thus, in boiling water reactors, in contrast to pressurized water reactors, there is only a single, primary coolant loop. Each unit is loaded with 784 fuel", "stream flow, the spillway gates are opened to pass the water in excess of the capacity of the turbines, and as necessary for retention and regulation of floodwaters through surcharge operation. The upper portion of the reservoir, corresponding to a five-foot depth above the normal headwater level, is provided for surcharge storage. This storage space is utilized by raising all of the spillway gates in small equal increments, thus permitting passage of some water under them, but retaining or forcing into storage all inflow to the reservoir in excess of the spillway discharge and power releases. 2010 Flooding", "a vacuum that maximizes the pressure drop across the turbine. The heat picked up by the circulating water is removed by evaporation in six induced-draft cross flow cooling towers (two per unit). \nThe plant uses about 26,000 acre feet (32,000,000 m³) of water per year from Lake Powell, or about 1/2 gallon (1.9L) per kWh, mainly for cooling water and scrubber operation; see section #Wastewater handling.\nThe plant consumes about 8 million tons of low sulfur bituminous coal each year, supplied by Peabody Energy's Kayenta mine near Kayenta, Arizona. The coal is hauled 75 miles from mine silos to the plant by", "almost 650 metres (2,130 ft) deep, is used to pump up the water to a heat exchange substation.\nThe water, now with a termperature of about 13 °C (55 °F), is returned in full to the aquifer by a well 635 metres (2,083 ft) deep.\nThe two wells are 580 metres (1,900 ft) apart at their feet to avoid thermal recycling, and the system is sealed to prevent any contamination of the water.\nWithin the buildings heat pumps deliver water at 35 °C (95 °F) to heat the floors and hot tap water at 60 °C (140 °F).", "form a headpond for diversion of inlet water to the turbine. Unused water simply flows over the weir and the headpond may only be capable of a single day's storage, not enough for dry summers or frozen winters when generation may come to a halt. A preferred scenario is to have the inlet in an existing lake. \nModular “micro hydrokinetic” systems have been developed for irrigation canals. \"Irrigation districts across the U.S. have installed power plants at diversion points and in-canal drops, which are traditionally used for flow measurement, to stabilize upstream heads and to dissipate energy where there is", "into a cavity under the floor, which occupies half the width and half the length of the powerhouse and which extents to a depth of 18 ft (5.5 m) below the floor level. During normal conditions there is 5 ft (1.5 m) of water in the bottom of the cavity, which exits via a 8 ft (2.4 m) high by8 ft (2.4 m)wide tunnel into the pool below the falls.\nA 250 step access tunnel provided personnel access to the powerhouse. Access to the supply tunnel is obtained by means of several flights of steps, which branch off the main access tunnel.\nThe spring-fed river has a constant flow which", "power-generating turbines. But in the pressurized water reactor, the heat generated by fission is transferred to a secondary loop via a heat exchanger. Steam is produced in the secondary loop, and the secondary loop drives the power-generating turbines. In either case, after flowing through the turbines, the steam turns back into water in the condenser.\nThe water required to cool the condenser is taken from a nearby river or ocean. It is then pumped back into the river or ocean, in warmed condition. The heat can also be dissipated via a cooling tower into the atmosphere. The United States uses LWR", "Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station Design Oyster Creek was a single unit 636 MWe boiling water reactor power plant which first came online on December 1, 1969; it was the oldest operating nuclear power plant in the United States until it permanently ceased operation on September 17, 2018. The plant was located 50 miles (80 km) east of Philadelphia and 75 miles (121 km) south of New York City.\nCooling water for the plant was drawn from Barnegat Bay, a brackish estuary that empties into the Atlantic Ocean through the Barnegat Inlet. Rankine cycle condenser cooling, coolant flow rate: 1.4 billion US gal (5.3 billion l) per day,", "Partners will facilitate the sale being held in Brattleboro, Vt.\nTwo cooling towers were demolished in July 2019. 2007 Cooling for the plant's steam condenser was provided by circulating water through it, drawn from the adjacent Connecticut river. This water did not come in contact with the nuclear reactor and was not radioactive. The cooling towers were used to cool water returning from the condenser before it was discharged back into the river at times when it was too warm to comply with the environmental discharge permit. In 2007 the fourth cell of the west cooling tower collapsed, spilling some", "has run continuously for over 500 days between refuelings, one of 26 U.S. reactors to do so.\nOn November 19, 2005, its workers finished replacing all four steam generators in 63 days, 13 hours, a world record for a four-loop plant. Cooling tower The cooling tower at Callaway is 553 feet (169 m) tall. It is 430 feet wide at the base, and is constructed from reinforced concrete. It cools about 585,000 US gallons (2,210,000 l; 487,000 imp gal) of water per minute when the plant is operating at full capacity; about 15,000 US gallons (57,000 l; 12,000 imp gal) of water per minute are lost out the", "to run mechanical systems to remove heat. Periodically, the pool must be refilled, a simple task for a fire truck. The (E)SBWR reactors provide three days' supply of water in the pool. Some older reactors also have IC systems, including Fukushima Dai-ichi reactor 1, however their water pools may not be as large.\nUnder normal conditions, the IC system is not activated, but the top of the IC condenser is connected to the reactor's steam lines through an open valve. Steam enters the IC condenser and condenses until it is filled with water. When the IC system is activated,", "54-mgd (millions of gallons per day) of raw water from an underground aquifer.\nOnce in the horizontal collector, the raw water is then pumped up to the plant where it goes through a complex treatment process that includes six dual-media filtration basins and on-site water-quality testing for turbidity, pH balance, and temperature.\nIn late 2016, renovations to the facility included valve, hydrant, and customer leak detection programs, water treatment filter upgrades, distribution facility maintenance, water main replacement projects, and a four-million gallon water reservoir. The upgrades were awarded the Platinum Award for Utility Excellence by the Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies (AMWA)", "an external port allows air to be sucked in thus creating a constant air supply. \nThe air forms bubbles in the pipe.\nAs the bubbles go down the pipe they are pressurized proportionally to the hydraulic head, which is the height of the column of water in the pipe. \nThe compressed air rises to the top of the separation chamber(wind box).\nThe separation chamber has a compressed-air takeoff pipe, and the compressed air can be used as a power source.\nThe energy of the falling water creates negative pressure inside the pipe that is compensated by the air from the outside atmosphere", "the intake, water initially travels along two 8 metres (26 ft) diameter and 2,600 metres (8,500 ft) long head-race tunnels. At the terminus of these tunnels, they split into four 330 metres (1,080 ft) long penstocks which drop down a 200 metres (660 ft) deep shaft to the underground power station. At the power station, the water operates four 320 megawatts (430,000 hp) reversible Francis turbine-generators before being discharged into the lower reservoir, created by the Nanakura Dam. Nanakura Dam The Nanakura Dam is a 125-metre (410 ft) tall and 340-metre (1,120 ft) long rock-fill embankment dam with a structural volume of 7,380,000 cubic metres (9,650,000 cu yd). The", "River and through its bend. At the terminus of the tunnel, the water reaches the surge chamber which contains a 341 m (1,119 ft) tall surge shaft (to prevent water hammer) and a 820 m (2,690 ft) long surge tunnel. From the surge chamber, the water is split into four different penstocks which feed each of the four 242 MW Francis turbine-generators in the underground power house. After being used to generate electricity, the water is discharged southeast back into the Jhelum River at 34°10′29″N 73°29′34″E through a 3.5 km (2 mi) long tail-race tunnel. The drop in elevation between the dam and power station afford", "is also used to augment the water used in the processing plant. Ahead of reusing the water from the pits, the water used in the plant is sourced from the local municipal water supply. The plant design has been modified to recycle as much water as possible. There is no tailings discharge from the process and no tailings dam: all plant waste is dewatered and transported back to the mine waste dumps for disposal. These tailings will be reprocessed in a later phase of the project and used to restore the last pit shell. At the beginning of pits exploitation,", "Seco nuclear facility in 1989 and no longer required large quantities of cooling water from the canal.\nA pumping station to supply water to the Placer County Water Agency was built in 2006 on the Middle Fork American River, supplying 100 cubic feet per second (2.8 m³/s) to a northwest-running pipeline, eliminating the need for Auburn Dam for this supply. The capacity of the station is eventually expected to be upgraded to 225 cubic feet per second (6.4 m³/s). By 2006, the Bureau of Reclamation itself began to restore the dam site, which then had been untouched for more than a decade. The", "feet (1,884 meters) to the top of the generating station. There, each conduit connected with six penstocks, six feet in diameter. At the point where the conduits and the penstocks join, there was a section which turned upwards into a spillway, called a surge tank. The surge tanks served to reduce fluctuations in heat and pressure during both the increase and decrease of loads. The open spillways sent any excess water to the Niagara River if the load suddenly reduced, which prevented any unwanted rise in pressure.\nFrom the distributing station, the transmission lines carried power at 60,000 volts each", "It consists of 144 boreholes, which stretch to a depth of 37 m (121 ft). At the surface the pipes are joined together in groups of six to connect to the Energy Centre. The entire BTES is covered by a layer of insulation, on top of which a park is built. When the heated water is to be stored, it is pumped through the pipe series. The heat is then transferred to the surrounding soil as the water cools and returns to the Energy Centre. When the homes need heat, water flows to the centre of the BTES field and picks up" ]

[ "They have awesome kidneys. \n\nThe kidneys are able to filter the water to hydrate the body and remove the salt.\n\nHuman kidneys are not so awesome.", "Their skin really locks water in well. They have physical mechanisms to desalinate water during ingestion. They get a fair amount of water from the food they eat without drinking seawater. And their kidneys are very efficient. \n\nLets say that you or I drank some seawater. We drink 12oz of seawater at normal salinity. Ahh it's sour but refreshing when you're stranded in a life raft. Our bodies absorb the water just like normal, woo hoo this was a good idea!! But we also absorb the salt, and we then have to get rid of the salt. That is the job of the kidneys, however the kidneys don't have a conveyor belt. There is no kidney car that drives waste products from the kidneys to your bladder. The kidneys ironically need water in order to flush the salt out of your body. The problem is that the amount of water they need is more than the amount of water you got from drinking 12oz of seawater. So you are temporarily refreshed, but you suffer a net loss of water, which is sucked out of your blood, organs, muscles, and tissues. \n\nOkay so you're thirstier, so you drink more, same thing happens, now your tongue starts to darken, you start getting the shakes and vomiting, losing even more precious water, now you're on the downhill side of dying. Just relax and let gravity pull you down. \n\nIf you had a steady supply of fish though and didn't drink the sea water, you could survive much longer without fresh water because there is water in the meat of the fish. Of course we would just sweat it out because our bodies are like sieves and we really are not built to hold onto water. But if you didn't, if you were built more like a desert mammal, or a cetacean mammal, you might get by without drinking at all.", "Most get their water the same way we do, by drinking it from the closest available source (the water they live in). The reason humans are unable to drink seawater is that we don't have ways to deal with the excessive salt content. Our bodies require a precise balance of salts and by drinking salt water we upset this balance which causes health problems. Sea mammals (as well as other sea critters) have a variety of mechanisms that allow them to process and excrete the extra salts while keeping the water." ]

[ "They obtain nutrients through the flow of water across their cells, and they exchange gases by simple diffusion across their cell membranes. Pores called ostia draw water into the sponge and the water is subsequently circulated through the sponge by cells called choanocytes which have hair-like structures that move the water through the sponge.\nThe cnidarians include corals, sea anemones, jellyfish and hydras. These animals are always found in aquatic environments, ranging from fresh water to salt water. They do not have any dedicated respiratory organs; instead, every cell in their body can absorb oxygen from the surrounding water, and release", "these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus from specialised cells, and is involved in cutaneous respiration. While the lungs are of primary organs for gas exchange between the blood and the environmental air (when out of the water), the skin's unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.\nSome amphibians have gills, either in the early stages of their development (e.g. tadpoles of frogs), while others retain them into adulthood (e.g. some salamanders). Fish Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. Fully aerated fresh water therefore contains only 8–10 ml O₂/liter", "year when deprived of all food and water, surviving by breaking down their body fat to produce water as a byproduct. Tortoises also have very slow metabolisms. When thirsty, they may drink large quantities of water very quickly, storing it in their bladders and the \"root of the neck\" (the pericardium), both of which served to make them useful water sources on ships. On arid islands, tortoises lick morning dew from boulders, and the repeated action over many generations has formed half-sphere depressions in the rock. Senses Regarding their senses, Charles Darwin observed, \"The inhabitants believe that these animals are", "bladders. Many aquatic and marine organisms may also be composed of low-density materials. Deep-water teleosts, which do not have a swim bladder, have few lipids and proteins, deeply ossified bones, and watery tissues that maintain their buoyancy. Some sharks' livers are composed of low-density lipids, such as hydrocarbon squalene or wax esters (also found in Myctophidae without swim bladders), which provide buoyancy.\nSwimming animals that are denser than water must generate lift or adapt a benthic lifestyle. Movement of the fish to generate hydrodynamic lift is necessary to prevent sinking. Often, their bodies act as hydrofoils,", "chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin. Anura The order Anura (from the Ancient Greek a(n)- meaning \"without\" and oura meaning \"tail\")", "environment provides plenty of food for the animal, besides small fish, the animal could also feed on lake invertebrates. Orthosuchus has a small salt-secreting gland, which indicates that it is not a marine animal. And because the pubis articulates with the front region of the ischium, it is believed to be a basal animal that lived in swamps and lakes. The animal is probably quadrupedal because the fore limbs are approximately 91% the length of the hind limb, which also makes the walking on land easier. Unlike modern crocodiles, Orthosuchus does not creep on its belly; it probably walks at", "no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.\nAs with many aquatic animals, most fish release their nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. Some of the wastes diffuse through the gills. Blood wastes are filtered by the kidneys.\nSaltwater fish tend to lose water because of osmosis. Their kidneys return water to the body. The reverse", "is more likely to have calculi. Amphibians Most aquatic and semi-aquatic amphibians have a membranous skin which allows them to absorb water directly through it. Some semi-aquatic animals also have similarly permeable bladder membrane. As a result, they tend to have high rates of urine production to offset this high water intake, and have urine which is low in dissolved salts. The urinary bladder assists such animals to retain salts. Some aquatic amphibian such as Xenopus do not reabsorb water, to prevent excessive water influx. For land-dwelling amphibians, dehydration results in reduced urine output.\nThe amphibian bladder is usually highly distensible", "allow marine vertebrates to drink seawater. Active transport via sodium–potassium pump, found on the basolateral membrane, moves salt from the blood into the gland, where it is excreted as a concentrated solution. In birds The avian salt gland has two main ducts which are a medial and a lateral. Salt gland activations occurs from increased osmolarity in the blood, stimulating the hypothalamic information processing, sending signal through the parasympathetic nerve activating vasodilation, the release of hormones (acetylcholine and vasoactive intestinal peptide). Acetylcholine binds to the receptor on the basolateral membrane of the gland. This in turn activates calcium release in", "(dilute) urine to expel all the excess water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to. However, some fish show a tremendous ability to effectively osmoregulate across a broad range of salinities; fish with this ability are known as euryhaline species, e.g., Flounder. Flounder have been", "viviparous eelpout. Some sharks that ram-ventilate their gills may understandably increase their swimming speeds under hypoxia, to bring more water to the gills. Aquatic surface respiration In response to decreasing dissolved oxygen level in the environment, fish swim up to the surface of the water column and ventilate at the top layer of the water where it contains relatively higher level of dissolved oxygen, a behavior called aquatic surface respiration (ASR). Oxygen diffuses into water from air and therefore the top layer of water in contact with air contains more oxygen. This is true only in stagnant water; in", "These developments have preadapted freshwater crabs for terrestrial living, although freshwater crabs need to return to water periodically to excrete ammonia. Ecology and conservation Freshwater crabs are found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They live in a wide range of water bodies, from fast-flowing rivers to swamps, as well as in tree boles or caves. They are primarily nocturnal, emerging to feed at night; most are omnivores, although a small number are specialist predators, such as Platythelphusa armata from Lake Tanganyika, which feeds almost entirely on snails. Some species provide important food sources for various", "of water osmotically through their gills. To regain the water, they drink large amounts of seawater and excrete the salt. Freshwater is more dilute than the internal fluids of fish, however, so freshwater fish gain water osmotically through their gills.\nIn some primitive bony fishes and amphibians, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by lungs in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost", "increased gas exchange (see Reptile respiration and Reptile reproduction). This is where reproductive activity occurs. Cloacal respiration in animals Some turtles, especially those specialized in diving, are highly reliant on cloacal respiration during dives. They accomplish this by having a pair of accessory air bladders connected to the cloaca which can absorb oxygen from the water. Various fish, as well as polychaete worms and even crabs, are specialized to take advantage of the constant flow of water through the cloacal respiratory tree of sea cucumbers while simultaneously gaining the protection of living within the sea cucumber itself. At night, many", "cavity, forming a hydrostatic skeleton. The anemone stabilizes itself by flattening its pharynx which acts as a valve, keeping the gastrovascular cavity at a constant volume and making it rigid. When the longitudinal muscles relax, the pharynx opens and the cilia lining the siphonoglyphs beat, wafting water inwards and refilling the gastrovascular cavity. In general, the sea anemone inflates its body to extend its tentacles and feed, and deflates it when resting or disturbed. The inflated body is also used to anchor the animal inside a crevice, burrow or tube. Lifecycle Unlike other cnidarians, anemones (and other anthozoans) entirely lack", "water is still much higher than that of the external environment. This results in a large influx of water across the gills due to osmosis and loss of sodium and chloride from the shark's body. However, bull sharks in fresh water possess several organs with which to maintain appropriate salt and water balance; these are the rectal gland, kidneys, liver, and gills. All elasmobranchs have a rectal gland which functions in the excretion of excess salts accumulated as a consequence of living in seawater. Bull sharks in freshwater environments decrease the salt-excretory activity of the rectal gland, thereby conserving sodium", "the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles.\nIn all reptiles the urinogenital", "and habitat Stegocephalids are found worldwide, almost exclusively on deep and cold waters. Ecology Most of the members of the family are believed to be bathypelagic and free-floating, inhabiting the oceanic water columns at depths of thousands of meters below the ocean surface. They are commonly found with oil globules just underneath their carapaces. These are believed to function as aids in making the animals more buoyant, allowing them to float in the water with little energy expenditure. The smooth, globular shape of the body helps in streamlining the animal while drifting in the water currents, further aided by the", "albatrosses, gulls and terns, possess this gland, which allows them to drink the salty water from their environments while they are hundreds of miles away from land. Fish In some fish, a rete mirabile fills the swim bladder with oxygen, increasing the fish's buoyancy. A countercurrent exchange system is utilized between the venous and arterial capillaries. Lowering the pH levels in the venous capillaries causes oxygen to unbind from blood hemoglobin. This causes an increase in venous blood oxygen partial pressure, allowing the oxygen to diffuse through the capillary membrane and into the arterial capillaries, where oxygen is", "and expel carbon dioxide into the surrounding water. When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced, and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it. Some Anthozoa have ciliated grooves on their tentacles, allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth. This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals, which use the cavity as a hydrostatic skeleton, to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food.\nCnidaria that carry photosynthetic symbionts may have the opposite problem, an excess of oxygen, which", "water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water (to the more negative surroundings) and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to. However, some fish show a tremendous ability to effectively osmoregulate across a broad range of salinities; fish with this ability are known as euryhaline species, e.g., salmon. Salmon has been observed to", "is related to the use of asymmetrical contractile cycles and may be an adaptation to mitigate metabolic demands and protect against hypoxia when foraging at depth. While water is inside the chamber, the siphuncle extracts salt from it and diffuses it into the blood. The animal adjusts its buoyancy only in long term density changes by osmosis, either removing liquid from its chambers or allowing water from the blood in the siphuncle to slowly refill the chambers. This is done in response to sudden changes in buoyancy that can occur with predatory attacks of fish, which can break off parts", "They are also found in canals, artificial ponds, the water behind dams and in reservoirs but usually not in small isolated standing waters. They require high oxygen content. Feeding Viviparus viviparus species feeds on plankton and organic microdebris in suspension in the water and picked up through the siphon which allows the animal to breathe while filtering the water.This filter feeding habit makes it popular with owners of ponds or aquariums where they are known to consume filamentous algae, some microalgae, cyanophytes and waste solids and thus help to purify and clarify the water.They may however carry some parasites. Reproduction", "osmotic balance with the seawater. This adaptation prevents most sharks from surviving in freshwater, and they are therefore confined to marine environments. A few exceptions exist, such as the bull shark, which has developed a way to change its kidney function to excrete large amounts of urea. When a shark dies, the urea is broken down to ammonia by bacteria, causing the dead body to gradually smell strongly of ammonia.\nSharks have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea is damaging to living tissue so, to cope", "for taste and smell after extended periods under pressure. Adaptation in other animals Aquatic mammals such as seals and whales dive after full exhalation, which would reduce the amount of nitrogen available to saturate the tissues by 80 to 90%.\nAquatic mammals are also less sensitive to low alveolar oxygen concentrations and high carbon dioxide concentrations than purely terrestrial mammals.\nSeals, whales and porpoises have slower respiratory rates and larger tidal volume to total lung capacity ratio than land animals which gives them a large exchange of gas during each breath and compensates for low respiratory rate. This allows greater utilisation of", "present in all fish. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion. It is very susceptible to contamination by organic and inorganic compounds because they can accumulate over time and cause potentially life-threatening conditions. Because of the liver's capacity for detoxification and storage of harmful components, it is often used as an environmental biomarker. Swim bladder The swim bladder (or gas bladder) is an internal organ that contributes to the ability of a fish to control its buoyancy, and thus to stay at the current water depth, ascend, or descend", "axolotl) retaining gills as aquatic adults. Reproduction For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. Fejervarya raja) can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians. There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid Pelophylax esculentus reported in 2010.\nSeveral hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., Eleutherodactylus, the Pacific Platymantis, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do", "and among some land-dwelling species of frogs and salamanders may account for between 20% and 50% of their total body weight. Fish The gills of most teleost fish help to eliminate ammonia from the body, and fish live surrounded by water, but most still have a distinct bladder for storing waste fluid. The urinary bladder of teleosts is permeable to water, though this is less true for freshwater dwelling species than saltwater species. Most fish also have an organ called a swim-bladder which is unrelated to the urinary bladder except in its membranous nature. The loaches, pilchards,", "warmer, less concentrated nectar, which also reduces their consumption and flight time. Passive locomotion Passive locomotion in animals is a type of mobility in which the animal depends on their environment for transportation. Hydrozoans The Portuguese man o' war (Physalia physalis) lives at the surface of the ocean. The gas-filled bladder, or pneumatophore (sometimes called a \"sail\"), remains at the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Because the Portuguese man o' war has no means of propulsion, it is moved by a combination of winds, currents, and tides. The sail is equipped with a siphon. In the event", "ocean, omnivory is more prevalent; this affects the composition of lipids, with oceanic samples having (likely as an adaptation to lower concentrations of food) more monounsaturated fats with 20 or 22 carbon atoms. It is able to uptake glucose directly from seawater from its dermal glands and midgut, which arthropods were thought to be incapable of due to their rigid exoskeleton." ]

[ "If I understand this correctly, what its saying is that PTSD only exists as a recognised disorder because of the ability we have to study it.\n\nIt never used to be recognised. In wars, for example, people would get it and be labelled as cowards, because it wasn't understood what the sufferers were going through.\n\nI think its similar to our modern day view of depression. Maybe back in the day, depressed people were seen as someone who just needs to harden up, a bit of a downer all the time. Now, though, we realise its a proper disorder that the patient can't control, as opposed to a voluntary sadness.\n\nIn the same way, now that we have studying PTSD and its effects, we can recognise it as a disorder, not just someone being anxious and touchy and aggressive.", "The implication is that PTSD only exists because we've willed it into existence by labelling it and talking about it. It did not exist as a diagnosis prior to the Vietnam War, and even then it was specific to soldiers. Then, it starting spreading into civilian use and diagnoses after any trauma.\n\nWhether the disorder itself existed prior to Vietnam is up for hot debate. One study shows a decided lack of documented cases of the symptoms in earlier more bloody wars (like the Civil War). Another finds no documentation that would indicate PTSD as a disorder at any time. Studies of those nature could lead someone to believe that PTSD is indeed a modern American construct.\n\nI'm not saying I agree with this. Mostly, I'm framing the slide's statement into some sort of context. Here's a source to start working from if you want more information.\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "a psychological stress disorder that involves the experience of strong emotional reactions due to traumatic events in an individual's past. PTSD is almost always a result of a traumatic experience. Certain triggers, such as images, sounds, or other significant sensory details associated with the experience can evoke extreme stress responses, panic attacks, or severe anxiety. PTSD is commonly experienced by veterans of armed conflicts, and can be frequently diagnosed in victims of rape or other violent assaults.\nIf an individual diagnosed with PTSD associates a certain song with a traumatic memory, it typically triggers a stronger stress/anxiety response than the individual", "evidence-based psychotherapy (EBP) for PTSD. \nAccording to VA/DOD PTSD treatment guidelines (2015), it is currently a second-line recommended treatment (i.e., “weak-for”) for PTSD.\n<Frost et al. 2014 ITSDD></ref> Multicultural perspectives Trauma is ingrained in culture, and different cultures receive and treat trauma in different ways. Some cultures treat trauma with ancient practices such as praying or ritual.\nHistorical trauma is defined as traumatic stressors resulting from historical events that affect indigenous and First Nation communities. Many therapists use cultural intervention, the practice of culture, a sense of belonging and having a purpose and \"a return to indigenous traditional practices\" as a form", "PTSD embraces a wider range of symptoms relative to PTSD, specifically emphasizing problems of emotional regulation, negative self-concept, and interpersonal problems. Diagnosing complex PTSD implies that this wider range of symptoms is caused by traumatic experiences but disregards the fact that the reverse pathway also exists. That is, this wider range of symptoms may pre-exist any experiences of trauma and may lead to a higher risk of experiencing future traumas. It is also possible that this wider range of symptoms and higher risk of traumatization are related by hidden confounder variables and there is no causal relationship between symptoms", "historical trauma. HT is often misunderstood by some mental health professionals because these only focus on the individual, not historical causes and events.\nResearchers at the Stress-response Syndromes Lab at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, use the historical contributions of the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung to develop culturally sensitive treatments like symbolism and different myth stories to treat PTSD. Jung’s psychology asserts that “the fundamental ‘language’ of the psyche is not words, but images...studying the trinity of myths, metaphors, and archetypes enhances clinical interventions and psychotherapy.”", "are either directly exposed to death, threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence, witness it in person, learn about it occurring indirectly to a close relative or friend, or are repeatedly exposed to aversive details of traumatic events. PTSD includes four symptom clusters, including intrusion, avoidance, and negative mood and thoughts, and changes in arousal and reactivity. Individuals with PTSD may experience intrusive thoughts as they re-experience the traumatic events, as well as avoiding stimuli that reminds them of the traumatic event, and have increasingly negative thoughts and moods. Additionally, individuals with PTSD may exhibit irritable or aggressive, self-destructive behavior,", "and bipolar disorder looks promising. Application to post-traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder that may develop after a person experiences a traumatic event. Many people with PTSD relive or re-experience a traumatic event; memories of the event can appear at any time and the person feels the same fear/horror as when the event occurred. These can be either in the form of nightmares and/or flashbacks. Those with PTSD also have hyperarousal (fight-or-flight) and can be too alert to go to sleep. Due to this, many experience some form of insomnia.\nRecent studies have shown CBT-I offers", "stress disorder (PTSD), a treatable and usually temporary condition in which people sometimes experience overwhelming emotional or physical symptoms when something reminds them of, or \"triggers\" the memory of, a traumatic event. Long-term avoidance of triggers increases the likelihood that the affected person will develop a disabling level of PTSD. Identifying and addressing trauma triggers is an important part of treating PTSD.\nA trigger warning is a message presented to an audience about the contents of a book or other media, to warn them that it contains potentially distressing content. Scientists with knowledge in this area and research on", "of the following signs or symptoms: Unwanted re-experiencing of the traumatic event, such as vivid, intense, and emotionally-laden intrusive memories, dissociative flashback episodes, or nightmares; active avoidance of thoughts, memories, or reminders of the event; hyperarousal symptoms such as always being \"on guard\" for danger, enhanced (exaggerated) startle response, insomnia, trouble concentrating, or chronic irritability; anhedonia, social detachment, excessively negative thoughts about oneself or the world, marked guilt or shame, or a persistent depressed or anxious mood.\nPTSD is the third most compensated disability after hearing loss and tinnitus. Traumatic stressor Matthew J. Friedman of the National Center for PTSD notes", "by Anouar H. Smaine himself). The film aims to raise awareness about post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in veterans and civilians alike and also attempts to highlight the humanity that exists in people regardless of race, faith, or nationality.", "and alternate personalities or subpersonalities form with differing memories, emotions and behavior. DID is attributed to extremes of stress or disorders of attachment. What may be expressed as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults may become DID when occurring in children, possibly due to their greater use of imagination as a form of coping. Possibly due to developmental changes and a more coherent sense of self past the age of six, the experience of extreme trauma may result in different, though also complex, dissociative symptoms and identity disturbances. A specific relationship between childhood abuse, disorganized attachment, and lack", "in the general population. However, PTSD is not the most commonly diagnosed disorder in youth with exposure to trauma. Avoidance symptoms are less commonly displayed in younger children with PTSD and their memories of the traumatic event are demonstrated through play. These differences in symptom presentation can often lead to the misdiagnosis of PTSD. The prevalence rate for PTSD in youth placed in out-of-home-care is higher than youth who remained at home. Cognitive impairments A child’s cognitive development is compromised by repeated abuse and neglect. Cognitive impairments suggest lower IQ, academic underachievement, as well as neurocognitive deficits. Other brain functions", "enforced by evolution as learning from high-stress environments is necessary in \"fight or flight\" decisions that characterize human survival. Post-traumatic stress disorder PTSD is an anxiety disorder caused by exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal involving the occurrence or threat of physical harm. It is one of the most severe and well-known of the different types of psychological trauma, mostly due to its prevalence in war veterans. It can manifest itself as early as after the first year of life. As mentioned above, the stress of PTSD can have severe effects on the hippocampus, causing problems with transferring", "processing of the traumatic memory and the emotions resulting from the events. Because the emotions are often overwhelmingly negative and difficult to cope with, PTSD sufferers can block the natural recovery process by using avoidance of traumatic triggers as a strategy to function in day-to-day living. Unfortunately, this limits their opportunities to process the traumatic experience and gain a more adaptive understanding of it. CPT incorporates trauma-specific cognitive techniques to help individuals with PTSD more accurately appraise these \"stuck points\" and progress toward recovery. History Development of CPT began in 1988 with work by Patricia A. Resick. Initial randomized controlled", "reviews of the draft. Definition According to the NC-PTSD, psychological first aid is an evidence-informed modular approach for assisting people in the immediate aftermath of disaster and terrorism to reduce initial distress and to foster short and long-term adaptive functioning. It was used by non-mental health experts, such as responders and volunteers. Other characteristics include non-intrusive pragmatic care and assessing needs. PFA does not necessarily involve discussion of the traumatic event. History Before PFA, there was a procedure known as debriefing. It was intended to reduce the incidences of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after a major disaster. PTSD is", "feeling detached from other people, self-guilt, and difficulty sleeping. Individuals with PTSD may experience a number of symptoms similar to those experienced in both anxiety and depression.\nIn addition to the established diagnostic criteria for PTSD, Frank Ochberg proposed a specific set of victimization symptoms (not formally recognized in diagnostic systems such as the DSM or ICD) that includes shame, self-blame, obsessive hatred of the person who victimized them alongside conflicting positive feelings toward that person, feeling defiled, being sexually inhibited, despair or resignation to the situation, secondary victimization (described below), and risk of revictimization. Other Additional symptoms of victimization may", "from PTSD or to have some history of trauma.\nIn Trauma and Recovery, Herman expresses the additional concern that patients who suffer from C-PTSD frequently risk being misunderstood as inherently 'dependent', 'masochistic', or 'self-defeating', comparing this attitude to the historical misdiagnosis of female hysteria. However, those who develop C-PTSD do so as a result of the intensity of the traumatic bond – in which someone becomes tightly biolo-chemically bound to someone who abuses them and the responses they learned to survive, navigate and deal with the abuse they suffered then become automatic responses, imbedded in their personality over the years of", "the clinical field, psychodrama may be used to alleviate the effects of emotional trauma and PTSD. One specific application in clinical situations is for people suffering from dysfunctional attachments. For this reason, it is often utilized in the treatment of children who have suffered emotional trauma and abuse. Using role-play and story telling, children may be able to express themselves emotionally and reveal truths about their experience they are not able to openly discuss with their therapist, and rehearse new ways of behavior. Moreno's theory of child development offers further insight into psychodrama and children. Moreno suggested that", "Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition and the Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary giving the non-hyphenated spelling.\nSome at the Pentagon have used the terminology \"PTSS\" (syndrome instead of disorder, to avoid connotation of stigma), or just \"PTS\".\nThe comedian George Carlin criticized the euphemism treadmill which led to progressive change of the way PTSD was referred to over the course of the 20th century, from \"shell shock\" in the First World War to the \"battle fatigue\" in the Second World War, to \"operational exhaustion\" in the Korean War, to the current \"post-traumatic stress disorder\", coined during the Vietnam War,", "treatment for trauma hinges upon PTSD symptoms such as emotion regulation and distress. Some PTSD treatments such as exposure therapy may not be suitable for individuals whose distress tolerance and/or emotion regulation is low. Biosocial theory posits that emotion dysregulation is caused by an individual’s heightened emotional sensitivity combined with environmental factors (such as invalidation of emotions, continued abuse/trauma), and tendency to ruminate (repeatedly think about a negative event and how the outcome could have been changed). \nAn individual who has these features is likely to use maladaptive coping behaviors. DBT can be appropriate in these cases because it teaches", "lack of affect (emotional feeling) and loss of motivation. One study found that there was a high prevalence of trauma in patients with severe mental illness. However, only a small percentage had been diagnosed with PTSD when displaying PTSD-like symptoms. Therefore, the more complex symptoms of psychosis may prevent the clinical detection required when diagnosing PTSD. In addition, those who have been diagnosed with PTSD and have an identified form of trauma show positive symptoms of psychosis such as delusions and/or hallucinations. Finally, it has been suggested that individuals suffering from psychosis may be more vulnerable to intrusions.", "and PTSD can also be \"mutually maintaining\", with cognitive, behavioural, and affective patterns creating a cycle of worsening physical and mental symptoms. Under this model, depressive symptoms (such as reduced activity and increased physiological arousal) aggravate pain symptoms, and unhealthy coping strategies (such as catastrophic thinking) worsen mental health.\nMany mental health disorders also share neurobiological mechanisms with psychological disorders, such as activating the HPA axis and increasing the production of stress hormones. Chronic pain, anxiety, depression, and PTSD are also all associated dysfunction involving serotonin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. New research has also linked both chronic pain and mental illness", "shock trauma and developmental trauma. Shock trauma is loosely defined as a single-episode traumatic event such as a car accident, natural disaster such as an earthquake, battlefield incident, physical attack, etc. Developmental trauma refers to various kinds of psychological damage that occur during child development when a child has insufficient or detrimental attention from the primary caregivers. Evidence Two randomized controlled studies of Somatic Experiencing as a treatment for PTSD were published in 2017\n. They showed positive results indicating Somatic Experiencing may be an effective therapy method for PTSD and concluded that further research is needed to understand who shall", "PTSD episode occurs and how long the episode lasts. Dopamine has less of an effect than norepinephrine. Different neurochemicals can affect different parts of the brain. This allows drugs to be used for PTSD to not have an undesired effect on other brain processes. An effective medication to help alleviate nightmares associated with PTSD is Prazosin.", "Applied Research Associates PTSD A 2007-2008 pilot study by ARA found connections between traumatic brain injury and Posttraumatic stress disorder, contesting the notion that PTSD is primarily a psychological and not a physical affliction.", "to disrupt many aspects of people's lives as well, e.g. academic functioning, and to predict worse health outcomes later in life. Posttraumatic stress disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a specific anxiety disorder in response to a traumatic event in a person's life. It is often discussed in the context of mental health of combat veterans, but also occurs in individuals who have been traumatized in other ways, such as victimization. PTSD involves long-term intense fear, re-experiencing the traumatic event (e.g. nightmares), avoidance of reminders of the event, and being highly reactive (e.g. easily enraged or startled). It may include", "\"traumatic event\".\nThe DSM-IV classified PTSD under anxiety disorders, but the DSM-5 created a new category called \"Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders,\" in which PTSD is now classified. Terminology The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not hyphenate 'post' and 'traumatic', thus, the DSM-5 lists the disorder as posttraumatic stress disorder. However, many scientific journal articles and other scholarly publications do hyphenate the name of the disorder, viz., post-traumatic stress disorder. Dictionaries also differ with regard to the preferred spelling of the disorder with the Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged using the hyphenated spelling, and the American Heritage", "stress disorder (PTSD) is that the intrusive thoughts of PTSD sufferers are of traumatic events that actually happened to them, whereas OCD sufferers have thoughts of imagined catastrophes. PTSD patients with intrusive thoughts have to sort out violent, sexual, or blasphemous thoughts from memories of traumatic experiences. When patients with intrusive thoughts do not respond to treatment, physicians may suspect past physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. Depression People who are clinically depressed may experience intrusive thoughts more intensely, and view them as evidence that they are worthless or sinful people. The suicidal thoughts that are common in", "conceived as a useful heuristic not necessarily tied to Selye's original hypotheses. The US military became a key center of stress research, attempting to understand and reduce combat neurosis and psychiatric casualties.\nThe psychiatric diagnosis post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was coined in the mid-1970s, in part through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, and Chaim F. Shatan. The condition was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as posttraumatic stress disorder in 1980. PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often", "and hypervigilance, amongst other arousal-related symptoms.\nWhile PTSD symptoms can have devastating effects, in the first review of moral injury, Litz and co-authors argued that service members may experience long-term pain and suffering stemming from their time in combat that is not encapsulated or represented by a diagnosis of PTSD. Unlike PTSD's focus on fear-related symptoms, moral injury focuses on symptoms related to guilt, shame, anger, and disgust. A diagnosis of PTSD in the DSM-III listed an individual experiencing guilt for behaviors that required for their survival as a symptom. However, conceptualizations of PTSD in each subsequent DSM has dropped guilt", "with the awareness of developing PTSD. It is illegal for an employer to screen or deny a provider based on these findings. Post-Crisis Interventions Following a traumatic event, there are multiple treatments for post-traumatic symptoms used for individuals in these populations. Common treatment for first responders with PTSD are cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), CBT as exposure therapy, prolonged exposure therapy (PE), brief eclectic psychotherapy (BEP), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD). Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) focuses on the relationship between thoughts, feelings and behaviors. The American Psychological Association (APA) strongly" ]

[ "Whole eyes are really tricky to transplant for a few reasons:\n\n1. The retina dies in only 2-4 hours without a blood supply. The donor and recipient would have to be right by each other.\n\n2. The retina is part of the brain, so if a donor is brain dead, the eye would be dead too. You have to harvest the eye right after the donor's heart stops.\n\n3. You have to connect the optic nerve, which has 1.3 million individual nerves that need to link up.\n\n4. You need to suppress the immune system so it doesn't recognize the new eye as a foreign and attack it. (Although this isn't as bad as for other organs since the eye is generally protected from the immune system.)\n\nActually this stuff isn't that far off. Researchers have already transplanted eyes in mice who survived for 200 days. But they aren't sure how much vision those mice had restored. Still, even 30% vision restored gives people independence and is better than complete blindness.", "Anything in the human body can be transplanted, we just lack the science right now to suppress the immune system from attacking the replacement body part without immune suppressant drug therapy for the rest of your life and hope a common cold does not kill you. \n\nNerve ending reattachment science right now is not exactly precise, and is more like trying to connect Lego pieces together with boxing gloves when it comes to spinal cord injuries. \n\nLastly keeping a brain alive in a jar for a significant amount of time is just too far off from reality at this time, but maybe one day this could happen and the science of human integration of robotics bodies could become a reality. \n\n_URL_0_", "NOT A DOCTOR. But I'm going to say its because they have way too much nerve bandwidth. It'd be like trying to get a new spinal chord.", "Corneas are on every donation checklist.\n\nThe rest of the eye is pointless after you remove those." ]

[ "transplanting tissues or organs from one species to another, as a way to overcome the shortage of human organs for use in organ transplants. Current research involves using primates as the recipients of organs from pigs that have been genetically modified to reduce the primates' immune response against the pig tissue. Although transplant rejection remains a problem, recent clinical trials that involved implanting pig insulin-secreting cells into diabetics did reduce these people's need for insulin.\nDocuments released to the news media by the animal rights organization Uncaged Campaigns showed that, between 1994 and 2000, wild baboons imported to the UK from", "organ rejection by the body is all but certain.\nOrgan rejection is the unfortunate circumstance of the host immune system recognizing the transplanted organ as foreign. This is the most notable complication facing transplant recipients. Through T-cell receptors, T-lymphocytes are able to distinguish between self and non-self by recognizing human leukocyte antigens (HLA) bound to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein located on the surface of organ cells. Once identified as foreign, the immune system proceeds to destroy the transplanted tissue. The panel reactive antibody (PRA) test measures the proportion of the population to which a recipient will react via pre-existing", "are essential so organs do not wait too long outside the body and without blood flow. Not only is there a lack of transplantable intestines, but a deficiency in the number of centers possessing the capability to carry out the complicated transplant procedure as well. As of 2005, there were only 61 medical centers in the world capable of executing an intestinal transplant. Furthermore, many young, small children, particularly those weighing less than 5 kg, cannot find a transplant due to the lack of size-matched donors.\nDespite these challenges, obtaining an intestine for transplant is rather probable in the United States.", "heart valves, bone parts, joints, and use of dialysis. Artificial heart transplants are not permissible according to Jewish law due to low success rates and the serious medical complications involved. Medical science has not reached the point of being able to use artificial organs or animal organs as protocol for transplantation. Blood and bone marrow According to Jewish law application, it is permissible to donate blood and bone marrow tissue because there is almost no danger or risk to the donor, and these tissues regenerate quickly. Heart For successful heart and liver transplants the donor's heart must still be beating.", "involves the transfer of healthy organs in one direction, depleting the regions where organs are bought. This transfer typically occurs from South to North, developing to developed nations, females to males, and from people of color to whites, a trend that experts say \"has exacerbated old...divisions\". While some organs such as the kidney can be transplanted routinely and the single remaining kidney is adequate for normal human needs, other organs are less easy to source. Liver transplants in particular are prominent, but incur an excruciating recovery that deters donations.\nMost countries have laws which criminalize the buying and selling of organs,", "every individual's immune system is tuned to the specific set of HLA and self proteins produced by that individual; where this goes awry is when tissues are transferred to another person. Since individuals almost always have different \"banks\" of HLAs, the immune system of the recipient recognizes the transplanted tissue as non-self and destroys the foreign tissue, leading to transplant rejection. It was through the realization of this that HLAs were discovered. Discovery The thought that the mammalian body must have some way of identifying introduced foreign tissues first arose during World War II. It started with a plane crash", "Earth in the mid-21st century, it became possible to transplant any organ from any person to another, with the exception of brain and central nervous system tissue. Individuals were categorized according to their so-called \"rejection spectrum\" which allowed doctors to counter any immune system responses to the new organs, allowing transplants to \"take\" for life. It also enabled the crime of \"organlegging\" which lasted well into the 24th century. Stasis fields A Slaver stasis field creates a bubble of space/time disconnected from the entropy gradient of the rest of the universe. Time slows effectively to a stop for an object", "face transplant experiments in Xijing hospital, leading in April 2006 to the world's first face transplant that included bone. The donor had been declared brain-dead before the operation.\nIn May 2007 the Regulation on Human Organ Transplantation came into force, banning organ trading and the removal of a person's organs without their prior written consent, and this has been favourably received by the World Health Organization and The Transplantation Society. To curb illegal transplants, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions; only a few hospitals will be certified to perform organ transplants. As a result of", "Transplantable organs and tissues Transplantable organs and tissues may both refer to organs and tissues that are relatively often or routinely transplanted (here \"main organs and tissues\"), as well as relatively seldom transplanted organs and tissues and ones on the experimental stage. Heart Heart transplantation is performed on patients with end-stage heart failure or severe coronary artery disease. The most common procedure is to take a working heart from a recently deceased organ donor (allograft) and implant it into the patient. The patient's own heart may either be removed (orthotopic procedure) or, less commonly, left in to support the donor", "many problems when it comes to this. Not everyone has insurance and can afford to get a transplant. Transplant locations Because these patients are often somewhat unstable, on some form of life support and/or life-sustaining technologies (cardiopulmonary bypass, respirator/ventilator or breathing tube, implantable cardioverter/defibrillator, some form of dialysis or other renal replacement therapy, artificial liver, parenteral nutrition, etc.), these procedures- especially if they involve the vital organs (heart, lung, liver, pancreas; kidney transplantation could be included here but is more common)- usually only take place in Level I trauma centers that usually are academic medical centers (teaching hospitals), or at", "the liver to regenerate upon failure, or to bridge the patient's liver functions until transplant is available. It is only made possible by the fact that it uses real liver cells (hepatocytes), and even then, it is not a permanent substitute.\nResearchers from Japan found that a mixture of human liver precursor cells (differentiated from human induced pluripotent stem cells [iPSCs]) and two other cell types can spontaneously form three-dimensional structures dubbed “liver buds.” Lungs With some almost fully functional, artificial lungs promise to be a great success in the near future. An Ann Arbor company MC3 is currently working on", "performed spurred research into the transplantation of non-human hearts into humans after 1993. Xenografts from other species and artificial hearts are two less successful alternatives to allografts.\nThe ability of medical teams to perform transplants continues to expand. For example, Sri Lanka's first heart transplant was successfully performed at the Kandy General Hospital on July 7, 2017.\n\nDuring heart transplant, the vagus nerve is severed, thus removing parasympathetic influence over the myocardium. However, some limited return of sympathetic nerves has been demonstrated in humans. Complications Post-operative complications include infection, sepsis, organ rejection as well as the side-effects of the immunosuppressive medication. Since", "(via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid jawbones and tracheas from human stem cells towards this end. Several artificial urinary bladders have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct. Genetic engineering Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation", "with corneal transplantation may be required to save the eye. In all corneal ulcers it is important to rule out predisposing factors like diabetes mellitus and immunodeficiency.", "in children who will have the genetic inheritance of the organ donor and not the recipient; it has so far only been carried out on identical twins. Use of an ovarian transplant from a genetically identical donor prevents rejection of the donated organ. This bypasses the need for immune suppressants to maintain the function of the donated ovary, which is not vital for survival. More significantly, many immunosuppressants, such as mycophenolate mofetil, may cause birth defects. Lili Elbe received an ovary transplant in the early 1930s, followed by a uterus transplant, but died shortly thereafter from complications.", "Transplant surgeon Parameters There are distinct parameters for who is eligible for transplantation of the different organs. Broadly speaking (this is not meant to be exhaustive), these include: age, how long they have been on the waiting list, how urgently they need the organ (which is often related to how long they've been on the list, and whether they are actually in end-stage disease, which has its own laboratory and functional criteria per organ); their prognosis (how stable they are now- whether they can survive major invasive surgery and the anesthesia and post-op period, and how they have been, and", "hepatitis. Less commonly, liver transplantation is done for fulminant hepatic failure, in which liver failure occurs over days to weeks.\nLiver allografts for transplant usually come from donors who have died from fatal brain injury. Living donor liver transplantation is a technique in which a portion of a living person's liver is removed (hepatectomy) and used to replace the entire liver of the recipient. This was first performed in 1989 for pediatric liver transplantation. Only 20 percent of an adult's liver (Couinaud segments 2 and 3) is needed to serve as a liver allograft for an infant or small", "organs can be introduced as a viable medical treatment vary.\nIn 2013, the company Organovo produced a human liver using 3D bioprinting, though it is not suitable for transplantation, and has primarily been used as a medium for drug testing. In 2018, doctors from Belfast transplanted a 3D-printed kidney replica. 3D printing techniques 3D printing for the manufacturing of artificial organs has been a major topic of study in biological engineering. As the rapid manufacturing techniques entailed by 3D printing become increasingly efficient, their applicability in artificial organ synthesis has grown more evident. Some of the primary benefits of 3D printing", "a few months after the procedure. Since then, more transplantation procedures have taken place but it is still a controversial subject. Transplantation in naturalist religions and cultures such as Native Americans, Buddhists, and Confucianists tend to dissuade the use of living donors and transplantation. The body is idealized as a home for a soul and the organs belonging to a person are considered perverse if utilized by another person. No religion specifically outlaws the use of beating heart cadavers or prefers them to non beating heart cadavers. Western cultures more widely accept the use of transplantation by beating heart cadavers", "infection, the collagen used to repair the process is not regularly arranged, leading to an opaque patch (leukoma). When a cornea is needed for transplant, as from an eye bank, the best procedure is to remove the cornea from the eyeball, preventing the cornea from absorbing the aqueous humor. Surgical procedures Various refractive eye surgery techniques change the shape of the cornea in order to reduce the need for corrective lenses or otherwise improve the refractive state of the eye. In many of the techniques used today, reshaping of the cornea is performed by photoablation using the excimer laser.\nIf the", "their own liver removed. Following this, the aorta, cava, and portal veins of the donor and recipient are anastomosed. The graft is then flushed before the caval clamps are removed. The intestine is then reconstructed as in an isolated intestinal transplant, before being connected to the bile duct servicing the new liver. Multivisceral transplants are especially difficult and susceptible to complications because all organs must survive a conjoined procurement, transport, and transplantation. All three of these measures are tailored to the individual needs of the recipient. Preservation of the native spleen, pancreas, and duodenum during a multivisceral transplant can reduce", "donor organ is placed in the same anatomic location as the original liver. Liver transplantation nowadays is a well accepted treatment option for end-stage liver disease and acute liver failure. Pancreas A pancreas transplant involves implanting a healthy pancreas (one that can produce insulin) into a person who has diabetes. Because the pancreas performs functions necessary in the digestion process, the recipient's native pancreas is left in place, and the donated pancreas attached in a different location. In the event of rejection of the new pancreas, the recipient could not survive without the native pancreas still in place.", "of the surgeon.\nThe large majority of liver transplants use the entire liver from a non-living donor for the transplant, particularly for adult recipients. A major advance in pediatric liver transplantation was the development of reduced size liver transplantation, in which a portion of an adult liver is used for an infant or small child. Further developments in this area included split liver transplantation, in which one liver is used for transplants for two recipients, and living donor liver transplantation, in which a portion of a healthy person's liver is removed and used as the allograft. Living donor liver transplantation", "patient to make the new organ. This significantly decreases the likelihood of transplant rejection, and may remove the need for immunosuppressive drugs after transplant, which would reduce the health risks of transplants. However, since it may not always be possible to collect all the needed cell types, it may be necessary to collect adult stem cells or induce pluripotency in collected tissue. This involves resource-intensive cell growth and differentiation and comes with its own set of potential health risks, since cell proliferation in a printed organ occurs outside the body and requires external application of growth factors. However, the ability", "graft, a combined intestinal-liver graft, and a multivisceral graft in which other abdominal organs may be transplanted as well. In the most basic and common graft, an isolated intestinal graft, only sections of the jejunum and ileum are transplanted. These are performed in the absence of liver failure. In the event of severe liver dysfunction due to PN, enzyme deficiencies, or other underlying factors, the liver may be transplanted along with the intestine. In a multivisceral graft, the stomach, duodenum, pancreas, and/or colon may be included in the graft. Multivisceral grafts are considered when the underlying condition significantly compromises other", "no signs of bacterial, viral, and fungal infections, organ transplantation is not without extrasurgical risk. Waitlist and donation outcomes A major challenge facing the intestinal transplant enterprise is meeting the need for transplantable intestines, particularly in the United States where the majority of intestinal transplants take place. There exists a narrow timeslot between procurement and transplantation that any organ remains viable, and logistical challenges are faced regarding bringing organ and recipient together. During procurement, organs that are being recovered are cooled and perfused with preservation solution. This slows organ activity and increases the time they remain viable for transplant. Although", "how they likely will fare with and/or without the organ, versus with other therapies that are not transplantation- such as continued dialysis or getting an artificial heart or left ventricular assist device).\nCare must be taken when finding organs for the very young (this requires special training, or at least knowledge of, pediatric and newborn transplantation procedures), or certain very elderly patients (there may or may not be mandatory or preferred cut-off ages for receiving an organ or tissue, depending on the location, the institutions involved, the surgical team, whether the patient has any relevant co-morbidities and whether they are capable", "In a very rare and complex multi-step surgical procedure, employed to help the most disabled patients, a lamina of the person's tooth is grafted into the eye, with an artificial lens installed in the transplanted piece. Prognosis The prognosis for visual restoration and maintenance of ocular health with corneal transplants is generally very good. Risks for failure or guarded prognoses are multifactorial. The type of transplant, the disease state requiring the procedure, the health of the other parts of the recipient eye and even the health of the donor tissue may all confer a more or less favorable", "organ trafficking and transplant tourism have become global problems accounting for an estimated 10% of organ transplants that are performed annually around the world. Organ trafficking, transplant tourism and transplant commercialism threaten to undermine the nobility and legacy of transplantation worldwide because of the reality associated with these practices – the vulnerable in resource poor countries (such as the illiterate and impoverished, undocumented immigrants, prisoners, and political or economic refugees) are exploited for their organs as a major source of organs for the rich patient-tourists who are prepared to travel and can afford to purchase organs. The Istanbul Summit These", "not performed. The kidney was the easiest organ to transplant: tissue typing was simple; the organ was relatively easy to remove and implant; live donors could be used without difficulty; and in the event of failure, kidney dialysis was available from the 1940s. \nThe major barrier to organ transplantation between genetically non-identical patients lay in the recipient's immune system, which would treat a transplanted kidney as a 'non-self' and immediately or chronically reject it. Thus, having medication to suppress the immune system was essential. However, suppressing an individual's immune system places that individual at greater risk of infection and cancer" ]

[ "it's called nystagmus. It can appear as a problem for some people, in which it is uncontrolled, but some people are able to do it voluntarily.\n\nOther than the obvious vision problems for people who have involuntary nystagmus and can't 'switch it off', I'm not aware of it being a cause of any sort of damage.", "Yup, I've been able to do it since I was knee-high to a grasshopper; am 33 now, with better than 20/20 vision. It definitely strains your eyes after a bit, but otherwise is just like crossing them, some people can do it easily while others have to look at their finger moving it closer to their nose." ]

[ "the wagon-wheel effect under continuous illumination while humming. The humming vibrates the eyes in their sockets, effectively creating stroboscopic conditions within the eye. By humming at a frequency of a multiple of the rotation frequency, he was able to stop the rotation. By humming at slightly higher and lower frequencies, he was able to make the rotation reverse slowly and to make the rotation go slowly in the direction of rotation. A similar stroboscopic effect is now commonly observed by people eating crunchy foods, such as carrots, while watching TV: the image appears to shimmer. The crunching vibrates the eyes", "case of rotating objects are also referred to as wagon-wheel effect. \nIn general, undesired effects in the visual perception of a human observer induced by light intensity fluctuations are called Temporal Light Artefacts (TLAs). Further background and explanations on the different TLA phenomena including stroboscopic effect is given in a recorded webinar “Is it all just flicker?” .\nIn some special applications, TLMs may also induce desired effects. For instance, a stroboscope is tool that produces short repetitive flashes of light that can be used for measurement of movement frequencies or for analysis or timing of moving objects. Also stroboscopic visual", "whichever light they saw as a consistent part of the scanning process. \nIn one experiment a light was placed on the nose of one of the tortoises. It appeared that the robot was looking at itself in a mirror. Its light began flickering and the robot started shaking as if excited to see itself in the mirror. Walter argued that if this behavior were seen in an animal it \"might be accepted as evidence of some degree of self-awareness.\" \nWhen presented with certain stimuli, even outside of their programmed range of experience, they responded consistently, as if they", "room, they are lit by strobes. The pulse of the flashing lights varies--they are connected to sound and proximity sensors. The result is that when one approaches a Tsai or makes a noise in its vicinity, the thing responds. The rods appear to move; there is a shimmering, a flashing, an eerie ballet of metal, whose apparent movements range from stillness to jittering, and back to a slow, indescribably sensuous undulation.\n \nThe philosopher Vilem Flusser wrote of Tsai's work:\n There can be no doubt that Tsai's phenomena (whether they be works of art in the strict sense, or whether they", "device used in both shows is LabCo's \"Hypnotron 2000\", an animated optical illusion (designed by Jerry Andrus) in which concentric rings of black/white stripes rotate in alternating directions. Coby shows this animation for about fifteen seconds, and then instructs viewers to look at a photograph, or the back of their hand, to see the object they look at appear to distort in front of their eyes. This device is a well-known example of the motion aftereffect.\nThe Hypnotron 2000 was reportedly so popular in the first show that Coby had to perform it again in the second.", "experimenter looking at them, over a period of 100 possible staring periods. The subjects' answers were correct 50.2% of the time, a result that Coover called an \"astonishing approximation\" of pure chance. Coover concluded that although the feeling of being stared at was common, experimentation showed it to be \"groundless\". He suggested that the \"tingling\" sensation described by Titchener was an example of motor automatism.\nA 1983 experiment using closed-circuit television cameras to watch the subjects reported a 74% success rate, although later research suggested that the randomness of the sequences had not been controlled for. An attempt to recreate this", "principle on \"the well-known experiment of whirling a stick, ignited at one end\" (a.k.a. the sparkler's trail effect). Rubber pencil trick A pencil or another rigid straight line can appear as bending and becoming rubbery when it is wiggled fast enough between fingers, or otherwise undergoing rigid motion.\nPersistence of vision has been discarded as sole cause of the illusion. It is thought that the eye movements of the observer fail to track the motions of features of the object.\nThis effect is known as an entertaining \"magic\" trick for children. LED POV displays The term \"persistence of vision display\" or \"POV", "the \"blind anma\" into the public eye in the West. Blind anma are also commonly used to comedic effect in Japanese cinema. Techniques Anma practices uses common massage techniques such as kneading, rubbing, tapping and shaking. These activities are directed at specific vital points and meridians on the body. The seven traditional techniques are: pressing/stroking, grasping/kneading, strengthening, compressing, vibrating, tapping and \"hand music\". In addition, methods of abdominal palpitation (按腹 ampuku), developed by Shinsai Ota in the seventeenth century, are used. It is considered quite a vigorous form of massage, with gripping movements intended to increase blood flow to the", "cages. Each fidget spinner also has two or more weights on the outside that make it spin faster and stay balanced. Bearings can vary to adjust for the design's spin time, vibration, and noise, causing unique sensory feedback.\nBeing a kind of a flywheel of a gyroscope in principle, fidget spinners come with similar effects enabling a player to pull various tricks and stunts while forces of a gyroscope take hold. A fidget spinner can be balanced on top of fingers, thrown and caught, and so on. Origin As of 2017, the patent status of the various fidget spinners on", "actual stimulus locations. Similarly, stimuli delivered first near the elbow then near the wrist evoke the illusory perception of taps hopping from elbow towards wrist. The illusion was discovered by Frank Geldard and Carl Sherrick of Princeton University, in the early 1970s, and further characterized by Geldard (1982) and in many subsequent studies. Geldard and Sherrick likened the perception to that of a rabbit hopping along the skin, giving the phenomenon its name. While the rabbit illusion has been most extensively studied in the tactile domain, analogous sensory saltation illusions have been observed in audition and vision. The word", "Magnetophosphene Magnetophosphenes are flashes of light (phosphenes) that are seen when one is subjected to a changing magnetic field such as when in an MRI. This changing field causes current within the retina or visual cortex resulting in the illusion of light. In one series, 8 out of 1023 people having an MRI experienced flashing lights.\nMagnetophosphenes have been proposed as an explanation for ball lightning.", "so-called surround effect. Especially interesting was comparison of real finger movement and its imagination. In case of real movement the short burst of gamma propagation was observed from the electrode positioned over finger primary motor cortex . In case of movement imagination this propagation started later and a cross-talk between different sites overlying motor area and supplementary motor area (SMA) was found. (The dynamics of propagation may be observed in animations).\nAnother applications of SDTF concerned evaluation of transmission during cognitive experiments. The results of the Continuous Attention Test (CAT) confirmed the engagement of prefrontal and frontal structures in the", "(lit. \"electric massage\") is a popular Japanese prank played between two people where one person puts their foot into the genital area of the other and shakes it in a vibrating motion. Often this is done by grabbing the other person's feet, raising them, and then placing one's own foot on their crotch and vibrating it. This is often done between school aged boys as a prank similar to kancho and could be seen by a western audience as a type of bullying. In 2007 the crisps company Doritos released a new flavour of potato chip called \"Denkianma\". Devices Similar", "of F5, when the stimulation is applied on a behavioral time scale, evokes a complex movement in which the hand moves to the mouth, closes in a grip, orients such that the grip faces the mouth, the neck turns to align the mouth to the hand, and the mouth opens.\nMirror neurons were first discovered in area F5 in the monkey brain by Rizzolatti and colleagues. These neurons are active when the monkey grasps an object. Yet the same neurons become active when the monkey watches an experimenter grasp an object in the same way. The neurons are therefore both sensory", "draw the audience's attention away from whichever hand is engaged in sleight of hand. Magicians can accomplish this by encouraging the audience to look elsewhere or by having an assistant do or say something to draw the audience's attention away.\nSleight of hand is often used in close-up magic, performed with the audience close to the magician, usually within three or four meters, possibly in physical contact. It often makes use of everyday items as props, such as cards and coins. The guiding principle of sleight-of-hand, articulated by legendary close-up magician Dai Vernon, is \"be natural\". A well-performed sleight looks like", "Saw The Magic Saw is a musical saw, which is wired into the main effects box. It utilizes a small adhesive speaker and is played percussively as well as with a violin bow. It sounds similar to a theremin when played and renditions of \"Somewhere Over the Rainbow\" have been performed on numerous occasions.", "was able to elicit a tactile sensation. Studies have looked further into determining whether amputees actually experience mirror touch synesthesia. Four amputees were recruited in a study and asked to observe an assistant's arm being touched at various angles. 61 out of the 64 trials experienced mirror-touch sensations, and when the arm was wiggled, the sensations were enhanced. Finally, one amputee experienced a cold sensation when observing ice cubes touching the assistant's arm. Although there is evidence that mirror-touch synesthesia occurs in amputees, recent data has been inconclusive. In mirror-touch synesthetes There are three main theories for the presence of", "that many objects are seen vibrating, such as forks or bells. Parallels have been drawn between these vibrations and the frequent theme of music in Walser's writing. Also, in one passage of the book Jakob describes a staff member at the school as like a monkey, but in the film a literal monkey takes the role of that staff member. In addition, while Jakob wonders about the activities of Herr and Lisa Benjamenta in the novel, the film clearly displays an incestuous relationship. The conclusion of the film, however, differs from the book in a different manner. It shows Herr", "around 12 inches square, on a thin table. It is penetrated by three Samurai swords - \"side to side, front to back, and even from top to bottom.\" A male assistant mounts a mirror at the back of the table, and Copperfield explains that this enables the audience to \"see the box from around the sides and from the back at all times.\"\nCopperfield asks the audience to watch very carefully \"because we're going to do this very slowly.\"\nThe lights are extinguished, leaving the stage in darkness. A musical soundtrack of Peter Gabriel's Mercy Street plays. The lighting is slowly restored", "of concentrated tension were the successive experiences of helpless groping in the dark depths for something to rest a foot upon, of blind search all over the chilled rocky surface for a knob or tiny crack where the numbed fingers might find another hold, of agonizing doubt as to their stability when found, of eerie thrill and sickening sensation when the long-sought support crumbled beneath the stress and hurtled downward into the blackness of space, whilst the hollow reverberations of its fall reechoed through the silence.\"\n As Outram observed, after \"nearly 17 hours of adventurous companionship,\" the mountaineers finally unloosened", "Moggle, as it makes it somewhat hard to put things on her feeds; for example, Tally informed Aya not to send a transmission signal to Moggle so that the Extras would not see, but she did anyway (this was utilized by Tally as a trap). Moggle was used as a tool for the Extras to convey to Aya the goodness in their actions.\nHiro Fuse: Aya's older brother. He was a pretty during the Prettytime but was cured thanks to the mind-rain, the time when all the pretties were cured of the lesions on their brain. Being famous, he has become", "with a laryngeal mirror in order to study \"vocal movements\" in different registers. Application of the strobe light allowed him to view the vibrating vocal cords in slow motion, thus enabling detailed views of the larynx in an open or closed position.\nOertel was the author of a number of written works on cardiac, circulatory and obesity disorders, and was an early advocate of the \"terrain cure\", a set of therapeutic exercises that involved graduated hiking and climbing.\nOertel made contributions to the study of diphtheria by reproducing the disease in laboratory rabbits.", "in common lighting application areas include annoyance, reduced task performance, visual fatigue and headache. The visibility aspects of stroboscopic effect are given in a technical note of CIE, see CIE TN 006:2016 and in the thesis of Perz.\nStroboscopic effect may also lead to unsafe situations in workplaces with fast moving or rotating machinery. If the frequency of fast rotating machinery or moving parts coincides with the frequency, or multiples of the frequency, of the light modulation, the machinery can appear to be stationary, or to move with another speed, potentially leading to hazardous situations. Stroboscopic effect that become visible in", "experimenters that it was the fingers which moved the table, the phenomena generally ceased. Faraday's work was followed up a century later by clinical psychologist Kenneth Batcheldor who pioneered the use of infra-red video recording to observe experimental subjects in complete darkness. Trickery Professional magicians and skeptics have exposed many of the tricks methods utilized by mediums to tip tables. The magician Chung Ling Soo described a method that involved a pin driven into the table and the use of a ring with a slot on the medium's finger. Once the pin entered the slot, the table could be lifted.\nAccording", "Thumper (magic trick) A thumper is a device used in a variety of magic tricks, typically with mentalism acts. It consists of small vibrating device that is triggered by a remote radio transmitter by a confederate in the audience. Practically any such device can be used, from custom equipment to everyday pagers.\nIn its most simple form, the confederate simply triggers the thumper at a given time. A classic example is to hide an object under a mug or cup, which the magician then discovers by slowly moving their hand over the cups and waiting for the thump. More complex forms", "where they give the impression of dancing in slow motion. The strobe rate of these devices is typically not very precise or very fast, because the entertainment application does not usually require a high degree of performance. Other effects Rapid flashing can give the illusion that white light is tinged with color, known as Fechner color. Within certain ranges, the apparent color can be controlled by the frequency of the flash, but it is an illusion generated in the mind of the observer and not a real color. The Benham's top demonstrates the effect.", "sequences and unplanned, emergent factors. Every light source in the level dims and brightens at an imperceptibly slow speed, which Thomas hoped would create a \"subconscious sense of breathing\" and thereby make the Shalebridge Cradle feel like a living entity. Lights were programmed to flicker when approached by Puppets; however, Puppets roam the level in real-time, and so Thomas was unable to predict which lights would flicker at which times. He believed that this gave the player the feeling of being hunted.\nThomas explained that the Shalebridge Cradle's design was based on \"dozens of actual, existing Victorian hospitals and reputedly haunted", "Bell's phenomenon Bell's phenomenon (also known as the palpebral oculogyric reflex) is a medical sign that allows observers to notice an upward and outward movement of the eye, when an attempt is made to close the eyes. The upward movement of the eye is present in the majority of the population, and is a defensive mechanism. The phenomenon is named after the Scottish anatomist, surgeon, and physiologist Charles Bell.\nBell's phenomenon is a normal defense reflex present in about 75% of the population, resulting in elevation of the globes when blinking or when threatened (e.g. when an attempt is made to", "in which a sequence of tilted elements causes the eye to perceive phantom twists and deviations.\nThe illusion is augmented by the spiral components in the checkered background. It is a unique illusion, where the observer can verify the concentric strands manually. When the strands are highlighted in a different colour, it becomes obvious to the observer that no spiral is present.", "Magic eye tube A magic eye tube or tuning indicator, in technical literature called an electron-ray indicator tube, is a vacuum tube which gives a visual indication of the amplitude of an electronic signal, such as an audio output, radio-frequency signal strength, or other functions. The magic eye (also called a cat's eye, or tuning eye in North America) is a specific type of such a tube with a circular display similar to the EM34 illustrated. Its first broad application was as a tuning indicator in radio receivers, to give an indication of the relative strength of the received radio" ]

[ "Similar question has been asked more than once today. It's weird.\n\nAll languages have curse or swear words; words used to describe acts, ideas, or concepts that are considered taboo by the culture that uses said language. These can vary widely from culture to culture, of course, but the common taboos in western civilization are (as I'm sure you're aware) sex-related.\n\nIn English, at least, the idea of \"poor\" or \"bad\" language also comes in part from how the language as we know it today developed during the middle ages. In the simplest terms, the common people spoke a different dialect than the Norman French nobility, and the so-called \"vulgar\" (literally \"common\" in Latin) vernacular was seen as dirty, impure, and distasteful to the prim and proper Norman overlords." ]

[ "or statements are considered hate speech or inappropriate ethnic slurs (such as using the word Hun to a German, using the word Jap to a Japanese person, etc.). In most modern cultures, insulting a person or group of people, especially for any reason outside their immediate control, such as having a medical condition, following a particular religion, or being poor, is considered rude. Rude speech also includes derogatory terms describing an individual person and asking inappropriate questions or pressing for answers to a question.\nHowever, there is no universal rule about which terms are considered derogatory and which questions are inappropriate", "Profanity Profanity is socially offensive language, which may also be called curse words or swearing (British English), cuss words (American English and Canada), swear words, bad words, crude language, coarse language, oaths, blasphemous language, vulgar language, lewd language, choice words, or expletives.\nUsed in this sense, profanity is language that is generally considered by certain parts of a culture to be strongly impolite, rude or offensive. It can show a debasement of someone or something, or be considered as an expression of strong feeling towards something.\nIn its older, more literal sense, \"profanity\" refers to a lack of respect for things", "meaning of blasphemous profanity, are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities: an example of this would be Lucian's \"Dialogues of the Gods\" satire. English In English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology \"Shit\" has a Germanic root, as, likely, does \"fuck\". The more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as \"defecate\" or \"excrete\" and \"fornicate\" or \"copulate\" respectively. Because of this, profanity is sometimes referred to colloquially as \"Anglo-Saxon\". This is not always the case. For", "/t/, as the German cognate furzen also manifests. Vulgarity and offensiveness In certain circles the word is considered merely a common profanity with an often humorous connotation. For example, a person may be referred to as a 'fart', or an 'old fart', not necessarily depending on the person's age. This may convey the sense that a person is boring or unduly fussy and be intended as an insult, mainly when used in the second or third person. For example, '\"he's a boring old fart!\" However the word may be used as a colloquial term of endearment or", "people swear in the online world by collecting tweets posted on Twitter. They found that cursing is associated with negative emotions such as sadness (21.83%) and anger (16.79%) thus showing people in the online world mainly use curse words to express their sadness and anger towards others.\nAn interdisciplinary team of researchers from the University of Warsaw investigated bilingual swearing: why is it easier to swear in a foreign language? Their finding that bilinguals strengthen the offensiveness of profanities when they switch into their second language, but soften it when they switch into their first tongue, but do both statistically significantly", "different uses of the same or similar words, one of which connotes hate and the other doesn't. In the context of language that equates humans with pollution or stains, this is also called the human stain problem.\nAnother related challenge is to control for the ambient level of casual hate speech in society (such as YouTube comments): in some societies and contexts, hateful language may not be accompanied by or followed by violence, whereas in others, it might. For this reason, the evidence was only considered valuable in conjunction with other evidence about the risk and threat of violence, and the", "are insulted. This category is so strong it is usually frowned upon even by people who would make casual or even regular use of the profanities above.\nBestemmiare (\"swearing\") is a misdemeanor in Italian law, but the law is seldom enforced. However, it is still considered a strong social taboo at least on television. For example, anyone caught uttering bestemmie in the Italian Big Brother (Grande Fratello) \"must be immediately expelled\" because they offend \"millions of believers\". Uttering bestemmie is widely seen as a vice and is often listed together with smoking, drinking and substance abuse. Legal status Until 1999, uttering", "Polish profanity The Polish language, like most others, has swear words and profanity. Some words aren't always seen as very insulting, however, there are others that are considered by some greatly offensive and rude. Words that might be considered most derogatory based on multiple sources, are not necessarily a general and have not been decided upon in a more definite manner. There are different types of swearing (as coined by Steven Pinker): abusive, cathartic, dysphemistic, emphatic and idiomatic. The Polish language uses all types of swearing mentioned. Research has shown that \"Polish people hear profanity more often in a public", "radio), some people still consider them profanity. In 1941, a judge threatened a lawyer with contempt of court for using the word darn. Impact on society A 2011 research by Jeffrey Bowers affirms the use of bad language has impact on and alters our behaviour. This study was conducted to study linguistic relativity with regards to swear words and euphisms. As a part of this study, 24 volunteers between ages of 18 - 26 with mean age 21 were subject to a 20 minute experiment involving their responses on swear words spoken aloud and their responses noted. Additionally their", "Vulgarism In the study of language and literary style, a vulgarism is an expression or usage considered non-standard or characteristic of uneducated speech or writing. In colloquial or lexical English, \"vulgarism\" or \"vulgarity\" may be synonymous with profanity or obscenity, but a linguistic or literary vulgarism encompasses a broader category of perceived fault not confined to scatological or sexual offensiveness. These faults may include errors of pronunciation, misspellings, word malformations, and malapropisms. \"Vulgarity\" is generally used in the more restricted sense. In regular and mostly informal conversations, the presence of vulgarity, if any, are mostly for intensifying, exclaiming or scolding.", "forestall negative thoughts and opinions in others. When used in an attempt to be offensive, the word is still considered vulgar, but it remains a mild example of such an insult. This usage dates back to the Medieval period, where the phrase 'not worth a fart' would be applied to an item held to be worthless. Whilst being accused of farting may be offensive, other phrasal descriptions of flatulent discharge, in phrases such as, \"Have you dropped your guts?\", \"Have you blown one off\" or \"Who shit?\" are certainly no less so. Historical examples The word fart in Middle English", "inherently confrontational and disruptive to social equilibrium\". Rudeness, particularly with respect to speech, is necessarily confrontational at its core.\nForms of rudeness include acting inconsiderate, insensitive, deliberately offensive, impolite, a faux pas, obscenity, profanity and violating taboos such as deviancy. In some cases, an act of rudeness can go so far as to be a crime, for example, the crime of hate speech. Relationship to morality Both manners and morality deal with whether a thing is morally good or bad, but at different levels. Unlike morality, which, for example, condemns murder as a violation of a person, manners", "vulgar expressions criticized other users arguments in the discussions, attacked the users directly or used that language to insult a larger group. At times it is also just used as a way for users to express their general frustrations. \nIt is said that profanity started being used in songs around the late 1970s and into the 1980s in Poland. It was a response to the state of the country at the time. The youth used vulgar expressions to show their frustrations. Though songs that used such language would not be presented in the mass media, works with profanities more often", "thereby made to feel like a worm.\" The fact that the speaker still sounds sincere (albeit known not to be) suggests an affinity with polite language. But unlike politeness, the purpose of which is to avoid aggression, the guiltive is a form of passive-aggressiveness intended to make the listener feel bad.\nThe name \"guiltive\" is formed with the -ive suffix, which is commonly used for the names of grammatical moods. But as with sarcasm, no language has been found to have grammaticalized it.", "serves several functions in disc\nSpanish insults are often of a sexual nature, taking the form of implying a lack of sexual decency if the insulted person is a woman (e.g. puta, \"whore\", zorra \"bitch\") or implying a lack of masculinity if the insulted person is male (e.g. maricón \"faggot\", puto \"male prostitute\"). A particularly forceful Spanish insult is any mention of someone else's mother, including also in its strongest form (e.g. ¡me cago en tu puta madre! \"fuck your whore of a mother!\", in which \"me cago\" out of context means “I shit\", but in this sentence it expresses disregard", "company and subject to censoring (either by speakers themselves, or by some authority). \nWhile profane terms and insults tend to be derived from tabooed objects, such as bodily organs and excrement, not all references to tabooed objects are necessarily considered to be profanity. For example, in English, erudite terms for bodily functions do not tend to function well as insulting epithets, although this constraint may not apply to other categories of taboos, such as sexual practices. It has been suggested that whether a term can be considered an expletive may depend on whether it is intended to be applied figuratively", "Pejorative A pejorative (also called a derogatory term, a slur, a term of disparagement) is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative connotation or a low opinion of someone or something, showing a lack of respect for someone or something. It is also used to express criticism, hostility, or disregard. Sometimes, a term is regarded as pejorative in some social or ethnic groups but not in others, or may be originally pejorative and eventually be adopted in a non-pejorative sense (or vice versa) in some or all contexts.\nName slurs can also involve an insulting or disparaging innuendo, rather than", "so unlucky?\", when the grammatically correct form should be \"why am I so unlucky?\". Another example, the Singlish construction \"he is always so unlucky one\", compared to \"he has always been unlucky\",  shows the addition of \"one\" at the end of sentences which provides an effect of adding emphasis to the sentence.\nPeople who are unfamiliar with such grammatical structures of the languages that influence Singlish, as well as its unique grammatical features, may as a result consider Singlish a form of \"bad\" English. Vocabulary Afrikaans\nWithin Afrikaans speakers in South Africa, code-switching between Afrikaans and English is frowned upon in", "profane terms. For example, the Flip the Frog series often features the term \"damn\". In The Milkman (1932), part of the series, a character uses the term \"hell\" in the context of the phrase \"What the hell do we care\". But this short is considered unusual for the supposed use of another term. When the villain first appears onscreen, Bosko shouts what sounds like \"The dirty f***.\" The word is not clearly heard, due to a muffled vowel and it has been argued that a flaw in the soundtrack rendered profane a more \"polite\" phrase, such as \"dirty fox\" or", "Regan, writing for Spiked Online, wondered whether the comfort provided by having a convenient label for alleged rudeness outweighs the damage caused by overreaction.\nAccording to Derald Wing Sue, whose works popularized the term, many critiques are based on the term being misunderstood or misused. He said that his purpose in identifying such comments or actions was to educate people and not to silence or shame them. He further notes that, for instance, identifying that someone has used racial microaggressions is not intended to imply that they are racist. Mind reading According to Lilienfeld, a possible harmful effect of microaggression programs", "swear word) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation, or a minced oath. In American English, words that are unacceptable on television, such as fuck, may be represented by deformations such as freak, even in children's cartoons. Feck is a minced oath originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom Father Ted. Some examples of rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a berk sounds less offensive than to call a person a cunt, though berk is short for Berkeley Hunt, which rhymes with cunt.\nBureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as", "of such a nature as to be associated with the speech of vulgar or uneducated speakers. The origin of pure vulgarisms is usually that they are importations, not from a regional but from a class dialect—in this case from a dialect which is not that of a province, but of a low or uneducated social class. ... [A vulgarism] is usually a variety of Standard English, but a bad variety.\n The moral and aesthetic values explicit in such a definition depends on class hierarchy viewed as authoritative. For instance, the \"misuse\" of aspiration (H-dropping, such as pronouncing \"have\" as \"'ave\")", "for their perceived funniness to human test subjects.\nThe funniest nonsense words tended to be those that reminded people of real words that are considered rude or offensive. This category included four of the top-six nonsense words that were rated the funniest in the experiment: \"whong\", \"dongl\", \"shart\", and \"focky\". To explain why these words seemed funny, the study's author said \"The expectation that you've read or uttered a rude word is raised – and then violated, because in fact it's harmless nonsense. There's a sense of relief – of getting away with it.\"\nAfter removing from consideration the words that seemed", "of violating the taboo itself. By extension, elements of language such as words, names or phonemes can become taboo themselves, as they can be seen as an inalienable part of the tabooed entity. Linguistic taboos A linguistic taboo is any element of a language bearing a quality that renders it intrinsically impolite or forbidden. Profanity Profanity refers to language that is generally considered to be strongly impolite, rude, or offensive. Profanity may often serve an exclamation function, although typically it is used to insult another person. Thus, as a form of verbal violence, it is often considered taboo in polite", "Insult (medical) In medical terms, an insult is the cause of some kind of physical or mental injury. For example, a burn on the skin (the injury) may be the result of a thermal, chemical, radioactive, or electrical event (the insult). Likewise sepsis and trauma are examples of foreign insults, and encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, and brain tumors are examples of insults to the brain. Insults may also be categorized as either genetic or environmental.", "from the simple amalgamation of their components. These grammatical means exploited by German wordplay have no straightforward English equivalents. An example of grammatical means exploited by English wordplay relying upon phonology that becomes unintelligible in German is \"Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a peach.\" Here, the source of untranslatability is the multiple meanings in English of \"fly\" as both a verb and a noun and \"like\" : \"to feel attraction for\" versus \"similar to\".\nNon-German speakers may find it hard to understand German humour, simply due to the language barrier. Some jokes, puns and humorous turns of phrase are", "likely find similar things offensive, which explains why some expressions (disrespecting social hierarchy, sexual taboos, mention of bodily fluids etc.) tend to cross-culturally recur as swearwords.\nRoache is also noted for a blogpost where she said she unfriended people who voted for the Conservatives at the 2015 General Election. She argued that “Openly supporting a political party “that – in the name of austerity – withdraws support from the poor, the sick, the foreign, and the unemployed while rewarding those in society who are least in need of reward” was “as objectionable as expressing racist, sexist, or homophobic views.”.\nIn addition to", "replacing English swear words with French ones. Some anglophone Canadians euphemistically use the Québécois sacres (i.e., religious words such as sacrament as expletives) rather than swearing in English. False anglicisms There is a particular form of Franglish which consists in the adoption of English words with alternative meanings to their usage in actual English.\nThese are words like forcing ('a scramble', 'a rush', 'a strong effort'), or bronzing ('a tan', 'the act of sunbathing'), made by adding the English ending -ing to a verb from French (e.g. forcer 'to force' or bronzer 'to tan') to form a new noun. These are", "a shifting body of public opinion, which varies from place to place and from time to time. The concept of \"insult\" rather than \"offensive\" may be more specific. Omission Common law does not often find an actor liable for omission – failing to do something required by the law. Where this has applied it has typically been in industrial regulation, in matters of social security or some personal regulated activity such as driving (for example, in the case of a hit and run). These form conditions placed upon operating in a particular manner and are thus understood in that context.", "has been considered a mark of the lower classes in England at least since the late 18th century, as dramatized in My Fair Lady. Because linguistic vulgarism betrayed social class, its avoidance became an aspect of etiquette. In 19th-century England, books such as The Vulgarisms and Improprieties of the English Language (1833) by W. H. Savage, reflected upper-middle-class anxieties about \"correctness and good breeding\".\nVulgarisms in a literary work may be used deliberately to further characterization, by use of \"eye dialect\" or simply by vocabulary choice." ]

[ "You're correct that white and black would provide the greatest contrast, but the primary issue isn't contrast. Highway signs are \"retroreflective,\" meaning that at night, when you shine your headlights on them, the light not only illuminates the sign, but the sign also directly reflects a good amount of that light back at you. Black backgrounds would not be efficient retroreflectors (since black absorbs most light, reducing reflectivity), plus they would be difficult to see at night since the sky is black. Green was chosen since the eye is highly sensitive to green, it is clearly visible day and night, and it is a good retroreflector. Green is a common choice in many countries, including Canada, Japan, China, and Australia. Many European countries opt for blue backgrounds with white text or white backgrounds with black text." ]

[ "well. One example can be found in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Within its city limits, all roads designated as a snow emergency route use a blue sign, these are typically major arterial routes. Other roads have green signs. Other places sometimes use blue or white signs to indicate private roads.\nAs of 2009, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) approved color schemes for street name signs including a green, blue, or brown background with white text, or a white background with black text. Despite the MUTCD restriction only to the aforementioned color schemes, other color schemes are used in some cities;", "highlighted within patches of other colours to indicate different road types using the Guildford Rules. The United States, Canada, and Australia, as well as New Zealand on the other hand almost universally use the plain green signs, but some signs use different colours to highlight certain types of destination such as hospitals and rest stops, or, in Australia that the road is a tollway. Road signs in Israel and the Palestinian territories are of similar design to North American signage, but vary in color depending on whether the sign indicates direction for through traffic, exiting traffic, etc.\nDirection signs can also", "easier viewing at highway speeds. U.S. Routes Massachusetts uses the standard white-shield on black background design for its U.S. Routes, used in all states except for California. Signs for U.S. Routes on green highway signs generally omit the black background, but some older signs still have them. A number of signs installed on the U.S. Route 3 expressway are of a cut-out design, without the black background. U.S. Routes on freeways usually have extra-large sign panels posted.\nNOTE: Alternates of U.S. routes in Massachusetts are signed as state highways (Routes 1A, 3A (northern), 6A, 7A, and 20A). Interstate Highways Massachusetts uses", "Road Signs and Signals, which describes what road signs and road markings shall look like. The convention has some flexibility so road markings vary somewhat between the countries.\nMost European countries reserve white for routine lane markings of any kind. Yellow is used to mark forbidden parking, such as on bus stops. However, for example Norway has yellow markings separating traffic directions. Many countries use yellow, orange, or red to indicate when lanes are being shifted temporarily to make room for construction projects.\nIn France on highways the outside lines are interrupted at a regular distance which allows drivers and police to", "white background. Red is used for the usual route and green for more scenic routes where mopeds are not allowed. The mushroom-style signpost can also have black lettering on a white background (as it is obvious that it is not meant for motorists). A newer style of \"mushroom\" has red lettering.\nWhen a general (white on blue) signpost is not applicable for cyclists because it relies on a motorway, this is indicated with a small car sign or a motorway sign behind the name of the destination. In such cases, a separate signpost for cyclists is usually nearby.\nMost road signs for", "still seen. \nBrown signs are sometimes erroneously used instead of green to denote primary routes. Officially, green is used for primary routes and white for local routes, as in the UK. There are no traffic lights in the Turks and Caicos Islands, most intersections are roundabouts. Virgin Islands The road signs of the Virgin Islands are similar to those of the USA. The BVI drivers manual lists British-influenced signage with occasional differences, but in reality, all signs installed follow the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices.\nIn 2018, new legislation was introduced in the Virgin Islands requiring that", "include the A- or B-road number as well as the destination, although many more of these examples were removed and replaced after the 1964 regulations were introduced. It appears that the original convention was for A-road numbers to be in white on a black background and the converse arrangement for B-road numbers, although there are few fingerposts with this as their current scheme.\nAlthough most fingerposts are a combination of black, white or grey, other colour variants exist. The most well-known are the small number of Red Posts which are found in some of the southern English counties, including four in", "all other roads and all services (except in some, where directional signage is white), and a brown background for tourist attractions.\nBefore 1987, most road signs had black backgrounds – diamonds indicated warnings, and rectangles indicated regulatory actions (with the exception of the Give Way sign (an inverted trapezium), and Stop sign and speed limit signs (which were the same as today)). Information signs were yellow, and direction signage was green on motorways and black everywhere else. South America, Central America and the Caribbean Road signs in Caribbean, Central America, and South America vary from country to country. For the most", "of simple vandalism, and signs on unusually or famously named streets are especially liable to street sign theft.\nUsually, the colour scheme used on the sign just reflects the local standard (white on a green background in many U.S. jurisdictions, for example). However, in some cases, the colour of a sign can provide information, as well. One example can be found in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Within city limits, all major arterial roads use a blue sign, north-south roads use a green sign, and east-west roads use a brown sign. In New York, historical districts use white lettering on brown signs. Other", "and South America have yellow lines separating traffic directions, however Chile and Argentina use white lines. Canada Yellow lines are used to separate traffic moving in opposite directions, and white lines are used to separate traffic moving in the same direction, and on the shoulders of paved roads. On one-directional roads, a yellow line appears on the left shoulder, and a white line on the right shoulder. Passing rules are denoted by dashed lines as in the United States. Orange painted lines are sometimes used when the direction of the road is altered temporarily for construction projects. However, the colour scheme", "bold text. Regional and local county roads use black text on white background. Signs to points of interest (services, institutions, tourist sights) have white text on a brown background. Patching (according to the Guildford Rules) is used to show roads of different classification on signs. On all purpose roads, signs for roads whose only destination is a motorway should display the motorway symbol. Types of sign available A number of types of sign are available for use on all purpose roads. A properly signed junction will be signed in advance by advance directional signs, which can either be map type", "Highway temporary signs about construction or detours in the United States are orange, because of its visibility and its association with danger.\nIt is worn by people wanting to be seen, including highway workers and lifeguards. Prisoners are also sometimes dressed in orange clothing to make them easier to see during an escape. Lifeguards on the beaches of Los Angeles County, both real and in television series, wear orange swimsuits to make them stand out. Orange astronaut suits have the highest visibility in space, or against blue sea. An aircraft's two types of \"black box,\" or flight data recorder and cockpit", "yield, and prohibition signs. A white background indicates a regulatory sign; yellow conveys a general warning message; green shows permitted traffic movements or directional guidance; fluorescent yellow/green indicates pedestrian crossings and school zones; orange is used for warning and guidance in roadway work zones; coral is used for incident management signs; blue indicates road user services, tourist information, and evacuation routes; and brown is for guidance to sites of public recreation or cultural interest. Sign shape can also alert roadway users to the type of information displayed on a sign. Traffic regulations are conveyed in signs that are rectangular with", "white concrete where painted stripes are added to make the lanes more visible through sun glare, freeways built so wide that the risk of drifting is minimal (e.g., Interstate 5 in the Central Valley), and freeways in areas where it snows in the winter (since the snowplows would scrape off the Botts' dots).\nIn general, single broken lines mean passing or lane changing is allowed, single solid white lines mean lane changing is discouraged or prohibited, and double solid white lines mean it is prohibited, as it often is in tunnels. On two-lane roads, a single broken center line means that", "the American flag. In the original design, the name of the state was displayed above the highway number, but in many states, this area is now left blank, allowing for the printing of larger and more-legible digits. The sign usually measures 36 inches (91 cm) high, and is 36 inches (91 cm) wide for two-digit Interstates or 45 inches (110 cm) for three-digit Interstates.\nInterstate business loops and spurs use a special shield in which the red and blue are replaced with green, the word \"BUSINESS\" appears instead of \"INTERSTATE\", and the word \"SPUR\" or \"LOOP\" usually appears above the number. The green shield", "red, or just their direction. The driver will now have to check the traffic light behind them, which is often impossible from the viewing angle of a driver's seat. This can also happen when emergency vehicles or railroads preempt normal signal operation.\n In the United States, signs reading \"Oncoming traffic has extended green\" or \"Oncoming traffic may have extended green\" must be posted at intersections where the \"yellow trap\" condition exists.\nAlthough motorcycles and scooters in most jurisdictions follow the same traffic signal rules for left turns as do cars and trucks, some places, such as Taiwan, have different rules. In", "signage colour conventions is lax (regional roads have black-on-white directional signage, national routes use white-on-green).\nUnder the previous legislation, the Local Government (Roads and Motorways) Act 1974, motorways theoretically existed independently to national roads, however the short sections of motorway opened during this act, except for the M50, always took their number from the national road that they were bypassing. The older road was not downgraded at this point (indeed, regional roads were not legislated for at this stage). Older signage at certain junctions on the M7 and M11 can be seen reflecting this earlier scheme, where for example N11 and", "orange), though it is less visible at twilight, when green is the most visible color. Red also stands out more clearly against a cool natural backdrop of blue sky, green trees or gray buildings. But it was mostly chosen as the color for stoplights and stop signs because of its universal association with danger and warning. The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals of 1968 uses red color also for the margin of danger warning sign, give way signs and prohibitory signs, following the previous German-type signage (established by Verordnung über Warnungstafeln für den Kraftfahrzeugverkehr in 1927). The", "tend to learn to use texture and shape clues and so may be able to penetrate camouflage that has been designed to deceive individuals with normal color vision.\nColors of traffic lights are confusing to some dichromats as there is insufficient apparent difference between the red/amber traffic lights and sodium street lamps; also, the green can be confused with a grubby white lamp. This is a risk on high-speed undulating roads where angular cues cannot be used. British Rail color lamp signals use more easily identifiable colors: The red is blood red, the amber is yellow and the green is a", "colour to indicate the status of a road (motorway, primary or non-primary) on which it is placed. Except on the main carriageway of a motorway, coloured panels are used to indicate routes from the junction being signed that have a different status. A direction sign (DS) should always be a single colour indicating the status of the road to be joined, although there are a few rare exceptions to this rule.\nThe Heavy and Medium typefaces were designed to compensate for the optical illusion that makes dark lines on pale backgrounds appear narrower than pale lines on dark backgrounds. Hence destinations", "of highway). The colour pattern on New Zealand roads is white or yellow cat's eyes along the centre of the road (yellow indicating overtaking is not permitted) and red dots along the hard shoulder or left edge of a motorway. Single blue cat's eyes are used to indicate the location of fire hydrants, and green cat's eyes are used to mark the edge of culverts. In rural settings and along State Highways, these markings are augmented by retro reflective posts along the edge of the road (white reflectors on the left, yellow reflectors on the right). Bridges are similarly marked", "to reports of salt residue making lines in the work zone difficult to see in the winter. This was especially problematic where lanes shifted. Orange was chosen because it would be easier to see and matched the color of construction signs and barrels. This was the first time orange markings were used in the United States, although they had already been used successfully in other countries. The project required approval from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), which originally granted an 18-month test period. This was later extended through the end of the interchange construction. As orange paint would be hard", "motorways must be blue or green, while temporary direction signs are yellow or orange.\nAs a result, different nations can have wildly different direction signs; the United States uses verbose green gantry signs almost universally in built up areas, with few diagrams beyond basic arrows, while the United Kingdom, Ireland and Iceland use signs with fewer words but detailed maps of the approaching junctions. Most areas use different colours to show different road types, but the implementation varies: the United Kingdom (and Ireland) uses full colour boards, colour-coded to match the type of road they are placed on, with relevant text", "and bicycle lanes, and other kerbside features. Yellow line markings are also used in areas that receive regular annual snowfall to provide contrast. Double-line markings are used to separate traffic flowing in opposite directions on busy roads.\nSolid white lines are used to mark an intersection that a driver must stop at before entering whilst obeying all right-of-way laws. Dashed white lines are used to mark an intersection at which a driver must give way. Dashed white lines are also commonly used to indicate turns in intersections and to indicate intersections where a diamond turn is possible (intersections in which two", "for this kind of road is \"enskild\", that can be both translated to \"private\" and \"individual\". The background of the sign is yellow, indicating that the quality is often less good, and warning signs might be missing. Signs indicating roads owned by companies or leading to companies usually have white background instead. Warning signs Warning signs are triangular and have red borders, but in contrast with those of most other countries that use triangular warning signs, Swedish signs have yellow backgrounds, rather than white. More types of warning signs for animals are used than in most European countries, such as", "places sometimes use blue or white signs to indicate private roads.", "Typically, one- or two-digit Interstate, U.S. Highway, and U.S. state route signs use the Series D font for the numbers, while signs with three or more digits use either a narrower font (Series B or C) or have smaller numbers in the Series D font. Series E and F is most commonly used on U.S. speed limit signs, although older signs often use narrower fonts. Street name signs usually feature white Series B, C or D letters (which may either have all capital letters or a combination of capital and lowercase letters) on a green background (which can also be", "zone signs which are rectangular, and no parking signs which use a red symbol on a blue background. These signs are valid from where they stand and for the entirety of the road until it is ended by another sign, or until the next crossroads depending on the specific sign. Mandatory signs Mandatory signs are all circular like the restrictive signs, but feature white symbols on a blue background. Direction signs Direction signs inform about places, businesses, routes, choice of lanes, choice of roads and distance to destinations. Direction signs with a yellow background (blue on motorways) show geographical destinations.", "substituted for other colors, such as blue or brown); freeway guide signs use Series E(M) on said backgrounds. On white (regulatory), orange (construction) and yellow (warning) signs, black letters and numbers are used instead. Georgia uses both Series C and D fonts for the Interstate highway signs. Beginning in 2016 when the interim approval for Clearview was rescinded, the Arizona Department of Transportation is now using mixed case (non-Modified) Series E for freeway guide signage, mixed case Series D for guide signage on non-freeway roads, and mixed case Series C for street name signs.\nBy the mid-1990s the FHWA series of", "was reversed before 1971, when white was formerly used to denote the separation of opposing traffic, and yellow lines, when used, to denote the separation of the paved road from the right-hand shoulder. \nBroken lines that are wider and closer together than regular broken lines are called continuity lines. Continuity lines on the left side of a lane denote that the lane is about to end and that motorists must soon merge left. Continuity lines on the right mean that the lane will continue, but traffic may merge into it ahead.\nIn some areas, reflective markers (cat's eyes) recessed into" ]

[ "American cars used to be the hallmark of reliability. I think a variety of reasons contributed to the decline of quality in American cars. From an econ/financial perspective it just became too expensive to build quality cars. Labor costs for automotive companies kept going up because unions kept wanting more benefits and higher pay for less work. The companies can't redistribute the extra costs to the consumers because that will just drive them to their competition even faster so they did the only thing they could and cut down on quality." ]

[ "and Sumida built a car similar to a LaSalle.\nAutomobile manufacture from Japanese companies was struggling, despite investment efforts by the Japanese Government. The 1923 Great Kantō earthquake devastated most of Japan's fledgling infrastructure and truck and construction equipment manufacturing benefited from recovery efforts. Yanase & Co., Ltd. (株式会社ヤナセ Yanase Kabushiki gaisha) was an importer of American-made cars to Japan and contributed to disaster recovery efforts by importing GMC trucks and construction equipment. By bringing in American products, Japanese manufacturers were able to examine the imported vehicles and develop their own products.\nFrom 1925 until the beginning of World War II, Ford", "and Mitsuoka.\nCars designed in Japan have won the European Car of the Year, International Car of the Year, and World Car of the Year awards many times. Japanese vehicles have had worldwide influence, and no longer have the stigma they had in the 1950s and 1960s when they first emerged internationally. Early years In 1904, Torao Yamaha produced the first domestically manufactured bus, which was powered by a steam engine. In 1907, Komanosuke Uchiyama produced the Takuri, the first entirely Japanese-made gasoline engine car. The Kunisue Automobile Works built the Kunisue in 1910, and the following year", "Automotive industry in Japan The automotive industry in Japan is one of the most prominent and largest industries in the world. Japan has been in the top three of the countries with most cars manufactured since the 1960s, surpassing Germany. The automotive industry in Japan rapidly increased from the 1970s to the 1990s (when it was oriented both for domestic use and worldwide export) and in the 1980s and 1990s, overtook the U.S. as the production leader with up to 13 million cars per year manufactured and significant exports. After massive ramp-up by China in the 2000s", "and fluctuating U.S. output, Japan is currently the third largest automotive producer in the world with an annual production of 9.9 million automobiles in 2012. Japanese investments helped grow the auto industry in many countries throughout the last few decades.\nJapanese zaibatsu (business conglomerates) began building their first automobiles in the middle to late 1910s. The companies went about this by either designing their own trucks (the market for passenger vehicles in Japan at the time was small), or partnering with a European brand to produce and sell their cars in Japan under license. Such examples of this are Isuzu partnering", "their entire keiretsu structure which is the corner stone of Japanese economy and society to American automobiles. They wanted Japanese dealer networks, such as Toyota, Nissan, Honda, Mitsubishi, and Mazda, to sell American cars. Oe Hiroshi responded that there are fewer American car dealerships in Japan because Japanese consumers prefer European and Japanese cars to American cars. Different vehicle safety program structures also complicate efforts at reciprocal recognition; in Japan and Europe, new vehicles are compliance-tested before they're allowed on the market. Under American laws, automakers self-certify their cars as compliant, and cars are tested only after they go on", "filed annually, Japan is second only to the United States. In terms of patents published per capita, Japan has the highest in the world, ahead of South Korea and the United States. Since the 20th century, Japan has played an important role in the Digital Revolution and the Information Age. Automobiles Kei cars are a category of small automobiles invented in Japan, including passenger cars, vans, and pickup trucks. They are designed to exploit local tax and insurance relaxations, and in more rural areas are exempted from the requirement to certify that adequate parking is available for the vehicle. Games", "the major Japanese producers had automotive assembly lines operating in the United States: Isuzu has a joint plant with Subaru; one of Toyota's plants is in Alabama. Following the major assembly firms, Japanese producers of automobile parts also began investing in the United States in the late 1980s, most Japanese auto parts are nevertheless made in Japan.\nAutomobiles were a major area of contention for the Japan-United States relationship during the 1980s. When the price of oil rose in the 1979 energy crisis, demand for small automobiles increased, which worked to the advantage of Japan's exports to the United States market.", "in Japan and the United States. Soon after the car model was on the market (c. 1950), Ford customers were requesting the model with Japanese transmissions over the US-made transmissions, and they were willing to wait for the Japanese model. As both transmissions were made to the same specifications, Ford engineers could not understand the customer preference for the model with Japanese transmissions. Finally, Ford engineers decided to take apart the two different transmissions. The American-made car parts were all within specified tolerance levels. However, the Japanese car parts were virtually identical to each other, and much closer to the", "John Shook relates a story in which a Toyota trainer brought out an old copy of a TWI service manual to prove to him that American workers at NUMMI could be taught using the \"Japanese\" methods used at Toyota. Thus, TWI was the forerunner of what is today regarded as a Japanese creation.", "Consumer products The Japanese consumer benefits most from the availability of compact, sophisticated consumer products that are often popular exports. Consumer electronics, clothing, automobiles, and household appliances are high-quality items that Japanese industry provided in quantity. There are 45 million cars in Japan, for a ratio of 350 cars per 1000 people. The Japanese rail system was ranked the world's most advanced in a recent OECD development report. Comparison A Japanese social scientist ranked Japan among a group of ten other industrialized nations, according to a list of variables. Data was from the mid-1970s to the late 1980s and Japan", "US Automobile The US Automobile was an American automobile manufactured between 1899 and 1901. A 3 hp electric car, it used three speeds forward and two back.", "Japan. Soler began having trouble financing its purchases of new vehicles.\nSeeing that other Japanese car makers were allowing their dealers in Puerto Rico to transship excess inventory to Latin America and the continental United States, Soler asked if it could do the same. Mitsubishi refused, saying the vehicles were customized for the Puerto Rican market. They lacked heaters and defoggers that they would have needed on the mainland, and their engines could not run on the lower-grade leaded gasoline sold in many Latin American countries at that time. Further, Soler had no experience with maritime shipping and would not been", "V8 and six cylinder engines. Japanese imports became mass-market leaders with unibody construction and front-wheel drive, which became de facto standards.\nFrom Europe, the Volkswagen Beetle, the Volkswagen Fastback, the Renault 8, the Renault LeCar, and the Fiat Brava were successful. Detroit responded with the Ford Pinto, the Ford Maverick, the Chevrolet Vega, the Chevrolet Nova, the Plymouth Valiant and the Plymouth Volaré. American Motors sold its homegrown Gremlin, Hornet and Pacer models.\nSome buyers lamented the small size of the first Japanese compacts, and both Toyota and Nissan (then known as Datsun) introduced larger cars such as the Toyota Corona Mark II, the", "Yanmar and Daihatsu initially focused on diesel engine development.\nCars built in Japan before World War II tended to be based on European or American models. The 1917 Mitsubishi Model A was based on the Fiat A3-3 design. (This model was considered to be the first mass-produced car in Japan, with 22 units produced.) In the 1930s, Nissan Motors' cars were based on the Austin 7 and Graham-Paige designs, while the Toyota AA model was based on the Chrysler Airflow. Ohta built cars in the 1930s based on Ford models, while Chiyoda built a car resembling a 1935 Pontiac,", "companies. She added that \"Japan-bashing\" still occurred in Metro Detroit, with politicians and Iacocca making public statements against the Japanese automobile industry.\nMazda's operation at the Flat Rock Assembly Plant in Flat Rock, Michigan, was the first Japanese auto operation in the U.S. industrial heartland. In 1991 the plant had 250 Japanese employees out of its total of 3,600 employees.\nIn a ten-year period ending in 1992, the Japanese population in Metro Detroit had tripled. Sharon Cohen wrote in a 1991 Associated Press article that \"The Japanese community [in all of Michigan] is tiny and transient: estimates range from 6,000 to 8,000.\"", "the restriction in place, the major Japanese automakers adjusted their business strategies. Instead of exporting large volumes of low-priced economy cars, they instead sought to use their limited allotment to export higher-priced vehicles while producing their lower-priced models in newly built factories within the United States. Increasing demand for more luxurious cars in Japan aided this adjustment and competition between the major automakers was fierce. The excess liquidity within the economy as a result of the Japanese asset price bubble gave them nearly endless amounts of capital to use to develop these new vehicles, which were growing increasingly exotic as", "the next two decades, as their market share continued to grow.\nJapanese cars also started to appear on the UK market during the 1960s, although they were a rare on British roads until exploding in popularity during the early 1970s. The Daihatsu Compagno was the first Japanese car to be sold in Britain when imports began during 1964. This car was not popular with British buyers and was withdrawn from sale within a few years, although Daihatsu would return to the UK market in the early 1980s. A year later, Toyota became the second Japanese carmaker to import cars to Britain.", "previous game. They range from K-cars and small pick-up trucks to hatchbacks and 4-door sedans to more powerful vehicles. The game features Japanese and European cars in the game, although European cars are less used and mostly inferior to the Japanese ones, although some of them (for instance, Volkswagen Golf IV) are in performance very superior to Japanese cars. There are also several parodies of cars from anime and manga titles like Initial D, Wangan Midnight and Over Rev! with different colors. Unlike past games in the franchise, there are no cars from American manufacturers. Game modes The game features", "cars of the time (Jaguar, BMW, Porsche, etc.), while providing performance, reliability, and good looks. This broadened the image of Japanese car-makers beyond their econobox successes, as well as being credited as a catalyst for the import performance parts industry.\nBefore Honda unveiled Acura in 1986, Japanese automobiles exports were primarily economical in design and largely targeted at low-cost consumers. The Japanese big three created their luxury marques to challenge the established brands. Following Honda's lead, Toyota launched the Lexus name with the LS 400 which debuted at $38,000 in the U.S. (in some markets being priced against mid-sized six cylinder", "and practical failure of the British car industry—a combination of militant strikes and poor quality control effectively halted development at British Leyland, owner of all other British car companies during the 1970s.\nThe Japanese automobile industry flourished during the 1970s, compared to other major auto markets. Japanese vehicles became internationally renowned for their affordability, reliability, and fuel-efficiency, which was very important to many customers after the oil crisis of 1973. Japanese car manufacturing focused on computerized robotic manufacturing techniques and lean manufacturing, contributing to high-efficiency and low production costs. The Honda Civic was introduced in 1973, and sold well due to", "market. Despite no significant global success, major Japanese car manufacturers such as Suzuki, Mitsubishi, Daihatsu and Honda still produce models belonging into the Kei car category. Since the Kei car has a significant portion of Japanese car market, Japanese auto makers cannot ignore them. Although the regulatory differences between Kei cars and 1L cars are quite small, the tax benefit of Kei cars is considerable. Until the tax reform in 2013, the Kei car's vehicle tax rate was a quarter of that of 1L cars (¥7200 to ¥29500). This significantly lower tax rate gathered much criticism from European", "fill people's need for basic transportation without being too severely compromised. In 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry also set forth goals to develop a \"national car\" that was larger than kei cars produced at the time. This goal influenced Japanese automobile manufacturers to determine how best to focus their product development efforts for the smaller kei cars, or the larger \"national car\". The small exterior dimensions and engine displacement reflected the driving environment in Japan, with speed limits in Japan realistically not exceeding 40 km/h (24.9 mph) in urban areas.\nThe class then went through a period of ever", "1980s, Japanese vehicles, mostly early smaller Hondas (Civic, Prelude), Toyotas (Celica, Corolla, Supra), Nissans (Datsun 510) and Mazdas (RX-2, RX-3) gained popularity in Southern California. To be more precise, within the city of \"Gardena\" at a parking lot (location) for then what was called \"Meiji (Japanese) Market or Meiji Market Plaza\" along with a line of other authentic Japanese retailers serving the largely Japanese communities of Gardena, Torrance, and Palos Verdes was to become the \" 1st known and established Weekend late-night meet-up location.\" The Young Asian-Americans and first generation \"Issei\" Japanese street racers from Japan and Okinawa played", "with Wolseley Motors (UK), Nissan partnering with British automaker Austin, and the Mitsubishi Model A, which was based upon the Fiat Tipo 3. The demand for domestic trucks was greatly increased by the Japanese military buildup before World War II, causing many Japanese manufacturers to break out of their shells and design their own vehicles. In the 1970s Japan was the pioneer in robotics manufacturing of vehicles.\nThe country is home to a number of companies that produce cars, construction vehicles, motorcycles, ATVs, and engines. Japanese automotive manufacturers include Toyota, Honda, Daihatsu, Nissan, Suzuki, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Subaru, Isuzu, Kawasaki, Yamaha,", "and GM had factories in Japan, where they dominated the Japanese market. The Ford Motor Company of Japan was established in 1925 and a production plant was set up in Yokohama. General Motors established operations in Osaka in 1927. Chrysler also came to Japan and set up Kyoritsu Motors. Between 1925 and 1936, the United States Big Three automakers' Japanese subsidiaries produced a total of 208,967 vehicles, compared to the domestic producers total of 12,127 vehicles. In 1936, the Japanese government passed the Automobile Manufacturing Industry Law, which was intended to promote the domestic auto industry", "Doctrine As with the Americans and the Italians, the Japanese originally adopted French-designed tanks, and were influenced by their doctrines and employment. As with many other nations at the time, the Japanese viewed the tank as a tool largely used in direct support of their infantry, and were rarely allowed independent action. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, Japanese tanks were successful, especially as the Chinese had no significant armoured forces of their own.\nWith their defeat by the Soviet Union at Nomonhan in 1939, the Japanese began to rethink their tank designs and doctrine, although their emphasis would continue to remain", "Japan Model Racing Car Association History It was founded in February 1971 with the backing of Kyosho, the industry leader at the time, to feed on an increasing demand for R/C car racing popularised by U.S. military personnels stationed in Japan in preparation for the Vietnam War. Its first race was the First Japan-America Goodwill RC Car Race at the following month, hosted jointly by the JMRCA and the U.S. Air Force Model Club held at their Tokyo Tachikawa Base.\nOne of its first races hosted by JMRCA was a championship race for 1/8 scale racing cars produced by Kyosho. Taking", "as the 1953-present Chevrolet Corvette, 1962-1967 Shelby Cobra, 1983-1988 Pontiac Fiero and 2005-2006 Ford GT. 1959—1968: Beginnings The first Japanese sports car was the 1959-1960 Datsun 211, a two-seat roadster built on the chassis of a compact pickup truck and powered by a 1.0 L (60 cu in) engine. Only 20 cars were built, and the 1963-1965 Datsun SP310— based on the chassis of a passenger sedan instead of a pickup truck— is often considered Datsun's first mass-production sports car. \nHonda's first sports car was the 1963-1964 Honda S500, a two-seat roadster with independent suspension for all wheels and a 0.5 L (32 cu in) DOHC", "car that was ever sold in Japan, starting from early 1980s, inspiring their Suzuki Samurai. Because of export demand and the higher priority given to exports, domestic customers faced long waiting lists, despite the fact that the car was developed primarily for the Soviet people, as mentioned above.\nInitially, the Niva had a normally aspirated 1.6-l overhead-cam four-cylinder petrol engine producing 56 kW (76 hp) and 126 N·m (93 lb·ft) at 5,000 rpm, a four-speed manual transmission (starting with new model from 1994, a five-speed), and a full-time four-wheel drive.\nThe drive system employs three differentials (center, front, and rear). The transfer case involves a high/low", "c. 1980. Kei cars are not only popular with the elderly, they are also popular with youths because of their affordability.\nMost kei cars are designed and manufactured in Japan, but a version of the French-made Smart was briefly imported and sold as a kei car. 360-cc era (1949–1975) The Kei-car legal class originated in the era following the end of the Second World War, when most Japanese could not afford a full-sized car, but many had enough money to buy a motorcycle. To promote the growth of the car industry, as well as to offer an alternative delivery method to" ]

[ "I asked a school-bus driver once about this, and he replied that kids would use the seat belts as weapons. I, for one, could definitely see my teenage self smacking my seatmate with a seatbelt.", "I've heard that buses don't need seat belts because they'd be useless in most cases. Buses are so heavy that unless they hit a concrete wall they're not going to stop suddenly, they'll slow down gradually at least relative to the way your car will stop if it hits a van or a school bus. It makes sense, I've ridden buses many times but never remember being pushed off the front of my seat while braking." ]

[ "not have seat belts, and the law in the United Kingdom only requires wearing seat belts where these are fitted in the vehicle. While there was previously an exemption in the law meaning those making local deliveries were not required to wear a seat belt, which would in theory have included drivers and passengers in milk floats with seat belts fitted, the law was changed in 2005 to deliveries less than 50 metres (160 ft) apart. Statistics In August 1967, the UK Electric Vehicle Association put out a press release stating that Britain had more battery-electric vehicles on its roads than", "requiring all passengers to wear a seat belt being New York on December 1, 1984. Currently, there are no countries whose automobiles do not offer seat belts and it is a standardized practice worldwide.\nDuring the development of the seat belt, the federal legislation created several agencies responsible for automobile and road safety: The National Traffic Safety Agency, the National Highway Safety Agency, and the National Highway Safety Bureau, which were merged by the 1970 Highway Safety Act into the combined National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).\nThe NHTSA was authorized to promulgate regulations - the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS)", "car seats, booster seats, and seat belts and using them on every trip, no matter how short.", "of Columbia have passed laws requiring seat belt use by at least all occupants of the front seat. New Hampshire is the only state with no such requirement for adults (anyone under eighteen must use a seat belt). Some states also require rear seat occupants to wear seat belts. In 24 states, the seat belt law is considered to be only a secondary offense, meaning that a police officer can only ticket a person for violating the seat belt law if the driver has already been stopped for another reason. The effectiveness of seat belt laws varies considerably throughout the", "when vehicles are more likely to have multiple occupants, and when seat belts are less likely to be used.\nThe Insurance Institute for Highway Safety proposes restrictions for new drivers, including a \"curfew\" imposed on young drivers to prevent them driving at night, an experienced supervisor to chaperone the less experienced driver, forbidding the carrying of passengers, zero alcohol tolerance, raising the standards required for driving instructors and improving the driving test, vehicle restrictions (e.g. restricting access to 'high-performance' vehicles), a sign placed on the back of the vehicle (an N- or P-Plate) to notify other drivers of a novice driver", "seat belt violation if the driver committed another primary violation (such as speeding, running a stop sign, etc.) at the same time. New Hampshire is the only U.S. state that does not by law require adult drivers to wear safety belts while operating a motor vehicle.\nIn 15 of the 50 states, the seat belt law is considered a secondary offense, which means that a police officer cannot stop and ticket a driver for the sole offense of not wearing a seat belt. (One exception to this is Colorado, where children not properly restrained is a primary offense and brings a", "Seat belt laws in the United States Most seat belt laws in the United States are left to the states and territories. However, the first seat belt law was a federal law, Title 49 of the United States Code, Chapter 301, Motor Vehicle Safety Standard, which took effect on January 1, 1968, that required all vehicles (except buses) to be fitted with seat belts in all designated seating positions. This law has since been modified to require three-point seat belts in outboard-seating positions, and finally three-point seat belts in all seating positions. Initially, seat belt use was voluntary. New York", "of seatbelt usage, Cohen and Einav found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seatbelt wearing drivers more dangerous, a finding at variance with other research. Increased traffic Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic and age, and based on these adjustments, which results in a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use. However, Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation. School buses In the US, six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require seat", "over one ton of passengers alone. The seats in the passenger version raise the load, passengers, above the floor, further raising the center of gravity (and often shifting it rearward). The bench seats allow passengers to slide if safety belts are not used. In the United States it is common for only the front seat passengers to use their safety belts, perhaps because belted passengers feel they can still lean and shift a large amount. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has determined that belted passengers are about four times more likely to survive in rollover crashes.\nSafety", "College London, suggested that there was no convincing evidence of a correlation between the seat-belt legislation and reductions injuries and fatalities based on a comparison between states with and without seat belt laws. He also suggested that some injuries were displaced from car drivers to pedestrians and other road users. The \"Isles Report\" echoed these concerns. Adams subsequently argued that the reduction in fatalities that followed the introduction of legislation could not be attributed with confidence to seat-belt use due to the simultaneous introduction of breath testing for driving under the influence of alcohol.\nHowever, a 2007 study based on data", "for adults. However, in all states anyone under the age of 18 is required to wear a seat belt. Vehicles must always make way for emergency vehicles.", "and the U.S. Virgin Islands have primary enforcement laws for front seats. Damages reduction A person involved in a car accident who was not using a seat belt may be liable for damages far greater than if they had been using a seat belt. However, when in court, most states protect motorists from having their damages reduced in a lawsuit due to the non-use of a seat belt, even if they were acting in violation of the law by not wearing the seat belt. Currently, damages may be reduced for the non-use of a seat belt in 16", "countless people have been ejected from these vehicles in accidents. Seatbelts did not become optional until the 2006 model year.", "than models without ABS. A 2004 study found that ABS reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent, but had increased the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent. Seat belts A 1994 research study of people who both wore and habitually did not wear seatbelts concluded that drivers were found to drive faster and less carefully when belted.\nSeveral important driving behaviors were observed on the road before and after the belt use law was enforced in Newfoundland, and in Nova Scotia during the same period without a law. Belt use increased from 16 percent to 77 percent", "seat belts for adults were not standard equipment in automobiles until the 1960s. Classifications There are several types of car seats, which vary in the position of the child and size of the seat. The United Nations European Regional standard ECE R44/04 categorizes these into 4 groups: 0-3. Many car seats combine the larger groups 1, 2 and 3. Some new car models includes stock restraint seats by default. Fastened carrycots Carrycots or infant car beds are used for children that cannot sit in a regular baby seat, such as premature infants or infants that suffer from apnea. A", "was the first state to pass a law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts, a law that came into effect on December 1, 1984. New Hampshire is the only state that has no enforceable laws for the wearing of seat belts in a vehicle. Primary and secondary enforcement U.S. seat belt laws may be subject to primary enforcement or secondary enforcement. Primary enforcement allows a police officer to stop and ticket a driver if he or she observes a violation. Secondary enforcement means that a police officer may only stop or cite a driver for a", "more than one person in addition to himself on the motor cycle and no such person shall be carried otherwise than sitting on a proper seat securely fixed to the motor cycle behind the driver’s seat with appropriate safety measures. Duty to produce licence and certificate of registration The driver of a", "by seat belts.\nIn 1966, he developed the first set of automobile safety standards. In 1970, he developed an improved shoulder harness to restrain the upper body and prevent injuries that occur when the occupant hits the dashboard or windshield.\nStates drafted the New York State seat belt law in 1983, the first such law in the US. Similar laws have now been adopted in 49 states, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration credits these laws with dramatically increasing seat belt use and decreasing injuries and fatalities from traffic accidents.\nStates received the Distinguished Career Award from the Injury Control and Emergency", "effective on older cars. Newer cars have electronically fired pre-tension seatbelts that are timed to work with the airbag firing. Buying used seatbelts is not a good idea even in countries where it is legal to do so, because they may have already been stretched in an impact event and may not protect their new users as they should.\nThe final impact after a passenger's body hits the car interior, airbag or seat belts is that of the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull due to their inertia. The force of this impact is the way by which many car", "would not attach their seat belts on properly in order to spend less time in the pit lane and lower safety standards, \"If things like this start to be ignored then it's not the right thing to do.\" After teams signed a letter conveying their disappointment and safety concerns such as seat belt fastening to the stewards, it was decided to postpone the change until the Santiago ePrix to allow teams to utilise additional safety garage equipment for team members and invest in sports car style seat belts.\nThe inaugural in-season rookie test was scheduled to be held at the circuit", "states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida (See F.S.A. 316.614(10)), Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Effectiveness Seat belt laws are effective in reducing car crash deaths. One study found that mandatory-seatbelt laws reduced traffic fatalities by 8% and serious traffic-related injuries by 9%, respectively. Primary-seatbelt laws seem to be more effective at reducing crash deaths than secondary laws.", "much larger fine.) If a driver commits a primary violation (e.g., for speeding) he may additionally be charged for not wearing a seat belt. In most states the seat belt law was originally a secondary offense; in many it was later changed to a primary offense: California was the first state to do this, in 1993. Of the 30 with primary seat belt laws, all but 8, Connecticut, Hawaii, Iowa, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, and Oregon, originally had only secondary enforcement laws.\n34 states, the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico", "to start for 20 seconds if the driver is unbuckled and the car is in \"teen driver\" mode. A similar feature was previously available on some General Motors fleet cars. Legislation Observational studies of car crash morbidity and mortality, experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers indicate that wearing seat belts greatly reduces the risk of death and injury in the majority of car crashes.\nThis has led many countries to adopt mandatory seat belt wearing laws. It is generally accepted that, in comparing like-for-like accidents, a vehicle occupant not wearing a properly fitted seat belt has a significantly", "remains unfastened. Efficacy In 2001, Congress directed NHSTA to study the benefits of technology meant to increase the use of seat belts. NHSTA found that seat belt usage had increased to 73% since the initial introduction of the SBR system. In 2002, Ford demonstrated that seat belts were used more in Fords with seat belt reminders than in those without: 76% and 71% respectively. In 2007, Honda conducted a similar study and found that 90% of people who drove Hondas with seat belt reminders used a seat belt, while 84% of people who drove Hondas without seat belt reminders used", "deaths per 100 million vehicle miles travelled, the US had dropped from first place to tenth place. Pregnant women When pregnant, women should continue to use seatbelts and airbags properly. A University of Michigan study found that \"unrestrained or improperly restrained pregnant women are 5.7 times more likely to have an adverse fetal outcome than properly restrained pregnant women\". If seatbelts are not long enough, extensions are available from the car manufacturer or an aftermarket supplier. Teenage drivers In the UK, a full driving licence can be had at age 17, and most areas in the United States will issue", "usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States.\nThe 1972 Volkswagen ESVW1 Experimental Safety Vehicle presented passive seat belts. Volvo tried to develop a passive three point seatbelt. In 1973, Volkswagen announced they had a functional passive seat belt. The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the 1975 Volkswagen Golf.\nAutomatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when Brock Adams, United States Secretary of Transportation in the Carter Administration, mandated that by 1983 every new car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts. There was strong lobbying against the passive", "an unrestrained occupant to the rear.\nIn the United States, NHTSA has now required lap-shoulder seat belts in new \"over-the-road\" buses (includes most coaches) starting in 2016. Airplanes Lap belts are found on all passenger aircraft. Unlike road vehicles, aircraft seat belts are not primarily designed for crash protection. In fact, their main purpose is to keep passengers in their seats during events such as turbulence. Many civil aviation authorities require a \"fasten seat belt\" sign in passenger aircraft that can be activated by a pilot during takeoff, turbulence, and landing. The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends the use of child", "therefore it can be problematic to install such equipment properly: specific studies and calculations should be performed before any attempts. Proper installation is critical, which means locating attachment points on the body/frame, assuring the strength by proper reinforcement, and following the seat belt installation instructions properly to reduce the risk of malfunction or failure. Some classic car owners are reluctant to retrofit seat belts for the loss of originality this modification implies. There have also been instances of cars losing points at shows for being retrofitted with seat belts.\nFitting modern tires is also a suggestion to improve the handling. However,", "vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and three-point seat belts, rapidly tilting seats, and airbags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades\nAs of 2016, seat belt laws can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. A", "They were standard equipment on the Ford Crown Victoria, Mercury Grand Marquis, and Lincoln Town Car until they were discontinued in 2011. As of 2013, it was reported that only one American automobile, the Chevrolet Impala was sold with a bench seat, and the option was terminated in the next model year. The front bench seat also declined due to safety concerns as air bags could only protect two front seat passengers." ]

[ "There have been [a number of experiments](_URL_0_) that have shown general relativity to be a more accurate theory of gravity than the classic Newtonian model. \n\nFor example, our GPS satellites have to correct for relativistic effects. The fact that your GPS works is proof positive that general relativity is a thing." ]

[ "on space-time are significant enough that when not taken into account, they distort our understanding of time and our observations of distant objects. Following Thomas Buchert's publication of equations in 1997 and 2000 that derive from general relativity but also allow for the inclusion of local gravitational variations, a number of cosmological models were proposed under which the acceleration of the universe is in fact a misinterpretation of our astronomical observations and in which dark energy is unnecessary to explain them. For example, in 2007, David Wiltshire proposed a model (timescape cosmology) in which backreactions have causing time to", "(which I would abandon only reluctantly) that space and time are completely different things, and that there is a \"true time\" (simultaneity thus would be independent of the location, in agreement with the circumstance that we can have the idea of infinitely great velocities), then it can be easily seen that this true time should be indicated by clocks at rest in the aether. However, if the relativity principle had general validity in nature, one wouldn't be in the position to determine, whether the reference system just used is the preferred one. Then one comes to the same results, as", "immanent from outside of nature). Applied to space-time physics, it claims that space-time is real but established only in relation to existing events, as a formal cause or model for the location of events relative to each other; and in reverse a system of space-time events establishes a template for space-time. R-theory is thus a form of model-dependent realism. It claims to more closely follow the views of Mach, Leibniz, Wheeler and Bohm, suggesting that natural law itself is system-dependent. Relational order theories A number of independent lines of research depict the universe, including the social organization of living creatures", "the opinion of authoritative scientists who thought that nothing good would result if our continuous space were made discrete.\nIn his article entitled \"On the New Quantum Crisis,\" about the quantization of space, a pioneer of quantum gravity Matvei Bronshtein, who was shot in 1937, wrote: \"Since we are obviously speaking here about a four-dimensional grid that includes both space and time, a privileged coordinate system clearly designates an absolute time and three predominant directions in a motionless space. But this contradicts both the theory of relativity and experiment: in reality space-time is isotropic, all coordinate systems are equivalent in it,", "also no possibility of existence for standards of space and time (measuring-rods and clocks), nor therefore any space-time intervals in the physical sense. But this aether may not be thought of as endowed with the quality characteristic of ponderable media, as consisting of parts which may be tracked through time. The idea of motion may not be applied to it. Quantum vacuum Quantum mechanics can be used to describe spacetime as being non-empty at extremely small scales, fluctuating and generating particle pairs that appear and disappear incredibly quickly. It has been suggested by some such as Paul Dirac that this", "with the block universe and the conflict between relativity and quantum mechanics. Additionally, Elitzur and Dolev believe that certain quantum mechanical experiments provide evidence of apparently inconsistent histories, and that spacetime itself may therefore be subject to change affecting entire histories.\nAmrit Sorli and Davide Fiscaletti, founders of the Space Life Institute in Slovenia, argue that time exists independently of space, and that time dilation and length contraction can be better described within the framework of a 3D space, with time as the quantity used to measure change. Sorli and Fiscaletti argue that Minkowski spacetime, and the understanding of time as", "Quantum spacetime Overview Physical reasons have been given to believe that physical spacetime is a quantum spacetime.\nIn quantum mechanics position and momentum variables are already noncommutative, obey the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and are continuous.\nBecause of the Heisenberg uncertainty relations, greater energy is needed to probe smaller distances.\nUltimately, according to gravity theory, the probing particles form black holes that destroy what was to be measured. The process cannot be repeated, so it cannot be counted as a measurement.\nThis limited measurability led many to expect that our usual picture of continuous commutative spacetime breaks down at Planck scale distances, if not", "sooner.\nAgain, physical spacetime is expected to be quantum because physical coordinates are already slightly noncommutative.\nThe astronomical coordinates of a star are modified by gravitational fields between us and the star, as in the deflection of light by the sun, one of the classic tests of general relativity.\nTherefore, the coordinates actually depend on gravitational field variables.\nAccording to quantum theories of gravity these field variables do not commute;\ntherefore coordinates that depend on them likely do not commute.\nBoth arguments are based on pure gravity and quantum theory, and they limit the measurement of time\nby the only time constant in pure quantum gravity, the", "possible to derive sensible laws of physics in a universe with more than one time dimension. Early attempts at constructing spacetimes with extra timelike dimensions inevitably met with issues such as causality violation and so could be immediately rejected, but it is now known that viable frameworks exist of such spacetimes that can be correlated with general relativity and the Standard Model, and which make predictions of new phenomena that are within the range of experimental access. Possible observational evidence Observed high values of the cosmological constant may imply kinematics significantly different from relativistic kinematics. A deviation from relativistic kinematics", "other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event. Spacetime Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together", "the events of spacetime are not embedded in a higher-dimensional space, yet the mathematical principle is the same.\nPhysicists do not presently know if event symmetry is a correct symmetry of nature, but the example of a soap bubble shows that it is a logical possibility. If it can be used to explain real physical observations then it merits serious consideration. Maximal permutability American philosopher of physics John Stachel has used permutability of spacetime events to generalize Einstein's hole argument. Stachel uses the term quiddity to describe the universal qualities of an entity and haecceity to describe its individuality. He makes", "relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional spacetime, three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.\nIn spite of the fact that the universe is well described by four-dimensional spacetime, there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions. In some cases, by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions, a theory becomes more mathematically tractable, and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily. There are also situations where", "planet, named Vulcan, which a number of astronomers subsequently claimed to have seen. In 1905, however, Einstein's special theory of relativity claimed that space and time are both relative, refuting the very framework of Newton's theory that claimed that space and time were both absolute.\nIn 1915, Einstein's general theory of relativity newly explained gravitation while precisely predicting Mercury's orbit. In 1919, astrophysicist Arthur Eddington led an expedition to test Einstein's prediction of the Sun's mass reshaping spacetime in its vicinity. The Royal Society announced confirmation—accepted by physicists as the fall of Newton's theory. Yet few theoretical", "giving the geometrical interpretation of special relativity by extending the Euclidean three-space to a quasi-Euclidean four-space that included time, Einstein was already aware that this is not valid, because it excludes the phenomenon of gravitation. He was still far from the study of curvilinear coordinates and Riemannian geometry, and the heavy mathematical apparatus entailed.\nFor further historical information see references Galison (1979), Corry (1997) and Walter (1999). Mathematical structure It is assumed below that spacetime is endowed with a coordinate system corresponding to an inertial frame. This provides an origin, which is necessary in order to be able to refer to", "as Einstein, Kaluza-Klein theory was too beset with inconsistencies to be a viable theory.\nVarious superstring theories have effective low-energy limits that correspond to classical spacetimes with alternate dimensionalities than the apparent dimensionality of the observed universe. It has been argued that all but the (3+1) dimensional world represent dead worlds with no observers. Therefore, on the basis of anthropic arguments, it would be predicted that the observed universe should be one of (3+1) spacetime.\nSpace and time may not be fundamental properties, but rather may represent emergent phenomena whose origins lie in quantum entanglement.\nIt had occasionally been wondered whether it is", "of spacetime is regarded as physically real, whereas the fictitious forces are not regarded as forces. The very first solutions of his field equations explained the anomalous precession of Mercury and predicted an unusual bending of light, which was confirmed after his theory was published. These solutions are explained below. Post-Newtonian expansion In the Schwarzschild solution, it is assumed that the larger mass M is stationary and it alone determines the gravitational field (i.e., the geometry of space-time) and, hence, the lesser mass m follows a geodesic path through that fixed space-time. This is a reasonable approximation", "frames of reference. The theory of relativity does not have a concept of absolute time because there is a relativity of simultaneity. An event that is simultaneous with another event in one frame of reference may be in the past or future of that event in a different frame of reference, which negates absolute simultaneity. Einstein Quoted below from his later papers, Einstein identified the term aether with \"properties of space\", a terminology that is not widely used. Einstein stated that in general relativity the \"aether\" is not absolute anymore, as the geodesic and therefore the structure of spacetime depends", "time Some scientists and philosophers of science were critical of Newton's definitions of absolute space and time. Ernst Mach (1883) argued that absolute time and space are essentially metaphysical concepts and thus scientifically meaningless, and suggested that only relative motion between material bodies is a useful concept in physics. Mach argued that even effects that according to Newton depend on accelerated motion with respect to absolute space, such as rotation, could be described purely with reference to material bodies, and that the inertial effects cited by Newton in support of absolute space might instead be related purely to acceleration with", "of spacetime is oscillating, such as with co-orbiting objects. As of 2019, the gravitational radiation emitted by the Solar System is far too small to measure; however, on 14 September 2015, LIGO registered gravitational waves (gravitational radiation) for the first time as a result of the collision of two black holes 1.3 billion light-years from Earth. This observation confirms the theoretical predictions of Einstein and others that such waves exist. It also opens the way for practical observation and understanding of the nature of gravity and events in the Universe including the Big Bang. Neutron star and black hole formation", "because a human or Turing machine computing with pencil and paper (under Turing's conditions) is a finitely realizable physical system. Experimental confirmation So far there is no experimental confirmation of either binary or quantized nature of the universe, which are basic for digital physics.\nThe few attempts made in this direction would include the experiment with holometer designed by Craig Hogan, which among others would detect a bit structure of space-time.\nThe experiment started collecting data in August 2014.\nA new result of the experiment released on December 3, 2015, after a year of data collection, has ruled out Hogan's theory of a", "Non-relativistic spacetime Introduction There are many reasons why spacetimes may be studied that do not satisfy relativistic postulates and/or that deviate from the apparent (3+1) dimensionality of the known universe. Galilean/Newtonian spacetime The classic example of a non-relativistic spacetime is the spacetime of Galileo and Newton. It is the spacetime of everyday \"common sense\". Galilean/Newtonian spacetime assumes that space is Euclidean (i.e. \"flat\"), and that time has a constant rate of passage that is independent of the state of motion of an observer, or indeed of anything external.\nNewtonian mechanics takes place within the context of Galilean/Newtonian spacetime. For a huge", "the universe can have a different set of events that are in its present moment.\nMany of special relativity's now-proven counter-intuitive predictions, such as length contraction and time dilation, are a result of this.\nRelativity of simultaneity is often taken to imply eternalism (and hence a B-theory of time), where the present for different observers is a time slice of the four dimensional universe. This is demonstrated in the Rietdijk–Putnam argument and additionally in an advanced form of this argument called the Andromeda paradox, created by mathematical physicist Roger Penrose.\nIt is therefore common (though not universal), for B-theorists to be four-dimensionalists, that", "with the observed facts, regarded time and space a priori as a certain class of 'coordinates' merely expressing relationships of an event to the measuring instruments. On the basis of a constant speed of light, both time and space become relative concepts, fundamentally dependent of the observer.\nThe developments of quantum formulation early this century has also led physicists to question the Newtonian concepts of physical objects, such as 'particle' and 'wave', which are basic ideas in all of classical physics. Subsequently, Heisenberg in his pioneering paper developed a conceptual framework that in a way retained all the classical concepts,", "\"I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all.\" Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of consciousness, he actually found it easier to study awareness in the visual system, rather than to study free will, for example. His cautionary example was the gene; the gene was much more poorly understood before Watson and Crick's pioneering discovery of the structure of", "Spacetime Definitions Non-relativistic classical mechanics treats time as a universal quantity of measurement which is uniform throughout space and which is separate from space. Classical mechanics assumes that time has a constant rate of passage that is independent of the state of motion of an observer, or indeed of anything external. Furthermore, it assumes that space is Euclidean, which is to say, it assumes that space follows the geometry of common sense.\nIn the context of special relativity, time cannot be separated from the three dimensions of space, because the observed rate at which time passes for an object depends on", "impossibility of traversing an actual infinite, the argument from the lack of capacity to begin to exist, and various arguments from paradoxes. Big Bang cosmology Some cosmologists and physicists argue that a challenge to the cosmological argument is the nature of time: \"One finds that time just disappears from the Wheeler–DeWitt equation\" (Carlo Rovelli). The Big Bang theory states that it is the point in which all dimensions came into existence, the start of both space and time. Then, the question \"What was there before the Universe?\" makes no sense; the concept of \"before\" becomes meaningless when considering a situation", "with familiar low energy physics and establishing it has the correct semi-classical limit. The problem of time All canonical theories of general relativity have to deal with the problem of time. In quantum gravity, the problem of time is a conceptual conflict between general relativity and quantum mechanics. In canonical general relativity, time is just another coordinate as a result of general covariance. In quantum field theories, especially in the Hamiltonian formulation, the formulation is split between three dimensions of space, and one dimension of time. Roughly speaking, the problem of time is that there is none in general relativity.", "Time Machine, has led such authors as John William Dunne (An Experiment with Time) into a serious misconception of the theory of Relativity. Minkowski's geometry of space-time is not Euclidean, and consequently has no connection with the present investigation.\n— H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes Orthogonality and vocabulary In the familiar three-dimensional space in which we live, there are three coordinate axes—usually labeled x, y, and z—with each axis orthogonal (i.e. perpendicular) to the other two. The six cardinal directions in this space can be called up, down, east, west, north, and south. Positions along these axes can be called altitude,", "assumed that the space-time can be approximately regarded as consisting of a flat space but a curved time. He showed that in this case the gravitational force between the Earth at rest and a moving body increases with the speed of the body in the same way as considered by Supplee (), providing in this way a justification for his assumption. Analysing the paradox again with this speed-dependent gravitational force, the Supplee paradox is explained and the results agree with those obtained by Supplee and Matsas.", "which space-time itself emerges by a way of transactions. It has been argued that this relativistic transactional interpretation can provide the quantum dynamics for the causal sets program. Debate In 1996, Tim Maudlin proposed a thought experiment involving Wheeler's delayed choice experiment that is generally taken as a refutation of TIQM. However Kastner showed Maudlin's argument is not fatal for TIQM.\nIn his book, The Quantum Handshake, Cramer has added a hierarchy to the description of pseudo-time to deal with Maudlin's objection and has pointed out that some of Maudlin's arguments are based on the inappropriate application of Heisenberg's knowledge interpretation" ]

[ "Think of a teenager screaming at parents and siblings saying nobody understands me, I'm moving out. Then stays home sulking when they find out they would have to do their own laundry and cooking, and pay for their own groceries. Then says they are staying, but only if they get their own apartment above the garage. Then finally coming out of their room on pizza night, load up their plate, and sits watching tv with the volume up, ignoring everyone else in the family, refusing to share the remote. \n\nSo, yeah, a passive aggressive teenager.", "First it's a province, not providence.\n\nIt's not Quebecians, it's Quebecois.\n\nAlso, the separatist movement is nowhere near achieving anything. There has been 2 public consultations on the matter, in 1980 and 1995, both times the 'No' camp won.\n\nThe 1995 referendum created tensions in the PQ (the separatist party) because Parizeau blamed the minorities for losing by such a small margin. Montreal voted mostly NO and the rest of the province was basically mixed in 1995.\n\n\nThe racism you see/hear about comes mainly from the rural regions outside Montreal, where the separatism is stronger, and also where the minorities are representing a smaller fraction of the population.\n\nThere are stereotypes and mockery associated with Toronto, but it's not the 1980's anymore, most people I know don't care about \"Les Anglais\" anymore.", "Here is one I feel very comfortable answering, being an \"International Quebecois\". I am from Montreal, have lived in 4 countries (over 15 years), have lived in Ontario as well, and am now living in the USA.\n\nThe main point, even putting diverging history aside, is that Quebec is culturally very different from the rest of Canada. Indeed, we don't only speak a very different language, we have a set of values that are fundamentally different:\n- Quebecois people are fundamentally more European (Mediteranean even) in their every day behaviour; they smoke, they like argue, they are generally more flirtatious...etc\n- Quebecois people perceive themselves as being more \"fun\"; Montreal has the most restaurants per inhabitant in the whole of North America, it has the most festivals, you can drink when you're 18.\n- English Canada perceives itself as more responsible and pragmatic then Quebec. It has more successful businesses, and is generally richer, and there is, amongst other things higher education rates, and the big international companies are mostly all there.\n\nSo, in sum, whilst neither approach to life is better, they have different attitudes from the get go.\n\n\nSo to answer the first question: why do some want to separate?\nSimply because they perceive themselves as being very different and feel like they are being ruled by people with a diverging sets of values, and although it makes no pragmatic sense they don't like it.\n\nSecond question: Do people from Quebec and Toronto really dislike each other?\nI'm going to rephrase this as \"do people from Montreal and Toronto really dislike each other.\"\n- Except for a few lunatics there is no real personal hatred between these two cities, so if a guy from Toronto meets a guys from Montreal they'll happily have drinks together. However they do not necessarily like what the other city represents. I don't know if you are familiar with Germany, but basically Toronto is like Hamburg and Montreal is like Berlin. Namely, one is bigger and more traditional, with a focus on core industries, traditional business and values whilst the other one is more hip and artsy.\n\nAlso worth noting, back in the days Quebec was very French and the rest of Canada very English. In recent decades, the American culture has had a very strong impact on Canadian culture, and some would argue that the debate is now more about French culture vs American culture. Although, Quebec as also drastically Americanized. \n\nWith regards to immigrants.\nThere is a significant number of immigrants in most provinces in Canada. Most Canadians (including myself) are generally happy with that.\n\nThere are two differences in Quebec's relation with its immigrants:\n1- They don't get immigrants from the same places. Quebec gets significantly immigrants from Haiti and African countries, whilst the rest of Canada primarily welcomes Asian immigrants. The immigrants in Quebec, are from countries which are generally more unsafe, and some associate their coming to Quebec to the recent increase in crime rate in the province. That's one reason why there is more negative feelings towards immigrants in Quebec, than in the rest of the country.\n2 - Another good proportion of the immigrants in Quebec are from similar countries as the immigrants living in the rest of Canada. These people often already speak English, and some people get pissed off because they would like them to speak French.\n\nLast question. Where is it going?\nNowhere.", "Couple nomenclature things first:\n\nQuebecois not Quebecians\n\nProvince not providence.\n\n--------------\n\n-- Sort of. The Quebecois (view that they) have a distinct culture more separate from the rest Canada than other provinces. This is partially language, but carries over into other things as well (mostly Catholic vs mostly protestant for example). This view may or may or may not be true depending on who you ask.\n\nSo Quebec views itself as a distinct minority in the country. They want to protect 'what makes them special' from out side influence. This includes language laws to promote French, and now laws promoting 'secularism' to protect against immigrants.\n\nFor more information ask about 'the quiet revolution'.\n\n--They want to separate because they view that as the best way to protect their identity/they think they will be better off economically/socially.\n\nThey aren't that close right now. Last federal election they didn't elect the Bloc Quebecois (which is a separatist party). However back in the 90s they came within a couple percentage points of voting to leave in a referendum (there was no legal basis for that vote so no one is really sure what would have happened if it succeeded).\n\n-- Toronto is the biggest city, in the biggest province in Canada. As such it gets a disproportionate amount of news coverage elsewhere (think New York). Pretty much everyone who doesn't live in Toronto has found a reason to hate it. It isn't just a Quebec thing.\n\n-- Well there is the 'charter of values', which a lot of people see as an attack on religious minorities in Quebec. Other than that... it is kinda hard to say. Right now separatism seems to be on the decline. But I'd want to see another couple election cycles before I made up my mind.\n\n-----\n\nLet me know if you want anything else cleared up.", "my family and I have visited both montreal and quebec more than once and our experience has been that, while montrealers are very friendly to americans, the opposite is true for people from quebec. they were very inhospitable to us. just saying.", "> Do many Quebecians have a superiority complex to many of the racial minorities in the larger cities (such as Montreal)?\n\nThere is no easy or apt generalization of Quebecers' attitudes on the matter. Most Quebecers fall into one of three camps: francophones (French), anglophones (English French) and immigrants (international and interprovincial). As such, they have different values and motivations. \n\n > Why do they want to separate? How close are they?\n\nSeparatists seek Quebec sovereignty because they feel they are culturally distinct from the rest of Canada and that they should be allowed to express that distinction in the form of their own country. The Clarity Act that came into being post-1995 (which requires a supermajority and the consent of the federal government) and the ongoing dilution of francophones in the province make separation a practical impossibility.\n\n > Do Quebec people and Toronto people dislike each other? (I always hear the term \"51st state\" for Toronto from Quebecians)\n\nThere's nothing particularly unique about this. Ontario is the largest, closest 'English' province to Quebec, and Montreal and Toronto are often rivals for the unofficial 'most important city in Canada' title. Torontonians were historically considered stuffy, English and bland, but it's an old stereotype that doesn't really pass muster.\n\n > Where is this actually going? From an outsiders perspective it feels like a lot of media dialogue and useless protesting.\n\nThat's essentially it.", "I'm an anglophone who's family has lived in Québec for about a century, so I feel I might have a say in this. I'm bilingual and I'd say about half of my friends are francophone, and not once in my life can I say I've been genuinely discriminated against or abused because of my mother tongue. In fact, by and large, most people I know get along just fine, regardless of language, cultural or religious differences.\n\nOf course there's people in this province who feel differently, and act rudely towards those they consider \"outsiders\", but it's not because they're French, it's because like everywhere else in the world, **some people are dicks**. The problem is, it's exactly these sort of people who get all the media attention, and so sadly the majority gets labelled just because a few people are racist tools. \n\nPoint is, in general the disagreements between Québec and English speaking Canada are based on centuries old conflicts that have long ago become irrelevant, and fueled by generalizations, stereotypes, misunderstandings and the opinions of a few people who **absolutely do not represent the whole province**. And it's sad that there's so much conflict and jostling over these issues in the political arena and media, because most people I know don't really care and just want to get on with their lives. \n\nHope this helps.", "In addition to the problems listed by the other people, there is the constitutional issue.\n\nCanada had 2 constitutions: the 1867 one, and the 1982 one.\n\nThe 1867 said that to be changed, it needed ALL provinces to sign on the changes.\n\nWhy? Because Québec, a French province, wouldn't join Canada without that clause.\n\nThe 1982 one says that you need 7 provinces representing 50% of the population.\n\nThe 10 provinces and the Federal government negociated in 1981 and 1982 to get a new more modern constitution.\n\n9 of the provinces (but not Québec) came to a compromise while the PM of Québec wasn't there, and that's the new 1982 constitution.\n\nQuébec says: \"But, I didn't sign the new constutition and you need ALL provinces to change the old one\"\n\nThe federal and other 9 provinces said : \"no dummy, we must approve the new constitution with the NEW rules of 7 provinces\"\n\nThe Supreme court decided the 9 provinces and federal were right.\n\nQuébec got sad and rejected. Problem is STILL not solved, 21 years later.\n\nFor the 9 provinces and federal, Québec is just a sore loser.\n\nFor Québec, \"We joined Canada on the condition that we could block changes to the constitution and the constitution got changed without our approval\".", "Quebecois here living near Ottawa; yes the separatist movement has died down immensely and things aren't like they were in the 80s, but many of us still struggle with identity. A lot of Quebecers won't say they are Canadian when you ask, but rather Quebecois. There's a political party that shames Quebecois citiziens from speaking English! They believe if you want to call yourself Quebecois you should **only** speak French. \n\n\nI consider myself both Canadian and Quebecois; those high-and-mighty French-only folks get virtually zero respect from any generation born after the 80s and still not that much from those before.", "The major problem with the question is that you are posting this in r/explainlikeimfive instead of r/quebec. If you want good answers, please post in the relevant forum. Here you will only find misinformed answers." ]

[ "Quebec diaspora France Québec is a privileged partner of France, particularly because of the historical and linguistic ties that unite them. Since the time of New France until today, many French Canadians and Quebecois emigrated to France. Several artists would also do so because they were misunderstood in a clerical Quebec, especially during the \"Grande Noirceur\". United States Approximately 900,000 Quebec residents (French Canadian for the great majority) left for the United States between 1840 and 1930. They were pushed to emigrate by overpopulation in rural areas that could not sustain themselves under the seigneurial system of land", "to officially recognising Quebec as a \"nation\" or \"distinct society\" within Canada, and support the Clarity Act (legislation introduced by the Chrétien government, essentially giving the federal government the right to establish a \"clear majority\" threshold for any sovereignty referendum at its own discretion and after the fact - this is opposed by the Quebec Liberal Party).\nNotable symmetrical federalists have included Pierre Trudeau, Jean Chrétien, Stéphane Dion and Justin Trudeau.\nAlthough this strain of uncompromising, centralising Canadian federalism is most often associated with the Liberal Party of Canada and the political tradition of Pierre Trudeau, it also has adherents from other", "Federalism in Quebec Historical context The idea that the Province of Quebec should remain a part of the Canadian Confederation is based on a variety of historical and cultural justifications, principally centred on the composition of Canadian culture prior to Confederation in 1867. The Federalist view of Canadian history suggests that Canada as a nation is intrinsically tied to the Canadian people, a product of imperial synthesis. The realities of colonial-era life for French and British settlers was heavily influenced by local considerations, such as climate, geography and established Aboriginal societies. The economic realities of New France required a cooperative", "across the country are against this notion.” The exact question of the November 2006 poll was, \"Currently, there is a political debate on recognizing Quebec as a nation. Do you personally consider that Quebecers form a nation or not?\" Canadians from every region outside Quebec, non-Francophone Quebecers (62 per cent), Francophone Canadians outside Quebec (77 per cent) all rejected the idea. France In France, although openness and support is found on both sides of the political spectrum, the French political right has traditionally been warmer to sovereignists (like President Charles de Gaulle, who shouted his support of independence in Montreal", "face that dilemma with their policy decisions. The following nations and regions are just a few specific examples of this dilemma and its effects: Canada Canada has had many political debates between the French speakers and English speakers, particularly in the province of Quebec. Canada holds both French and English as official languages. The politics in Quebec are largely defined by nationalism as French Québécois wish to gain independence from Canada as a whole, based on ethnic and linguistic boundaries. The main separatist party, Parti Québécois, attempted to gain sovereignty twice (once in 1980 and again in 1995) and failed", "and subsequently relinquished to the British in exchange for Guadeloupe. It argues that the people of Quebec are the descendants of a conquered people who are due their national sovereignty. This perspective was popular in the 1950s and 1960s when European countries were giving up their colonies in the name of independence throughout much of Africa, the Middle East and South Asia.\nEight of the other Canadian provinces are overwhelmingly (greater than 90%) English-speaking, while New Brunswick is officially bilingual and about one-third Francophone. Another rationale is based on resentment of anti-Quebec sentiment. With regard to the creation of the sovereignist", "said that the Province's attempt was a racist concept that would make \"second- or third- class citizens of everyone but 'old stock' Quebecers.\" Justin Trudeau Controversy In 2007, Justin Trudeau (now Prime Minister), who was then a candidate for the Liberal Party of Canada, raised the ire of some commentators for using \"old stock canadian\" during an interview, dismissing Quebec's claim of being a \"nation\". He asked: \"...whether everyone in Quebec was part of that nation, or just the “old stock” pioneers.\" In a later speech to the University Club about the distinctiveness Quebec, he clarified: \"In the sociological sense", "1995 Quebec referendum Background Quebec, a province in Canada since its foundation in 1867, has always been the sole majority French-speaking province. Long ruled by forces (such as the Union Nationale) that focused on affirmation of the province's French and Catholic identity within Canada, the Quiet Revolution of the early 1960s prompted a surge in civic and economic nationalism, as well as voices calling for the independence of the province and the establishment of a nation state. Among these was René Lévesque, who would eventually found the Parti Québécois with like-minded groups seeking independence from Canada. After arriving in power", "by Quebec nationalists. Quebec Anti-Canadianism in the Francophone province of Quebec has its roots originally stemming from the resentment since the conquest of New France by Great Britain in 1760, even before the official existence as entities of Canada and Quebec themselves. However, after the Constitution Act, 1867, which officially proclaimed a Canadian Confederation, creating \"one Dominion under the name of Canada\" (Dominion of Canada) on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, which marked the separate existence and de facto independence and de jure evolutionary independence of Canada, these sentiments developed into Anti-Canadianism.", "primary political party, is opposed to increasing political sovereignty for the province, but has also been historically at odds, on occasion, with various Canadian federal governments. Thus, Quebec politics is effectively divided into two camps, principally opposed over the sovereignty issue. Quebec sovereignty is politically opposed to the competing ideology of Canadian federalism.\nMost groups within this movement seek to gain independence through peaceful means, using negotiation-based diplomatic intervention, although fringe groups have advocated and used violent means. The overwhelming number of casualties came from attacks by the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), a militant organization which perpetrated a bombing", "from Quebec were not welcome by the provincial Liberals, which I think is nuts\". An additional problem for the non side occurred when the Gaullist president of France, Jacques Chirac, stated in a TV interview that France would not only recognize an independent Quebec at once, but also use its influence within the European Union to have the other EU nations recognize Quebec as well, a statement that boosted support for the oui side. Such was Chrétien's alarm at Chirac's remark that the prime minister—who normally fiercely resented anything that smacked of American interference in Canadian internal affairs in the", "1980 Quebec referendum Background Quebec, a province in the Canadian Confederation since its foundation in 1867, has always been the sole majority French-speaking province. Long ruled by forces (such as the Union Nationale) that focused on affirmation of the province's French and Catholic identity within Canada, the province underwent a Quiet Revolution in the early 1960s. The Quiet Revolution was characterized by the effective secularization of society and the creation of a welfare state (état-providence). It also caused a realignment of provincial politics into federalist and sovereigntist factions, the latter calling for the separation of Quebec from Canada", "Quebec began regularly exchanging ministers and government officials. Premier Lesage, for example, visited de Gaulle three times between 1961 and 1965.\nLesage's statement to the Quebec National Assembly that the French Canadian identity, culture, and language were endangered by a \"cultural invasion from the USA,\" which threatened to make Canada a \"cultural satellite of the United States\" mirrored exactly the Gaullists concern for France's cultural survival in the face on an English onslaught. In this light, France and Quebec set about in the early 1960s negotiating exchange agreements in the areas of education, culture, technical cooperation, and youth exchange. The federal", "Quebec during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s. The predominant French Canadian nationalism and identity of previous generations was based on the protection of the French language, the Roman Catholic Church, and Church-run institutions across Canada and in parts of the United States. In contrast, the modern Québécois identity is secular and based on a social democratic ideal of an active Quebec government promoting the French language and French-speaking culture in the arts, education, and business within the Province of Quebec. Politically, this resulted in a push towards more autonomy for Quebec and an internal debate on Quebec independence", "Quebec nationalist federalism and autonomism Federalist Quebec nationalists defend the concept of Quebec remaining within Canada, while pursuing greater autonomy and national recognition for Quebec within the Canadian federation. This approach to national unity has a long tradition within Canadian federalism that in some respects can be traced back to the compromises of the 19th century that were essential to the unification of Upper and Lower Canada and eventually Confederation.\nThe Union Nationale under Maurice Duplessis (1930s to 1950s) was nationalist without explicitly calling for independence, prior to the arrival of Daniel Johnson, Sr. as leader. The Parti libéral du Québec", "(a common phrase at the time). Many Québécois viewed his compromise as a sell-out and useless: Quebec already had a charter enacted in 1975 and was not interested in imposing French on other provinces; rather, it wished to safeguard it inside Quebec. Many Canadians recognize that the province of Quebec is distinct and unique but they do not conclude from this that Quebec merits a position of greater autonomy than the other provinces, which they feel would be the result of granting special powers that are unavailable to the other provinces.\nThe government of Quebec, in line with its policy", "politics has distracted Quebecers from the real economic problems of Quebec, and that sovereignty by itself cannot solve those problems. In 2005 they published their position statement, \"Pour un Québec lucide\", (\"For a lucid Quebec\") which details the problems facing Quebec.\nMany federalists oppose the Quebec sovereignty movement for economic and political reasons but many also oppose sovereignty on other grounds. For example, since the 1995 referendum, in regards to the declaration of Jacques Parizeau who blamed the loss on \"money and the ethnic vote\", many federalists considered the sovereignty movement as an expression of ethnic nationalism.\nSome arguments against sovereignty claim", "persists that the Quebec government opposed this assertion of francophone identity outside of the province because of the impact it would have on the assertion of anglophone language rights within its own borders.)\nFor a majority of Quebec politicians, whether sovereignist or not, the problem of Quebec's political status is considered unresolved to this day. Although Quebec independence is a political question, cultural concerns are also at the root of the desire for independence. The central cultural argument of the sovereignists is that only sovereignty can adequately ensure the survival of the French language in North America, allowing Quebecers to establish", "the problem of the fiscal imbalance between the federal and provincial governments with Prime Minister Stephen Harper.\nAndré Boisclair, leader of the Parti Québécois, had said he would hold a referendum (or \"popular consultation\", as in the party platform) on the issue of Quebec independence as soon as possible after an election win.\nMulticulturalism, secularism and the place of cultural and religious minorities in Quebec were issues in this election. There was a large scale debate over \"reasonable accommodation\" towards cultural minorities, and a few political leaders expressed their views on the question. Mario Dumont, leader of the Action démocratique, took a", "by a narrow margin of 1.2% in 1995. Since then, in order to remain united, Canada granted Quebec statut particulier, recognizing Quebec as a nation within the united nation of Canada. Belgium The divide between the Dutch-speaking north (Flanders) and the French-speaking South (Wallonia) has caused the parliamentary democracy to become ethnically polarized. Though an equal number of seats in the Chamber of Representatives are prescribed to the Flemish and Walloons, Belgian political parties have all divided into two ideologically identical but linguistically and ethnically different parties. The political crisis has grown so bad in recent years that the partition", "to an \"out of the blue\" question from a Quebec journalist in Paris. On a later visit to Quebec City she gave a more nuanced position, mentioning a Parliamentary motion recognizing the Québécois as a \"nation\", but also describing 400 years of \"oppression\" and resistance of francophones in Canada.\nThe French Foreign Office motto concerning Quebec's \"national question\" is \"non-ingérence et non-indifférence\" (\"no interference and no indifference\"), which epitomizes the official position of the French State. In other words, while the Quebec people vote to stay within Canada, France will officially support the Canadian Confederation the way it is.\nFormer French President", "of the term we can talk about the nation of Quebec or Quebec as a nation\". Harper controversy In the 2015 federal election campaign in Canada, which was taking place against the backdrop of hundreds of thousands of refugees of the Syrian Civil War (2011-) fleeing to Europe, then Prime Minister Stephen Harper's use of the appellation 'Old Stock Canadians' created a media frenzy.\nHarper explained (in reference to a debate on health care policy): \"I know that that is a position supported widely through the Canadian population, it's supported by Canadians who are themselves immigrants and also supported by the", "in the Canadian constitution the Province of Quebec as a \"distinct society\" within Canada. The campaign A poll published in the Winnipeg Free Press indicated that the NDP were the most trusted party on economic issues, followed by the Tories. The NDP were still damaged from their poor showing in the 1988 election, however, and began the campaign in third place. The struggle for government initially appeared to be between the Liberals and Progressive Conservatives.\nThe Liberals ran a weak campaign, however, and were overtaken by the NDP after a strong performance from Gary Doer in the leaders' debate.", "the Quiet Revolution, the Quebec press reported that extreme separatists were plotting to assassinate Queen Elizabeth II during her upcoming 1964 tour of the province, as well as to kidnap Premier Jean Lesage's son, should the Queen come to Quebec. Despite fears for the monarch's safety and talk of cancelling the trip, the Queen arrived as planned and, in a speech delivered to the Legislative Assembly on 10 October, in both French and English, spoke of Canada's two \"complementary cultures\" and the strength of Canada's two founding peoples; she stated: \"I am pleased to think that there exists in our", "Québécois nation motion Historical background The debate about Québécois nationhood centres on the question of the status of the province of Quebec and its primarily French-speaking population. During the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, the term Québécois largely replaced French Canadian as an expression of cultural and nationalist identity as French Canadians asserted themselves culturally. The modern Québécois identity is secular and based on a social democratic ideal of the Quebec State promoting Quebec French culture and language in the arts, education, and business within the province. Politically, this resulted in a movement towards more provincial autonomy. Quebec federalists in", "months later) nor the Quebec Liberals won a majority. Québec solidaire also gained a few seats from the Parti Québécois collapse and a couple from Quebec Liberals. This also ended the interest of Quebec independence from Canada for while as seemly half of Quebecers preferred returning to the idea of receiving more political autonomy within Canada. National Question The National Question is the debate regarding the future of Quebec and the status of it as a province of Canada. Political parties are organized along ideologies that favor independence from Canada (sovereigntist or separatist) and various degrees of autonomy within Canada", "violent, protests when Prince William and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, visited Montreal and Quebec City in 2011. History Prince George, Prince of Wales, was present for the celebration of Quebec City's tercentenary in 1908, The events were popular with Quebec residents, leading Prime Minister of Canada Wilfrid Laurier to opine that Quebecers were \"monarchical by religion, by habit, and by the remembrance of past history.\" Into the 1960s and 1970s, however, Quebec nationalism grew and created an atmosphere in which the Canadian monarchy was a target of anti-federal, anti-English sentiment. Exactly 60 years later, however, Premier Daniel Johnson mused about", "long reel and laying down the ludicrous theory that much of the Quebec independence-related defeats of the Quebec people throughout its history (the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, the Lower Canada Rebellion and the October Crisis) are caused by an almost endemic tradition of drunkenness. The Patriotes rebelled, the English regime will have to fall, they got out their ceintures fléchées! The Patriotes all agreed: to achieve victory, we will have to stop drinking! (listen live) Le Gars d'la compagnie It's about Trois-Rivières workers and the Quebec forest, as well as aboriginals, being exploited by American businessmen before the", "downturn in the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 which unleashed severe economic loss through North America and Western Europe.\nToday Canada remains part of the Commonwealth, and relations between French and English Canada have continued to present problems. A referendum was held in Quebec, however, in 1980, in which Quebecers voted to remain part of Canada.\nIn 1990, the white-minority government of the Republic of South Africa, led by F.W. de Klerk, began negotiations to dismantle its racist apartheid legislation and the former British colony held its first universal elections in 1994, which the African National Congress Party of Nelson Mandela won by", "Quebec culminated in the 1970 kidnappings of British diplomat, James Cross and then the provincial minister of labour, Pierre Laporte in what is known as the October Crisis.\nThe Quiet Revolution also forced the evolution of several political parties, and so, in 1966, a reformed Union Nationale led by Daniel Johnson, Sr., returned to power under the slogan \"Equality or Independence\". The new premier of Quebec stated, \"As a basis for its nationhood, Quebec wants to be master of its own decision-making in what concerns the human growth of its citizens—that is to say education, social security and health in all" ]

[ "Specifically, little at this time. But it is a reduction in the biodiversity that keeps the environment healthy.\n\nBest way to explain it is to simplify things - let's just hope Disney doesn't sue me. Follow the circle of life - the antelope eat the grass, the lions eat the antelope, the dead lions decay and feed the grass. If all of the lions disappear, the antelope will over populate, eat all the grass, and everyone dies. If the grass dies, the antelope die, and the lions starve. If the antelope migrate, the lions starve, and the grass rules everything.\n\nAs a single entity, the white rhino's disappearance is not going to destroy the ecosystem - they are part of a greater collection of animals that fill their step in the circle. But their biodiversity is gone, meaning if there was an event that would wipe out the other rhinos but wouldn't have effected the white rhino, the ecosystem does not have the white rhino to fall back on anymore." ]

[ "white rhinoceros. As of 31 December 2007, there were an estimated 17,460 southern white rhinos in the wild (IUCN 2008), making them by far the most abundant subspecies of rhino in the world; the number of southern white rhinos outnumbers all other rhino subspecies combined. South Africa is the stronghold for this subspecies (93.0%), conserving 16,255 individuals in the wild in 2007 (IUCN 2008). There are smaller reintroduced populations within the historical range of the species in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Uganda and Swaziland, while a small population survives in Mozambique. Populations have also been introduced outside of the former range", "white rhinoceros is the biggest of the five rhino species, and it ranks as the third largest land animal behind the elephants. Depopulation had reduced its range to the southern tip of Africa, but reintroduction efforts have spread it farther north. It is classified as nearly threatened, with an estimated population of about 22,000 in the wild.\nWhite rhinos are social animals and require large, open spaces, presenting a primary challenge in captive breeding. The land at White Oak has aided in overcoming this challenge, and 25 white rhinos have been born at the center. SEZARC partnership White Oak Conservation houses", "southern subspecies has made a tremendous comeback. In 2001 it was estimated that there were 11,670 white rhinos in the wild with a further 777 in captivity worldwide, making it the most common rhino in the world. By the end of 2007 wild-living southern white rhinos had increased to an estimated 17,480 animals (IUCN 2008).\nThe northern white rhino (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) formerly ranged over parts of northwestern Uganda, southern Chad, southwestern Sudan, the eastern part of Central African Republic, and northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The last surviving population of wild northern white rhinos are or were in", "in the area for a long time and southern white rhinos never lived in southern Sudan. However, as of August 2011, no other sightings have been reported, and this population is now considered to have probably gone extinct. Captive population At the beginning of 2015, the fully captive northern white rhino population consisted of only two animals maintained in two zoological institutions: in the United States (San Diego Zoo Safari Park) and the Czech Republic (Dvůr Králové Zoo). However, both of them died later the same year, and no zoo in the world has any northern white rhinos any longer.", "rhinos in the wild of southern Africa with a further 777 individuals in captivity worldwide, making it the most common rhinoceros in the world. By the end of 2007, wild-living southern white rhino had increased to an estimated 17,480 animals. In 2015, there are an estimated population of 19,682–21,077 wild southern white rhinoceros. Threats The southern white rhinoceros is listed as Near Threatened, though it is mostly threatened by habitat loss, continuous poaching in recent years and the high illegal demand for rhino horn for commercial purposes and use in traditional Chinese medicine. Introduction/reintroduction projects There are smaller reintroduced populations", "than 20 individuals in a single South African reserve in early 20th century. The small population of white rhinoceros has slowly recovered during the years, having grown to 840 individuals back in 1960s to 1,000 in the 1980s. White rhino trophy hunting was legalized and regulated in 1968, and after initial miscalculations is now generally seen to have assisted in the species' recovery by providing incentives for landowners to boost rhino populations.\nAlmost at the edge of extinction in the 20th century, the southern white rhinoceros has made a tremendous comeback. In 2001, it was estimated that there were 11,670 white", "by its parents. Captive-bred condors were reintroduced into the wild beginning in 1992, and today their population is 369, with 191 in the wild as of March 2011.\nOn December 14, 2014, Angalifu, a 44-year-old male northern white rhinoceros, died of old age at the park. This left only five northern white rhinos left in the world, including one female at the Safari Park.\nOn November 22, 2015, the park's last Northern White Rhino, 41-year old Nola was euthanized due to bacterial infection and her health rapidly failing.\nIn June 2019, two young male African elephants named Ingadze and Lutsandvo were sent to", "known wild northern white rhinos, according to the World Wide Fund for Nature.\nIn June 2008, it was reported that the species may have gone extinct in the wild, since there has been no sighting of these four known remaining individuals since 2006, or of their signs since 2007, despite intensive systematic ground and aerial searches in 2008. One carcass has been found. On November 28, 2009, two Russian helicopter pilots reported seeing rhinoceroses in southern Sudan. It was assumed that the three rhinos that were spotted belonged to the northern white rhinoceros subspecies, as black rhinos had not lived", "Rhinoceros White rhinoceros There are two subspecies of white rhinoceros: the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) and the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni). As of 2013, the southern subspecies has a wild population of 20,405 – making them the most abundant rhino subspecies in the world. However, the northern subspecies is critically endangered, with all that is known to remain being two captive females. There is no conclusive explanation of the name \"white rhinoceros\". A popular idea that \"white\" is a distortion of either the Afrikaans word wyd or the Dutch word wijd (or its other possible spellings", "rhinos outside of Africa.\nThe rhinos eventually became the Zoo's flagship species, and included the Northern White Rhinoceros, a subspecies of the White Rhino which, unlike the now abundant Southern White Rhinoceros, has been exterminated in the wild.\nAmong them, the most famous of the animals was Sudan, the last known male Northern White Rhinoceros in the world. Safari Vágner's idea of exhibiting large herds of African ungulates at the Zoo was based on the concept of panoramic enclosures, developed by Karl Hagenbeck in Hamburg.\nA part of the Zoo's area was landscaped panoramically, with dry moats and paths between individual grassed exhibits", "of the species to Kenya and Zambia.\nWild-caught southern whites will readily breed in captivity given appropriate amounts of space and food, as well as the presence of other female rhinos of breeding age. However, for reasons that are not currently understood, the rate of reproduction is extremely low among captive-born southern white females. Northern white rhinoceros The northern white rhinoceros or northern square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) is considered critically endangered and possibly extinct in the wild. Formerly found in several countries in East and Central Africa south of the Sahara, this subspecies is a grazer in grasslands and savanna", "orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) in the Endangered category. 2008 release The 2008 Red List was released on 6 October 2008, at the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Barcelona, and \"has confirmed an extinction crisis, with almost one in four [mammals] at risk of disappearing forever\". The study shows at least 1,141 of the 5,487 mammals on Earth are known to be threatened with extinction, and 836 are listed as Data Deficient. 2012 release The Red List of 2012 was released 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit; nearly 2,000 species were added, with 4 species to the extinct list, 2 to", "within the historical range of the southern white rhinoceros in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia and in southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, while a small population survives in Mozambique. Populations have also been introduced outside of the former range of the species to Kenya, Uganda and Zambia, where their northernmost relatives used to occur. The southern white rhinoceros have been reintroduced in the Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary in Uganda, and in the Lake Nakuru National Park and the Kigio Wildlife Conservancy in Kenya.\nIn 2010, nine southern white rhinoceros were imported from South Africa and shipped to the Yunnan province from", "rhinos in the wild. Programs The International Rhino Foundation is active in several areas of rhino conservation. It hosts the Web sites for the African Rhino Specialist Group and the Asian Rhino Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission of the IUCN. Sumatran and Javan Rhino Protection The Critically Endangered Sumatran and Javan rhinoceros may be the most threatened of all land mammals on Earth. Fewer than 100 Sumatran rhinos may remain, primarily on Indonesia's Sumatra island. The population of Javan rhinos numbers only around 65-68 animals. Over the past 10 years, however, losses of Sumatran and Javan", "named Suni died at the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, leaving only six northern white rhinoceros left in the world and only three at the Conservancy. Of the three left at the Conservancy, Sudan was the only male left in the world until his death in Kenya on 19 March 2018, making Angalifu one of only two males in the world when he was alive. San Diego Zoo Safari Park At the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, Angalifu roamed freely in a 213 acre habitat that is made to look like the African savanna. He was accompanied by Nola, an elderly female", "it being hunted for bushmeat. In 2006, the population on Bioko Island was estimated to be smaller than 5000 individuals. The Niger Delta red colobus is listed as \"Critically Endangered\" due to the fact that its habitat in the Niger Delta is being degraded by logging and the monkeys are hunted for food. Its population has declined by 80% during a period of thirty years. The Bouvier's red colobus has declined dramatically in numbers and is also listed as \"Critically Endangered\". After not having been seen since the 1970s, it was considered possibly extinct until spotted and photographed in 2015", "southeast China where they were kept in an animal wildlife park for acclimation. In March 2013, seven of the animals were shipped to the Laiyanghe National Forest Park, a habitat where Sumatran and Javan rhinoceros once lived. Two of the southern white rhinos began the process of being released into the wild on May 13, 2014. In captivity Wild-caught southern white rhinoceros will readily breed in captivity given appropriate amounts of space and food, as well as the presence of other female rhinos of breeding age. Many rhinoceros that live in zoos today are a part of a cooperative breeding", "populations comparable to those in the population of the less endangered African rhinos, but the genetic diversity of Sumatran rhinos is an area of continuing study.\nAlthough the rhino had been thought to be extinct in Kalimantan since the 1990s, in March 2013 World Wildlife Fund (WWF) announced that the team when monitoring orangutan activity found in West Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan, several fresh rhino foot trails, mud holes, traces of rhino-rubbed trees, traces of rhino horns on the walls of mud holes, and rhino bites on small branches. The team also identified that rhinos ate more than 30 species of", "most of which had been bred in zoos. However this met with limited success and by 2015, the population had fluctuated between 3 and 30 individuals. Rhinoceros The park is the birthplace of rhino preservation, breeding the species back from extinction. As the home of Operation Rhino in the 1950s and 60s (driven largely by the park's warden, Ian Player), the park became world-renowned for its white rhino conservation. The Rhino Capture Unit of the park helped save the endangered White Rhino from the brink of extinction. As of 2008 there are more than 1,600 white rhino in the reserve", "and will be kept in a frozen state, until placed in a surrogate female. In captivity Most white rhinos in zoos are southern white rhinos; in 2001 it was estimated that there were 777 white rhinos in captivity worldwide.\nThe San Diego Zoo Safari Park in San Diego, California, US had two northern white rhinos, one of which was wild-caught. On 22 November 2015, a 41-year-old female named Nola (born in 1974), which had been on loan from the Dvůr Králové Zoo in Dvůr Králové, Czech Republic) since 1989, was euthanized after experiencing a downturn in health. On 14 December 2014,", "and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. Two-thirds of the world's Indian rhinoceroses are now confined to the Kaziranga National Park situated in the Golaghat district of Assam, India. Javan rhinoceros The Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is one of the most endangered large mammals in the world. According to 2015 estimates, only about 60 remain, in Java, Indonesia, all in the wild. It is also the least known rhino species. Like the closely related, and larger, Indian rhinoceros, the Javan rhino has a single horn. Its hairless, hazy gray skin falls into folds into the shoulder, back, and rump,", "the white rhinoceros is 2666.62 Mbp. A diploid cell has 2 x 40 autosomals and 2 sex chromosomes (XX or XY). Behavior and ecology White rhinoceroses are found in grassland and savannah habitat. Herbivore grazers that eat grass, preferring the shortest grains, the white rhinoceros is one of the largest pure grazers. It drinks twice a day if water is available, but if conditions are dry it can live four or five days without water. It spends about half of the day eating, one third resting, and the rest of the day doing various other things. White rhinoceroses, like all", "is estimated to be less than 14 percent of what it was in the recent past (from around 10,000 years ago until the middle of the twentieth century) and this sharp decline has occurred mostly over the past few decades due to human activities and development. Their habitat is so much reduced that they are now only to be found in pockets of remaining rainforest. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment too is at risk. According to the IUCN, it is expected that in 10 to 30 years orangutans will be extinct", "Angalifu Background The northern white rhinoceros is one of the two subspecies of the white rhinoceros. Formerly found in several countries in East and Central Africa south of the Sahara, it is considered Critically Endangered. In 2009, Dvůr Králové Zoo in the Czech Republic sent the four rhinoceroses capable of breeding out of their herd of six to the Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Laikipia County, Kenya, Africa. The move was to induce breeding habits in a more natural habitat for the animals, as mating had not occurred in the Czech Republic. On October 20, 2014, one of the males", "woodlands.\nInitially, six northern white rhinoceros lived in the Dvůr Králové Zoo in the Czech Republic. Four of the six rhinos (which were also the only reproductive animals of this subspecies) were transported to Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya, where scientists hoped they would successfully breed and save this subspecies from extinction. One of two remaining in the Czech Republic died in late May 2011. Both of the last two males capable of natural mating died in 2014 (one in Kenya on 18 October and one in San Diego on 15 December). In 2015, the Kenyan government placed the last remaining", "black rhino was the most numerous of all rhino species. Around 1900 there were probably several hundred thousand living in Africa. During the latter half of the 20th century their numbers were severely reduced from an estimated 70,000 in the late 1960s to only 10,000 to 15,000 in 1981. In the early 1990s the number dipped below 2,500, and in 2004 it was reported that only 2,410 black rhinos remained. According to the International Rhino Foundation—housed in Yulee, Florida at White Oak Conservation, which breeds black rhinos—the total African population had recovered to 4,240 by 2008 (which suggests that the", "Similarly it was reintroduced to Zambia (North Luangwa National Park) in 2008, where it had become extinct in 1998, and to Botswana (extinct in 1992, reintroduced in 2003).\nIn May 2017, 18 Eastern Black Rhinos were translocated from South Africa to the Akagera National Park in Rwanda. The park had around 50 rhinos in the 1970s but the numbers dwindled to zero by 2007. In September 2017, the birth of a calf raised the population to 19. The park has dedicated rhino monitoring teams to protect the animals from poaching.\nIn October 2017, The governments of Chad and South Africa reached an", "Javan rhinoceros is primarily studied through fecal sampling and Camera traps. They are rarely encountered, observed or measured directly. Distribution and habitat Even the most optimistic estimate suggests fewer than 100 Javan rhinos remain in the wild. They are considered one of the most endangered species in the world. The Javan rhinoceros is known to survive in only one place, the Ujung Kulon National Park on the western tip of Java.\nThe animal was once widespread from Assam and Bengal (where their range would have overlapped with both the Sumatran and Indian rhinos) eastward to Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and", "and education about the rhinos, helping raise financial resources for conservation efforts in Sumatra but, moreover, to have established a small captive breeding group. Opponents of the captive breeding program argue that the losses are too great; the program is too expensive; removing rhinos from their habitat, even temporarily, alters their ecological role; and captive populations cannot match the rate of recovery seen in well-protected native habitats. In October 2015 Harapan, the last rhino in the Western Hemisphere, left the Cincinnati Zoo to Indonesia.\nIn August 2016, there were only three Sumatran rhinos left in Malaysia, all in captivity in the", "From 2000-2008 it was considered one of \"The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates.\"\nA survey published in March 2016 estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, doubling previous population estimates. A survey in 2004 estimated that around 7,300 Sumatran orangutans still live in the wild. The same study estimates a 20,552 km² occupied area for the Sumatran orangutans, of which only an approximate area range of 8,992 km² harbors permanent populations. Some of them are being protected in five areas in Gunung Leuser National Park; others live in unprotected areas: northwest and northeast Aceh block, West Batang Toru river, East" ]

[ "How do you define BS? It costs the business money to have employees around to put the item back into inventory, makes their logistics less efficient, etc. \n\nThe entire area of return policies is a strange one. Businesses are under no obligation to accept returns for any reason. Anything they do is strictly for marketing or customer retention reasons. How much did the restocking fee affect your willingness to do business with them down the road? Did it affect your initial purchase decision?", "Sometimes yes, sometimes no. \n\nSo you buy a laptop and decide to return it. Either \n\nA) You opened it, they have to return it to the manufacturer to repackage and maybe confirm the warrantee is all kosher. \n\nB) You opened it and they don't return it to the manufacturer, in which case they can't sell the open item for as much.\n\nC) You return it in its package, but they have no way of knowing if you filled the box with rocks and put new cellophane on it, so they have to open it anyway. \n\nSo for high ticket items, restocking can fees can be necessary. I can also see scenarios where business that rely on the logistics and inventory could need to make up some cost. Now is the percentage they charge fair? I don't know - but I also don't know of any company whose business model is built around restocking fees, because it really is a pain in the ass." ]

[ "or sometimes the full price of the product following purchase, though some rebates are offered at the time of purchase. A particular case is the promise of a refund in full if applied for in a restricted date range some years in the future; the hope is that the promise will lure customers and increase sales, but that the majority will fail to meet the conditions for a valid claim.", "obtain a refund within fourteen days. Refund policies Although not technically cooling off periods, many retailers voluntarily grant purchasers a defined period of time during which they may return products that have not been damaged and remain in salable condition.\nSome jurisdictions require retailers to offer return policies. For example, in the European Union the Consumer Rights Directive of 2011 obliges member states to give purchasers the right to return goods or cancel services purchased from a business away from a normal commercial premises, such as online, mail order, or door-to-door, with limited exceptions, within two weeks or one year if", "has passed. Some retailers charge a restocking fee for non-defective returned merchandise, but typically only if the packaging has been opened.\nWhile retailers are not usually required to accept returns, laws in many places require retailers to post their return policy in a place where it would be visible to the customer prior to purchase.\nIn certain countries, such as Australia, consumer rights dictate that under certain situations consumers have a right to demand a refund. These situations include sales that relied on false or misleading claims, defective goods, and undisclosed conditions of sale.\nThere are various reasons why customers may wish to", "Deposit-refund system A deposit-refund system (DRS), also known as deposit-return system, advance deposit fee or deposit-return scheme, is a surcharge on a product when purchased and a rebate when it is returned. A well-known example is when container deposit legislation mandates that a refund is given when reusable packaging is returned. Deposit-refund system are a market-based instrument to address externalities. As with Pigovian taxes a DRS aims to limit pollution of various types by creating an incentive to return a product. \nWhile most commonly used with beverage containers it can be used on other materials including liquid and gaseous wastes.", "manufacturer's rebate, which lowers the net price of the drug, while keeping the list price the same. Pharmaceutical manufacturers say that in order to cover the cost of these rebates, they are forced to raise the price of drugs. For example, the president of Eli Lilly and Company claims the cost of discounts and rebates accounts for 75% of the list price of insulin. PBMs such as Express Scripts claim rebates are a response to rising list prices, and are not the cause of them.\nThe complex pricing structure of the formulary can have unexpected consequences. When filing an insurance claim,", "customers to return goods within a specified period (typically two weeks to two months) for a full refund or an exchange, even if there is no fault with the product. Exceptions may apply for goods sold as damaged or to clear.\nGoods bought through \"distance selling,\" for example online or by phone, also have a statutory \"cooling off\" period of fourteen calendar days during which the purchase contract can be cancelled and treated as if not done.\nAlthough no longer applied in consumer law, the principle of caveat emptor is generally held to apply to transactions between businesses unless it can be", "3M's rebate programs set customer-specific target growth rates in each product line. The size of the rebate was linked to the number of product lines in which targets were met, and the number of targets met by the buyer determined the size of the rebate it would receive on all of its purchases. If a customer failed to meet the target for any one product, its failure would cause it to lose the rebate across the line. The court observed, \"This created a substantial incentive for each customer to meet the targets across all product lines to maximize its rebates.\"", "in Slovakia between 12 August 2005 and 31 December 2010. Rebates Article 102 does not state that offering rebates to customers is abuse, however in the case of Intel v Commission it may occur. The Commission found that Intel acted unlawfully by granting rebates to four computer manufacturers (Dell, Lenovo, HP, and NEC) on condition that they purchased from Intel. In its decision it fined Intel €1.06 billion for abuse of dominance through exclusivity rebates. This also illustrated the Courts recognition for an effects based approach despite the relatively recent cases of Solvay and ICI, where the Court has seemed", "Retracement (finance) Retracement in finance is a complete or partial reversal of the price of a security or a derivative from its current trend, thereby creating a temporary counter-trend. Not to be confused with Fibonacci Retracement, market correction and/or market reversal, which are the most popular types of retracements.", "Return merchandise authorization A return merchandise authorization (RMA), return authorization (RA) or return goods authorization (RGA) is a part of the process of returning a product to receive a refund, replacement, or repair during the product's warranty period. Both parties can decide how to deal with it, which could be refund, replacement or repair. Return merchandise authorization The issuance of an RMA/RGA is a key gatekeeping moment in the reverse logistics cycle, providing the vendor with a final opportunity to diagnose and correct the customer's problem with the product (such as improper installation or configuration) before the customer permanently relinquishes", "Gamble, Reckitt Benckiser, Sara Lee, SC Johnson, Bolton Solitaire], Groupe Vendôme SA, Gillette, L'Oreal, Beiersdorf and Vania totalling €948.9million in 2016 for price-fixing on personal hygiene products. Dairy products On 7 December 2007, Sainsbury's, Asda, Safeway, Dairy Crest, Robert Wiseman Dairies and The Cheese Company have all admitted that they had secretly swapped information with each other to make shoppers pay more for milk and cheese in a £270m price-fixing conspiracy. The cartel agreed in principle with the Office of Fair Trading that they conspired against the interests of consumers. In their defense, the corporations have publicly said they had", "in its marketing and providing of high-cost RALs mainly to low-income clients. The company responded that it \"believes the refund lending program is both fair and legal, and will vigorously defend against the complaint\". On January 2, 2009, California Attorney General Edmund G. Brown Jr. reached a $4.85 million settlement with H&R Block, which prohibits the company from deceptively marketing high-cost refund anticipation loans as early \"tax refunds\". The company set aside $2.45 million in restitution for customers if they purchased a \"refund anticipation loan\" or a \"refund anticipation check\" through H&R Block between January 1, 2001 and December 31,", "price reductions, and related matters such as how long an item needs to be on sale at a higher price before advertising it with a reduced price comparison.\nIn December the same year there was a nationwide withdrawal of pigmeat from retail outlets after a dioxin contamination scare. The NCA successfully campaigned for full compensation for consumers after initial reluctance by some supermarket chains to refund products that were not their own brands.\nOn 18 June 2009, Minister for Finance, Brian Lenihan TD for the Irish Government established a single fully integrated regulatory institution, the Central Bank of Ireland.\nAs part of this", "Tax rebate discounting Tax rebate discounting is a process in Canada where a tax preparation firm purchases the right to the anticipated tax rebate in exchange for a percentage of the rebate amount. Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) rules establish the maximum discounting fee at 15% of the first 300 C$ ($45) plus 5% of any remaining refund. No other fees for preparation or filing the return are permitted. The discount works out to a high effective interest rate. However, in some cases the discount is comparable to, or cheaper than, the firm's fee for preparing an ordinary", "that, \"under Colgate, the manufacturer can announce its re-sale prices in advance and refuse to deal with those who fail to comply, and a distributor is free to acquiesce to the manufacturer's demand in order to avoid termination\".\n\"Colgate policies\" are independently adopted and announced by the manufacturer. The manufacturer, without any agreement with the reseller, announces a minimum resale price and refuses to make further sales to any reseller that fails to sell at or above the announced price. There is no contract and the parties do not agree on the price. Aside from suggesting retail prices or having the", "the 'licence fee' imposed by the state government was in fact an excise, which Australian states are constitutionally barred from imposing.\nThe Court distinguished the decision from the earlier franchise fee cases (Dennis Hotels Pty Ltd v Victoria, and Dickenson's Arcade Pty Ltd v Tasmania ) because the period of backdating (two months instead of six) and the backdating mechanism were sufficiently different.\nHa also featured a strong dissent, with the minority of the Court (Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ) adopting the traditional narrow view of an excise. They rejected the Parton v Milk Board (Vic) excise definition. The minority saw an", "rebates were intentional: \"...the concept was that if the customer complains, you send them out the check to make them happy. But if they don't complain, they totally forget about it. That is the concept of these rebates. People forget that they sent them out.\" Dell lawsuit On April 17, 2009, Dell, Inc. filed a lawsuit against TigerDirect. Dell alleged that TigerDirect, a former authorized reseller of Dell products, sold discontinued and outdated Dell products as new and under a Dell warranty. Dell also alleged that the products were from a third-party and advertised with an unauthorized, modified version of", "the leased item as collateral during the life of the lease, as well as other covenants. In addition to providing greater legal control over the item, the lessor can also reduce their tax liability through depreciation.\nLike the credit reporting industry, the leasing industry segments the market by the relative credit worthiness of the lessee. \"A\" Finance businesses tend to pay the lowest interest rates and have multiple sources for borrowing. Equipment vendors and banks will fund these lower risk leases but also receive lower rates of return.\nFor business that are new, or whose owners have imperfect credit, the B-Finance", "Refund anticipation loan Refund anticipation loan (RAL) is a short-term consumer loan in the United States provided by a third party against an expected tax refund for the duration it takes the tax authority to pay the refund. The loan term was usually about two to three weeks, related to the time it took the U.S. Internal Revenue Service to deposit refunds in electronic accounts. The loans were designed to make the refund available in as little as 24 hours. They were secured by a taxpayer's expected tax refund, and designed to offer customers quicker access to funds.\nThe costs to", "Partial Franking = $1.50\nThe shareholder is credited $1.50. Refund Franking credits on dividends received after 1 July 2000 are refundable tax credits. It is a form of tax prepayment, which can reduce a taxpayer's total tax liability, with any excess being refunded. For example, an individual with income below the tax-free threshold ($18,200 since 2011/12) will pay no tax at all and can get a refund of the franking credits in full, after a tax return is lodged.\nPrior to 1 July 2000 such excess franking credits were lost. For example, an individual at that time paying no tax would get", "premium which is given on the renewal of the policy if no claim is made in the previous year. Malus is an increase in the premium if there is a claim in the previous year. Bonus-malus systems are very common in vehicle insurance. This system is also called a no-claim discount (NCD) or no-claims bonus in Britain and Australia.\nThe fundamental principle of BMS is that the higher the claim frequency of a policyholder, the higher the insurance costs that on average are charged to the policyholder. This principle is also valid in an insurance arrangement consisting of a high maximum", "A-REIT. A-REITs that trade above their NTA were for a long time considered to be overvalued. Conversely, if the A-REIT traded at a discount to its NTA, it was considered to be trading at a discount to the realisable value of its underlying assets. As a result, in the past most A-REITs tended to trade at close to their NTA over the long-term average. Diversification One of the main benefits of an A-REIT is that it can offer investors a good degree of diversification.\nTenant diversity offers a spread of income risk for an A-REIT. As rent is the primary source", "price of consumer goods bought under a PMSI. This rule prevents the creditor from realizing a windfall gain by foreclosing on property that is substantially more valuable than the remaining debt. If the 60% threshold has been met, then the creditor will have to sell the collateral within 90 days, and must recoup its debt from the proceeds of that sale, returning all excess to the debtor.", "Car Allowance Rebate System The Car Allowance Rebate System (CARS), colloquially known as \"cash for clunkers\", was a $3 billion U.S. federal scrappage program intended to provide economic incentives to U.S. residents to purchase a new, more fuel-efficient vehicle when trading in a less fuel-efficient vehicle. The program was promoted as providing stimulus to the economy by boosting auto sales, while putting safer, cleaner, and more fuel-efficient vehicles on the roadways.\nThe program officially started on July 1, 2009, processing of claims began July 24, and the program ended on August 24, 2009, as the appropriated funds were exhausted. The deadline", "have been very successful, often resulting in an 80 percent recycling rate. Despite such good results, the shift in collection costs from local government to industry and consumers has created strong opposition to the creation of such programs in some areas. A variation on this is where the manufacturer bears responsibility for the recycling of their goods. In the European Union, the WEEE Directive requires producers of consumer electronics to reimburse the recyclers' costs.\nAn alternative way to increase the supply of recyclates is to ban the disposal of certain materials as waste, often including used oil, old batteries, tires, and", "percentage points.\nIt can be more expensive to refinance a jumbo loan due to the closing costs. Some lenders will offer the service of an extension and consolidation agreement, so that a jumbo refinancer will not have to pay for mortgage tax again on the same principal balance. In other cases, title insurance companies will offer up to a 50% discount, often required by law for those refinancing within 1 year to 10 years. The largest discount is for refinancing within one year. Role in US housing bubble As house prices rose as part of the United States housing bubble, there", "repo is not actually any different to a repo; it merely describes the opposite side of the transaction. The seller of the security who later repurchases it is entering into a repurchase agreement; the purchaser who later re-sells the security enters into a reverse repurchase agreement. Notwithstanding its nominal form as a sale and subsequent repurchase of a security, the economic effect of a repurchase agreement is that of a secured loan.", "tax return.\nTax rebate discounting in Canada is regulated under the Tax Rebate Discounting Act. All discounters must be registered with the CRA and comply with all requirements for record-keeping.\nThis process is somewhat similar to a refund anticipation loan in the United States.", "rebate is to reduce the size of the UK's payments.\nThe effect of the rebate is to increase contributions required from all other member states, to make up the loss from the overall budget. Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Austria all have their contribution to make up for the rebate capped to 25% of the figure which would otherwise apply.", "to extending the availability of bonus depreciation in general, the Tax Relief Act provided for a new 100 percent depreciation deduction for qualified property that is acquired and placed into service by the taxpayer between September 8, 2010, and January 1, 2014. Special rules have also applied for bio fuel, recycling, and disaster assistance property.\nDecoupling modification is a tax terminology resulting from the federal tax law enacted March 9, 2002, which created a new tax deduction for \"bonus depreciation\" that threatened to cost states very large amounts of revenue. Federal Bonus Depreciation, Section 168(k) of the Internal Revenue Code," ]

[ "If there's internal damage, there will always be some amount of external damage. The amount of external damage can be very small compared to the internal damage, misleadingly so, but there will always be some.\n\nAnd yeah there are a lot of things you look for. Small cracks (a couple millimeters) are expected in certain materials, and don't necessarily mean its unsafe.\n\nOther things are more obvious. If you see piles of debris, a lot of broken windows, huge cracks or the building is actually tilting, its best you stay away.\n\nFor large buildings, they just don't let anyone go in until professionals can inspect the structure to see if its safe or not. With smaller structures and homes, you can have the people occupying it look for any obvious signs of problems, and make judgement calls until an inspector can get around to it (they'll be busy with more vital things like hospitals in the immediate aftermath, so it takes time to getto residential areas.)\n\nUltimately, its usually pretty obvious if there are any major structural problems." ]

[ "an earthquake.\nSeveral other improvements during the renovation will help to improve the building's stability, including the addition of concrete shear walls within the structure. The sheer walls will keep the building from twisting or distorting, which could cause a collapse as it moves during an earthquake. The sheer walls were installed in empty vent shafts left from the original construction, and inside new elevator shafts and stairwells. The granite columns along the structure's exterior were also in danger of buckling during a seismic event, and as a result the joints were injected with an epoxy adhesive during the renovation work.\nThe", "caused by an earthquake will make buildings sway and oscillate in various ways depending on the frequency and direction of ground motion, and the height and construction of the building. Seismic activity can cause excessive oscillations of the building which may lead to structural failure. To enhance the building's seismic performance, a proper building design is performed engaging various seismic vibration control technologies.\nAs mentioned above, damping devices had been used in the aeronautics and automobile industries long before they were standard in mitigating seismic damage to buildings. In fact, the first specialized damping devices for earthquakes were not developed until", "continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy", "focus of the earthquake. The fault rupture begins at the focus and then expands along the fault surface. The rupture stops where the stresses become insufficient to continue breaking the fault (because the rocks are stronger) or where the rupture enters ductile material. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the total area of its fault rupture.Most earthquakes are small, with rupture dimensions less than the depth of the focus so the rupture doesn't break the surface, but in high magnitude, destructive earthquakes, surface breaks are common. Fault ruptures in large earthquakes can extend for more than 100 km (62 mi).", "Seismic analysis Equivalent static analysis This approach defines a series of forces acting on a building to represent the effect of earthquake ground motion, typically defined by a seismic design response spectrum. It assumes that the building responds in its fundamental mode. For this to be true, the building must be low-rise and must not twist significantly when the ground moves. The response is read from a design response spectrum, given the natural frequency of the building (either calculated or defined by the building code). The applicability of this method is extended in many building codes by applying factors to", "mode solutions. Structures In structural engineering, modal analysis uses the overall mass and stiffness of a structure to find the various periods at which it will naturally resonate. These periods of vibration are very important to note in earthquake engineering, as it is imperative that a building's natural frequency does not match the frequency of expected earthquakes in the region in which the building is to be constructed. If a structure's natural frequency matches an earthquake's frequency, the structure may continue to resonate and experience structural damage. Modal analysis is also important in structures such as bridges where", "if it does not endanger the lives and well-being of those in or around it by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable if it is able to fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.\nBasic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage but without globally collapsing. On the other hand, it should remain operational for more frequent, but less severe seismic events. Seismic performance assessment Engineers need to know the quantified level of the actual or", "existing building. The tests are, mostly, carried out on a platform called a shake-table which is designed to shake in the same manner as an earthquake. Results of those tests often include the corresponding shake-table videos.\nTesting of structures in earthquakes is increasingly done by modelling the structure using specialist finite element software. Software testing Destructive software testing is a type of software testing which attempts to cause a piece of software to fail in an uncontrolled manner, in order to test its robustness. Automotive testing Automobiles are subject to crash testing by both automobile manufactures and a variety of agencies.", "the earthquake occurred when a damaged building collapsed during one of the aftershocks the following day.", "largest signals on earthquake seismograms. Surface waves are strongly excited when their source is close to the surface, as in a shallow earthquake or a near surface explosion, and are much weaker for deep earthquake sources. Normal modes Both body and surface waves are traveling waves; however, large earthquakes can also make the entire Earth \"ring\" like a resonant bell. This ringing is a mixture of normal modes with discrete frequencies and periods of an hour or shorter. Motion caused by a large earthquake can be observed for up to a month after the event. The first observations", " Under a following force, the seismic displacements eventually form a topographic feature, such as a mountain range.\nIntraplate earthquakes do not have a following force, and are not associated with mountain building. Thus, there is the puzzling question of how long any interior active zone has to live. For, in a solid stressed plate, every seismic displacement acts to relieve (reduce) stress; the fault zone should come to equilibrium; and all seismic activity cease. One can see this type of arching \"lockup\" in many natural processes.\nIn fact, the seismic zone (such as the New Madrid Fault Zone)", "rebound theory of Reid (1910), eventually the deformation (strain) becomes great enough that something breaks, usually at an existing fault. Slippage along the break (an earthquake) allows the rock on each side to rebound to a less deformed state. In the process energy is released in various forms, including seismic waves. The cycle of tectonic force being accumulated in elastic deformation and released in a sudden rebound is then repeated. As the displacement from a single earthquake ranges from less than a meter to around 10 meters (for an M 8 quake), the demonstrated existence of large strike-slip displacements", "exploration, hydrology, and earthquake engineering, and structural health monitoring. It is often called ambient wavefield or ambient vibrations in those disciplines. (However, the latter term may also refer to vibrations transmitted through by air, building, or supporting structures.)\nSeismic noise is a nuisance for activities that are sensitive to vibrations, such as accurate measurements, precision milling, telescopes, and crystal growing. On the other hand, seismic noise does have some practical uses, for example to determine the low-strain dynamic properties of civil-engineering structures, such as bridges, buildings, and dams; or to determine the elastic properties of the soil and subsoil", "has caused some of these structures to be reactivated in a reverse sense.\nThe earthquake's epicenter and most of the aftershocks lie between the surface traces of two structures, the Spotsylvania Fault, a southeast dipping zone of high ductile strain, and the Chopawamsic Fault, a thrust fault. The earthquake's focal mechanism shows reverse slip faulting on a north to northeast striking fault plane. The spatial distribution of aftershocks show that the causative fault dips to the southeast at 50–55°. There was no surface faulting associated with the earthquake. The size of the rupture is as yet uncalculated, but similar quakes have", "the structure is designed to resonate at a frequency which does not typically occur. Buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into account the oscillating frequencies of expected ground motion. In addition, engineers designing objects having engines must ensure that the mechanical resonant frequencies of the component parts do not match driving vibrational frequencies of the motors or other strongly oscillating parts.\nMany resonant objects have more than one resonance frequency. It will vibrate easily at those frequencies, and less so at other frequencies. Many clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a balance wheel, pendulum, or quartz crystal.", "areas due to concerns with earthquakes. Earthquakes such as the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and the 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed the weaknesses of unreinforced brick masonry in earthquake-prone areas. During seismic events, the mortar cracks and crumbles, and the bricks are no longer held together. Brick masonry with steel reinforcement, which helps hold the masonry together during earthquakes, was used to replace many of the unreinforced masonry buildings. Retrofitting older unreinforced masonry structures has been mandated in many jurisdictions.", "their released energy in seismic waves with very long wavelengths and therefore a stronger earthquake involves the release of energy from a larger mass of rock.\nComputing the hypocenters of foreshocks, main shock, and aftershocks of earthquakes allows the three-dimensional plotting of the fault along which movement is occurring. The expanding wavefront from the earthquake's rupture propagates at a speed of several kilometers per second, this seismic wave is what is measured at various surface points in order to geometrically determine an initial guess as to the hypocenter. The wave reaches each station based upon how far away it was from", "earthquake at first appeared to have damaged the cathedral only superficially. However, it was soon realised that the building had been significantly harmed, and in need of restoration and refurbishment works. This project was undertaken by Dean Graeme Lawrence and architect B. J. Collins of the firm EJE Architecture. Work was begun in 1995 and completed in 1997, involving an Australia-first engineering technique to strengthen the walls and piers by increasing ductility and therefore future earthquake resistance while at the same time maintaining aesthetic significance. The Cintec masonry anchoring system originally developed in Germany was used, in the process pioneering", "are plagued by severe signal degradation causing them to sound scrambled. Sound When an inversion layer is present, if a sound or explosion occurs at ground level, the sound wave is refracted by the temperature gradient (which affects sound speed) and returns towards the ground. The sound, therefore, travels much better than normal. This is noticeable in areas around airports, where the sound of aircraft taking off and landing often can be heard at greater distances around dawn than at other times of day, and inversion thunder which is significantly louder and travels further than when it is produced by", "in the original construction. They try to identify the true problem they are facing and find out what were the causes of the deterioration or cracks. If there are cracks or problems in the actual bricks or stone masonry there could be a larger problem that also needs to be addressed. If there is a larger issue, repointing may cause further damage. If a historic structure needs repointing, building owners usually hire an architectural historian or conservator to help pinpoint the issues. If the crack is smaller than 2mm and not causing any major defects, than it is better to", "earthquake, the structure was restored.", "Since continuous plate motions cause the strain to accumulate steadily, seismic activity on a given segment should be dominated by earthquakes of similar characteristics that recur at somewhat regular intervals. For a given fault segment, identifying these characteristic earthquakes and timing their recurrence rate (or conversely return period) should therefore inform us about the next rupture; this is the approach generally used in forecasting seismic hazard. Return periods are also used for forecasting other rare events, such as cyclones and floods, and assume that future frequency will be similar to observed frequency to date.\nExtrapolation from the Parkfield earthquakes of 1857,", "directed around the building, leaving the building unscathed, by using seismic metamaterials. The very long wavelengths of earthquake waves would be shortened as they interact with the metamaterials; the waves would pass around the building so as to arrive in phase as the earthquake wave proceeded, as if the building was not there. The mathematical models produce the regular pattern provided by Metamaterial cloaking. This method was first understood with electromagnetic cloaking metamaterials - the electromagnetic energy is in effect directed around an object, or hole, and protecting buildings from seismic waves employs this same principle.\nGiant polymer-made split ring resonators", "drills deep within the fault zone to monitor the temperature. She studied the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, finding a series of temperature pulses that occur due to the flow of fluids through a zone of increased permeability. Immediately after an earthquake, the fault zone can be damaged and have higher permeability, but heals within a few months. Generally, earthquakes are triggered when tectonic stress overcomes friction, and Brodsky became interested in what causes this friction in the first place. Brodsky has shown that the coefficient of friction after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami was considerably lower than expected.", "earthquake with a certain magnitude in the past, you can always expect an earthquake of a similar magnitude in that same area.\" Grobbelaar and Denver Birch, also from the CGS, said that the cause of the earthquake was difficult to determine given that it occurred in a mining area and the lack of historical seismic data for the area. Ian Saunders from the CGS confirmed that a team would be sent to the area for further investigation, and Eldridge Kgaswane from the CGS said they should be able to determine the cause within a month. According to Kgaswane, \"The fact", "closed over concerns regarding its structural safety as of June 15, 2010. A total of 463 buildings sustained damage as a result of the earthquake, leaving $21.8–43 million in losses.", "Loss (PML) is a common term used for earthquake loss estimation, but it lacks a precise definition. In 1999, ASTM E2026 'Standard Guide for the Estimation of Building Damageability in Earthquakes' was produced in order to standardize the nomenclature for seismic loss estimation, as well as establish guidelines as to the review process and qualifications of the reviewer.\nEarthquake loss estimations are also referred to as Seismic Risk Assessments. The risk assessment process generally involves determining the probability of various ground motions coupled with the vulnerability or damage of the building under those ground motions. The results are", "layer of sediment on top of bedrock. This sedimentary layer may liquefy during a major earthquake, leaving the tunnel with nothing to rest on, and thus vulnerable to total collapse. In recent years, as the awareness of the effect of serious seismic activity developed, an engineering assessment and subsequent retrofit project was initiated to increase the survivability of the tunnel in the event of a significant earthquake. This retrofit project started in the fall of 2004 and had been completed by the spring of 2006.\nIn the interest of providing active protection for commuters from the danger earthquakes pose to", "a substantial earthquake on a nearby parallel fault can release stress and so also decrease the near-term probability of an earthquake, the opposite appears to be true concerning sequential segments. A release on a major segment can substantially increase the likelihood of an earthquake on an adjacent fault segment, increasing the likelihood of two major regional earthquakes within a period of a few months. Rodgers Creek Fault Zone The connection between the Rodgers Creek Fault Zone and the Hayward Fault Zone was unclear until 2015 when a survey of the floor of San Pablo Bay found that the ends of", "is to show Bailey and his wife, Matilda, around the house, an earthquake occurs. The three of them arrive the next morning to find what appears to be just a single cubical room. \nInside, they find the upper floors completely intact, but the stairs seem to form a closed loop. There appears to be no way to get back out, as all the doors and windows lead directly into other rooms. At one point, they look down a hallway and are shocked to see their own backs. Teal realizes that the earthquake caused the house to fold into an actual" ]

[ "Economic liberalism was an economic philosophy that placed a premium on individual autonomy and treating the economy as a collection of individuals making choices. \n\nFor awhile following the great depression, economists tended to look at economies as large systems. This difference in perspective caused these folks to tend to argue more for state intervention in the economy. \n\nStarting in the 50's and 60's, groups of economists began going back to ideas that sounded a lot more like classical liberalism, arguing for deregulation, privatization, and free trade. These groups were collectively called \"neoliberals\"", "Theory: Anything the government can do, the market can do better. Everyone will benefit.\nPractice: the rich get richer, the poor get poorer.", "Neoliberalism is almost always used as an exonym. It's used externally, often as a slur, to describe a nebulous set of political ideas and ideologies. It normally has something to do with economic policies that try to reduce government intervention in the market and decrease taxes. And it's normally supposedly about individualism. That society is really just a collection of individuals rather than some more cohesive unit.\n\nMargaret Thatcher (usually referred to by groups who use this word as a neoliberal) said: \"They're casting their problem on society. And, you know, there is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there are families. And no government can do anything except through people, and people must look to themselves first. It's our duty to look after ourselves and then, also to look after our neighbour. People have got the entitlements too much in mind, without the obligations, because there is no such thing as an entitlement unless someone has first met an obligation\"" ]

[ "Neoliberalism Origins An early use of the term in English was in 1898 by the French economist Charles Gide to describe the economic beliefs of the Italian economist Maffeo Pantaleoni, with the term \"néo-libéralisme\" previously existing in French, and the term was later used by others including the classical liberal economist Milton Friedman in his 1951 essay \"Neo-Liberalism and its Prospects. In 1938 at the Colloque Walter Lippmann, the term \"neoliberalism\" was proposed, among other terms, and ultimately chosen to be used to describe a certain set of economic beliefs. The colloquium defined the concept of neoliberalism as involving \"the", "is 'rationalised' [Lemke, 2001:191]. Thus Neo-liberalism is a mentality of rule because it represents a method of rationalising the exercise of government, a rationalisation that obeys the internal rule of maximum economy [Foucault, 1997:74]. Fukuyama [in Rose, 1999: 63] writes \"a liberal State is ultimately a limited State, with governmental activity strictly bounded by the sphere of individual liberty\". However, only a certain type of liberty, a certain way of understanding and exercising freedom is compatible with Neo-liberalism. If Neo-liberalist government is to fully realize its goals, individuals must come to recognize and act upon themselves as both free and", "Neoliberalism (international relations) In the study of international relations, neoliberalism refers to a school of thought which believes that states are, or at least should be, concerned first and foremost with absolute gains rather than relative gains to other states. Neoliberalism is a revised version of liberalism.\nAlongside neorealism, neoliberalism is one of the two most influential contemporary approaches to international relations; the two perspectives have dominated international relations theory for the last three decades. Activities of the international system Neoliberal international relations thinkers often employ game theory to explain why states do or do not cooperate; since their approach tends", "neoliberalism and liberal institutionalism. Traditional critiques of liberalism are often defined alongside critiques of political realism, mainly that they both ignore the social nature of relations between states and the social fabric of international society. With the rise of neoliberal economics, debates, and the need to clarify international relations theory, Keohane (2002: 2-19) has most recently described himself as simply an institutionalist, nothing purpose for developing sociological perspectives in contemporary International relations theory. Liberal, neoliberal and neoliberal institutional theories continue to influence international politics and have become closely intertwined with political realism.", "one of the questions in the Politics paper of the 2017 All Souls' College Fellowship Examination: 'A neoliberal is someone who believes that markets are astonishingly good at creating wealth, but not always good at distributing wealth.'\nThe Adam Smith Institute subsequently re-branded itself from 'libertarian' to 'neoliberal', with Bowman describing the think tank's policy as based on classical liberal ideas updated for the modern world.", "of capitalism. Neo-liberalism/monetarism is analyzed as the economic philosophy and political expression of a new epoch in the capitalist world (globalization). The work then turns to analyze the financial speculation, dominant in the Western economies today. The work also analyzes the present day international financial system, arguing that the most important part of the process of neo-liberal deregulation of the markets was the deregulation of the system in question, a condition which led to the present day financial crises. Sophia Antonopoulou also analyzes in a quite original manner the content of the new international division of labor, as well as", "Ordoliberalism Linguistic differentiation Ordoliberals separate themselves from classical liberals. Notably Walter Eucken, with Franz Böhm, founder of ordoliberalism and the Freiburg School, rejected neoliberalism.\nOrdoliberals promoted the concept of the social market economy, and this concept promotes a strong role for the state with respect to the market, which is in many ways different from the ideas connected to the term neoliberalism. Oddly the term neoliberalism was originally coined in 1938, at the Colloque Walter Lippmann, by Alexander Rüstow, who is regarded an ordoliberal today.\nBecause of the connected history, ordoliberalism is also sometimes referred to as \"German neoliberalism\". This led to", "nowadays Neo-Conservative or Neo-Liberalism in Economy. On the contrary, old Political Liberalism mixed with Anti-Imperialism and Nationalism became in some Latin American countries,(such as Mexico after Revolution, Ecuador with Eloy Alfaro, Colombia with Jorge Eliecer Gaitán, etc.), an ideology that represented the interests of a broad range of people before Socialism came and tried to legitimise tyranny in the name of the popular interest. Family His son, named after the King of Spain, was pianist Don Alfonso Zelaya. He was educated in Europe before his father sent him to America to be a general. He was a graduate of West", "new liberalism When labeling Wieser a \"neoliberal\", particular emphasis is placed on the definition of Ludwig von Mises. The English edition of his 1927 book, Liberalismus, uses the term \"neoliberalism\" to translate what Mises called in German neuer Liberalismus (new liberalism). In this book, Mises uses the term to designate socialists posing as liberals (a term he later replaced with \"pseudoliberals\"), leaving in Mises's view Wieser under this definition for being a Fabian socialist. Also in his later book Socialism, he applies the neoliberal label to liberal supporters of the then new subjective theory of value, including Carl Menger and", "responsible [Rose, 1999:68]. Thus Neo-liberalism must work to create the social reality that it proposes already exists. For as Lemke states, a mentality of government \"is not pure, neutral knowledge that simply re-presents the governing reality\" [Lemke, 2001:191] instead, Neo-liberalism constitutes an attempt to link a reduction in state welfare services and security systems to the increasing call for subjects to become free, enterprising, autonomous individuals. It can then begin to govern its subjects, not through intrusive state bureaucracies backed with legal powers, the imposition of moral standards under a religious mandate, but through structuring the possible field of action", "Institutional liberalism Terminology Some call the school of thought rational functionalism instead of liberal institutionalism. Liberal institutionalism is also close to—but not synonymous with—regime theory and neoliberalism. Robert Keohane, a political scientist largely responsible for the development of liberal institutionalism, considers his ideas part of institutionalism or rational institutionalism, even though those schools disagree with him on certain points. Keohane dislikes using the adjectives \"liberal\" or \"neoliberal\" to describe his work because he also draws from realism, a school of thought that is often contrasted with liberalism. Liberal insitutionalism differs from other common international relations theories like realism in the", "what he identifies as the six chief claims of the contemporary European and American left. Liberalism is not merely the free market, it is also about democracy and human rights. Europe is about more than capitalism. America is not a fascist nation. Humanitarian intervention is humanitarian, not an imperialist ploy. Israel is not the cause of anti-Semitism. Islamism is homegrown, not caused by the West, and it threatens the West just as seriously as fascism once did.\nThe contemporary left, according to Levy, believes that any opponent of America or capitalism is good by definition. It is this", "Neo-institutional economics Neo-Institutionalist Economics is a school of developmental thinking that purports to explain the history, existence, and functions of a wide range of institutions (whether government, the law, markets, the family, and so on) according to the assumptions of the neo-liberal economic theory. In that sense, neo-institutionalism represents a variant of the neo-liberal orthodoxy that is ascendant within governments, international development agencies, policy think tanks, and increasingly large section of the social science community.", "neoliberalism and challenges to state interventionist policies in the 1970s and 1980s, centre-left progressive movements responded by creating the Third Way that emphasized a major role for the market economy. There have been social democrats who have called for the social democratic movement to move past Third Way. Prominent progressive conservative elements in the British Conservative Party have criticized neoliberalism. Criticism of progressive theory in Aldous Huxley's Ape and Essence Aldous Huxley defined progressive theory in his novel Ape and Essence as:\nProgress -- the theory that you can get something for nothing; the theory that you can gain in one", "of the paleoliberals than to the ideas of those who originally attended the colloquium. This leaves some controversy as to the precise meaning of the term and its usefulness as a descriptor in the social sciences, especially as the number of different kinds of market economies have proliferated in recent years.\nAnother center-left movement from modern American liberalism that used the term \"neoliberalism\" to describe its ideology formed in the United States in the 1970s. According to political commentator David Brooks, prominent neoliberal politicians included Al Gore and Bill Clinton of the Democratic Party of the United States. The neoliberals coalesced", "Neo-neo synthesis The Neo-Neo Synthesis is a phrased used in international relations to refer to the convergence of the neorealist and the neoliberal schools of thought since the 1970s. The term is frequently used by scholars who work outside of those two paradigms as a way of derisively lumping the two together. The neo-neo synthesis is particularly troubling to many scholars who favor more traditional liberal approaches, and fear that, particularly under the influence of Robert Keohane, modern neoliberalism has little to do with the movement from which it draws its name.\nThe neo-neo synthesis, and indeed both neorealism and neoliberalism,", "priority of the price mechanism, free enterprise, the system of competition, and a strong and impartial state\". To be \"neoliberal\" meant advocating a modern economic policy with state intervention. Neoliberal state interventionism brought a clash with the opposing laissez-faire camp of classical liberals, like Ludwig von Mises. Most scholars in the 1950s and 1960s understood neoliberalism as referring to the social market economy and its principal economic theorists such as Eucken, Röpke, Rüstow and Müller-Armack. Although Hayek had intellectual ties to the German neoliberals, his name was only occasionally mentioned in conjunction with neoliberalism during this period due to his", "time the original term neoliberalism gradually disappeared since social market economy was a much more positive term and fit better into the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle) mentality of the 1950s and 1960s. Chile Chile was among the earliest nations to embrace neoliberal reform. Marxist economic geographer David Harvey describes the substantial neoliberal reforms in Chile beginning in the 1970s as \"the first experiment with neoliberal state formation\" that \"provided helpful evidence to support the subsequent turn to neoliberalism in both Britain...and the United States.\"\nThe turn to neoliberal policies originates with the Chicago Boys, a select group of Chilean students who, beginning", "more radical version of classical liberalism to a more conservative (i.e. more moderate) type of liberalism. Conservative liberal parties have tended to develop in those European countries where there was no strong secular conservative party and where the separation of church and state was less of an issue. In those countries, where the conservative parties were Christian democratic, this conservative brand of liberalism developed.\nIn the United States neoconservatives might be classified as conservative liberals, according to Peter Lawler, a professor at Berry College: \"[I]n America today, responsible liberals—who are usually called neoconservatives—see that liberalism depends on human beings who are", "movement. Its members consider liberalism as a progressive movement supporting individual freedom, justice and human rights. Liberales reacts against what it calls \"narrow minded conservatism\" related to social economic, ecological and ethical issues supported by \"compartmentalized\" parties and structures. Writings With his book Het menselijk liberalisme (Human Liberalism), he inspires politicians in Belgian liberal parties as well as in the Dutch parties Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie and Democraten 66. He defends liberalism against attacks by anti-globalists, by stating that liberalism implies/should imply solidarity and that green politics is not contradictory to liberalism. He wrote the books Pleidooi voor het", "the two ideologies have become more similar, it may show liberal internationalist thinking is spreading within the Republican Party. Others argue that neoconservatism and liberal internationalism are distinctly different foreign policy philosophies and neoconservatives may only employ rhetoric similar to a liberal internationalist but with far different goals and methods of foreign policy intervention.\nCommonly cited examples of liberal interventionism in action include NATO's intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina; their 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia; British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War; and the 2011 military intervention in Libya.", "and John Stuart Mill as examples of the radical centre that preceded the Liberal Democrats' establishment in 1988. He pointed to liberalism as an ideology of people and described the political spectrum and his party's position as follows: \"For the left, an obsession with the state. For the right, a worship of the market. But as liberals, we place our faith in people. People with power and opportunity in their hands. Our opponents try to divide us with their outdated labels of left and right. But we are not on the left and we are not on the right. We", "included here, started to use the \"liberal\" label.\nItalian liberals are basically divided between the centre-right Forza Italia (successor of the former Forza Italia, itself primarily a merger of liberal and Christian-democratic forces, and The People of Freedom, which integrated the more conservative National Alliance) and the centre-left Democratic Party (a merger of social democrats, progressive Christian democrats and social liberals, the latter two mainly organised in Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy in the early 2000s).\nMinor liberal parties include, among others, Civic Choice, the Italian Radicals (ALDE Party and Liberal International member), the aforementioned Italian Republican Party (which stretched a", "contemporary neo-liberalism [...] One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological, or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment, and disenfranchisement that is so palpable locally and globally.", "policies to its constituent states. Political policy aspects Neoliberal policies center on economic liberalization, principally deregulation of industry, privatization of state-owned enterprises, reductions to trade barriers and government spending, and monetarism. Neoliberal theory argues that the free market allows efficiency, economic growth, income distribution, and technological progress to occur; any state intervention to encourage these phenomena will only worsen economic performance. Political freedom Neoliberalism advances the view that economic freedom and political freedom are inextricably linked. Milton Friedman argued in his book Capitalism and Freedom that economic freedom, while itself an extremely important component of absolute freedom, is a necessary", "relationships, some scholars have argued that liberalism actually \"rejects ideological thinking\" altogether, largely because such thinking could lead to unrealistic expectations for human society.\nFascists accuse liberalism of materialism and a lack of spiritual values. In particular, fascism opposes liberalism for its materialism, rationalism, individualism and utilitarianism. Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness, but many fascists agree with liberals in their support of private property rights and a market economy.\nScholars have praised the influence of liberal internationalism, claiming that the rise of globalisation \"constitutes a triumph of the liberal vision that first appeared in the", "to revive the previous system of fixed exchange rates on a global scale, neoliberalism upheld a similar commitment to free trade as had the previous era. Similar to the era of classical economic liberalism, neoliberalism involved the disembedding of markets. At a policy level, some of the main changes involved pressure for governments to abolish their capital controls and to refrain from economic interventions. However, many of the institutions established in the previous era remained in place and free market ideology never became as influential as it had been during the peak years of classical liberalism. In a 1997 paper,", "in new scholarship that criticizes neoliberalism and seeks policy alternatives. Market fundamentalism Neoliberal thought has been criticized for its faith in the efficiency of markets, in the superiority of markets over government intervention, in the ability of markets to self-correct, and in the market's ability to deliver economic and political freedom. Along these lines, economist Paul Krugman has claimed the \"laissez-faire absolutism\" promoted by neoliberals \"contributed to an intellectual climate in which faith in markets and disdain for government often trumps the evidence.\" A number of scholars have argued this unreserved faith in markets—called \"market fundamentalism\" by critics—has led to", "and widening wage and income inequality. David M. Kotz, professor of economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, contends that neoliberalism \"is based on the thorough domination of labor by capital.\" As such, the advent of the neoliberal era has seen a sharp increase in income inequality through the decline of unionization, stagnant wages for workers and the rise of CEO supersalaries. According to Emmanuel Saez:\nThe labor market has been creating much more inequality over the last thirty years, with the very top earners capturing a large fraction of macroeconomic productivity gains. A number of factors may help explain this", "work, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (2005), provides an historical examination of the theory and divergent practices of neoliberalism since the mid-1970s. This work conceptualises the neoliberalised global political economy as a system that benefits few at the expense of many, and which has resulted in the (re)creation of class distinction through what Harvey calls \"accumulation by dispossession\". His book The Enigma of Capital (2010) takes a long view of the contemporary economic crisis. Harvey explains how capitalism came to dominate the world and why it resulted in the financial crisis. He describes that the essence of capitalism is its" ]

[ "There's two - there's MMO Grinding, and there's classic JRPG Grinding. \n\nWith MMO Grinding, it's a [Skinner Box](_URL_0_). Push button, receive reward. Early in the game you're rewarded for doing damn near anything. Talk to someone - get a level. Cast a spell, get a level. As you go up in levels, it stretches out more and more, leading you to do the same repetitive tasks for the reward. It's why people do high level dungeons over and over and over again - they're grinding for the \"reward\" of a slightly different colored items with slightly higher numbers on them than the item they already have.\n\nWith classic JRPG grinding, it's a mechanic to stretch out the gameplay. Selling a game with 20 hours of gameplay when your competitors claim to have 60 is going to get your game ignored. So rather than assume the player will gain two levels traveling to the next area's boss, you tweak it so that you need to add at least ten levels, maybe more. Item prices are much higher as are spell or item prices. This forces the player to fight random encounters for hours on end to gain the experience and money needed to beat the next boss and move on to the rest of the game.\n\nThe first is.... when it's done well, you don't notice it. When it's done poorly, it's all the game is. The second is an outdated mechanic and should be delegated to the dustbin of gaming history as something that, in retrospect, is a terrible design decision." ]

[ "provides game advancement; The behavior need not be tedious or repetitive, as the term grinding generally implies. For example, in a game where advancement is gained by killing monsters, the game could provide such a huge variety of monsters and environments that no two kills are ever the same. As long as all players remained equally capable of killing the monsters, the same leveling-off effect would be generated. Thus, the \"level playing field\" effect is considered by some to be a misleading attempt to hide the real reason for grinding: unwillingness or inability to budget sufficient content resources to", "Grinding (video gaming) Overview Grinding is a controversial subject among players. Many do not enjoy it and disparage it as a symptom of poor or uninspired game design. Others embrace it, claiming that all games feature grinding to some extent, or claim to enjoy the practice of regular grinding. Some games, especially free-to-play games, allow players to bypass grinding by paying additional fees.\nIn an example of grinding in MMORPG, it can be advantageous to repeatedly kill AI-controlled monsters, using basically the same strategy over and over again to advance one's character level and to unlock content. Grinding", "come with additional statistical boosts and new abilities, which in turn allow the player to defeat stronger enemies. Time invested in grinding is usually related to strength or ability in the game. This relationship is encouraging to players, consistently rewarding their grinding effort. Controversy While grinding's potential to cause players to stop being entertained may be seen as contradictory to good game design, it has been justified in several different ways. The first explanation is that it helps ensure a level playing field. According to the Pareto principle, players with better aim, faster reactions, or more", "the controversial subject of grinding, this act is sometimes, but not always, frowned upon in the gaming community. Reasons Several answers have been suggested for the question of why players grind. A major motivating factor is the players' desire to pursue what appears to be the game's ultimate goal, which for many games is to reach the highest level. Sometimes players might actually enjoy repetitive tasks as a way of relaxing, especially if performing the task has a persistent, positive result.\nOne reason that is less influenced by player choice is a lack of game content or to be", "produce a varied game.\nTo solve the grinding issue, E McNeill proposes that \"the most effective path to victory should also be the most fun\". For example, challenging tasks should give better rewards than easy tasks.\nAnother alternative to grinding is to remove designer-defined objectives, leaving players free to do whatever they want. This creates a new problem where many players might be confused about what they are supposed to do, or they might lack the motivation to do much of anything in the virtual world.\nPlayers of subscription-based online games often criticize grinds as a heavy-handed attempt to gain profit. ", "higher values). Related terms include farming (in which the repetition is undertaken in order to obtain items, relating the activity to tending a farm field), and catassing, which refers to extended or obsessive play sessions. Used as a noun, a grind (or treadmill) is a designed in-game aspect which requires the player to engage in grinding.\nGrinding has led to some players programming scripts, bots, macros, and other automation tools to perform the repetitive tasks. This is usually considered a form of hacking or an exploit by the game's developers, and will often times result in a ban. Due to", "may be required by some games to unlock additional features such as level progression or additional items.\nSynonyms for grinding include the figurative terms treadmilling (a comparison with exercise treadmills) and pushing the bar (it can be a reference to a weightlifter \"pushing the bar\" on a bench press, over and over to get muscle gains, or a reference to Skinner boxes in which animals, having learned that pushing a button will sometimes produce a treat, will devote time to pushing the bar over and over again, or also can be a graphical reference to push the character's experience bar to", "(2003). Fox did not want grinding to be necessary at any point in the game, instead leaving it optional to players. He also did not wish to introduce fetch quests, as they involve backtracking, which he dislikes. In terms of the game's difficulty, Fox ensured that it was easy and enjoyable. He asked some friends who are inexperienced with bullet hell shooters to test the game, and found that they were able to complete it. He felt that the game's difficulty is optimal, particularly considering the complications involved in adding another difficulty setting.\nThe game's dialogue system was inspired by Shin", "Grind (sport) Grinding is a sliding stunt performed in many extreme sports. Stances in which slides are performed are known as grinds.\nGrinding is performed by sliding across the top of an obstacle, and can be accomplished in a number of ways. A range of equipment can be used to grind an object or obstacle and each sport lends the performer different options of obstacles and subsequent grind positions.", "The most interesting and challenging gameplay is often only available to characters at the highest levels, who are those strong enough to participate in raids or player versus player combat. Grinding is seen as a reason to increase the amount of time it takes to reach these levels, forcing the player to pay more subscription fees along the way.\nThe IGDA Online Games Special Interest Group has noted that level treadmills are part of the addictive quality of MMORPGs that caters to those who play more than 25 hours a week. Another criticism of the entire leveling concept and", "extensive tactical knowledge will quickly dominate the entire game, frustrating the now-powerless vast majority. By creating a direct correlation between in-game power and time spent grinding, every player has the potential to reach the top 20% (although the Pareto principle will still apply to the amount of time spent grinding).\nThe problem may not be that talent and skill are rewarded, but that the rewards are based on relative talent and skill. If only the top 20% of a game's players are rewarded, 80% must be receiving little reward, even if objectively they are highly talented. If there", "the player to learn from mistakes and fully understand how and why a solution to a problem may work. Some researchers believe that continual exposure to challenges may lead players to develop greater persistence over time after a study was shown that frequent players spent more time on puzzles in task that did not involve video games. Although players were shown to spend more time on puzzles, much of that could have been due to the positive effects of problem solving in games, which involve forming strategy and weighing option before testing a solution.\nRepresentatives of Game Academy claim that such", "the '90s. It has evolved ever since. Today, grinds are commonly performed on handrails, lips of benches, tables, hubbas (ledge on a slope), on a hard normal ledge, a flatbar, or just simply anything that is possible enough to grind on it. Property damage Grinding is damaging to materials which are not hardened for the specific purpose of the sport, as may be found in a skate park. The trucks are composed of a hard metal without lubricant or bearings on the grinding surface, so they literally do grind on the objects they slide across. Grinding can strip paint off", "Surface grinding Surface grinding is used to produce a smooth finish on flat surfaces. It is a widely used abrasive machining process in which a spinning wheel covered in rough particles (grinding wheel) cuts chips of metallic or nonmetallic substance from a workpiece, making a face of it flat or smooth. Process Surface grinding is the most common of the grinding operations. It is a finishing process that uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat surface of metallic or nonmetallic materials to give them a more refined look by removing the oxide layer and impurities on work piece", "Cherney, 2008) has also demonstrated evidence that playing video games with consistent practice can improve mental rotation skills, for example improvements in women's scores after practice with a game that involved a race within a 3-D environment. Same effects have been seen playing action video games such as Unreal Tournament as well as the popular mainstream game Tetris. Jigsaw puzzles and Rubik's cube are also activities that involve higher level of mental rotation and can be practiced to improve spatial abilities over time.\nMental rotation is also unique and distinct from the other spatial abilities because it also involves areas", "as the resulting simulation is satisfying to the game players. Collision detection in physical simulation Physical simulators differ in the way they react on a collision. Some use the softness of the material to calculate a force, which will resolve the collision in the following time steps like it is in reality. Due to the low softness of some materials this is very CPU intensive. Some simulators estimate the time of collision by linear interpolation, roll back the simulation, and calculate the collision by the more abstract methods of conservation laws.\nSome iterate the linear interpolation (Newton's method) to calculate the", "Educational video game In education Games provide structure to problem-solving. This allows a player to \"fail up\", meaning that with the combination of challenging and fun and identity-building, the student will want to continue to persist on that problem until it is solved. It is a productive failure. This may take quite a few times before success is reached, but progress is obtained each time and so is knowledge on how to solve that problem. Iteration and discovery become two major aspects to learning through game playing. Many students have a \"sweet spot\" for gaming, which allows gaming in education", "Shuffleboard Shuffleboard, more precisely deck shuffleboard, and also known as floor shuffleboard, is a game in which players use cues to push weighted discs, sending them gliding down a narrow court, with the purpose of having them come to rest within a marked scoring area. As a more generic term, it refers to the family of shuffleboard-variant games as a whole. History The full history of shuffleboard is not known. Though there is some knowledge of its development, its actual origins, the place and date where it was first played, remain a mystery. Inevitably, this uncertainty gives rise to", "the exercise of skill, in particular the exercise of choice, competition, familiarity with the stimulus and involvement in decisions. One simple form of this effect is found in casinos: when rolling dice in a craps game people tend to throw harder when they need high numbers and softer for low numbers.\nIn another experiment, subjects had to predict the outcome of thirty coin tosses. The feedback was rigged so that each subject was right exactly half the time, but the groups differed in where their \"hits\" occurred. Some were told that their early guesses were accurate. Others were told that their", "a result, this method of gameplay is not widespread. Caveats Designing a game that is fair without being predictable is difficult. Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams cite an example of a game that changed the difficulty of each level based on how the player performed in several preceding levels. Players noticed this and developed a strategy to overcome challenging levels by deliberately playing badly in the levels before the difficult one. The authors stress the importance of covering up the existence of difficulty adaptation so that players are not aware of it. Uses in recent video games Archon's computer opponent", "accumulation of wealth (including combat-useful items) is also a way to progress in many MMORPGs. This is traditionally best accomplished via combat. The cycle produced by these conditions, combat leading to new items allowing for more combat with no change in gameplay, is sometimes pejoratively referred to as the level treadmill, or \"grinding\". The role-playing game Progress Quest was created as a parody of this trend. Eve Online trains skills in real time rather than using experience points as a measure of progression.\nIn some MMORPGs, there is no limit to a player's level, allowing the grinding experience to continue indefinitely.", "rules of the virtual world and deduce what is possible and impossible in order to solve problems and carry out the ultimate goal of winning. The requirement of learning the rules of video games is the baseline of the procedural rhetoric theory.\nResearchers Jens Seiffert and Howard Nothhaft found that computer games are powerful persuasive tools that act as a manipulating force for society. The researchers cited a 2009 study finding that military computer games transferred to the players understanding of warfare. In particular, the logic of the game revealed by the procedural and structural rules guided players with a deeper", "Scrabble (video game) Gameplay Scrabble reproduces the game board, tiles, and game pieces onscreen. A clock is included to promote rapid thinking to spell and place words within a user-defined time limit. The game also has lightning- and tournament-timing alternatives. The player's letter rack is visible at the bottom of the screen. The player types a word composed of letters from the rack, and if the word is acceptable by the game, the player moves the cursor to the game board to position the word onscreen and score the move. The player may also pass a turn, request a hint", "Sequential game In game theory, a sequential game is a game where one player chooses their action before the others choose theirs. Importantly, the later players must have some information of the first's choice, otherwise the difference in time would have no strategic effect. Sequential games hence are governed by the time axis, and represented in the form of decision trees.\nDecision trees are the extensive form of dynamic games that provide information on the possible ways that a given game can be played. They show the sequence in which players act and the number of times that they can each", "strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. Procedural rhetoric focuses on the composition of gameplay, more specifically how simulation games are constructed to make claims about how the world should work.\nJames Gee, Professor at University of Wisconsin - Madison outlined the importance of video games for learning in his essay Why Video Games are Good For Learning, Gee describes commercial games as “worlds in which variables interact through time” . Game-makers compose video games with a series of predetermined rules and processes that the play must follow in order to win. The player must learn the", "games as Civilization, Total War, or X-Com, where strategy and resource management are key, help players to develop skills that are of great use to managers. Also, they found out that IT workers play unusual puzzle games like Portal or tower defense games like Defense Grid more often than specialists from other fields.\nIn a study that followed students through school, students that played video games showed higher levels of problem solving than students who did not. This contradicts the previous study in that higher success rate was seen in video game players. Time being a factor for problem solving led", "the games described. Infocom's puzzles were unique in that they were usually tightly integrated into the storyline, and rarely did gamers feel like they were being made to jump through one arbitrary hoop after another, as was the case in many of the competitors' games. The puzzles were generally logical but also required close attention to the clues and hints given in the story, causing many gamers to keep copious notes as they went along.\nSometimes, though, Infocom threw in puzzles just for the humor of it—if the user never ran into these, they could still finish the game. But discovering", "penalty for leaving a match (which allows players to \"bail\" from a game freely), and slow progress, which results in \"grinding\". The game's freemium aspect, as well as the vehicles' \"loose\" controls, which means that \"[the player] feels like you’re driving a propeller dinghy rather than a sleek, amped-up death machine\" was also criticized. Androidtapp rated the game 3.8/5, with pros being the game's graphics, music, controls and vehicle upgrades, and the cons mainly consisting of the lack of strategy involved in the gameplay, summing Indestructible up as a \"good game\". Gamezebo scored Indestructible three stars out of five, commending", "Because of this, most narrative elements in games are created unconsciously and intuitively. However, as a general rule, game narratives increase in complexity and scale as player choice or game mechanics increase in complexity and scale. One example of this is removing a players ability to directly affect the plot for a limited time. This lack of player choice necessitates an increase in mechanical complexity, and could be used as a metaphor to symbolize depression that is felt by a character in the narrative. Luck and strategy A game's tools and rules will result in its requiring skill, strategy, luck,", "Rival Ball Gameplay The object of the game is to clear a field of bricks using a paddle and a ball. Most bricks are cleared upon impact with the ball, while some bricks may take multiple hits, be invisible, blast surrounding bricks, or appear unbreakable. Once all breakable bricks on the board have been cleared, the player advances to the next board. As bricks are being cleared, power-ups will frequently launch onto the screen (see Power-ups). The player may choose to catch these with the paddle, which in turn will bring about various effects in the game. For instance, some" ]

[ "And you're told this by people who sell oil. Maybe that should give you a clue.\n\nCertainly in modern cars, that should be unnecessary.\n\nEdit: Spelling", "You don't, at least not in modern cars. Pretty much all cars manufactured in the last 5-10 years are good for 5,000-6,000 miles with average driving. My 2011 Honda Fit has a computer that calculates oil life. The first oil change was called for at > 9,000 miles, and subsequent changes seem to run ~8,300 miles. Mostly city driving, some highway." ]

[ "mitigant. Some ways of decreasing the oil used in transportation include increasing the use of bicycles, public transport, carpooling, electric vehicles, and diesel and hybrid vehicles with higher fuel efficiency.\nMore comprehensive mitigations include better land use planning through smart growth to reduce the need for private transportation, increased capacity and use of mass transit, vanpooling and carpooling, bus rapid transit, telecommuting, and human-powered transport from current levels. Rationing and driving bans are also forms of reducing private transportation. The higher oil prices of 2007 and 2008 caused United States drivers to begin driving less in 2007 and to a much", "also increased anxiety about energy policy and availability.\nDue to memories of oil shortage in 1973, motorists soon began panic buying, and long lines appeared at gas stations, as they had six years earlier during the 1973 oil crisis.\nAs the average vehicle of the time consumed between two and three liters (about 0.5–0.8 gallons) of gasoline (petrol) an hour while idling, it was estimated that Americans wasted up to 150,000 barrels (24,000 m³) of oil per day idling their engines in the lines at gas stations.\nDuring the period, many people believed the oil companies artificially created oil shortages to drive up prices,", "common use.\nOil consumption has increased rapidly in the 20th and 21st centuries because there are more cars; the 1985–2003 oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption. User interface Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort and safety, normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st century cars. These controls include a steering wheel, pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift", "oil filter deterioration and increases the need for more oil and filter changes. Similarly, the longer the idling time, the sooner the engine itself will need to be rebuilt. The trucking industry estimates that long duration idling costs the truck owner $1.13 per day, based on the need for more frequent oil changes and sooner overhaul costs. Services such as AireDock, IdleAire and Shorepower provide power at truck stops to resting truckers who would otherwise need to continue idling during mandatory breaks. Because the United States Department of Transportation mandates that truckers rest for 10 hours after driving for 11", "full tire and fuel stops, while longer races were stopped at three times—a limited break near the one-quarter and three-quarter marks for fuel stops, and at the halfway point for fuel and tire stops. If tire wear was a concern, NASCAR also permitted two-tire changes if necessary in the first and third period breaks. These rules were influential in driver development. Drivers had to learn to conserve tire wear for up to a half race, which allowed them to learn conserving the truck. Some drivers used the rules to learn tire conservation for other series. In 1997, NASCAR started phasing", "3,000 mile myth The 3,000 mile myth refers to a common belief, particularly in the United States, that all motor vehicles should have their motor oil changed at least every 3,000 miles (4,800 km) to maintain their car engine. Efforts are under way to convince the public that this is not necessary and that people should follow the advice given in their owner's manual rather than the advice of oil-change businesses. With modern synthetic oils and new tests such as BMW's LL (\"long life\") oil specifications, most current cars can go over 6,000 miles (9,700 km) before needing an oil change. Even", "The cost of converting a car to use petrol or autogas at a turn of a knob starts from US$3,000. Autogas use by car drivers can help the United States to reduce dependence on foreign oil as 90% of all U.S. Autogas is produced in the U.S.\nIn 2005, a provision was enacted that placed a 50 cent per gallon tax credit on propane autogas as part of H.R. 4853, making it $1 per gallon cheaper than petrol on average. The alternative fuel credit was extended in 2010 and remained in effect until the end of 2011.\nAutogas for America claims to", "fueling mechanism. Tire changes were not specifically required, and some cars in fact changed zero tires all day. On-board fuel tank capacity was reduced to 75 gallons, which also included requirements that they contain rubber bladders inside, and were required to be behind the driver on the left side of each car. Crossover tubes were no longer allowed ahead of the driver as well. Pressurized fueling rigs were also outlawed. All fueling rigs from 1965 onward had to be gravity feed, a rule that still is in effect as of 2019.\nConventional \"pump\" gasoline registered better fuel mileage than methanol, and", "and reached US$130 per barrel in June 2008. Government official estimated that at this price, oil imports will reach US$2.85 billion, representing about a third of the country's export earnings and about 9% of the country's GDP estimated for 2008. As the implemented scheme only reduced fuel consumption by 5%, the government decided to expand the restriction hours beginning in July 2008. The road space rationing was expanded to 13 hours for passenger cars and light-duty commercial vehicles, from 6 a.m. through 7 p.m. Heavy-duty commercial vehicles were included in the restriction program but only during rush hours.\nThe alternate-day driving program was", "abrupt downshifting, inexperienced drivers, and aggressive driving can lead to more frequent repair or replacement.\nManual transmissions are lubricated with gear oil or engine oil in some vehicles, which must be changed periodically in some vehicles, although not as frequently as the fluid in an automatic transmission. (Some manufacturers specify that changing the gear oil is never necessary except after transmission work or to rectify a leak.)\nGear oil has a characteristic aroma due to the addition of sulfur-bearing anti-wear compounds. These compounds are used to reduce the high sliding friction by the helical gear cut of the teeth (this cut eliminates", "Toyota AZ engine Excessive oil consumption The 2AZ-FE engine in the 2007-2009 Camry may burn excessive oil and is involved in this lawsuit. Other engines are also affected. If this Toyota engine is burning more than 1 US quart (946 ml) of oil in 1,200 miles (1,931 km), has less than 150,000 miles (241,402 km), and is less than 10 years old, Toyota service will perform a free oil consumption test to determine if your engine is affected. There are approximately 1,715,200 vehicles covered by this Warranty Enhancement Program.", "the last hour. The mechanics removed the ignition and injection of the failed cylinder, and the smoking car limped around the track to finish after 24 hours while running, as required.\nThe biggest rule change was the cancellation of restrictions for consumption: Up to now was not required to travel at least twenty laps between two refueling, but the maximum capacity of the tanks was limited to 160 liters and the number of Octane was elevated to 100, like in Formula 1 (and after the protest of Renault). He was also granted the greatest freedom in repairs: the only things that", "journal stated, \"...on a multi-cylinder engine in a high-priced car we are diluting the oil in the crankcase as much as 40 percent in a 200-mile run, as the analysis of the oil in the oil-pan shows.\"\nBeing very unhappy with the consequent reduction in overall gasoline quality, automobile manufacturers suggested imposing a quality standard on the oil suppliers. The oil industry in turn accused the automakers of not doing enough to improve vehicle economy, and the dispute became known within the two industries as \"The Fuel Problem\". Animosity grew between the industries, each accusing the other of not doing anything", "into a turn while a vehicle is under braking, preparing the transmission to be in the optimal range of rpm to accelerate out of the turn. One benefit of downshifting before entering a turn is to eliminate the jolt to the drivetrain, or any other unwanted dynamics. The jolt will not upset the vehicle as badly when going in a straight line, but the same jolt while turning may upset the vehicle enough to cause loss of traction if it occurs after the turn has begun. Sporting vehicles are usually modified (if necessary) so that the heights of the brake", "automatically stopping the engine when the speed is 7 km/h (4.3 mph) or less, the fuel consumption is improved by increasing the idling stop time. In addition, by reducing the number of dedicated parts, it has achieved weight reduction and \"compactification\".\nWith these technologies, JC08 mode fuel consumption achieved a fuel consumption of 30 km/L (85 mpg‑imp; 71 mpg‑US) for front-wheel drive models and 27 km/L (76 mpg‑imp; 64 mpg‑US) for four-wheel drive models.\nThe cost of the vehicle was reduced by reducing the number of parts and reducing the weight of the vehicle by approximately 60 kg (132 lb) by reviewing the component layout, shape, material selection and specifications.\nThe production of", "the driver shifts through the gears (typical trucks may have between 10 and 18 gears) in such a manner as to optimize the power range of the engine. Fuel consumption According to research from a survey conducted by students from the University of Michigan, and in cooperation by ATRI (American Transportation Research Institute) as of 2015 \"54 billion gallons of fuel were consumed by trucks for business purposes—39 billion gallons of diesel fuel and 16 billion gallons of gasoline. Combination vehicles, which are powered nearly exclusively by diesel fuel, accounted for 75 percent of this diesel fuel consumption\" Technology Like", "a lack of refining capacity would only seem to explain high gasoline prices not high crude oil prices. Indeed, if the refineries were unable to process available crude oil then there should be a crude oil glut that would reduce crude prices on international crude oil markets. Then again, sharp changes in crude oil prices can also be due to stock market volatility and fear over the security of future supplies, or, on the other hand, an anticipation by investors of a rise in the value of crude oil once refining capacity picks up again.\nAs for the global usefulness", "this device was inserted on the side of the car, but for safety reasons, the location was moved in the 2000s. At the same instant, another crew member begins the refueling process. A fueling hose is inserted into a socket (called the \"buckeye\"), allowing a gravity-fed hose to refill the car's fuel tank. The fuel hose has a built-in vent/overflow hose as part of the mechanism, an invention of the mid-2000s. Previously, a second \"vent hose\" was utilized, but it was phased out to improve safety.\nSimultaneously, the four tire changers remove the wheels and install the new ones. IndyCar wheels", "this is yet another cycle and oil prices will recover sooner rather than later.\nA 2016 survey of the academic literature finds that \"most major oil price fluctuations dating back to 1973 are largely explained by shifts in the demand for crude oil\". As the global economy expands, so does demand for crude oil. The authors note that the price of oil has also increased at times due to greater \"demand for stocks (or inventories) of crude oil... to guard against future shortages in the oil market. Historically, inventory demand has been high in times of geopolitical tension in the Middle", "could block oil from parts of the engine. After a US class action lawsuit, Toyota notified US owners that engines would be overhauled or replaced for free if damaged by the buildup of gelled oil. 1999–2001 The ES 300 received a mild facelift in 1999 for the 2000 model year that consisted of new, clear tail lights and turn signals, a revised front end with a new grill, headlights, and lower bumper with clear fog lights and larger alloy wheels. Inside, the interior received an electrochromatic mirror, more wood trim and slight revisions to the audio system. Xenon High-Intensity Discharge", "was permitted from the 1994 season to the 2009 season. During this period, a pit stop involved about twenty mechanics, with the aim of completing the stop as quickly as possible. Stops generally lasted for six to twelve seconds depending on how much fuel is put into the car. However, if there is a problem, such as a fuel pump failing or the engine stalling, or repairs having to be made, it can take much longer. Cars were fuelled at a rate of more than 12 litres per second. This was accomplished by a fairly complex closed system that pumped", "drive cycle tests simulating varying driving conditions. All new cars and light-duty trucks sold in the U.S. are required to have this label showing the EPA's estimate of fuel economy of the vehicle.\nIn a joint ruling issued in May 2011 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and EPA established the new requirements for a fuel economy and environment label that is mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with model year 2013. This ruling uses miles per gallon gasoline equivalent for all fuel and advanced technology vehicles available in the U.S. market including plug-in hybrids, electric vehicles,", "only work done on the cars was routine refueling, as they did not need to change tires during the race. Clark made only two stops all day, and the quickness of the refueling process was largely attributed to a specially-designed gravity fueling rig with a venturi tube. One of the things they did ahead of time was to \"break in\" the new fueling hose nozzles by simply working them in and out of the coupling for a period of time. First half A. J. Foyt started on the pole, but Jim Clark led the first lap. Jim Hurtubise dropped out", "cost of road-related spending.\nSome believe that an increased cost of fuel would also encourage less consumption and reduce America's dependence on foreign oil. Americans sent nearly $430 billion to other countries in 2008 for the cost of imported oil. However, due to increased domestic output (fracking of shale and other energy resource discoveries) as well as rapidly increasing production efficiencies, since 2008 this has already significantly reduced and expected to continue to fall.", "the regulated price of domestic oil was kept to $6 a barrel, the world market price was $30.\nIn 1980, the U.S. Government established the Synthetic Fuels Corporation to produce an alternative to imported fossil fuels.\nWhen the price of West Texas Intermediate crude oil increased 250 percent between 1978 and 1980, the oil-producing areas of Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Colorado, Wyoming, and Alaska began experiencing an economic boom and population inflows.\nAccording to one study, individuals who were between the ages of 15 and 18 during the 1979 oil crisis were substantially less likely to use cars once they were in their mid-30s.", "disrupt oil and gas production and create shortages. Fuel shortage can also be due to the excess and useless use of the fuels. Emerging oil shortage “Peak oil” is the period when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. It relates to a long-term decline in the available supply of petroleum. This, combined with increasing demand, significantly increases the worldwide prices of petroleum derived products. Most significant is the availability and price of liquid fuel for transportation.\nThe US Department of Energy in the Hirsch report indicates that", "1981 U.S. corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) legislation, virtually all domestic vehicles have included overdrive to save fuel. One should refer to the car's owner's manual for the proper speed to run at overdrive. All engines have a range of peak efficiency and it is possible for the use of overdrive to keep the engine out of this range for all or part of the time of its use if used at inappropriate speeds, thus cutting into any fuel savings from the lower engine speed.\nOverall drivetrain reduction comes down to three basic factors: transmission gearing (including overdrive), differential gearing (in", "older models. In general, people no longer break in the engines of their own vehicles after purchasing a car or motorcycle, because the process is done in production. It is still common, even today, to find that an owner's manual recommends gentle use at first (often specified as the first 500 or 1000 kilometres or miles). But it is usually only normal use without excessive demands that is specified, as opposed to light/limited use. For example, the manual will specify that the car be driven normally, but not in excess of the highway speed limit. Goal The goal of modern", "pump to 10 years or 120,000 mi (190,000 km).\nThe warranty period for the fuel injectors was also increased, to 10 years or 120,000 mi (190,000 km). An updated design for the fuel injectors was also introduced.\nDue to problems with rattling wastegates caused by premature bushing wear, BMW extended the warranty period for wastegate-related issues to 8 years or 82,000 mi (132,000 km).\nThese warranty extensions only apply to the United States.", "century, but what if all the oil ran out today?\nIn the first few minutes, approximately 100,000 billion barrels (1.6×10¹⁶ L) of under-ground oil vanishes. Alarms in oil rigs sound as pipe pressure plummets. One day after oil, asphalt, diesel, petrol, and tar supplies become limited. This causes $US2 trillion of stock to become worthless. Oil-workers are sacked.\nConsumers rush to petrol stations to fill their cars up for the last time. Oil tankers are called back to their countries of origin to save national reserves of oil. Every mode of international transport is now grounded. However, steel, food, medical supplies, and trash" ]

[ "Numbering is just a nice way of differentiating the new cards from the old cards. Occasionally it switches. For instances, years ago, NVidia was making cards with thousand series (4XXX up to 9XXX). Then for some reason, they decided not to do 10XXX and started with hundred series (2XX up to currently 6XX).\n\nAs for specs, there really isn't an ELI5 answer to most of it. In General, for all Cards, a Higher RAM number indicates a better card (Some higher end GFX cards have 2 GB of RAM [Though its usually listed as 2048 MB of RAM]). As for the Other Specs, AMD and NVidia have diverged in how they make their cards, so there aren't a whole lot comparisons you can make anymore just looking at each cards specs.\n\nYou could go to a PC Repair shop and ask them to install it for you, though it might run you like $50 or more to have that done.", "> How does numbering work?\n\nHowever the company that makes the cards wants it to. Seriously, they just name (and sometimes *re*-name) the cards whatever the hell they want. The number doesn't necessarily mean anything. Sometimes it does, but you shouldn't count on it. For example:\n\n > Unfortunately as we reported here, Nvidia is playing the re-branding game once again. This time the company is being even more deceptive because some of its product names are direct overlaps. For instance, a third version of the GeForce GT 640 isn't based on GK107 at all, but on the GF116 used in Nvidia's OEM GeForce GT 545. With 114 CUDA cores and a 192-bit memory interface, this card is basically a GeForce GT 545 DDR3 with different operating frequencies. Another re-brand, the GeForce GT 645 is actually a GeForce GTX 560 SE, a recently-released crippled version of the GF114 GPU used to drive the GeForce GTX 560 Ti. Whittled down to 288 CUDA cores, 48 texture units, and 24 ROPs, this card probably performs similarly to the defunct GeForce GTX 460 SE. The only GTX 560 SE we can find available for sale is a $130 card from EVGA. At that price, the card doesn't offer anything compelling for gamers compared to competing products.\n\n- _URL_0_\n\n > What details/specs are important?\n\n\"Important\" is subjective. I would say, look at the amount of memory first. It's a pretty safe bet that a card with 1,024 megabytes of memory will be better than a card with 512 megabytes of memory. \n\nAfter that, look at actual benchmarks by people who actually tested the cards using various games and other programs. These tests should report actual Frames Per Second (FPS) numbers. If they claim to have something useful to say about the performance of a video card but doesn't post FPS numbers, be *very* skeptical. That's like claiming a car can go 160 mph just because the speedo goes up to 160.\n\n > What details are a matter of preference?\n\nThings like a 50 MHz boost in speed on some single component will make no practical difference. A small change (15%) in the number of cores is unlikely to make any practical difference.\n\n > What details/specs are irrelevant to the average gamer/user? \n\nMost of the stuff the hardcore geeks obsess over are very small. Big leaps happen when a change in the architecture of the card is redone, usually every couple of years. Inbetween the cards are slowly refined anbd have small tweaks made, rather than taking big leaps ahead.\n\n > Do I need to install it myself or is there someplace I can take it to be installed?\n\nYou can install it yourself *if* you know how. It isn't hard to do, but it's also not something that's necessarily obvious. Imagine knowing nothing about car engines, then trying to replace a spark plug. If you know what a spark plug is and how it fits into the engine, it's a two-minute thing. If you don't...\n\nIf there's a local PC repair shop, they would probably be willing to install it for a fee. Call them and ask.", "The numbering is pretty random for the model numbers. The higher number doesn't always mean the best performance. Like atatassault said, The companies completely switch their numbering schemes every few years.\n\nI'd suggest ordering a graphics card from _URL_5_ (.ca version too) They are honestly the best computer part company for US/Can. http://www._URL_5_/Store/SubCategory.aspx?SubCategory=48 & name=Desktop-Graphics-Cards\n\nI'd say the Memory size and Core Clock are two of the biggest things to look for in graphics cards. The latest and greatest video cards as of today have like 2-3GB memory. For example: http://www._URL_5_/Product/Product.aspx?Item=N82E16814150586 The ATI 7970 is their top card on the market. It has 3GB of ram and 1000Mhz Core Clock. The standard core clock on the 7970 seems to be 925Mhz, but since I showed you the Black Edition or \"OverClocked Edition\", It's slightly faster.\n\nYou can definitely install it yourself. It plugs into your PCI-E slot and should be secured by 1-2 phillips screws. Easy. This chart may help you: _URL_5_\n\nOnce physically installed, you should install latest drivers for it. Usually the ones that come on the CD are outdated. I'd go to ATI's or Nvidia's website and download/install the latest ones. _URL_5_", "Most People have covered the basics, it's hard to explain and a little random, installation pretty much like lego, if you can follow those instructions you can certainly follow the manual you'll get with any graphics card. Worth mentioning though are review sites. They'll give the relative performance on a card in a number of games and scenarios and most will apply averages and numbers known as \"benchmarks\", bigger numbers in performance, better the card with some doing things for power use, noise etc. Essentially you would not be far off finding a multi card run down where they often pick the card which performs in the best area for it's pricepoint, google will be your friend in this." ]

[ "Graphics hardware Graphics Cards The most important piece of graphics hardware is the graphics card, which is the piece of equipment that renders out all images and sends them to a display. There are two types of graphics cards: integrated and dedicated. \nAn integrated graphics card, usually by Intel to use in their computers, is bound to the motherboard and shares RAM(Random Access Memory) with the CPU, reducing the total amount of RAM available. This is undesirable for running programs and applications that use a large amount of video memory. \nA dedicated graphics card has its own RAM and Processor", "for generating its images, and does not slow down the computer. Dedicated graphics cards also have higher performance than integrated graphics cards. It is possible to have both dedicated and integrated graphics, however once a dedicated graphics card is installed, the integrated card will no longer function until the dedicated card is removed. Parts of a Graphics Card The GPU, or graphics processing unit, is the unit that allows the graphics card to function. It performs a large amount of the work given to the card. The majority of video playback on a computer is controlled by the GPU. Once", "Processing Unit A graphics processing unit (GPU), also occasionally called visual processing unit (VPU), is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the building of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display. Because of the large degree of programmable computational complexity for such a task, a modern video card is also a computer unto itself. Heat sink A heat sink is mounted on most modern graphics cards. A heat sink spreads out the heat produced by the graphics processing unit evenly throughout the heat sink and unit itself. ", "again, a GPU can be either integrated or dedicated.\nVideo Memory is built in RAM installed on the video card that provides the graphics card with its own RAM and allows it to run smoothly without having to take resources from the computer. However, if one uses an integrated graphics card, the chip will take resources from the computer as it does not have its own built in memory. That is how it is made. Display Drivers A display driver is a piece of software which allows your graphics hardware to communicate with your operating system. Drivers in general allow your", "memory on an HBM 2 module within a card that physically resembles a graphics coprocessor, but instead of serving as a co-processor, it is the main computer with the PC-compatible computer into which it is plugged serving support functions. GPGPU Modern graphics processing units (GPUs) include an array of shader pipelines which may be driven by compute kernels, which can be considered vector processors (using a similar strategy for hiding memory latencies). Description In general terms, CPUs are able to manipulate one or two pieces of data at a time. For instance, most CPUs have an instruction that essentially says", "Computer graphics (computer science) Computer graphics is a sub-field of Computer Science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to the study of three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and image processing. History One of the first displays of computer animation was Futureworld (1976), which included an animation of a human face and hand—produced by Ed Catmull and Fred Parke at the University of Utah. Swedish inventor Håkan Lans applied for the first patent on color graphics in 1979.\nThere are several international conferences and journals where the most significant", "Computer graphics Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with the help of specialized graphical hardware and software. It is a vast and recently developed area of computer science. The phrase was coined in 1960, by computer graphics researchers Verne Hudson and William Fetter of Boeing. It is often abbreviated as CG, though sometimes erroneously referred to as computer-generated imagery (CGI).\nSome topics in computer graphics include user interface design, sprite graphics, rendering, geometry processing, computer animation, vector graphics, 3D modeling, shaders, GPU design, implicit surface visualization with ray tracing,", "image processing, computational photography, scientific visualization, and computer vision, among others. The overall methodology depends heavily on the underlying sciences of geometry, optics, physics, and perception.\nComputer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the consumer. It is also used for processing image data received from the physical world. Computer graphics development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, and graphic design in general. Introduction The precursor sciences to the development of modern computer graphics were the advances in electrical engineering, electronics, and television", "Video card History Standards such as MDA, CGA, HGC, Tandy, PGC, EGA, VGA, MCGA, 8514 or XGA were introduced from 1982 to 1990 and supported by a variety of hardware manufacturers.\n3dfx Interactive was one of the first companies to develop a GPU with 3D acceleration (with the Voodoo series) and the first to develop a graphical chipset dedicated to 3D, but without 2D support (which therefore required the presence of a 2D card to work). Now the majority of modern video cards are built with either AMD-sourced or Nvidia-sourced graphics chips. Until 2000, 3dfx Interactive was also an important, and", "Shared graphics memory History Most early personal computers used a shared memory design with graphics hardware sharing memory with the CPU. Such designs saved money as a single bank of DRAM could be used for both display and program. Examples of this include the Apple II computer, the Commodore 64, the Radio Shack Color Computer, the Atari ST, and the Apple Macintosh.\nA notable exception was the IBM PC. Graphics display was facilitated by the use of an expansion card with its own memory plugged into an ISA slot. \nThe first IBM PC to use the SMA was the IBM PCjr,", "much fewer processing units and share the same memory with the CPU.\nSometimes the graphics processors are integrated onto a motherboard. It is commonly known as: on-board graphics. A motherboard with on-board graphics processors doesn't require a discrete graphics card or a CPU with graphics processors to operate. Dedicated graphics cards Also known as: discrete graphics cards. Unlike integrated graphics, dedicated graphics cards have much more processing units and have its own RAM with much higher memory bandwidth.\nIn some cases, a dedicated graphics chip can be integrated onto the motherboards, B150-GP104 for example. Regardless of the fact that the graphics chip", "a type of memory required for the operation of any PCIe graphics card and is built directly onto the card itself. The amount of RAM built onto a graphics card allows the GPU to quickly access data such as textures instead of reading from a much slower storage device. Having more GDDR memory allows the system to handle higher levels of anti-aliasing and more complex textures. GDDR memory has a much higher latency when compared to DDR memory but also has a much larger bandwidth, thus allowing the GPU to deal with larger amounts of data at a", "with the graphics card itself. The variation of GPU that can be mounted to the core is as following.", "functions are supported and built-in functions are provided. The graphics card manufacturer may optimize built-in functions at the hardware level. Many of these functions are similar to those in the math library of the C programming language while others are specific to graphics programming.", "compactness, simplicity and low energy consumption. The performance disadvantage of integrated graphics arises because the graphics processor shares system resources with the CPU. A dedicated graphics card has its own random access memory (RAM), its own cooling system, and dedicated power regulators, with all components designed specifically for processing video images. Upgrading to a dedicated graphics card offloads work from the CPU and system RAM, so not only will graphics processing be faster, but the computer's overall performance will significantly improve.\nBoth AMD and Intel have introduced CPUs and motherboard chipsets which support the integration of a GPU into the same", "3800, 4800, or 5800 graphics card, which are the only graphics cards currently supported by the product.\nTo provide the hardware environment to support this mix of virtualization and graphics technologies, Hewlett-Packard partnered with Parallels and Nvidia to develop the HP Z800, a high-end PC that include Nvidia’s Quadro FX GPUs and Intel's VT-d and Xeon processor. Features Parallels Workstation Extreme includes support for up to 16 CPU cores, 64 GB of RAM for guest OSs, 16 virtual network adapters per virtual machine and virtual drive sizes up to 2 TB. Users can use multiple monitors, display a different guest", "steadily towards multi-core CPUs by 2005. These processors allow the computer to simultaneously process multiple tasks, called threads, allowing the use of more complex graphics, artificial intelligence and in-game physics.\nSimilarly, 3D games often rely on a powerful graphics processing unit (GPU), which accelerates the process of drawing complex scenes in realtime. GPUs may be an integrated part of the computer's motherboard, the most common solution in laptops, or come packaged with a discrete graphics card with a supply of dedicated Video RAM, connected to the motherboard through either an AGP or PCI-Express port. It is also possible to use multiple", "graphics cards were developed for graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and games; GUIs drove the need for high resolution, and games began using 3D acceleration. They also are one of the only pieces of hardware to allow multiple hookups (such as with SLI or CrossFire graphics-cards). CD- and DVD-ROMs developed for mass distribution of media in general; however, the ability to store more information on cheap, easily distributable media became instrumental in driving their ever-higher speeds. Disciplines The game industry employs those experienced in other traditional businesses, but some have experience tailored to the game industry. Some of the disciplines", "also can be broken down into triangles, facilitating tessellation.\nIn early 2000, the computer industry released the first video graphics cards capable of processing transform, clipping, and lighting (T&L) instructions. With the appropriate software, these new cards took over the burden of T&L processing from the computer's processor, allowing more detailed graphics and smoother animation. Shiny capitalized on the breakthrough, spending a few weeks to rewrite a portion of Sacrifice's software. Brownlow and his team refined and improved the game's graphics, increasing the number of polygons per model and setting the software to scan through scenes a few more times to", "used on these ISA/EISA cards consisted solely of a display controller, as this was the only functionality required to connect a computer to a display. Later cards included ICs to perform calculations related to 2D rendering in parallel with the CPU; these cards were referred to as graphics accelerator cards. Similarly, ICs for 3D rendering eventually followed. Such cards were available with VLB, PCI, and AGP interfaces; modern cards typically use the PCI Express bus, as they require much greater bandwidth then the ISA bus can deliver.", "3D computer graphics History William Fetter was credited with coining the term computer graphics in 1961 to describe his work at Boeing. One of the first displays of computer animation was Futureworld (1976), which included an animation of a human face and a hand that had originally appeared in the 1971 experimental short A Computer Animated Hand, created by University of Utah students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke.\n3D computer graphics software began appearing for home computers in the late 1970s. The earliest known example is 3D Art Graphics, a set of 3D computer graphics effects, written by Kazumasa Mitazawa and", "in most modern graphics cards to render the application clients in a 3D scene. The application window is drawn off-screen in a pixel buffer, and the graphics card renders it into the 3D scene.\nThis can have the advantage of moving some of the window rendering to the GPU on the graphics card and thus reducing the load on the main CPU, but the facilities that allow this must be available on the graphics card to be able to take advantage of this.\nExamples of 3D user-interface software include XGL and Compiz from Novell, and AIGLX bundled with Red Hat Fedora. Quartz", "often groundbreaking, manufacturer. Most video cards offer various functions such as accelerated rendering of 3D scenes and 2D graphics, MPEG-2/MPEG-4 decoding, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors (multi-monitor). Video cards also have sound card capabilities to output sound – along with the video for connected TVs or monitors with integrated speakers.\nWithin the industry, video cards are sometimes called graphics add-in-boards, abbreviated as AIBs, with the word \"graphics\" usually omitted. Dedicated vs integrated graphics As an alternative to the use of a video card, video hardware can be integrated into the motherboard, CPU, or a system-on-chip. Both approaches", "Graphics processing unit A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display device. GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles. Modern GPUs are very efficient at manipulating computer graphics and image processing. Their highly parallel structure makes them more efficient than general-purpose central processing units (CPUs) for algorithms that process large blocks of data in parallel. In a personal computer, a GPU can be present on a video card", "graphics card/GPU with four 4‑Hi HBM stacks would therefore have a memory bus with a width of 4096 bits. In comparison, the bus width of GDDR memories is 32 bits, with 16 channels for a graphics card with a 512‑bit memory interface. HBM supports up to 4 GB per package.\nThe larger number of connections to the memory, relative to DDR4 or GDDR5, required a new method of connecting the HBM memory to the GPU (or other processor). AMD and Nvidia have both used purpose-built silicon chips, called interposers, to connect the memory and GPU. This interposer has the added advantage of requiring the memory", "ones include it. Hybrid graphics processing This newer class of GPUs competes with integrated graphics in the low-end desktop and notebook markets. The most common implementations of this are ATI's HyperMemory and Nvidia's TurboCache.\nHybrid graphics cards are somewhat more expensive than integrated graphics, but much less expensive than dedicated graphics cards. These share memory with the system and have a small dedicated memory cache, to make up for the high latency of the system RAM. Technologies within PCI Express can make this possible. While these solutions are sometimes advertised as having as much as 768MB of RAM, this refers to", "Graphics Graphics (from Greek γραφικός graphikos, \"belonging to drawing\") are visual images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone to inform, illustrate, or entertain. In contemporary usage, it includes a pictorial representation of data, as in computer-aided design and manufacture, in typesetting and the graphic arts, and in educational and recreational software. Images that are generated by a computer are called computer graphics.\nExamples are photographs, drawings, line art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings,\nor other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the", "can be called integrated graphics. Motherboard-based implementations are sometimes called \"on-board video\". Almost all desktop computer motherboards with integrated graphics allow the disabling of the integrated graphics chip in BIOS, and have a PCI, or PCI Express (PCI-E) slot for adding a higher-performance graphics card in place of the integrated graphics. The ability to disable the integrated graphics sometimes also allows the continued use of a motherboard on which the on-board video has failed. Sometimes both the integrated graphics and a dedicated graphics card can be used simultaneously to feed separate displays. The main advantages of integrated graphics include cost,", "CPU. 1980s The NEC µPD7220 was the first implementation of a PC graphics display processor as a single Large Scale Integration (LSI) integrated circuit chip, enabling the design of low-cost, high-performance video graphics cards such as those from Number Nine Visual Technology. It became the best-known GPU up until the mid-1980s. It was the first fully integrated VLSI (very large-scale integration) metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) graphics display processor for PCs, supported up to 1024x1024 resolution, and laid the foundations for the emerging PC graphics market. It was used in a number of graphics cards, and was licensed for clones such as the", "ATI Technologies History Lee Ka Lau, Francis Lau, Benny Lau, and Kwok Yuen Ho founded ATI in 1985 as Array Technology Inc.\nWorking primarily in the OEM field, ATI produced integrated graphics cards for PC manufacturers such as IBM and Commodore. By 1987, ATI had grown into an independent graphics-card retailer, introducing EGA Wonder and VGA Wonder card product lines that year. In the early nineties they released products able to process graphics without the CPU: in May 1991, the Mach8, in 1992 the Mach32, which offered improved memory bandwidth and GUI acceleration. ATI Technologies Inc. went public in 1993, with" ]

[ "Because that's how they are set up, ringtones are a separate purchase, so they don't want to lose money buy allowing you to natively create a ringtone from song files on your device. \n \nThere are of course super simple ways to manually make them into ringtones. It's just that when you pay for the song, you are paying for a copy to be downloaded and played, not to be used as a ringtone. \n \nI wouldn't mind so much if it was a 49¢ purchase, but the average one is $1.29, the same price as the whole song, while only a handful are 99¢. \n\nTLDR: greed" ]

[ "release due to software issues. It does not currently have Bluetooth OBEX File Transfer capabilities. It is yet unknown, if and when this will be made available through a software upgrade or hack.\nMP3 files on the MicroSD card cannot be used as ringtones. MP3 files can be played from the MicroSD card, but one can't copy songs from the microSD card to the phone, and the card must be inside to enable music playback.\nThe phone does not have customizable ringer profiles. To silence the phone fully (not just the ringer), one must hold down the # key. Holding down", "the outer volume key will only silence the ringer.\nUsers have had limited success with transferring images and files to the phone with BitPim, which requires a data cable. Although it is unclear whether any great progress has been made, it is known that it's possible to write to the phone's internal memory but not immediately use the files written. After writing MP3 files to the 18067 folder (BREW->MOD->18067) and rebooting the phone, the files can be used as ringtones, if the Msinfo.db file is manually re-written by changing the file entry generated in Msinfo.db from \"/ff/brew/mod/sample file.mp3|0|0\" to \"/ff/brew/mod/sample", "Nokia 6303 classic Features The phone supports MicroSD cards up to 32 GB, meaning that the phone can be used practically as an MP3 player. Using the supplied and freely available Nokia PC Suite, one has the option of converting MP3s to e-AAC for more compression. The 3.5 mm headphone jack means that many standard commercial headsets will fit the phone. Like most other recent Nokia phones, the 6303 classic replaced their old Pop-Port connector for a standard micro-USB connector.\nThe phone allows the user to view the video clips in full-screen landscape mode and set the fast-forward/rewind interval from a few", "client and a media player (mp3, mp4 (audio only) & 3GP supported). There is also a small button located on the top right side of the phone, that when pushed, flips the phone open.\nThe phone is very customizable. Users can manage many of the phone’s features in the Nokia PC Suite. Themes may also be downloaded onto the phone, changing the menus, icons, colors, etc. Other customizable aspects of the Nokia 6126 include adding MP3 files to the phone, and using those files as ringtones, without the need of converting them to WMA format. There", "models. A fourth ring in the audio jack carries this extra information.\nThe built-in Bluetooth 2.x+EDR supports wireless earpieces and headphones, which requires the HSP profile. Stereo audio was added in the 3.0 update for hardware that supports A2DP. While non-sanctioned third-party solutions exist, the iPhone does not officially support the OBEX file transfer protocol. The lack of these profiles prevents iPhone users from exchanging multimedia files, such as pictures, music and videos, with other Bluetooth-enabled cell phones.\nComposite or component video at up to 576i and stereo audio can be output from the dock connector using an adapter sold by Apple.", "ringtones are available for download at a cost. The phone features the ability to make conference calls, hold calls and send DTMF tones. However, the phone does not feature a built in loudspeaker, which was unusual considering many lower quality phones which did not fall into the same price bracket as the Nokia 8810 were built with loudspeakers. Display and input The Nokia 8810 has a five line monochrome graphic display. Features include dynamic font size and soft key. Connectivity Besides the standard 2G network, the 8810 also features an infrared port, which was later adopted into other Nokia high-end", "to create music tones, either with a \"melody composer\" or a sample/loop arranger, such as the MusicDJ in many Sony Ericsson phones. These often use encoding formats only available to one particular phone model or brand. Other formats, such as MIDI or MP3, are often supported; they must be downloaded to the phone before they can be used as a normal ring tone.\nWhen someone buys a ringtone, an aggregator (a company that sells ringtones) either creates the tune or mixes a pre-existing tune. The ringtone is sent in a special file format to the phone via SMS. If the", "Nokia 6300 Features The phone supports MicroSD cards up to 2 GB (4 GB with the 6300i variant), meaning that the phone can be used practically as an MP3 player. Using the supplied and freely available Nokia PC Suite, one can convert all the MP3 files in a music library to e-AAC in order to fit more on the card. The 2.5 mm headphone jack means that few commercial headsets will fit the phone, however there are adapters available enabling the use of headphones with a standard jack.\nLike most other new Nokia phones, the 6300 eschews their old Pop-Port connector for", "Samsung SGH-U600 Slider settings The slider can be configured to accept and close calls, as well as to close all open applications (except the MP3 player when settings are set properly). (These are the only settings).\nSettings are available which allow for the phone to stay unlocked when closed. This is also the first Samsung phone that provides the availability to use MP3 files as SMS message tones. MM3 ringtones In some firmware versions, the first 1.5 seconds (approx.) of an MP3 ringtone is cut off. This can be circumvented by inserting 1.5 seconds of silence in the beginning of the", "have found that it is possible to upload ringtones using Verizon's VZWPIX website. For those who do not have an unlimited picture messaging plan, there is a small fee for the upload, but it's considerably less than purchasing a ringtone. Phone owners have also found a way to put ringtones on the phone using a transflash card.\nAnother restriction applied to this phone (by all carriers) is the inability to use QNC data, which was still (and may still be) the only data service available in some areas of the country and this is usually not brought up when people purchase", "mobile phone to have MP3 music capabilities in the US market. The innovation spread rapidly across the globe and by 2005, more than half of all music sold in South Korea was sold directly to mobile phones and all major handset makers in the world had released MP3 playing phones. By 2006, more MP3 playing mobile phones were sold than all stand-alone MP3 players put together. The rapid rise of the media player in phones was quoted by Apple as a primary reason for developing the iPhone. In 2007, the number of phones that could play media was over 1 billion.", "It has also been previously reported that the DivX and Xvid codecs within AVI are also playable on the system. Unlike the previous Windows Mobile operating system, there are currently no third-party applications for handling other video formats. The image file formats that are supported include JPG/JPEG, PNG, GIF, TIF and Bitmap (BMP).\nAfter the \"Mango\" update, Windows Phone 7 added the ability for users to have custom ringtones. Ringtone audio files must be under 1MB and less than 40 seconds long. Custom ringtones still cannot be used for text messages, IMs or emails. Games The \"Games hub\" provides access to", "keys - two for controlling volume, skipping through tracks in the Media Player and zooming in and out when in camera mode. If the button is pressed when the headset isn't attached the phone displays a phone status screen showing profile, memory usage, battery level, and, on some mobile networks, phone number. The included handsfree headset is also required to listen to the radio since it functions as the antenna. MP3 & connectivity The phone has good all-round support for many versions of the MP3 file format, however support for WAV encoded files is not as extensive.\nAAC support is good,", "files are compatible only with Apple's iTunes media player software on Macs and Windows, their iPod portable digital music players, iPhone smartphones, iPad tablet computers, and the Motorola ROKR E1 and SLVR mobile phones. As a result, that music was locked into this ecosystem and available for portable use only through the purchase of one of the above devices, or by burning to CD and optionally re-ripping to a DRM-free format such as MP3 or WAV.\nIn January, 2005, an iPod purchaser named Thomas Slattery filed a suit against Apple for the \"unlawful bundling\" of their iTunes Music Store and iPod", "but not in their usual formats, instead the files must be encrypted and packaged into a Lockstream Embedded (.lse) files, which was a DRM technology that ensured that the encrypted files could only be played on the device. This encryption could be achieved using the bundled Nokia PC Suite software. Additionally it could record AAC audio directly from its internal FM radio, or through its built-in 2.5 mm (3/32\") audio jack to another format with the extension .rel which only the phone could play back. The music player on the phone also has a built-in equalizer with several pre-sets to fine-tune", "to 16GB. The built-in media player can play music in MP3, AAC, AAC+, eAAC+ as well as WMA formats. The music player is not able to multi-task.\nThe phone uses MP3 polyphonic and truetoneg ringtones and has vibrate options.", "Androids and Type Nine for iPhones -- for this feature that most smartphone keyboards still can't address even with their otherwise full featured chicklet qwerty keyboards.", "have a microSD card slot, therefore users cannot expand storage beyond what's available. Phone and media management Over-the-air V CAST music downloads are not available. The handset does rely on V CAST Music Manager software to transfer music to the phone, and that program only supports Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows Media Player 10, but not Mac OS X or any other operating systems. The phone is alternately accessible with BitPim, an open source and multi-platform application to access CDMA phones of various cellphone manufacturers. Music player The device's audio player supports MP3, Windows Media Audio (WMA and WMA Pro),", "a USB cable. The port on the top is meant for a headset but most users of the phone do not employ a headset because the SPH-N270 is designed with aesthetics in mind.\nOther than physical conveniences, the phone features an assisted GPS receiver, English and Spanish languages, multiple alarms, a calendar, a to-do list and a simple calculator. A notable emphasis of the Samsung SPH-N270 is integration with voice. While 300 contacts stored in the phone can be dialed automatically from the menu, utterance of their names also triggers a phone call. In addition, phone digits can be spoken for", "their own, Phone Companion is not required for file transfers. What it offers users is a visible shortcut to the transfer activities, which users may have been unaware previously.\nDue to iOS’ security policies, it is not possible to transfer files from a PC to an iPhone or an iPad using File Explorer.", "Android and iOS devices. Technology The application does not require users to share any personal information such as mobile numbers or usernames like other payment applications, instead uses Audio QR codes that rely on sound transmitted at a frequency inaudible to the human ear from the payee handset to the merchant handset. This technology does away with the need for NFC chips on the handsets and holds an additional advantage because a significant number of smartphones in India and other developing markets do not have NFC chips embedded.", "that supports virtual media generally plays MP3 files. Several types of units play these files. USB Flash Drive units allow an MP3 file to be received electronically, downloaded to a flash drive and connected to the player. Ethernet based remote load units connect via the network to a remote IP address. Phone line based remote load systems allow for a connection via an analog telephone line and dialing the number belonging to the unit. For VoIP phone systems, MP3s are loaded without any equipment.\nNewer technology allows MP3 files to be downloaded automatically from the internet so that messages (or", "display correctly on all phones due to missing code pages or individual codes. Also, there are problems with some Sony Ericsson phones with regard to displaying Arabic script and other right-to-left languages. Rendering such languages properly depends on having a correct implementation of the bidirectional algorithm as well as glyph shaping. Phones with limited memory It is possible to divide Go Bible into several smaller collections so that the JAR files can be installed in mobile phones with limited memory. For some models, splitting into Old Testament and New Testament is sufficient. For older models, splitting into", "iPhone is a built-in app, and thus cannot be removed. iTunes Match iTunes Match debuted on November 14, 2011. It was initially available to US users only. For an annual fee, customers can scan and match tracks in their iTunes music library, including tracks copied from CDs or other sources, with tracks in the iTunes Store, so customers do not have to repurchase said tracks. Customers may download up to 100,000 tracks in 256 kbit/s DRM-free AAC file format that match tracks in any supported audio file formats in customers' iTunes libraries, including ALAC and MP3. Customers also have the choice", "filed a lawsuit against Solid Group over the MyPhone name claiming that MyPhone is \"confusingly similar\" to its iPhone brand and that it would \"likely to deceive or cause confusion\". The Philippine Intellectual Property Office (IPO) dismissed the case filed by Apple Inc. on May 19, 2015 stating that, while both brands are similarly named by using the word phone, the word in question is not sufficient grounds in causing confusing between the two brands and noted that phone is a generic term for mobile phones.\nIPO director Nathaniel Arevalo, criticized Apple Inc.'s move describing it as \"a case of a", "embedded in this phone, with the capability of expanding music storage via MicroSD card (125 to 1,000 music files depending on file size, encoding method, and card capacity). The music player will not launch unless a card is inserted in the phone, and will not accept a card with the memory that is over 4 GB.\nLG Rumor/LG Scoop can be connected with Bluetooth technology, (stores up to 20 Bluetooth entries), or a proprietary LG USB cable. It can hold 500 contacts with additional numbers, notes and email addresses. Drawbacks Commonly occurring issues with the LG Rumor include the device often", "company uses a pre-existing song, they must pay royalties to a licensing agency. A significant portion goes to the cell phone provider.\nIn 2005, \"SmashTheTones\", now \"Mobile17\", became the first third-party solution for ring tone creation online without requiring downloadable software or a digital audio editor. Later, users of Apple's iPhone could create a ringtone from a song purchased with the iTunes library. Commercial sales The fact that consumers are willing to pay up to $3 for ringtones has made mobile music a profitable part of the music industry. The Manhattan-based marketing and consulting firm Consect estimated ringtones generated", "key is sent separately from the actual download of the file, and the file contains a license URL—it is possible to forward the file to other devices. Once the file is activated on the new device, it will prompt the user to access the URL embedded in the file, and give the user the option to acquire the key. Criticism Some vendors implement broad DRM systems, restricting consumer rights beyond the scope documented by the OMA DRM standards. For example, some Nokia Symbian-based devices will completely refuse to send all files of certain types over Bluetooth. For these phones, this", "to as handsfree. Most mobile phones come with their own handsfree in the form of a single earphone with a microphone module connected in the cable. For music-playing mobile phones, manufacturers may bundle stereo earphones with a microphone. There are also third-party brands which may provide better sound quality or wireless connectivity.\nMobile headsets come in a range of wearing-styles, including behind-the-neck, over-the-head, over-the-ear, and lightweight earbuds. Some aftermarket mobile headsets come with a standard 2.5 mm plug different from the phone's audio connector, so users have to purchase an adapter. A USB headset for a computer also cannot be directly plugged", "in the containing EAR file, but not necessarily those in JAR files in other EAR files. One key reason for this behavior is to allow complete separation between applications which use static singletons (e.g. Log4J), which would otherwise confuse the configuration between separate applications. This also enables different versions of applications and libraries to be deployed side-by-side.\nThe JBoss application servers before Version 5 were notable in that it does not isolate deployed components. A web application deployed in one EAR file would have access to classes in other EAR and WAR files. This is a somewhat controversial policy. The" ]

[ "Most of them are pretty self-explanatory.\n\n1. There can be no laws against what you say, or what religion you follow, or who you associate with.\n\n2. We need a military force, so you're allowed to own guns.\n\n3. You cannot be forced to house troops.\n\n4. Your home can't be searched without an OK from a judge.\n\n5. You can't be tried twice for the same offense. You can't be forced to testify against yourself.\n\n6. You have to have a fair public trial with witnesses you can cross-examine.\n\n7. If you want a jury trial, you are entitled to have it.\n\n8. The punishment must fit the crime.\n\n9. This is not an all-encompassing list. You may have other rights too.\n\n10. If it's not specifically a federal issue, then it's automatically a state issue. [There's more, but I can't really describe it LY5.]", "**First Amendment**\n\n*Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.*\n\nThe government cannot criminalize or arrest you for speaking your mind, exercising your religion, associating with people, protesting the government, or publishing news.\n\n**Second Amendment**\n\n*A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.*\n\nThe government cannot criminalize or prevent you from having weapons or forming militias.\n\n**Third Amendment**\n\n*No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law*\n\nThe government can't force you to house members of the military.\n\n**Fourth Amendment**\n\n*The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized*\n\nThe government cannot search or seize you or your possessions without a warrant or probable cause.\n\n**Fifth Amendment**\n\n*No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.*\n\nThis one's a doozy, basically it establishes the requirement of a Grand Jury to indict people for major crimes, protects people from being tried for the same crime twice, protects you from self-incrimination, and prevents the government from arresting and incarcerating you without following \"due process.\" Also says the government can't take your stuff without due process and just compensation.\n\n**Sixth Amendment**\n\n*In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.*\n\nYou have a right to a fast and public trial, a partial jury of your peers, be told of the charges against you, be able to question witnesses against you and provide witnesses in your defense, and you have a right to a lawyer.\n\n**Seventh Amendment**\n\n*In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.*\n\nGrants you a right to a jury trial for civil cases exceeding $20 and protects the results of those cases from being overruled by a judge.\n\n**Eighth Amendment**\n\n*Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.*\n\nThe government cannot issue excessive bail or sentence people to cruel and unusual punishments.\n\n**Ninth Amendment**\n\n*The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.*\n\nBasically, just because the Constitution mentions certain rights by name (such as freedom of speech) this doesn't mean people don't have other rights *not* mentioned in the Constitution.\n\n**Tenth Amendment**\n\n*The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.*\n\nAny power not explicitly granted to the Federal Government by the Constitution is instead reserved to the States or the people.\n\nNote: This is a simplification. Centuries of application have created various case laws which flavor and limit these amendments to some degree or another.", "The bill of rights enumerates some of our most important fundamental [natural rights](_URL_0_). It doesn't *grant* any rights. It enumerates them and explicitly forbids the government from infringing on them. This is an important distinction that is clearly expressed with the ninth amendment.\n\nThe constitution doesn't grant you the right to free speech or to bear arms. You already had it.\n\nIt's also interesting to note that the term \"natural\" is used and not \"God given\" like we hear so often today. The founding fathers were surprisingly irreligious considering the limited scientific knowledge of the day.", "The REALLY important thing to understand about the Bill of Rights--which, alas, neither much of the public or the government seems to grasp--is that it was NOT written as a memo from the government to the people saying, \"look at all these sweet-ass perks we're letting you have because we're nice guys.\"\n\nIt was actually intended as a memo from the people to the government saying \"U can't touch this.\" Rights are not revokable, they don't apply to JUST people we like, they are simply not subject to any legislation less than another Constitutional amendment.\n\nYeah, it frequently doesn't work out that way in real life, and people are partly to blame when the government abridges their rights, for not screaming bloody murder and running the scoundrels out of office on a rail.\n\nAnd THAT, Timmy, is why the President of the US today has the authority to order the summary murder of a US citizen on *suspicion* of being an enemy of the state." ]

[ "Incorporation of the Bill of Rights Background The United States Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the oftentimes bitter 1787–88 battle over ratification of the United States Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these", "Bill of rights A bill of rights, sometimes called a declaration of rights or a charter of rights, is a list of the most important rights to the citizens of a country. The purpose is to protect those rights against infringement from public officials and private citizens.\nBills of rights may be entrenched or unentrenched. An entrenched bill of rights cannot be amended or repealed by a country's legislature through regular procedure, instead requiring a supermajority or referendum; often it is part of a country's constitution, and therefore subject to special procedures applicable to constitutional amendments. A bill of rights that", "Independence.\nAlthough not a comprehensive statement of civil and political liberties, the Bill of Rights stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in the United Kingdom and a model for later, more general, statements of rights; these include the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. For example, as with the Bill of Rights 1689, the US Constitution prohibits excessive bail and \"cruel and unusual punishment\". Similarly, \"cruel, inhuman or", "New York Bill of Rights The New York Bill of Rights is a statutory bill of rights enacted in 1787 in the U.S. state of New York.", "government. Bill of Rights applicable to states, or \"incorporation\" question One of the most notable aspects of Justice Black's jurisprudence was the view that the entirety of the federal Bill of Rights was applicable to the states. Originally, the Bill of Rights was binding only upon the federal government, as the Supreme Court ruled in Barron v. Baltimore (1833). According to Black, the Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, \"incorporated\" the Bill of Rights, or made it binding upon the states as well. In particular, he pointed to the Privileges or Immunities Clause, \"No State shall make or enforce any law", "Academic Bill of Rights The Academic Bill of Rights (ABOR) is a document created and distributed by Students for Academic Freedom (SAF), a public advocacy group spun off from the Center for the Study of Popular Culture, a think tank founded by the conservative writer David Horowitz. The document was created as a foundational part of SAF's mission, to \"end the political abuse of the university and to restore integrity to the academic mission as a disinterested pursuit of knowledge.\"\nThe Bill focuses on eight broad-based principles that call for an academic environment where decisions are made irrespective of one's personal", "International Bill of Human Rights The International Bill of Human Rights was the name given to UN General Assembly Resolution 217 (III) and two international treaties established by the United Nations. It consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted in 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966) with its two Optional Protocols and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1966). The two covenants entered into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.\nIn the beginning, different views were expressed about the form the bill of rights", "Bill of Rights as something that would at least initially be implemented by legislation, but that did not exclude either the Supreme Court's development of constitutional jurisprudence or amendments to the Constitution. Roosevelt's model assumed that federal government would take the lead, but that did not prevent states improving their own legislative or constitutional framework beyond the federal minimum. Much of the groundwork had been laid before and during the New Deal, but left many of the Second Bill of Rights' aspirations incomplete. Internationally, the same economic and social rights were written into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in", "a bill of rights should not be added to the Constitution, because the entire Constitution is in itself a bill of rights. Hamilton's belief is that the entire document, U.S. Constitution, should set limits and checks and balances on the government so that no individual’s rights will be infringed upon.", "that succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian/minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As", "government at all levels) to \"respect, protect, promote and fulfil\" the Bill of Rights. It also notes that the rights in the Bill are subject to the limitations provided for in section thirty-six and elsewhere in the Bill; see Limitations below.\nAlthough section two already provides for the supremacy of the Constitution over all laws and government actions, section eight explicitly states that the Bill of Rights applies to all law and binds all branches and organs of government. It further states that the provisions of the Bill also bind private parties to the extent that they are applicable, given the", "under which provisions of the Bill of Rights were deemed to restrict the states. Originally, as Chief Justice John Marshall ruled in Barron v. Baltimore (1833), the Bill of Rights restricted only the federal government; however, during the twentieth century, the Supreme Court held in a series of decisions the Fourteenth Amendment had the effect of applying some (but not all) provisions of the Bill of Rights to the states. The first such decision was Gitlow, in which the Supreme Court incorporated the protection of freedom of speech afforded by the First Amendment. Important decisions relating to incorporations were made", "Institute of Bill of Rights Law The Institute of Bill of Rights Law (IBRL), founded in 1982, is a center for the study of constitutional law at the William & Mary School of Law in Williamsburg, Virginia, United States. The IBRL focuses on enhancing a scholarly understanding of the nation's Bill of Rights by hosting an annual \"Supreme Court Preview\" that brings together constitutional and legal experts from law schools in the United States, as well as reporters and affiliates from the nation's news outlets. It also enables research fellows to conduct constitutional research with law professors at the law", "Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms Comparisons with other human rights legislation The document is somewhat analogous to the United States Bill of Rights, although its provisions tend to be more specific, and imbue its citizens with more and different rights than in United States constitutional law, which by contrast recognizes and protects natural rights rather than grant legal entitlement.", "of law.\" However, the Bill of Rights was a statute and not part of the Constitution.\nIn 1982, a right to security of the person was added to the Constitution. It was included in section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which stipulates that \"Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice.\" Security of the person in section 7 consists of rights to privacy of the body and its health and of the right protecting", "Timbs v. Indiana Legal background As formulated, the United States Bill of Rights was meant only to restrict power of the federal government and not at state or local levels, confirmed by the Supreme Court in Barron v. Baltimore (1833). However, following the American Civil War, Congress ratified the Fourteenth Amendment which included the Due Process Clause, \"[N]or shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law\". Since its ratification, the United States Supreme Court has followed the doctrine of incorporation, that generally, all Constitutional rights must also be respected at state", "framed by James Madison and adopted by the States simply to make clear that the adoption of the Bill of Rights did not alter the plan that the Federal Government was to be a government of express and limited powers, and that all rights and powers not delegated to it were retained by the people and the individual States. Until today, no member of this Court has ever suggested that the Ninth Amendment meant anything else, and the idea that a federal court could ever use the Ninth Amendment to annul a law passed by the elected representatives of the", "the Bill of Rights was only a federal statute, rather than a constitutional document. Therefore, it was limited in scope and was easily amendable. This motivated some within government to improve rights protections in Canada. The movement for human rights and freedoms that emerged after World War II also wanted to entrench the principles enunciated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Charter was drafted by the federal government with consultations with the provincial governments in the years leading up to the passage of the Constitution Act, 1982.\nOne of the most notable effects of the adoption of", "Heffernan v. City of Paterson Legal background The First Amendment guarantees the rights of freedom of speech and peaceable assembly, among others. While not explicitly mentioned, the Supreme Court has held that the right to assembly includes the freedom of association, particularly political association. These protections not only prohibit the government from passing laws which infringe upon these rights, but also from taking actions which would violate them. While the Bill of Rights—which includes the First Amendment—applied originally only to the federal government, the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment allowed for the application of the Bill of Rights to the", "basic freedoms, such as freedom of expression.\nIn 1960, by then the Prime Minister of Canada, Diefenbaker introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights. This federal statute provide guarantees, binding on the federal government, to protect freedom of speech, freedom of religion, equality rights, the right to life, liberty and security of the person, and property rights. It also sets out significant protections for individuals charged with criminal offences.\nThe Canadian Bill of Rights suffered from two drawbacks. First, as a statute of the federal Parliament, it was only binding on the federal government. The federal parliament does not", "of the rights and freedoms that are protected under the Charter, including the rights to freedom of speech, habeas corpus and the presumption of innocence, have their roots in a set of Canadian laws and legal precedents sometimes known as the Implied Bill of Rights. Many of these rights were also included in the Canadian Bill of Rights, which the Canadian Parliament enacted in 1960. However, the Canadian Bill of Rights had a number of shortcomings. Unlike the Charter, it was an ordinary Act of Parliament, which could be amended by a simple majority of Parliament, and it was applicable", "for immediate preservation of the public peace, health, or safety\"; any proposed bill including such a provision includes a \"statement of facts constituting the necessity\" and a two-thirds majority of each house is required to also separately pass the bill's urgency section.\nMany of the individual rights clauses in the state constitution have been construed as protecting rights broader than the Bill of Rights in the federal constitution. Two examples include (1) the Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins case involving an implied right to free speech in private shopping centers, and (2) the first decision in America in 1972 which", "the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights \"was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts.\" This is why \"fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections.\" The 14th Amendment has vastly expanded civil rights protections and is cited in more litigation than any other amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Selective versus total incorporation In the 1940s and 1960s the Supreme Court gradually", "himself from a case involving a major contributor to his campaign for election to that court. Incorporation While many state constitutions are modeled after the United States Constitution and federal laws, those state constitutions did not necessarily include provisions comparable to the Bill of Rights. In Barron v. Baltimore (1833), the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the Bill of Rights restrained only the federal government, not the states. However, the Supreme Court has subsequently held that most provisions of the Bill of Rights apply to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment under a doctrine called", " Combined, the Judiciary Act and Bill of Rights gave the Constitution the \"teeth\" that had been missing in the Articles of Confederation. Judicial Review guaranteed the federal government's sovereignty, whereas the Bill of Rights guaranteed the protection of states and citizens from the misuse of this sovereignty by the federal government. The Judiciary Act and Bill of Rights thus counterbalanced each other, each guaranteeing respite from the excesses of the other. However, with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1865, seventy-five years later, the Bill of Rights could be brought to bear at all levels of government", "President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a Second Bill of Rights, covering much the same grounds, during his State of the Union Address on January 11, 1944. Today, many nations, states, or groups of nations have developed legally binding declarations guaranteeing comprehensive sets of human rights, e.g. the European Social Charter.\nSome states have enacted some of these economic rights, e.g. the state of New York has enshrined the right to a free education, as well as \"the right to organize and to bargain collectively\", and workers' compensation, in its constitutional law.\nThese rights are sometimes referred to as \"red\" rights. They impose", "Court held in Barron v. Baltimore (1833) that the Bill of Rights was enforceable by the federal courts only against the federal government, and not against the states. Thus, the Ninth Amendment originally applied only to the federal government, which is a government of enumerated powers.\nSome jurists have asserted that the Ninth Amendment is relevant to the interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment. Justice Arthur Goldberg (joined by Chief Justice Earl Warren and Justice William Brennan) expressed this view in a concurring opinion in the case of Griswold v. Connecticut (1965):\nThe Framers did not intend that the first eight amendments be", "after the American Library Trustee Association (ALTA) brought a request for this to the ALA Council. Criticism Shirley Wiegand, professor emeritus of law at Marquette University, asserts that the Library Bill of Rights uses rhetoric disconnected from the legal understanding of \"rights.\" \"Bills of Rights\", and \"rights\" themselves, are in this understanding legally enforceable and backed by well-developed arguments. The Library Bill of Rights has no such force or backing, because it is simply a statement of principles. Wiegand argues that the Library Bill of Rights (and the accompanying rhetoric) needs to be supplanted by a code well-grounded in the", "provisions of the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights. Black's dissent Justice Hugo Black, however, strongly opposed the decision and wrote a lengthy dissenting opinion, in which he argued for the incorporation of the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights.\nSpecifically, Black argued that while the Court should not incorporate rights not specifically enumerated in the Bill of Rights, it should \"extend to all the people of the nation the protection of [the specific enumerated rights of] the Bill of Rights.\"\nBlack's dissent, beyond advocating for incorporation, was also a criticism of the Court's use of natural law", "the Warren Court of the 1960s, famous for its concern for the rights of those accused of crimes, brought state standards in line with federal requirements. The following list enumerates, by amendment and individual clause, the Supreme Court cases that have incorporated the rights contained in the Bill of Rights. (The Ninth Amendment is not listed; its wording indicates that it \"is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution.\" The Tenth Amendment is also not listed; by its wording, it is a reservation of powers to" ]

[ "They use really big cams that do not make power until a certain high RPM, its called the power band. \nAt low RPMs the cam isn't working efficiently. Most drag car cam's power band might be from 3000RPMs to 7000Rpms. Drag cars, right before the green light will raise their RPMS to the power band which is where the cam is designed to run", "check out hydroplane boat motors. Their cams are so huge that they actually go back and forth from high-revved to nearly stopped at idle, over and over again. Same thing, smaller engine.\n\nI've heard it called \"lobing\"", "Large overlap and high lift cams. The engine essentially has a massive vacuum leak at idle, which goes away due to flow characteristics, allowing more air in the cylinder and more exhaust out." ]

[ "drilled fuel galleries, four-valve cylinder heads and tappet-actuated injection. This made the engine less than suitable for slow speed stop-start work, even at the de-rated bus setting of 150 bhp at 2100 rpm. It was also a noisy unit in operation, said to sound like a contemporary Formula One racing car. Especially on bus work problems developed with damaged tappets, burnt valves, damaged valves, damaged pistons, damaged blocks, clogged injectors, cylinder block failures, smoke emissions and excessive wear as well as roughness and noise in operation, a tendency to refuse to restart when hot, refusal to start in general and endemic", "passenger car engine, idle speed is customarily between 600 and 1000 rpm. For medium and heavy duty trucks, it is approximately 600 rpm. For many single-cylinder motorcycle engines, idle speed is set between 1200 and 1500 rpm. Two-cylinder motorcycle engines are often set around 1000 rpm.\nIf the engine is operating a large number of accessories, particularly air conditioning, the idle speed must be raised to ensure that the engine generates enough power to run smoothly and operate the accessories. Most air conditioning-equipped engines have an automatic adjustment feature in the carburetor or fuel injection system that raises the idle when", "\"poor breathing\", not least because the exhaust gases interfere with the incoming charge. Because the exhaust follows a lengthy path to leave the engine, there is a tendency for the engine to overheat. Although a sidevalve engine can safely operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates, so that high power outputs are not feasible at speed. High volumetric efficiency was less important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds, but designers seeking higher power outputs had to abandon the sidevalve. A compromise used by the Willys Jeep, Rover, Landrover, and Rolls-Royce in", "cylinders when the engine is running. While most off-road motorcycles have no radiator fan and rely on air flowing over the radiators from the forward motion of the motorcycle, many road motorcycles have a small fan attached to the radiator which is controlled by a thermostat. Some off-road motorcycles are liquid-cooled, and anti-dirt protection is attached to the radiator. The cooling effect of this fan is enough to prevent the engine overheating in most conditions, so liquid-cooled bikes are safe to use in a city, where traffic may frequently be at a standstill.\nEmissions regulations and the market demand for maximum", "friction at higher RPM, this means more fuel is used simply to keep the engine running at this speed. Every cycle of the engine leads to wear, so keeping the engine at higher RPM is also unfavorable for engine life. Additionally, the sound of an engine is strongly related to the RPM, so running at lower RPM is generally quieter.\nIf one runs the same RPM transmission exercise outlined above for maximum speed, but instead sets the \"maximum speed\" to that of highway cruising, the output is a higher gear ratio that provides ideal fuel mileage. In an era when cars", "and pollution. A similar system was used by some early gasoline/kerosene tractor manufacturers (Advance-Rumely/Hart-Parr) – the exhaust gas volume was vented through a cooling tower, allowing the steam exhaust to draw more air past the radiator. Running gear Running gear includes the brake gear, wheel sets, axleboxes, springing and the motion that includes connecting rods and valve gear. The transmission of the power from the pistons to the rails and the behaviour of the locomotive as a vehicle, being able to negotiate curves, points and irregularities in the track, is of paramount importance. Because reciprocating power has to be directly", "the popularity of modern and smooth turbo-charged inline 3 cylinder engines on compact cars. However, the crankshaft with heavy counterweights tend to make it difficult for the engine to be made sporty (i.e. quick revving up and down) because of the strong flywheel effect.\nUnlike in a crossplane V8, the bank of three cylinders have evenly spaced exhaust pulse 240° (120° if two stroke) crank rotational angle apart, so a simple three-into-one exhaust manifold can be used for uniform scavenging of exhaust (needed for uniform intake filling of cylinders, which is important for 11. Uniform amount of torque generated and 12.", "it creates a machine gun like sound loud enough to disturb the peace, including waking people at night. It is very effective, however, and creates immense amounts of braking force which significantly extends friction brake life – a 565 hp (421 kW) diesel engine can produce up to 600 hp (450 kW) of braking power at 2,100 RPM. Exhaust brake An exhaust brake works by causing a restriction in the exhaust, much like the intake throttle causes in a gasoline engine. In simple terms, it works by increasing the back-pressure of the exhaust. Nearly all of these brakes are butterfly valves similar to a", "rpm and that small ports are desirable at low rpm to improve air speed. Due to charge robbing and lower air speeds, large siamesed ports are more suited to high rpm race motors.\nThe heat problem can be minimized by staggering the ports in terms of height and using heat proof wraps and coatings on the exhaust header to the point that it poses a negligible problem. The heat can also be used as an advantage. Advantages In carbureted engines, poorly atomized fuel reduces efficiency and power at lower rpm (at higher rpm the large air speed keeps the mixture", "see Variable-geometry turbocharger#History and examples of use).\nWriter Mick Walker has listed turbo lag along with other challenges like a higher center of gravity and heat transfer to rider due to turbocharger and associated exhaust plumbing. Bennett noted excessive weight and complexity in addition to weak bottom-end performance.\nThe German magazine Motorrad said in 2014 that a turbocharger would probably never be practical on mass market motorcycles due to cost of high-tech materials able to withstand the high temperatures of a variable geometry turbocharger, plus weight and space considerations, though they left the door open for a good supercharged solution. Emissions Emissions", "valves as an extra measure of safety. The heat transfer from the exhaust ports was thus minimized, and the extra volume of the open alcoves that housed the valves also lowered the effective compression ratio of the engine. Detonation was thus eliminated, and the relative inefficiency of the engine design was offset by the dramatic reliability gains achieved and the generally lower speeds of travel and racing common to the era. This superior reliability made the design a favorite racing engine in the earliest days of auto racing, when engine reliability arguably mattered more than maximum performance. As other engine", "used on modified American V8 engines in various racing applications such as drag racing, oval racing, and road racing. These racing-derived systems were not suitable for everyday street use, having no provisions for low speed metering, or often none even for starting (starting required that fuel be squirted into the injector tubes while cranking the engine). However, they were a favorite in the aforementioned competition trials in which essentially wide-open throttle operation was prevalent. Constant-flow injection systems continue to be used at the highest levels of drag racing, where full-throttle, high-RPM performance is key.\nIn 1967, one of the first Japanese", "idea was to prevent the horses from being spooked when it came close to them. Most times horses are very sensitive to mechanical machines and loud noises. Its condensing engines operated without the noise of escaping steam. It covered the mechanics of the rods, linkage, pipes, bolts, rivets, and most of the moving parts.\nThe steam engine locomotive was made to look like an ordinary street car for other reasons as well. The mechanics were covered and boxed up in this manner because the raw engine parts were considered to be too brutish to be on city streets. These steam engine", "it becoming the engine of choice for most economy cars for many years. Its prominent advantage is the lack of rocking vibration, and the lack of need for heavy counterweights makes it easier to be sporty (quick revving up and down). However, it tends to show secondary imbalance at high rpm because two pistons always move together, making the imbalance twice as strong as other configurations without them. Piston speed An even-firing inline-four engine is in primary balance because the pistons are moving in pairs, and one pair of pistons is always moving up at the same time as the", "air vents, effectively shielded the rider. With the improved carburetor and minor internal adjustments, the engine's strengths became apparent: it had enormous torque at all revs, and would pull from idle in top gear. Despite the 10,000 R.P.M. redline, the oversquare bore and short stroke kept the piston speed low, with the result that the engine always sounded relaxed, even at peak revs. The exhaust note has been compared to that of a Ferrari Testarossa (which came out several years later.) With its unique \"hang support\" frame, whereby the engine is suspended beneath the frame for lighter weight, the Vision's", "by several reliability problems, notably with the engines which were found to require excessive maintenance. A series of modifications to the pistons, piston rings and maintenance schedules, and fitting cast iron cylinder heads improved the engine reliability considerably, but a complex V16 for only 800 bhp and a small class size doomed them with a contracting rail network. The layout, with a single cab positioned part-way down the body like a North American road-switcher, gave the crew poor forward visibility in both directions of travel, although this was initially tolerated as it was no worse than the visibility from a steam", "Larger vehicles can create large holes or leave ruts that can easily upset smaller, lighter vehicles, and every vehicle responds in different ways to different track environments. Vehicles like big rigs and mudpluggers get excellent traction in mud, whereas lighter vehicles like dirt bikes and ATVs will slip and slide.\nNitrous boost plays a large part in MotorStorm and is used to either catch up to opponents or pull away from them. Players must keep an eye on their boost meter, which shows how hot the car's engine is. The longer the boost is held, the hotter the engine becomes. If", "running engine is much hotter than room temperature and the temperature in various parts of the system vary widely. This affects the actual flow, fuel effects as well as the dynamic wave effects in the engine which do not exist on the flow bench. Physical and mechanical differences The proximity, shape and movement of the piston as well as the movement of the valve itself significantly alters the flow conditions in a real engine that do not exist in flow bench tests. Exhaust port conditions The flow simulated on a flow bench bears almost no similarity to the flow in", "engine is by no means silent. Exhaust and tappet noise with a continuous if subdued howl of pinions all merge with other unidentifiable sounds but there is no suggestion these noises may not be maintained so long as the driver wishes with unflagging regularity for hour after hour. The seat puts the driver up high and its easy to underestimate road speed. It is one thing to go fast in a straight line but quite another to cover a distance at high average speed. This car has truly amazing roadholding, it is high and narrow yet it passes through roundabouts", "10 seconds. Its fuel consumption, burning a variety of fuels (often kerosene), was competitive with automobiles of the day, and its ability to run in eerie silence apart from wind noise gave it a distinct edge. At 70 mph (110 km/h), there was little noticeable vibration, with the engine turning at around 900 rpm.\nContemporary Doble advertisements mentioned the lightness of the engine, which would lead customers to compare it favorably with heavier gasoline engines, but \"engine\" in a steam car usually refers solely to the expander unit, and does not take into account the complete power plant including boiler and ancillary equipment;", "considered a dirty gas and tar will gum up a motor quickly, possibly leading to stuck valves and rings.\nA new design known as the Keith gasifier improves on the FEMA unit, incorporating extensive heat recovery and eliminating the tar problem. Testing at Auburn University has shown it to be 37% more efficient than running gasoline. This system set the world speed record for biomass powered vehicles and has made several cross country tours.\nThe United Nations produced the FOA 72 document with details about their wood gas generator design and construction, as does World Bank technical paper 296. Safety consideration When", "near the transfer ports but some carbon in the center of the dome.\nWhen tuning two-strokes It is important to operate the engine at the rpm and throttle input that it will most often be operated at. This will typically be wide-open or close to wide-open throttle. Lower RPM and idle can operate rich/lean and sway readings, due to the design of carburetors to operate well at high air-speed through the venturi and sacrifice low air-speed performance.\nWhere multiple carburetors are used the mechanical linkage of their throttles must be properly synchronized for smooth engine running and consistent fuel/air mixtures to", "in drag racing, the automatic transmission allows the car to stop with the engine at a high rpm (the \"stall speed\") to allow for a very quick launch when the brakes are released. In fact, a common modification is to increase the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines, where the turbocharger must be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust to maintain the boost pressure and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the throttle suddenly opens on an idling engine. Semi-automatic A hybrid form of transmission where an", "Motor calling the engine noise a \"raucous cacophony\".\nHarsh shifting is common and increases as the bushings wear (a common trait in mid-engined cars). The rear crossmember is a design flaw; the metal used was too thin and is susceptible to corrosion and eventual failure, although stronger replacement crossmembers are available from aftermarket companies.\nThe S1 Montecarlos and Scorpions suffered from overly boosted brakes, which caused the fronts to lock up easily in the wet. These were often criticised in reviews; for example Road & Track complained of \"severe front locking and 37% fade\" and Motor that they found \"it disconcertingly easy", "required to idle at less than 1000rpm, and excessive valve overlap would make smooth idling impossible because of the mixing of fresh and exhaust gases. Variable valve timing can give both maximum power at high rpm and smooth idling at low rpm by making small changes to the relative angular position of the camshafts and thereby varying the valve overlap. Ported engines Many two-stroke cycle and all wankel engines do not have a camshaft or valves, and the port timing can only be varied by machining the ports, and/or modifying the piston skirt (two stroke applications). However, some supercharged two-stroke", "which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used. \nMultiple cylinder engines have their valve train and crankshaft configured so that pistons are at different parts of their cycle. It is desirable to have the piston's cycles uniformly spaced (this is called even firing) especially in forced induction engines; this reduces torque pulsations and makes inline engines with more than 3 cylinders statically balanced in its primary forces. However, some engine configurations require odd firing to achieve better balance than what is possible with even firing. For instance, a", "are equipped with a governor (often centrifugal/mechanical or air vane style) to open the throttle as needed to maintain the pre-selected speed when the force needed to cut the thicker or taller grass is encountered. Gasoline mowers have the advantages over electric mowers of greater power and distance range. They do create a significant amount of pollution due to the combustion in the engine, and their engines require periodic maintenance such as cleaning or replacement of the spark plug and air filter, and changing the engine oil. Electricity Electric mowers are further subdivided into corded and cordless electric models. Both", "appliances such as water and oil pumps and the electrical generator, leaving only about 20-35% of the energy released by the fuel consumed available to move the vehicle.\nAt idle, the thermal efficiency is low, since the only usable work being drawn off the engine is from the generator. At low speeds, gasoline engines suffer efficiency losses at small throttle openings from the high turbulence and frictional (head) loss when the incoming air must fight its way around the nearly closed throttle; diesel engines do not suffer this loss because the incoming air is not throttled. At high speeds, efficiency in", "give trouble from wear and slop in the chain without frequent maintenance.\nEarly sidevalve engines were in use at a time of simple fuel chemistry, low octane ratings and so required low compression ratios. This made their combustion chamber design less critical and there was less need to design their ports and airflow carefully. \nOne difficulty experienced at this time was that the low compression ratio also implied a low expansion ratio during the power stroke. Exhaust gases were thus still hot, hotter than a contemporary engine, and this led to frequent trouble with burnt exhaust valves.\nA major improvement to the", "engine and turbocharger to keep the exhaust gases as hot as possible.\nThe temperature of the cooling air may range from well below freezing to 50 °C. Further, while engines in long-haul boat or rail service may operate at a steady load, road vehicles often see widely varying and quickly varying load. Thus, the cooling system is designed to vary cooling so the engine is neither too hot nor too cold. Cooling system regulation includes adjustable baffles in the air flow (sometimes called 'shutters' and commonly run by a pneumatic 'shutterstat); a fan which operates either independently of the engine, such as" ]

[ "No, it's the inverse square of the distance. [link](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "related to frequency and wavelength of a wave by .\nThis is different from the particle velocity , which refers to the motion of molecules in the medium due to the sound, and relates the plane wave pressure to the fluid density and sound speed by .\nThe product of and from the above formula is known as the characteristic acoustic impedance. The acoustic power (energy per second) crossing unit area is known as the intensity of the wave and for a plane wave the average intensity is given by , where is the", "heard the gunshot with a half-second pendulum. Measurements were made of gunshots from a number of local landmarks, including North Ockendon church. The distance was known by triangulation, and thus the speed that the sound had travelled was calculated. Basic concepts The transmission of sound can be illustrated by using a model consisting of an array of spherical objects interconnected by springs.\nIn real material terms, the spheres represent the material's molecules and the springs represent the bonds between them. Sound passes through the system by compressing and expanding the springs, transmitting the acoustic energy to neighboring spheres. This helps transmit", "better characteristic dimension would have been the boundary layer thickness, but fortunately the two dimensions were almost the same. The measured sound field was clearly dipole-like (modified slightly by the plate presence).\nThe lower figure on the right shows a number of turbulent sound spectra measured at various speeds. The frequencies were Strouhal number scaled with U, and the sound levels were scaled with the dipole sound power rule of U⁶ over a speed range of 3 to 1. The data fit was quite good, confirming dynamic similarity and the dipole model. The slight discrepancy in level and frequency overlap suggests", "in the median plane – that is, to determine whether a sound comes from a source at the same elevation as the ears or from a source that is higher or lower, or even in back of the head. Binaural sound cues, including the phasing or time of the sound's arrival at each ear and the sound's relative intensity at the two ears (known respectively as ITD and ILD) enable a listener to determine a sound's lateral location (whether it is on the left, right, or straight ahead). But two sounds at different elevations can present identical ITD and ILD", "travels about 4.5 times faster in water than in air, and at a similarly higher speed in body tissues, and therefore the interval between a sound reaching the left and right inner ears is much smaller than in air, and the brain is less able to discriminate the interval which is how direction of a sound source is identified. Some sound localisation is possible, though difficult.\nThis bypassing of the middle ear also affects the frequency sensitivity of the ear. Sound is also reflected in proportion to the change of density or elasticity (mismatch of acoustic impedance) when passing through", "speed of sound. This action may be called intermediate-field, quasi-compressible feedback. A well known example is the hole tone (described below), where the feedback distance of a compressible (sound) wave is very small as compared to the wavelength of the sound. Class III The feedback is compressible and depends on the speed of sound. This may be called far-field or acoustic feedback. The feedback distance of a compressible wave can be an appreciable fraction of the wavelength of the sound. An example is the flute.\nThe figure on the right shows a block diagram of these feedback mechanisms. All aerodynamic whistles", "2003, ISO 226 was revised as equal-loudness contour using data collected from 12 international studies. Sound localization Sound localization is the process of determining the location of a sound source. The brain utilizes subtle differences in loudness, tone and timing between the two ears to allow us to localize sound sources. Localization can be described in terms of three-dimensional position: the azimuth or horizontal angle, the zenith or vertical angle, and the distance (for static sounds) or velocity (for moving sounds). Humans, as most four-legged animals, are adept at detecting direction in the horizontal, but less so in the vertical", "been termed tonotopy.\nThe tonotopic layout of sound information begins in the cochlea where the basilar membrane vibrates at different positions along its length depending upon the frequency of the sound. Higher frequency sounds are at the base of the cochlea, if it were unrolled, and low frequency sounds are at the apex. This arrangement is also found in the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. In areas that are tonotopically organized, the frequency varies systematically from low to high along the surface of the cortex, but is relatively constant across cortical depth. The general image of topographic", "horizontal axis displays the time scale over which sounds were recorded. In addition, spectrograms display the amplitude of sound, a measure of sound intensity. Ecological indices traditionally used with species-level data, such as diversity and evenness, have been adapted for use with acoustic metrics. These measures provide a method of comparing soundscapes across time or space. For example, automated recording devices have been used to gather acoustic data in different landscapes across yearlong time scales, and diversity metrics were employed to evaluate daily and seasonal fluctuations in soundscapes across sites. The demise of a habitat can be seen by measuring", "of sound. In biological settings, almost all tissues have a speed of sound in the range of 1550 to 1600 meters per second, which is satisfactorily uniform to give accurate measurements to within 3% to 4%, and more typically to within 1%.\nA sonomicrometer device measures distance by performing a timing measurement of the sound transmitted by one crystal and received by one (or more) adjacent crystals. The ability to resolve small differences in this transit-time (or \"time-of-flight\") directly correlates with the ability to resolve small changes in the distances between crystals. The first generation of sonomicrometer devices", "following another at a fixed time interval.  The period between samples is measured in millionths of a second (microseconds).\n8. Subsample Fluctuations on a time scale too brief to be properly recorded or perceived, measured in billionths of a second (nanoseconds) or less.\n\n9. InfinitesimalThe ideal time span of mathematical durations such as the infinitely brief delta functions.\nRoads therefore places the sound object in a seemingly all encompassing temporal frame, whereby it may be considered one of nine scales of time.\nEnglish composer Trevor Wishart derives his own version of the sound object from Schaeffer's but unlike Schaeffer, Wishart favours a materialist or", "thirty-two moments—nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 16—are restricted entirely to electronic sounds (Kohl 2002, 97). The pitch range is deliberately kept rather high, between 6 and 12 kHz, so that the intermodulation can occasionally project sounds downwards, sections \"that seem to be so far away because the ear cannot analyse it, so that it entered the normal audible range and suddenly became understandable\". In this way, register becomes a means of bringing the “distant” close up (Greek tele, \"afar, far off\", as in \"telephone\" or \"television\") the concept from which the title of the work is derived (Stockhausen", "a listener to determine the elevation of a sound source. It is not necessary that the listener actively make the head movements; a subsequent paper demonstrated that sounds could be correctly located in the median plane when the observer is passively rotated or when a false sense of bodily rotation is induced by means of visual cues.\nIn 1949 Wallach, in collaboration with Edwin B. Newman and Mark Rosenzweig, published a seminal paper defining the precedence effect in sound localization. Their experiments demonstrated that when a localizable sound reaches the ears and is immediately followed by an identical sound coming", "of half an octave, and from each of these a sequence is filtered using an amplitude selector. The output is randomly determined by whichever sounds happen to emerge above the filter’s threshold. These sequences, which already fluctuate in frequency around average values, are then made to centre on nine different pitch levels. On each one, a directed motion of change in density is imposed in which the direction is not linear, but rather travels in a spiral fashion. An acceleration machine is then used to give each sequence a rising or falling pitch tendency, within which the motion is not", "depending on the type of sound. The measured curves for pure tones, for instance, are different from those for random noise. The ear also responds less well to short bursts, below 100 to 200 ms, than to continuous sounds such that a quasi-peak detector has been found to give the most representative results when noise contains click or bursts, as is often the case for noise in digital systems. For these reasons, a set of subjectively valid measurement techniques have been devised and incorporated into BS, IEC, EBU and ITU standards. These methods of audio quality measurement are used by", "of a sound is onset, and the interonset interval or IOI is the time between the beginnings or attack points of successive events or notes, the interval between onsets, not including the duration of the events. A variant of this term is interval of onset.\nFor example, two sixteenth notes separated by dotted eighth rest, would have the same interonset interval as between a quarter note and a sixteenth note:\nThe concept is often useful for considering rhythms and meters. Time-point sets In serial music a time-point set, proposed in 1962 by Milton Babbitt, is a temporal order of pitches in a", "complicated. In case of a perfect fully developed real velocity profile of Ultrasonic meter which is shown in Fig.(7) indicating a possible sound path as a result of an installation in a real flow. \nHere a mathematical derivation for this Ultrasonic meter is also becomes very complicated. Developing a robust flow algorithm to calculate the mean flow velocity for the sound path can be quite complicated. Now add to this; sound path reflection from the pipe wall, multipaths to add degrees of freedom, swirl and departure from axisymmetric fully developed flow profile and the problem of integrating the actual velocity", "ms. The corresponding train of impulses would contain gaps of 10 ms, 20 ms, 30 ms, 40 ms, etc. Such a group of gaps can only be generated by a 100 Hz tone. The set of gaps for a sound above the maximum neural firing rate would be similar except it would be missing some of the initial gaps, however it would still uniquely correspond to the frequency. The pitch of a pure tone could then be seen as corresponding to the difference between adjacent gaps. Another solution Modern research suggests that the perception of pitch depends on both the places", "helps us distinguish between musical instruments playing the same notes. When hearing multiple sounds, the timbre of each sound will be unchanging (regardless of pitch), and thus we can differentiate between sounds from different sources over time. Similarity of pitch Pitch refers to the frequency of the sound wave reaching us. Although a single object could produce a variety of pitches over time, it is more likely that it would produce sounds in a similar range. Erratic changes in pitch are more likely to be perceived as originating from different sources. Auditory continuity Similar to the Gestalt principle of good", "the newly doubled cube. Harmonic Theory Archytas developed an impactful physical theory for pitch when a string instrument is strum. His theory was that the pitch of the ensuing sound depends on the speed of the wave moving through its medium (usually air). Although incorrect, as pitch is correlated with frequency rather than wave velocity, Archytas' theory was the first of its kind that was both adopted and adapted by Plato and later Aristotle. By the time of his analysis, it was known from the Pythagorean diatonic scale that whole numbers alone accounted for musical intervals on a scale. ", "time difference of arrival (TDOA) technique.\nSome have termed acoustic source localization an \"inverse problem\" in that the measured sound field is translated to the position of the sound source. Methods Different methods for obtaining either source direction or source location are possible. Particle velocity or intensity vector The simplest but still a relatively new method is to measure the acoustic particle velocity using a particle velocity probe. The particle velocity is a vector and thus also contains directional information. Triangulation In trigonometry and geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it", "proportional. Every time the pitch goes up one octave, the frequency doubles. Because there are 12 notes in a chromatic scale or a full octave, every half-step in a chromatic scale is multiplied by the 12th root of 2 to get the note next to it. By this, it is possible to calculate the length of any pipe, given that one knows the length of any one pipe. The formula for calculating the length of a pan flute pipe is L = (c / f) / 4 (the \"theoretical length\" L equals the speed of sound c = 343 m/s, divided by the desired frequency", "the relation between number and sound, secondly in the relation of one sound to another and finally—based on the first two categories—in the determination of properties, emotions and modulations.", "the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and is the speed of sound.\nWith wide-beam illumination transit time ultrasound can also be used to measure volume flow independent of the cross-sectional area of the vessel or tube.\nUltrasonic Doppler flowmeters measure the Doppler shift resulting from reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the particulates in flowing fluid. The frequency of the transmitted beam is affected by the movement of the particles; this frequency shift can be used to calculate the fluid velocity. For the Doppler principle to work, there must be a high enough density of sonically reflective materials", "more sensitive in a certain direction. This however is still no solution for the sound localization problem as one tries to determine either an exact direction, or a point of origin. Besides considering microphones that measure sound pressure, it is also possible to use a particle velocity probe to measure the acoustic particle velocity directly. The particle velocity is another quantity related to acoustic waves however, unlike sound pressure, particle velocity is a vector. By measuring particle velocity one obtains a source direction directly. Other more complicated methods using multiple sensors are also possible. Many of these methods use the", "his final estimate of the speed of sound. Modern stopwatches enable this method to be used today over distances as short as 200–400 metres, and not needing something as loud as a shotgun. Other methods In these methods, the time measurement has been replaced by a measurement of the inverse of time (frequency).\nKundt's tube is an example of an experiment which can be used to measure the speed of sound in a small volume. It has the advantage of being able to measure the speed of sound in any gas. This method uses a powder to make the nodes and", "perception. Durations and amplitudes are inversely proportional to the distance from this central reference, so the sounds become both shorter and softer as they approach the upper and lower limits of pitch audibility (Stockhausen 1992, 102). \nSets of six values determine the entire work. Pitches are drawn from a series of intervals: a falling minor tenth, rising major third, falling minor sixth, rising minor tenth, and falling major third. Expressed as justly intoned numeric ratios, these are 12/5, 4/5, 8/5, 5/12, and 5/4. Starting from 1920 Hz, near the upper threshold of pitch audibility, thirty-six series of six pitches each are", "is a description of the general shape of the sound wave. Waveforms are sometimes described by the sum of sinusoids, via Fourier analysis. Amplitude Amplitude is the size of the pressure variations in a sound wave, and primarily determines the loudness with which the sound is perceived. In a sinusoidal function such as , C represents the amplitude of the sound wave. Frequency and wavelength The frequency of a sound is defined as the number of repetitions of its waveform per second, and is measured in hertz; frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength (in a medium of uniform propagation", "level that drops as the inverse of the distance squared, for those familiar with the inverse square law), the amplitude of the sound will be slightly less at the rear of the diaphragm as compared to the front of the diaphragm. Since the pressure difference due to the amplitude component is dependent only on the amplitude differential with respect to the two sides of the diaphragm, it is independent of frequency, per se.\nThe properties of the amplitude component that are applicable to the proximity effect are that the contribution to the pressure difference is small and independent of frequency.", "source, diminishing the intensity of the sound in that ear (particularly at higher frequencies). The pinnae filters the sound in a way that is directionally dependent. This is particularly useful in determining if a sound comes from above, below, in front, or behind.\nInteraural time and level differences (ITD, ILD) play a role in azimuth perception but can’t explain vertical localization.\nAccording to the duplex theory, ITDs have a greater contribution to the localisation of low frequency sounds (below 1 kHz),while ILDs are used in the localisation of high frequency sound.\nThe ILD arises from the fact that,a sound coming from a source located" ]

[ "DVD-R and DVD+R are two DVD formats. This means that the way the data is stored on the discs themselves is slightly different. From a user's perspective they both function the same and have almost the same capacity (-R has 7MB more).\n\nDVD-R came first and is the \"old\" format. DVD+R is newer and has some advantages. For example its format is more resilient to errors (can handle more scratches).\n\nDVD-R can be read by any DVD player, new or old. However DVD+R can only be read by more recent DVD players.\n\nCDs come in only one format.", "It's a difference in recording format, stuff to do with track lengths, sector lengths and down to the 1s and 0s kinda stuff. Both DVD-R and DVD+R are write once, and both can be read by most players. If you get a W on the end this means it is rewritable. There is no such thing as a CD+R.", "* CD: holds 720MB of data, or 1 hour of audio CD music (not MP3s)\n* DVD: holds 4GB of data, or 1 hour DVD movie \n* -R older format (more compatible with older drives and players)\n* +R newer format, gaining popularity", "Do the plus and minus represent anything physically and what format is CD±RW then? & #3232;\\_ & #3232;" ]

[ "DVDs used to be indicated as WS.DVDRip.\nDVDMux differs from DVDRips as they tend to use the x264 codec for video, AAC or AC3 codec for audio and multiplex it on a .mp4/.mkv file. DVD-R DVD-R refers to a final retail version of a film in DVD format, generally a complete copy from the original DVD. If the original DVD is released in the DVD-9 format, however, extras might be removed and/or the video reencoded to make the image fit the less expensive for burning and quicker to download DVD-5 format. DVD-R releases often accompany DVD-Rips. DVD-R rips are larger in", "DVD±R DVD±R (also DVD+/-R, or \"DVD plus/dash R\") is not a separate DVD format, but rather is a shorthand term for a DVD drive that can accept both of the common recordable DVD formats (i.e. DVD-R and DVD+R). Likewise, DVD±RW (also written as DVD±R/W, DVD±R/RW, DVD±R/±RW, DVD+/-RW, and other arbitrary ways) handles both common rewritable disc types (i.e. DVD-RW and DVD+RW, but not usually DVD-RAM).", "The DVD-R format was developed by Pioneer in 1997. It is supported by most normal DVD players and is approved by the DVD Forum. It has broader playback compatibility than the “+” especially with much older players. The dash format uses a “land pre-pit” method  to provide ‘sector’ address information.\nDVD “minus” R is not correct, according to DVD-R consortium recommendations; it is, in fact, a dash (i.e. DVD “dash” R). DVD-R and DVD+R technologies are not directly compatible, which created a format war in the DVD technology industry. To reconcile the two competing formats, manufacturers created hybrid drives that could", "R5 refers to DVD Region 5. In an effort to compete with copyright infringement in these areas, the movie industry chose to create a new format for DVD releases that could be produced more quickly and less expensively than traditional DVD releases. R5 releases differ from normal releases in that they often lack both the image post-processing and special features that are common on DVD releases. This allows the film to be released for sale at the same time that DVD screeners are released. Since these screeners are the chief source of high-quality pre-DVD release unauthorized film copies (in comparison", "it, a basic DVD disc—known as DVD-5 in the DVD Books, while called Type A in the ISO standard—contains a single data layer readable from only one side. However, the DVD format also includes specifications for three types of discs with additional recorded layers, expanding disc data capacity beyond the 4.7 GB of DVD-5 while maintaining the same physical disc size. Double-sided discs Borrowing from the LaserDisc format, the DVD standard includes DVD-10 discs (Type B in ISO) with two recorded data layers such that only one layer is accessible from either side of the disc. This doubles the total", "each case are different as they are optimized for different wavelengths. R and RW formats \"R\" format DVDs can be written once and read arbitrarily many times. Thus, \"R\" format discs are only suited to non-volatile data storage, such as audio, or video. This can cause confusion because the 'DVD+RW Alliance' logo is a stylized 'RW'. Thus, many discs have the RW logo, but are not rewritable.\nAccording to Pioneer, DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement. RW discs are used to store volatile data, such as when creating backups or collections of files which are", "DVD Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary comments that, \"In 1995 rival manufacturers of the product initially named digital video disc agreed that, in order to emphasize the flexibility of the format for multimedia applications, the preferred abbreviation DVD would be understood to denote digital versatile disc.\" The OED also states that in 1995, \"The companies said the official name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disc’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disc’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications.\"\n\"Digital versatile disc\" is the explanation provided in", "DVD+R DL Dual-layer recording Dual-layer recording allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store significantly more data, up to 8.5 gigabytes per disc, compared with 4.7 gigabytes for single-layer discs. DVD-R DL was developed for the DVD Forum by Pioneer Corporation, while DVD+R DL was developed for the DVD+RW Alliance by Philips and Mitsubishi Kagaku Media (MKM).\nA dual-layer disc differs from its usual DVD counterpart by employing a second physical layer within the disc itself. The drive with dual-layer capability accesses the second layer by shining the laser through the first semi-transparent layer. The layer change can exhibit a noticeable pause", "DVD+RWs, on the other hand, store data in one long spiral track and require special packet reading/writing software to read and write data discs. Like magneto-optical (MO) technologies, DVD-RAM has numerous rectangles on the disc surface that define the boundaries of data sectors. However, DVD-RAM is not MO but a phase transition medium, similar to CD-RW, DVD-RW, or DVD+RW. Compatibility Many operating systems like the classic Mac OS (from Mac OS 8.6 up), macOS, Linux, and Microsoft Windows XP can use DVD-RAM directly, while earlier versions of Windows require separate device drivers or the program InCD.\nWindows XP Home and Professional", "Comparison of popular optical data-storage systems Coverage DVD has three variants, known as \"+\", \"-\" and \"RAM\". For the purposes of this article, DVD+ and DVD- are considered together as \"DVD\"; they share many of the same characteristics. Differences are noted below.\nDVD-RAM, which did not gain wide penetration of the consumer market, is discussed briefly in the same section but otherwise excluded from the article.\nROM formats are excluded; they perform rather like write-once \"R\" formats, without the capacity to write to the disc. Likewise other niche formats are excluded, such as GD-ROM (used by some Sega game consoles) and Ultra", "DVD-R DL Dual layer recording Dual Layer recording allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store significantly more data, up to 8.5 GB, per disc, compared with 4.7 GB for single-layer discs. DVD-R DL was developed for the DVD Forum by Pioneer Corporation, DVD+R DL (formally known as Double Layer) was developed for the DVD+RW Alliance by Philips and Mitsubishi Kagaku Media (MKM).\nA Dual Layer disc differs from its usual DVD counterpart by employing a second physical layer within the disc itself. The drive with Dual Layer capability accesses the second layer by shining the laser through the first semi-transparent layer.", "genres. DVD-R Disc At Once Disc-At-Once (DAO) recording for DVD-R media is a mode in which all data is written sequentially to the disc in one uninterrupted recording session. The on-disk contents result in a lead-in area, followed by the data, and closed by a lead-out area. The data is addressable in sectors of 2048 bytes each, with the first sector address being zero. There are no run-out blocks as in DVD-R disc-at-once. Session At Once Session-At-Once (SAO) recording allows multiple sessions to be recorded and finalized on a single disc. The resulting disc can be read by computer drives,", "DVD+R format was not an official DVD format until January 25, 2008.\nOn 25 January 2008, DVD6C officially accepted DVD+R and DVD+RW by adding them to its list of licensable DVD products.\nDVD+RW supports a method of writing called \"lossless linking\", which makes it suitable for random access and improves compatibility with DVD players. The rewritable DVD+RW standard was formalized earlier than the non-rewritable DVD+R (the opposite was true with the DVD- formats). Although credit for developing the standard is often attributed to Philips, it was \"finalized\" in 1997 by the DVD+RW Alliance. It was then abandoned until 2001, when it", "however: DVD-R predominating for stand-alone DVD recorders and players, and (for computers) most DVD devices being engineered as dual format, to be compatible with both. As of 2007 DVD is the de facto standard for pre-recorded movies, and popular storage of data beyond the capacity of CD.\nWith the development of high definition television, and the popularization of broadband and digital storage of movies, a further format development took place, again giving rise to two camps: HD DVD and Blu-ray, based upon a switch from red to blue-violet laser and tighter engineering tolerances. As of 2007 both have significant releases in", "CD. There is also a hybrid HD DVD format which contains both DVD and HD DVD versions of the same movie on a single disc, providing a smooth transition for the studios in terms of publishing movies, and allowing consumers with only DVD players to still use the discs. DVD replication companies can continue using their current production equipment with only minor alterations when changing over to the format of HD DVD replication. Due to the structure of the single-lens optical head, both red and blue laser diodes can be used in smaller, more compact HD DVD players. General purpose", "and public lending of DVD copies of their work. DVD-Audio DVD-Audio is a format for delivering high fidelity audio content on a DVD. It offers many channel configuration options (from mono to 5.1 surround sound) at various sampling frequencies (up to 24-bits/192 kHz versus CDDA's 16-bits/44.1 kHz). Compared with the CD format, the much higher-capacity DVD format enables the inclusion of considerably more music (with respect to total running time and quantity of songs) or far higher audio quality (reflected by higher sampling rates, greater sample resolution and additional channels for spatial sound reproduction).\nDVD-Audio briefly formed a niche market, probably due to", "DVD formats Recordable format compatibility DVD drives from 2004 onward should be able to read either of the competing recordable formats; older drives may read DVD+R discs better. As of 2007, DVD drives typically allow writing to both DVD-R[W] and DVD+R[W] discs, making the difference largely irrelevant to the average consumer. Application formats VR Mode, also known as Video Recording mode, is a new format that allows editing and deleting of titles and has defect management. This mode is used by the DVD-RAM and DVD-RW formats. Because it is newer than DVD Video mode, it can only be played", "rewritable HP initially developed recordable DVD media from the need to store data for backup and transport. DVD recordables are now also used for consumer audio and video recording. Three formats were developed: DVD-R/RW, DVD+R/RW (plus), and DVD-RAM. DVD-R is available in two formats, General (650 nm) and Authoring (635 nm), where Authoring discs may be recorded with CSS encrypted video content but General discs may not.\nAlthough most current DVD writers can write in both the DVD+R/RW and DVD-R/RW formats (usually denoted by \"DVD±RW\" or the existence of both the DVD Forum logo and the DVD+RW Alliance logo), the \"plus\" and", "recording medium in order to duplicate the effects of the pits and lands created when a commercial optical disc is pressed.\nFormats such as CD-R and DVD-R are \"Write once read many\", while CD-RW and DVD-RW are rewritable, more like a magnetic recording hard disk drive (HDD).\nMedia technologies vary, M-DISC uses a different recording technique & media versus DVD-R and BD-R.", "than one format; e.g., DVD±R(W) (DVD plus-dash recordable and rewritable) is used to refer to drives that can write/rewrite both plus and dash formats, but not necessarily DVD-RAM. Drives marked, \"DVD Multi Recorder\" support DVD±R(W) and DVD-RAM. Sizes DVD recordable media are sold in two standard sizes, a regular 12 cm size for home recording and computer usage, and a small 8 cm size (sometimes known as a miniDVD) for use in compact camcorders. The smaller Mini DVD-RW, for example, holds 1.46 GB. Longevity According to a study published in 2008 by the Preservation Research and Testing Division of the U.S.", "discs (DVD-10, DVD-14 or DVD-18). Some labels have released two-sided DVD titles that contain DVD-Audio content on one side and DVD-Video content on the other, the Classic Records HDAD being one such example.\nUnofficial playback of DVD-Audio on a PC is possible through freeware audio player foobar2000 for Windows using an open source plug-in extension called DVDADecoder. VLC media player has DVD-Audio support Cyberlink's PowerDVD Version 8 provides an official method of playing DVD-Audio discs. This feature was dropped from version 9 onwards. Creative also provide a dedicated DVD-Audio player with some of its Soundblaster Audigy and X-Fi cards. Sound quality", "read both — most hybrid drives that handle both formats are labeled DVD±R and Super Multi (which includes DVD-RAM support) and are very popular. DVD+R and DVD+RW (DVD “plus”) Developed by Philips and Sony with their DVD+RW Alliance. The \"plus\" format uses a more reliable bi-phase modulation technique to provide 'sector' address information. It was introduced after the \"-\" format.\nThe DVD+R format was developed by a coalition of corporations—now known as the DVD+RW Alliance—in mid-2002 (though most of the initial advocacy was from Sony). The DVD Forum initially did not approve of the DVD+R format and claimed that the", "5D DVD Advantages over current discs 5D DVDs use a writing system that uses extremely tiny particles on which data is written, with multiple layers that are read by three different colors of laser (rather than only one, as is the case with DVDs and Blu-ray discs). According to the developers, this could result in discs with a capacity of 10 terabytes, approximately 2000 times the capacity of a standard DVD, compared to Holographic Versatile Disc technology, which has an estimated maximum disc capacity of 6 terabytes. The similarity of disc writing would also make it easier to make 5D", "nominal capacity of a DVD-10 disc to 9.4 GB, but each side is locked to 4.7 GB. Like DVD-5 discs, DVD-10 discs are defined as single-layer (SL) discs.\nDouble-sided discs identify the sides as A and B. The disc structure lacks the dummy layer where identifying labels are printed on single-sided discs, so information such as title and side are printed on one or both sides of the non-data clamping zone at the center of the disc.\nDVD-10 discs fell out of favor because, unlike dual-layer discs, they require users to manually flip them to access the complete content (a relatively egregious", "the de facto standard for audio recordings, although its place for other multimedia recordings and optical data storage has largely been superseded by DVD.\nDVD (initially an acronym of \"Digital Video Disc\", then backronymed as \"Digital Versatile Disc\" and officially just \"DVD\") was the mass market successor to CD. DVD was rolled out in 1996, again initially for video and audio. DVD recordable formats developed some time later: DRD- in late 1997 and DVD+ in 2002. Although DVD was initially intended to prevent a format war in fact one did arise between these two formats. It was resolved with both surviving", "Silverline Records, OgreOgress productions, Tacet and Teldec) have released or are continuing to release albums on DVD-Audio, but the number is minimal compared to standard CDs. New high-definition titles have been released in standard DVD-Video format (which can contain two-channel Linear PCM audio data ranging from 48 kHz/16-bit to 96 kHz/24-bit), \"HDAD\", which includes a DVD-Video format recording on one side and DVD-Audio on the other, CD/DVD packages, which can include the album on both CD and DVD-Audio, or DualDisc, which can contain DVD-Audio content on the DVD side. In addition, some titles that had been initially released as a standalone DVD-Audio", "DVD-RAM for random access on optical media using phase-change principals. It would hold 20 gigabytes per layer instead of 15 gigabytes for HD DVD-R, due to differences in recording methods used, yielding a higher density disc. DVD / HD DVD hybrid discs There are two types of hybrid formats which contain standard DVD-Video format video for playback in regular DVD players, and HD DVD video for playback in high definition on HD DVD players. The Combo disc is a dual sided disc with one side DVD and the other HD DVD, each of which can have up to two layers.", "Regional lockout Disc regions The DVD, Blu-ray Disc, and UMD media formats all support the use of region coding; DVDs use eight region codes (Region 7 is reserved for future use; Region 8 is used for \"international venues\", such as airplanes and cruise ships), and Blu-ray Discs use three region codes corresponding to different areas of the world. Currently, most Blu-ray discs have been released region-free.\nOn computers, the DVD region can usually be changed five times. Windows uses three region counters: its own one, the one of the DVD drive, and the one of the player software (occasionally, the player", "discs.\nDVD recordable discs supporting this technology are backward compatible with some existing DVD players and DVD-ROM drives. Many current DVD recorders support dual-layer technology, and the price is now comparable to that of single-layer drives, though the blank media remains more expensive. The recording speeds reached by dual-layer media are still well below those of single-layer media.\nThere are two modes for dual layer orientation. With parallel track path (PTP), used on DVD-ROM, both layers start at the inside diameter (ID) and end at the outside diameter (OD) with the lead-out. With Opposite Track Path (OTP), used on DVD-Video, the lower", "DTS 96/24 5.1-channel, audio track.\nSince the DVD-Audio format is a member of the DVD family, a single disc can have multiple layers, and even two sides that contain audio and video material. A common configuration is a single-sided DVD with content in both the DVD-Video (VIDEO_TS) and DVD-Audio (AUDIO_TS) directories. The high-resolution, Packed PCM audio encoded using MLP is only playable by DVD players containing DVD-Audio decoding capability. DVD-Video content, which can include LPCM, Dolby or DTS material, and even video, makes the disc compatible with all DVD players. Other disc configurations may consist of double layer DVDs (DVD-9) or two-sided" ]

[ "There's something called the \"Jet Stream\" which controls much of the weather we see on the ground. In early spring it starts shifting north, which leads to storms being pulled behind it landing in various places like the UK or northern North America. I'm not sure if it's actually more than other months in most of the US though.\n\nBasically weather moves in a pattern and april is a point where storms are being sent from the ocean over land more than many other times, so we get more rain." ]

[ "Baby Shower Plot Dwight (Rainn Wilson) acts out the process of birth with a watermelon, as Michael (Steve Carell) wants to be prepared for Jan's (Melora Hardin) baby.\nThe Party Planning Committee is planning Jan's baby shower, and collects money for a present, to which many employees are reluctant to donate. Angela (Angela Kinsey) makes a \"guess whose baby picture\" game for the shower, and she is angered when Andy (Ed Helms) unintentionally makes fun of her picture. \nJim (John Krasinski) and Pam (Jenna Fischer) feel awkward trying to communicate with each other throughout the day, with Pam telling the documentary", "Bridal shower A bridal shower is a gift-giving party held for a bride-to-be in anticipation of her wedding.\nThe history of the custom is rooted not necessarily for the provision of goods for the upcoming matrimonial home, but to provide goods and financial assistance to ensure the wedding may take place. History The custom of the bridal shower is said to have grown out of earlier dowry practices, when a poor woman's family might not have the money to provide a dowry for her, or when a father refused to give his daughter her dowry because he did not approve of", "in the shower due to her breakup with Logan. The Dean unexpectedly reinstates the Greek system, to the delight of Dick (Ryan Hansen). The Dean and Veronica spot a classified ad that states that a mysterious person will find his next victim at a party. After receiving an A on her paper, she visits Tim Foyle (James Jordan) and sees an investigation board. Veronica enlists Wallace (Percy Daggs III), Piz, and Mac for help in investigating an upcoming Pi Sig party.\nAt the party, Veronica notices that the \"rape coasters\" which test for date rape drugs do not actually work. Veronica,", "the shower, she goes to her brother's room only to find Raleigh was not sleeping but had committed suicide by overdosing on his medication, causing her to cry out in anguish. Production The film's shooting began in July 2011. It was filmed on location in Pasadena, Woodland Hills, and Los Angeles, CA. Reception Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 59% of 22 surveyed critics gave it a positive review; the average rating is 5.17/10. The consensus reads \"Though restrained by most torture porn standards, Would You Rather's brilliant premise is ultimately harmed by its tendency towards blood and", "the shower curtain with a knife, he opens the curtain to the shower, with the girl proceeding to scream, mimicking the famous shower scene from the movie Psycho. It is then shown that it is just one of the jocks with a banana, playing a prank on the girl. Wes and the jock (played by Doug Ardito) laugh, and throw a banana peel into the shower. The girl does not see it, and slips on it, banging her head against the wall and killing her in the process. The group seeing this, flees the room, except for one who is", "Shower Posse Name There are differing reports on the origin of the name. One theory is that it comes from the promises of its associated politicians to shower supporters with gifts. Another view is that it is a reference to the gang showering opponents with bullets. A third theory is that the gang got its name from the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) election slogan 'Shower', which was a response to the PNP's 'Power' that was coined from Manley's 'Power for the people' slogan in the 1970s. 2010 Kingston conflict In 2009 the United States began to demand that Christopher Coke,", "A similar method of exeat notifications is used in many Commonwealth schools. It is common for Australian schools to call the long weekends of leave enjoyed by boarders an exeat weekend. This results in the boarding house closing for the weekend. This typically involves an extra day of leave associated with a public holiday to create a long weekend. \nIn New Zealand or South Africa, an exeat may refer to a period of day leave from a school. This is used as a way to record the coming and going of students from the campus.", "school known as \"Beach Week\". Judge defined \"Beach Week\" at Georgetown Preparatory School as a \"week-long bacchanalia of drinking and sex, or at least attempts at sex\". The author discusses a phrase, \"100 Kegs Or Bust\", in relation to excessive alcohol drinking during his times at Georgetown Preparartory School. Judge remembers a student he refers to as Bart O'Kavanaugh who passed out and threw up in a car. The author recounts going to drink alcohol with his friends at bars for many evenings in a row. He presents in-depth memories of orgies and attempts to have sex fueled with", "Summer's Eve Summer's Eve is a brand of feminine hygiene products produced by the C.B. Fleet Company, a subsidiary of Prestige Brands. Controversial ads A Summer's Eve ad in the August 2010 issue of Woman's Day featured eight steps a woman should take before asking for a raise, the first being to use their product to douche. The New York Times questioned the ad, resulting in the company apologizing for it and stating they would not run it again. A 2011 TV ad caused controversy over the use of racial stereotypes; this ad featured different-colored hands mimicking talking vaginas, and", "shower caused the death, attributing it to an existing heart arrythmia. He stated that seeing Gatorade showers on television was a reminder that his father \"went out a winner\". After Allen's death, the soccer and multipurpose field area on the lower end of campus was dedicated in his honor as George Allen Field. A youth baseball field in Palos Verdes Estates is also named after him.", "need to be approved and accompanied by prosecutors; individuals can speak to attorneys privately but such private meeting is monitored. The prosecution phase is another 30-day window that can be further extended. Sanitation Detainees generally are subject to a daily shower convention: shower takes place by the sink in each cell (sink provides only cold water). Showers are typically allowed after dinner without regard for seasonality. This daily shower is considered a “cell” rule. The detention center provides weekly hot shower but such showers are at the mercy of the furnace. Communication with outside world", "Shower (film) Plot An aged father known to everyone as Old Liu (played by Zhu Xu) and his younger, mentally challenged son Liu Erming (Jiang Wu) run and live in a traditional bathhouse for men in an old district in Beijing. The bathhouse provides a variety of peripheral services, including haircut, massage, shaving, fire cupping, even old-style pedicure, to a motley group of regular customers, many of whom are retired old Beijingers. The patrons usually spend their entire day, day after day, in the bathhouse, engaging in a game of Chinese chess or cricket fighting. As such, they have formed", "cold bath, something that Luke and Manny rush to do. Gloria appears and takes a photo of the boys being in the tub together, threatening them to post it online if they attempt to steal from her or get drunk underage again.\nMeanwhile, Andy (Adam Devine) wants to talk to Haley (Sarah Hyland) about his feelings, since it is the first time he will see her after the events of \"Closet? You'll Love It!\", where Haley told him that he has a shot with her while she thought he was sleeping. Andy is nervous and Haley appearing with her new boyfriend", "The Shower Principle Plot In a meeting with her accountant about her taxes, Liz realizes that every year is exactly like the last. By consulting her journal entries from last year, she is able to anticipate and solve several workplace problems. After her new hobby of meditation fails to bring her peace, she realizes that her coworkers are what has left her in a rut.\nJack, appalled that boss Hank Hooper is planning to use profits to pay a dividend, seeks the business pitch that will convince Hank to invest the money in the company instead. He tries to distract himself", "showers are directed at fathers. These may be more oriented towards drinking beer, watching sports, fishing, or playing video games. The primary nature of these gifts is diapers and/or diaper-related items. The organization of the diaper party is typically done by the friends of the father-to-be as a way of helping to prepare for the coming child. These parties may be held at local pubs/bars, a friend's house, or the soon-to-be grandfather's house. In the United Kingdom, this is called wetting the baby's head, and is generally more common than baby showers. Wetting the baby's head is traditionally when", "in the shower as part of a murder-mystery storyline. International broadcast The series screened across Europe during the mid-80's on Sky Channel which would later become Sky One. It also aired in the UK on Astra Satellite channel Lifestyle during 1990 at 1.00 p.m Monday to Friday.", "peeping on earlier. Wendy's boyfriend \"Phlegm\" (Corey Feldman) comes in, and he and Wendy have a date, much to Todd's dismay. Phlegm turns out to be smart, as he explains about how Denise is waiting on the summer solstice to eat George, and reveals that he knows this because he also reads comic books. It just happens that the summer solstice is on the same day as the wedding.\nThe next night, Denise is following a young paperboy (Eric Mettner) around, but this time Todd is there to watch her become her monstrous form. Todd watches her eat the little", "and showers.", "or dinner parties. They commonly take place four to six weeks before the wedding.\nDue to the prior history of showers being \"purely spontaneous and informal\", showers have not developed the same formal etiquette that has developed with respect to weddings. Invitations may be issued informally, by mail, telephone, or e-mail.\nAs showers are explicitly a gift-giving occasion, everyone who attends the shower is expected to bring a small gift. People who decline the invitation for any reason are not expected to send a gift or otherwise participate in the party. The hosts are expected to hand over gifts,", "journey was worth it.\nBaby showers often follow around the idea of an extravagant party. Typically the event is held before or early in the third trimester of pregnancy. The baby's sex is often revealed or there are games, such as diapers filled with different melted candies. It highlights the transition into parenthood, especially for mothers. It allows them to feel as though this process of birth and parenting will be manageable. They also receive many gifts that they can \"ooh and ahh\" over for a majority of the party. Description The Dadchelor Party is a way to celebrate a first", "Summer Morning, Summer Night Summer Morning, Summer Night is a collection of short stories by American writer Ray Bradbury, edited by Donn Albright and Jon Eller and first published by in 2002 PS Publishing. All the stories save one are set in Green Town, Illinois, Bradbury's name for his hometown of Waukegan, Illinois. Several of the stories feature some of the characters from his 1957 book, Dandelion Wine. Some stories are less than one page long.", "primary purpose is to give gifts to the guest of honor. Traditionally, a bridal shower is a way for an engaged woman to be \"showered\" with gifts for her upcoming married life (see hope chest). Guests are expected to bring a small gift related to the upcoming life event. Themed games are a frequent sight at this sort of party. A new twist on the baby shower for a pregnant woman is the gender reveal party, made possible by modern ultrasound technology. Housewarming party A housewarming party may be held when a family, couple, or person moves into a new", "her bridal shower, Adriana cheerlessly unwraps her presents.\nFurio invents a pretext to phone Carmela and tells her he has a pretty picture of her from the house-warming. But when he comes the next morning he declines to enter, saying he has to attend to a problem in the car.\nBrian casually mentions a bogus housing deal he knows about, but Tony and Ralphie take it seriously and carry out their own scheme to defraud the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. They make use of Dr. Ira Fried, Assemblyman Ronald Zellman, and Maurice Tiffen, a black activist. Some derelict houses", "it.\nTaking a shower at the end of the day Fitz is joined again by Mellie but when she tries to initiate sex he screams at her before apologizing and crying.\nUpon returning home, Olivia calls Jake in order to accept his invitation to dinner. As they discuss potential venues for their dinner date Jake sits down on his couch in front of a wall of TV screens displaying images of Olivia and the inside of her apartment. Production News of Scott Foley’s casting was revealed in January 2013. Foley had previously appeared on Grey’s Anatomy, also created by Shonda Rhimes.\nThe shots", "store clothes and belongings. Afterwards bathers walk into the gender-segregated bathhouse area (children of both genders below seven years of age are free to intermingle) and take a shower. Then, one should wear the jjimjilbang clothes (usually a T-shirt and shorts, color-coordinated according to gender), which are received with the locker key.\nIn the bathing areas, there are kiln saunas with themes including a jade, a salt, or mineral kiln: the dome-shaped inside the kilns are plastered with jade powder, salt and mineral respectively.\nOften there are several kilns with temperatures ranging from 16 to 49 °C (60 to 120 °F). The temperature of", "the workday, miners must remove all work clothes before entering a shower facility and then exit nude through a metal detector to a separate changing room where street clothes are stored.\nThe courts have often held that requiring a person to have a shower as a condition of entry into a space (such as a prison, shelter, or the like) does not, in itself, constitute a strip search, even if the shower and surrounding space are so constructed as to afford visibility of the unclothed body by guards during the showering process.\nHospitals often also have a mandatory shower, during lockdown, when", "Rush Week Release Rush Week was released on home video in 1991 by RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Entertainment. Critical response A review in the Variety television and film guide called Rush Week a \"slasher film long on pretty girls and short on gore. It's a belated direct-to-vid release. Durable if cornball format has coeds being killed on a college campus during the frats' annual rush week ceremonies... Bralver seems more intent on satisfying voyeurs.\"\nMichael Weldon in The Psychotronic Video Guide (1996) called the film \"another stupid, boring teen/horror movie.\" In his book Legacy of Blood: A Comprehensive Guide to Slasher Movies", "Ratzenberger). He announces that they're going to have a battle of the bunks. When the girls are going to take showers, Amber makes fun of Lindsey by telling if she takes a shower it will spoil her image. Because of this Lindsey leaves and goes to her bunk. Then all the kids get ready for the cook off and are suddenly missing and are found by the camp crew. The camp starts to get bad critics. The gang decides to make a rap video. The video becomes a hit and therefore is visited by a special guest (Gordon Liddy). When", "for a drinking charge. At a local bar, the two of them have a few drinks. They chat about Summer's travels. Summer is obviously a confident girl who can take care of herself. Tom takes Summer back to his home. Summer discovers that Tom lives with his mom, Gaia (Barbara Niven). Tom is direct with Summer, so the two agree to go upstairs and have sex. As they are having sex, the audience then sees Gaia outside Tom's door, listening to him and Summer having sex.\nIn the morning, Summer wakes up and puts her clothes on. She scavenges the kitchen,", "is when I come out from shower.\"\nIn his spare time Yoo likes to visit websites of National Basketball Association, Gmail and Seattle Mariners's official website. He also enjoy reading The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo and would like to read the whole trilogy. In an interview with Celebuzz he said that he prays before every fashion week and have a girlfriend." ]

[ "Peristalsis works like this:\n_URL_0_\n\nStick a drinking straw in a cup full of water, place your thumb over the end of the straw, and lift it out of the water so that the straw is full of water but no longer in cup. Pinch the straw flat with the thumb and forefinger of your other hand up near where your thumb is covering the end and pull down, still squeezing and covering the end with your other thumb. \n\nThat's basically how peristalsis works. The muscles pinch the \"tube\" in a small area (be it your esophagus, intestines, etc) and force its contents along with a wave motion. It pinches, pushes a little ways, and releases. The next muscle pinches it again, pushes it a little ways, and releases. This process repeats until the contents get where they're going." ]

[ "passing through a surface moving along with the fluid is conserved. This means that the plasma can move along with the local field lines. For the perpendicular motions of the fluid, the field lines will push the fluid or otherwise they will be dragged with the fluid. Flux tubes and field lines The curve sweeps out a cylindrical boundary along the local magnetic field lines in the fluid which forms a tube known as the flux tube. When the diameter of this tube goes to zero, it is called a magnetic field line. Resistive fluids Even for the non-ideal", "from each other and a new interface between the inner surface of the liquid dispersion medium and the surface of the dispersed particles is generated. This process is facilitated by molecular diffusion and convection.\nWith respect to molecular diffusion, dispersion occurs as a result of an unequal concentration of the introduced material throughout the bulk medium. When the dispersed material is first introduced into the bulk medium, the region at which it is introduced then has a higher concentration of that material than any other point in the bulk. This unequal distribution results in a concentration gradient that drives the dispersion", "Elutriation Air classification An air elutriator is a simple device which can separate particles into two or more groups.\nMaterial may be separated by means of an elutriator, which consists of a vertical tube up which fluid is passed at a controlled velocity. When the particles are introduced, often through a side tube, the smaller particles are carried over in the fluid stream while the larger particles settle against the upward current. If one starts with low flow rates, small less dense particle attain their terminal velocities, and flow with the stream. The particle from the stream is collected in overflow", "of particles in the medium so that the concentration is constant across the entire bulk. With respect to convection, variations in velocity between flow paths in the bulk facilitate the distribution of the dispersed material into the medium.\nAlthough both transport phenomena contribute to the dispersion of a material into the bulk, the mechanism of dispersion is primarily driven by convection in cases where there is significant turbulent flow in the bulk. Diffusion is the dominant mechanism in the process of dispersion in cases of little to no turbulence in the bulk, where molecular diffusion is able to facilitate dispersion over", "solids into a liquid is done to improve the rate of mass transfer between the solid and the liquid. Examples include dissolving a solid reactant into a solvent, or suspending catalyst particles in liquid to improve the flow of reactants and products to and from the particles. The associated eddy diffusion increases the rate of mass transfer within the bulk of the fluid, and the convection of material away from the particles decreases the size of the boundary layer, where most of the resistance to mass transfer occurs. Axial-flow impellers are preferred for solid suspension, although radial-flow impellers can be", "Souders–Brown equation The Souders–Brown equation (named after Mott Souders and George Granger Brown) has been a tool for obtaining the maximum allowable vapor velocity in vapor–liquid separation vessels (variously called flash drums, knockout drums, knockout pots, compressor suction drums and compressor inlet drums). It has also been used for the same purpose in designing trayed fractionating columns, trayed absorption columns and other vapor–liquid-contacting columns.\nA vapor–liquid separator drum is a vertical vessel into which a liquid and vapor mixture (or a flashing liquid) is fed and wherein the liquid is separated by gravity, falls to the bottom of the vessel, and", "kinetic energy of the fluid. Fluid enters axially through eye of the casing, is caught up in the impeller blades, and is whirled tangentially and radially outward until it leaves through all circumferential parts of the impeller into the diffuser part of the casing. The fluid gains both velocity and pressure while passing through the impeller. The doughnut-shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing decelerates the flow and further increases the pressure. It is important to note that the water is not pushed radially outward by centrifugal force (non-existent force), but rather by inertia, the natural tendency of", "In general, any substance or conserved, extensive quantity can be advected by a fluid that can hold or contain the quantity or substance.\nDuring advection, a fluid transports some conserved quantity or material via bulk motion. The fluid's motion is described mathematically as a vector field, and the transported material is described by a scalar field showing its distribution over space. Advection requires currents in the fluid, and so cannot happen in rigid solids. It does not include transport of substances by molecular diffusion.\nAdvection is sometimes confused with the more encompassing process of convection which is the combination of advective", "fluids in rivers and canals; but he committed a great paralogism in supposing the velocity of the water proportional to the depth of the orifice below the surface of the vessel. Torricelli, observing that in a jet where the water rushed through a small ajutage it rose to nearly the same height with the reservoir from which it was supplied, imagined that it ought to move with the same velocity as if it had fallen through that height by the force of gravity, and hence he deduced the proposition that the velocities of liquids are as the square root of", "Hagen–Poiseuille equation Liquid flow through a pipe Assume the liquid exhibits laminar flow. Laminar flow in a round pipe prescribes that there are a bunch of circular layers (lamina) of liquid, each having a velocity determined only by their radial distance from the center of the tube. Also assume the center is moving fastest while the liquid touching the walls of the tube is stationary (due to the no-slip condition).\nTo figure out the motion of the liquid, all forces acting on each lamina must be known:\nThe pressure force pushing the liquid through the tube is the change in pressure multiplied", "Coriolis mass flowmeters, or mass flow controllers. Liquid For liquids, various units are used depending upon the application and industry, but might include gallons (U.S. or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute or, when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic meters per second) or acre-feet per day. In oceanography a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of water transported by a current for example) is a sverdrup (Sv) equivalent to 10⁶ m³/s. Primary flow element A primary flow element is a device inserted into the flowing fluid that produces a physical property that can be accurately related to", "a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the tube (packed column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open, unrestricted path for the mobile phase in the middle part of the tube (open tubular column). Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated to different retention times of the sample.\nIn 1978, W. Clark Still introduced a modified version of column chromatography called flash column chromatography (flash). The technique is very similar to the traditional column chromatography, except for that the solvent is driven through the column by applying positive", "and the liquid would flow in that direction. Thus, on the surface of the Earth, all free surfaces of liquids are horizontal unless disturbed (except near solids dipping into them, where surface tension distorts the surface in a region called the meniscus).\nIn a free liquid that is not affected by outside forces such as a gravitational field, internal attractive forces only play a role (e.g. Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds). Its free surface will assume the shape with the least surface area for its volume: a perfect sphere. Such behaviour can be expressed in terms of surface tension. It", "Airlift pump Principle The only energy required is provided by compressed air. This air is usually compressed by a compressor or a blower. The air is injected in the lower part of a pipe that transports a liquid. By buoyancy the air, which has a lower density than the liquid, rises quickly. By fluid pressure, the liquid is taken in the ascendant air flow and moves in the same direction as the air. The calculation of the volume flow of the liquid is possible thanks to the physics of two-phase flow. Utilization Airlift pumps are often used in deep dirty", "centrifugal pump, or a combination of the two. Jet-propelled animals Cephalopods such as squid use jet propulsion for rapid escape from predators; they use other mechanisms for slow swimming. The jet is produced by ejecting water through a siphon, which typically narrows to a small opening to produce the maximum exhalent velocity. The water passes through the gills prior to exhalation, fulfilling the dual purpose of respiration and locomotion. Sea hares (gastropod molluscs) employ a similar method, but without the sophisticated neurological machinery of cephalopods they navigate somewhat more clumsily.\nSome teleost fish have also developed jet propulsion, passing water through", "the centrifugal force formed under fast rotation. Feed slurry enters the conveyor and is delivered into the rotating bowl through discharge ports. There is a slight speed difference between the rotation of conveyor and bowl, causing the solids to convey from the stationary zone where the wastewater is introduced to the bowl wall. By centrifugal force, the collected solids moves along the bowl wall, out of the pool and up the dewatering beach located at the tapered end of the bowl. At last the solids separated go to solid discharge while the liquids go to liquid discharge. The clarified liquid", "of viscosity and diffusion are negligible, the fluid in a moving vortex is carried along with it. In particular, the fluid in the core (and matter trapped by it) tends to remain in the core as the vortex moves about. This is a consequence of Helmholtz's second theorem. Thus vortices (unlike surface and pressure waves) can transport mass, energy and momentum over considerable distances compared to their size, with surprisingly little dispersion. This effect is demonstrated by smoke rings and exploited in vortex ring toys and guns.\nTwo or more vortices that are approximately parallel and circulating in the", "transfer In countercurrent flow, the two flows move in opposite directions.\nTwo tubes have a liquid flowing in opposite directions, transferring a property from one tube to the other. For example, this could be transferring heat from a hot flow of liquid to a cold one, or transferring the concentration of a dissolved solute from a high concentration flow of liquid to a low concentration flow.\nThe counter-current exchange system can maintain a nearly constant gradient between the two flows over their entire length of contact. With a sufficiently long length and a sufficiently low flow rate this can result in almost", "on particle random walk, and results in mixing or mass transport without requiring directed bulk motion. Bulk motion, or bulk flow, is the characteristic of advection.\nThe term convection is used to describe the combination of both transport phenomena. Diffusion vs. bulk flow \"Bulk flow\" is the movement/flow of an entire body due to a pressure gradient (eg water coming out of a tap). \"Diffusion\" is the gradual movement/dispersion of concentration within a body, due to a concentration gradient, with no net movement of matter. An example of a process where both bulk motion and diffusion occur is human breathing.\nFirst there", "Fluid flow through porous media In fluid mechanics, fluid flow through porous media is the manner in which fluids behave when flowing through a porous medium, for example sponge or wood, or when filtering water using sand or another porous material. As commonly observed, some fluid flows through the media while some mass of the fluid is stored in the pores present in the media.", "gas-solid phase. Furthermore, crude oil during flow through pipelines is a gas-oil-water three phase flow. Types of Multiphase flow The most common class of multiphase flows are two-phase flows, and these include Gas-Liquid Flow, Gas-Solid Flow, Liquid-Liquid Flow and Liquid-Solid Flow. These flows are the most studied, and are of most interest in the context of industry. Different patterns of multiphase flow are known as flow regimes. Liquid-solid flow Hydraulic transport consists of flows in which solid particles are dispersed in a continuous liquid phase. They are often referred to as slurry flows. Applications include the transport of coals and", "of droplets in the gas core. As a result of gravity, there is usually a thicker film of liquid on the bottom of the pipe as opposed to the top of the pipe.\nStratified (smooth) flow exists when the gravitational separation is complete. The liquid flows along the bottom of the pipe as gas flows over the top. Liquid holdup in this regime can be large but the gas velocities are low.\nStratified wave flow is similar to stratified smooth flow, but with a higher gas velocity. The higher gas velocity produces waves on the liquid surface. These waves may become large", "post at the Oxford blog. The 2015 definition by the OED is:\nA tube used to convey liquid upwards from a reservoir and then down to a lower level of its own accord. Once the liquid has been forced into the tube, typically by suction or immersion, flow continues unaided.\nThe Encyclopædia Britannica currently describes a siphon as:\nSiphon, also spelled syphon, instrument, usually in the form of a tube bent to form two legs of unequal length, for conveying liquid over the edge of a vessel and delivering it at a lower level. Siphons may be of any size. The action", "samples. Viscous liquids Viscous liquids, such as glycerol, flow very slowly. Glycerol has high dynamic viscosity, and if a researcher aspirates a sample of glycerol too quickly with an air displacement pipette, It will draw up air bubble. When a researcher attempts to dispense the liquid, some of it will stick to the pipette tip wall, dispense very slowly and remain in the tip. Surfactants also produce this effect, but the remaining liquid film is thinner.\nIn a positive displacement pipette, the aspiration strength remains constant, so the tip fills evenly. Also, the piston slides along the internal sides of the", "do not necessarily mix in the traditional sense, as flow becomes laminar rather than turbulent; molecular transport between them must often be through diffusion.\nHigh specificity of chemical and physical properties (concentration, pH, temperature, shear force, etc.) can also be ensured resulting in more uniform reaction conditions and higher grade products in single and multi-step reactions. Open microfluidics In open microfluidics, at least one boundary of the system is removed, exposing the fluid to air or another interface (i.e. liquid). Advantages of open microfluidics include accessibility to the flowing liquid for intervention, larger liquid-gas surface area, and minimized bubble formation. ", "stirred liquids they might be observed in smoke rings, whirlpools, in the wake of a boat or the winds around a tornado or dust devil.\nVortices are an important part of turbulent flow. Vortices can otherwise be known as a circular motion of a liquid. In the cases of the absence of forces, the liquid settles. This makes the water stay still instead of moving.\nWhen they are created, vortices can move, stretch, twist and interact in complicated ways. When a vortex is moving, sometimes, it can affect an angular position.\nFor an example, if a water bucket is rotated or spun constantly,", "action is a phenomenon where liquid spontaneously rises in a narrow space such as a thin tube, or in porous materials. This effect can cause liquids to flow against the force of gravity. It occurs because of inter-molecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding surfaces; If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension and forces of adhesion between the liquid and container act to lift the liquid. Marangoni effect The Marangoni effect is the convection of fluid along an interface between dissimilar substances because of variations in surface tension. Surface", "Siphon A siphon (from Ancient Greek: σίφων, \"pipe, tube\", also spelled nonetymologically syphon) is any of a wide variety of devices that involve the flow of liquids through tubes. In a narrower sense, the word refers particularly to a tube in an inverted \"U\" shape, which causes a liquid to flow upward, above the surface of a reservoir, with no pump, but powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity, then discharging at a level lower than the surface of the reservoir from which it came.\nThere are two leading theories", " Unlike other liquid transfer devices, no pipette tips, pin tools, or nozzles touch the source liquid or destination surfaces. Liquid transfer methods that rely on droplet formation through an orifice, e.g., disposable tips or capillary nozzles, invariably lose precision as the transfer volume decreases. Touchless acoustic transfer provides a coefficient of variation (CV) that is significantly lower than other techniques and is independent of volume at the levels tested.\nADE shoots a droplet from a source well upward to an inverted receiving plate positioned above the source plate. Liquids ejected from the source are captured by dry plates due to", "is withdrawn. The vapor travels upward at a design velocity which minimizes the entrainment of any liquid droplets in the vapor as it exits the top of the vessel." ]

[ "So you know when your throw a ball it follows a curved path down back to the ground?\n\nWell the ISS is moving so fast and is so high up that it's curved path equals the curvature of the earth, so it approaches the earth just as fast the earth curves away from it, so the distance between the earth and the station remain, fairly, constant.", "Imagine you have a baseball. Now lay a pencil, horizontally on the baseball. Move the pencil around the baseball so that the pencil remains laying flat on the ball. That pencil represents the trajectory of the ISS. The ISS is travelling incredibly fast horizontally compared to the earth. However the earth's gravity is constantly pulling on the ISS which curves the path. So the result of the gravity pulling down and the ISS moving very fast sideways, is a circular orbit.\n\nEvery once in awhile though, astronauts do have to fire little blasts to maintain their orbit.", "It's in orbit around the Earth. That basically means that it's falling towards Earth just like anything else, except that it's also moving \"sideways\" so fast that the surface of Earth (which is round) curves away from underneath the ISS at approximately the same speed as the station is falling.\n\nThey also regularly give it boosts in altitude, because it is slowly falling." ]

[ "Several systems are currently used on board the ISS to maintain the spacecraft's atmosphere, which is similar to the Earth's. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. \"While members of the ISS crew could stay healthy even with the pressure at a lower level, the equipment on the Station is very sensitive to pressure. If the pressure were to drop too far, it could cause problems with the Station equipment.\". Air revitalization system Carbon dioxide and trace contaminants are removed by the Air Revitalization System. This is a NASA rack,", "orbit altitude is due to the constraints imposed by the Soyuz spacecraft. On 25 April 2008, the Automated Transfer Vehicle \"Jules Verne\" raised the orbit of the ISS for the first time, thereby proving its ability to replace (and outperform) the Soyuz at this task.\nGOCE which orbited at 255 km (later reduced to 235 km) used ion thrusters to provide up to 20 mN of thrust to compensate for the drag on its frontal area of about 1 m². Station-keeping for Earth observation spacecraft For Earth observation spacecraft typically operated in an altitude above the Earth surface of about 700 – 800 km the", "from time to time.\nAn example of this is the International Space Station (ISS), which has an operational altitude above Earth's surface of between 330 and 410 km. Due to atmospheric drag the space station is constantly losing orbital energy. In order to compensate for this loss, which would eventually lead to a re-entry of the station, it has from time to time been re-boosted to a higher orbit. The chosen orbital altitude is a trade-off between the average thrust needed to counter-act the air drag and the delta-v needed to send payloads and people to the station. \nThe upper limitation of", "lowered by 1.5 kilometers to 345 kilometers to ensure perfect conditions for the re-entry of the Soyuz TMA-17 into the Earth's atmosphere. The orbit of the ISS was adjusted using the four engines on board the Progress M-05M spacecraft.", "The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the Earth's. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew. Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.\nThe Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station. The crew has a backup option in the", "by NCSIST and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA. Orbit The ISS is maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 330 km (205 mi) and a maximum of 410 km (255 mi), in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.\nIt travels at an average", "within about 10 km (6.2 mi) of the ISS, the \"communication zone.\" At 08:43 UTC co-elliptical burn 2 (CE-2) raised its orbit to nearly the same plane as the ISS, and brought it to within 2,500 m (8,200 ft) below the station. During this \"fly-under,\" Dragon established communications with the station using its COTS Ultra-high frequency Communication Unit (CUCU). Dragon performed a test of its Relative GPS (RGPS) system, which used the relative positions of the spacecraft to the space station to determine its location. Also, using the Crew Command Panel (CCP) on board the Cupola module, the Expedition 31 crew briefly interacted with", "speed of 27,724 kilometres per hour (17,227 mph), and completes 15.54 orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit). The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude. Other, more frequent supply ships do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.\nOrbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to Zvezda's aft port.", "quarters, a life support system, a communication system (Zvezda introduced a 10 Mbit/s Ethernet network to the ISS), electrical power distribution, a data processing system, a flight control system, and a propulsion system. These quarters and some, but not all, systems have since been supplemented by additional ISS components.\nThe two main engines on Zvezda can be used to raise the station's altitude. This was done on April 25, 2007. This was the first time the engines had been fired since Zvezda arrived in 2000. Launch risks Due to Russian financial problems, Zvezda was launched with no backup and no insurance. Due", "altitude of the station was lowered by approximately 1.77 km (1.10 mi). This manoeuvre effectively eliminated any chance of a collision with a piece of space debris which had been part of the Kosmos 2421 satellite.\nAt the time of its docking, the Expedition 16 crew was aboard the space station. This consisted of Peggy Whitson of NASA who was the station's Commander, along with two Flight Engineers; Yuri Malenchenko of the Russian Federal Space Agency and Garrett Reisman of NASA. They were replaced by the Expedition 17 crew in April and May, who remained aboard the station at the time of the", "the ISS. This manoeuvre, considered a major technical feat, involved using automated systems to allow the ATV to track the ISS, moving at 27,000 km/h, and attach itself with an accuracy of 2 cm.\nAs of 2013, the spacecraft establishing supply links to the ISS are the Russian Progress and Soyuz, European ATV, Japanese Kounotori (HTV), and the USA COTS program vehicles Dragon and Cygnus.\nEuropean Life and Physical Sciences research on board the International Space Station (ISS) is mainly based on the European Programme for Life and Physical Sciences in Space programme that was initiated in 2001. Languages According to Annex 1, Resolution", "July 2005, NASA announced that STS-114 would be extended for one day, so that Discovery's crew could help the ISS crew maintain the station while the shuttle fleet was grounded. The extra day was also used to move more items from the shuttle to the ISS, as uncertainty mounted during the mission as to when a shuttle would next visit the station. The orbiter's arrival also gave the nearly 200-ton space station a free altitude boost of about 4,000 feet (1,220 m). The station loses about 100 feet (30 m) of altitude a day.\nThe shuttle hatch was closed the night", "left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, causing the temperature on the station to rise. A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm that woke the crew at 11:43 UTC.\nBy 15 June, the primary Russian computers were back online, and communicating with the US side of the station by bypassing a circuit, but secondary systems remained offline. NASA reported that without the computer that controls the oxygen levels, the station had 56 days of oxygen available.\nBy the afternoon of 16 June, ISS Program Manager Michael Suffredini confirmed that", "low Earth orbit, the ISS serves as a safety refuge in case of emergency. The inability to fall back on the safety of the ISS during the latest Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission (because of different orbital inclinations) was the reason a backup shuttle was summoned to the launch pad. So, ISS astronauts operate with the mindset that they may be called upon to give sanctuary to a Shuttle crew should something happen to compromise a mission. The International Space Station is a colossal cooperative project between many nations. The prevailing atmosphere on board is one", "(that can keep the work volume oxygen volume fraction below the standard ISS atmosphere (nominally 21% by volume) down to 10 percent or less), power and data interfaces are also provided within MSG. A video system consists of a self-standing subsystem of four colour cameras, two monitors, two analogue recorders and two digital recorders integrated into an International Sub-rack Interface Standard (ISIS) drawer. The command and monitoring panel monitors the facility status and performance and provides for manual operation of MSG by the crew.\nMSG was delivered to ISS during Expedition 5, whereupon it was installed in the Destiny module. On", "and 41 minutes. After the shuttle undocked, pilot Greg Johnson backed Endeavour out to a distance of 140 m (450 ft) to 200 m (650 ft). Once the shuttle was at the correct distance, Johnson flew a complete lap around the ISS. After the lap was complete, an initial separation burn was completed. After the burn was complete, commander Mark Kelly took over control of the shuttle. Kelly first moved the shuttle to a point 6,100 m (20,000 ft) behind and above the station, then to a point below the ISS. Kelly then guided Endeavour to a point 290 m (950 ft) below the ISS. This series of", "and dock with the International Space Station (ISS). Once the shuttle was 600 feet (180 m) below the ISS, commander George Zamka began what is known as the Rendezvous Pitch Maneuver (RPM). During the maneuver, ISS commander Jeff Williams and flight engineer Oleg Kotov took photos of the shuttle's thermal protection system (TPS). Space shuttle Endeavour docked with the ISS at 5:26 UTC (00:06 EST). After completing leak checks the hatches between both vehicles were opened at 6:26 UTC (1:26 EST). The joint Expedition 22/STS-130 crew conducted the standard welcome ceremony and then conducted their safety brief. Once that was complete", "and main tank decreased. To achieve low orbit requires much more horizontal than vertical acceleration. This was not visually obvious, since the vehicle rose vertically and was out of sight for most of the horizontal acceleration. The near circular orbital velocity at the 380 kilometers (236 mi) altitude of the International Space Station is 27,650 km/h (17,180 mph), roughly equivalent to Mach 23 at sea level. As the International Space Station orbits at an inclination of 51.6 degrees, missions going there must set orbital inclination to the same value in order to rendezvous with the station.\nAround 30 seconds into ascent, the SSMEs were", "controls were established shortly after the launch. Phase Maneuver was performed by 19:25 UTC on August 20, and the first Height Adjustment Maneuver by 17:55 UTC on August 22. The second and third Height Adjustment Maneuver were performed by 03:07 and 06:12 UTC on August 24, respectively.\nThe ISS's robotic arm SSRMS grappled Kounotori 5 at 10:29 UTC on 24 Aug 2015, and fastened to ISS's CBM at 14:58 UTC on 24 Aug 2015. All berthing operations were completed at 17:28 UTC on 24 Aug 2015. Operation while berthed to ISS From 02:27 UTC on August 25, the Exposed", "Sub-orbital spaceflight Altitude requirement By one definition a sub-orbital spaceflight reaches an altitude higher than 100 km (62 mi) above sea level. This altitude, known as the Kármán line, was chosen by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale because it is roughly the point where a vehicle flying fast enough to support itself with aerodynamic lift from the Earth's atmosphere would be flying faster than orbital speed. The US military and NASA award astronaut wings to those flying above 50 mi (80 km), although the U.S. State Department appears to not support a distinct boundary between atmospheric flight and spaceflight. Orbit During freefall the trajectory is", "in Kristall during Mir-18 International Space Station The ISS employs a total of four CMGs, mounted on Z1 truss as primary actuating devices during normal flight mode operation. The objective of the CMG flight control system is to hold the space station at a fixed attitude relative to the surface of the Earth. In addition, it seeks a Torque Equilibrium Attitude (TEA), in which the combined torque contribution of gravity gradient, atmospheric drag, solar pressure, and geomagnetic interactions are minimized. In the presence of these continual environmental disturbances CMGs absorb momentum in an attempt to maintain the space station at", "Ocean, the robotic arm of the space station released the HTV-1 positioned at 12m below the station on 30 October 2009. The departure was delayed for one ISS orbit to avoid debris (COSMOS 2421). HTV-1 was loaded with 199 items of discarded equipment & waste of 727.7 kg, as well as 896 kg empty racks, totaling 1,624 kg. At 17:32 (UTC), HTV-1 was released from SSRMS and began its planned maneuvers to leave the station proximity. HTV-1 gradually departed from the ISS orbit by performing several thruster burns and entered to its solo-flight mode.\nThe HTV flight control team sent commands", "Minimum Descent Altitude and tried to visually locate the runway while maintaining 200 ft. Conclusion The final report was published in January 2016. The investigation found that this was a controlled flight into terrain accident. The crew had limited awareness of the aircraft's proximity to terrain. They continued the approach below the minimum descent altitude when they were not visual with the runway environment. The Captain was not complying with (and had a complete disregard for) policies, procedures and regulations. This type of hazardous attitude is characterized as “Anti-Authority”.\nThe final report reached the following final conclusion:\nThe occurrence was the result of", "the ISS. It's capable of bringing 6.6 tonnes of supplies to the ISS and docking automatically. As a pressurised component it stays docked as part of the station for several months and boosts it orbit. It is then filled with waste and burnt up in the atmosphere. Five ATVs, Jules Verne, Johannes Kepler, Edoardo Amaldi, Albert Einstein, and Georges Lemaître have visited the International Space Station. No additional ATVs will be funded.\nATV missions are monitored and controlled from the ATV Control Centre (ATV-CC) located at the Toulouse Space Centre (CST) in Toulouse, France. The centre is responsible for all planning", "International Space Station (ISS), as it is the only spaceport from which Russian missions to the ISS are launched. It is Baikonur's position at ~46° N latitude that dictates the 51.6° orbital inclination of the ISS - this is the lowest inclination that can be reached directly by Soyuz boosters launched from Baikonur that does not involve flying over China. With the conclusion of NASA's Space Shuttle program in 2011, Baikonur has become the sole launch site used for manned missions to the ISS.\nIn 2019 Gagarin's Start hosted three crewed launches, in March, July and September, before being decommissioned by", "EVA from the shuttle, the cabin pressure was reduced from 14.7 to 10.2 psi (101 to 70 kPa) for 24 hours, after which an astronaut had to pre-breathe for 45 minutes. For EVAs on board the ISS, the astronaut must pre-breathe for about four hours. Manufacturer The EMU hardware and accessories (PLSS, helmet, communications cap, and locking rings for the helmet and gloves), is manufactured by Hamilton Standard (now the Hamilton Sundstrand division of Collins Aerospace) out of Windsor Locks, Connecticut, while the suit's soft components (the arms of the HUT and the entire LTU) are produced by ILC Dover (a former", "the space station, the gravity gradient torque approach is preferred because it requires no consumables or external hardware and because the gravity-gradient torque on the ISS can be very high. CMG saturation has been observed during spacewalks, requiring propellant to be used to maintain desired attitude. In 2006 and 2007, CMG-based experiments demonstrated the viability of zero-propellant maneuvers to adjust attitude of the ISS 90° and 180°. By 2016, four Soyuz undockings had been done using CMG-based attitude adjustment, resulting in considerable propellant savings. Proposed As of 2016, the Russian Orbital Segment of the ISS carries no CMGs of its", "sent to the International Space Station on August 14, 2017 with the CRS-12 mission, and will be installed permanently to the station. Located at an altitude of 410 km, 10 times higher than previous balloon flights, ISS-CREAM will be able to take data almost non-stop during its three-year mission. Because of the extreme altitude, there is no atmosphere for incident particles to scatter off of before reaching the detector. It is expected that this ISS-based mission will gather an order of magnitude more data than the CREAM balloon experiments. Funding CREAM experiments are currently being funded by NASA.", "many countries who possess ICBMs and even more with shorter range IRBMs (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles). Tourist flights Sub-orbital tourist flights will initially focus on attaining the altitude required to qualify as reaching space. The flight path will probably be either vertical or very steep, with the spacecraft landing back at its take-off site.\nThe spacecraft will probably shut off its engines well before reaching maximum altitude, and then coast up to its highest point. During a few minutes, from the point when the engines are shut off to the point where the atmosphere begins to slow down the downward acceleration,", "spacecraft to float freely without using its thrusters which would normally correct its orbital path. Flight day 2 (23 May) On flight day two, Dragon began a series of thruster burns, called \"height adjustment\" burn (HA-1), and \"co-elliptical\" burn (CE-1). The CE-1 burn changed Dragon's orbit characteristics by placing it into a circular orbit around the Earth. The HA-1 burn raised Dragon's altitude to within a few kilometres below the ISS, in preparation for the next day's rendezvous demonstration. Flight day 3 (24 May) On flight day three, Dragon performed height adjustment burn 2 (HA-2) at 07:58 UTC, to get" ]

[ "You may have heard of the 'fight or flight response.' When you are stressed (nervous/frightened etc.) your body releases hormones to help your body deal with the situation - the best known one is adrenaline. This hormone tells your body to do a whole bunch of things, and urinate is among them. It is suggested that this might be to lighten your body to make it easier for you to run." ]

[ "peeps typically at sexual matters and 'peeks' when one wants surreptitiously to know what something is without being seen\".", "stare\".\nThere are also known to be cases of not simply a defecation urge but also symptoms such as abdominal pain or diarrhea. There are also said to be cases where what presents is not an urge to defecate but an urge to urinate, or need to urinate frequently. Results from a survey of 30 people reported that, of 18 people who responded that they \"have an experience of [being in a bookstore and] going to the bathroom and using the toilet\", 7 people responded that they \"experienced a defecation urge only\" and another 7 that they \"experienced a", "Athletic incontinence Athletic incontinence (athletic leakage, athletic leaks, exercise-induced urinary incontinence) is the specific form of urinary incontinence that results from engaging in high-impact or strenuous activities. Unlike stress incontinence, which is defined as the loss of small amounts of urine associated with sneezing, laughing or exercising, athletic incontinence occurs exclusively during exercise. Athletic incontinence is generally thought to be the result of decreased structural support of the pelvic floor due to increased abdominal pressure during high-impact exercise. As such exercises that build and develop the pelvic floor may be an important step to counteracting athletic incontinence. In addition to", "Paruresis Paruresis (/ˌpɑːrəˈriːsɪs/ PAR-ə-REE-sis) is a type of phobia in which the sufferer is unable to urinate in the real or imaginary presence of others, such as in a public restroom. The analogous condition that affects bowel movement is called parcopresis or shy bowel. Physiology It appears that paruresis involves a tightening of the sphincter and/or bladder neck due to a sympathetic nervous system response. The adrenaline rush that produces the involuntary nervous system response probably has peripheral and central nervous system involvement. The internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle tissue) or the external urethral sphincter (striated muscle), levator ani (especially", "top of the midbrain, the threshold for the reflex is essentially normal. There is another facilitatory area in the posterior hypothalamus. In humans with lesions in the superior frontal gyrus, the desire to urinate is reduced and there is also difficulty in stopping micturition once it has commenced. However, stimulation experiments in animals indicate that other cortical areas also affect the process.\nThe bladder can be made to contract by voluntary facilitation of the spinal voiding reflex when it contains only a few milliliters of urine. Voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles aids the expulsion of urine by increasing the pressure", "Peege Synopsis An elderly woman, nicknamed \"Peege\" and played by Jeanette Nolan, lives in a nursing home where she is suffering from blindness and ailing mental faculties. Her family makes regular visits to her every Christmas, but her poor health makes these occasions awkward for everyone else. The conversation is awkward, because most of the family treat Peege in a condescending fashion and talk about their own successes. As the family goes to leave, one of the grandsons (Bruce Davison) remains behind briefly. He recounts to his grandmother that when he was a young boy her laugh would \"always", "those people who experience a defecation urge before leakage (urge incontinence), and those who experience no sensation before leakage (passive incontinence or soiling). Urge incontinence is characterized by a sudden need to defecate, with little time to reach a toilet. Urge and passive FI may be associated with weakness of the external anal sphincter (EAS) and internal anal sphincter (IAS) respectively. Urgency may also be associated with reduced rectal volume, reduced ability of the rectal walls to distend and accommodate stool, and increased rectal sensitivity.\nThere is a continuous spectrum of different clinical presentations from incontinence of flatus (gas), through", "applied to the urinary bladder wall, but voiding can be initiated without straining even when the bladder is nearly empty.\nVoiding can also be consciously interrupted once it has begun, through a contraction of the perineal muscles. The external sphincter can be contracted voluntarily, which will prevent urine from passing down the urethra. Experience of urination The need to urinate is experienced as an uncomfortable, full feeling. It is highly correlated with the fullness of the bladder. In many males the feeling of the need to urinate can be sensed at the base of the penis as well as the bladder,", "may be involuntary or voluntary. Young children learn voluntary control through the process of toilet training. Once trained, loss of control, called fecal incontinence, may be caused by physical injury, nerve injury, prior surgeries (such as an episiotomy), constipation, diarrhea, loss of storage capacity in the rectum, intense fright, inflammatory bowel disease, psychological or neurological factors, childbirth, or death.\nSometimes, due to the inability to control one's bowel movement or due to excessive fear, defecation (usually accompanied by urination) occurs involuntarily, soiling a person's undergarments. This may cause significant embarassment to the person if this occurs in the presence of other", "Apnea Cause Apnea can be involuntarily achieved, drug-induced (such as opiate toxicity or tryptamine toxicity), mechanically induced (for example, by strangulation or choking), or it can occur as a consequence of neurological disease or trauma. During sleep in patients who are suffering from sleep apnea, these events can occur up to more than a hundred times per hour, every night.\nApnea can also be observed during periods of heightened emotion, such as during crying or accompanied by the Valsalva maneuver when a person laughs. Apnea is a common feature of sobbing while crying, characterised by slow but deep and erratic breathing", "pinching or stroking their thighs, provoking a mild mass reflex. In some instances, the voiding reflex becomes hyperactive. Bladder capacity is reduced and the wall becomes hypertrophied. This type of bladder is sometimes called the spastic neurogenic bladder. The reflex hyperactivity is made worse, and may be caused, by infection in the bladder wall. Male urination Most males prefer to urinate standing while others prefer to urinate sitting or squatting. Elderly males with prostate gland enlargement may benefit from sitting down while in healthy males, no difference is found in the ability to urinate. For practising Muslim men, the genital", "similar situations would either let the opponent get the puck first so they can check them or hold back so they don’t get hit themselves. Injury wasn’t an initial concern but with research it was brought into the discussion. Research shows that the 11-year-old brain has not developed skills to anticipate. As a result, Peewees acquire injuries four times more in checking vs. non-checking hockey.", "Functional incontinence Functional incontinence is a form of urinary incontinence in which a person is usually aware of the need to urinate, but for one or more physical or mental reasons they are unable to get to a bathroom. The loss of urine can vary, from small leakages to full emptying of the bladder. Main causes There are a number of causes of functional incontinence. These include confusion, dementia, poor eyesight, impaired mobility or dexterity or unwillingness to use the toilet due to depression or anxiety. Functional incontinence is more common in elderly people as many of the causes are", "inappropriate situations. It also serves as a comedic device because the actions suggested by \"sitting, drinking and eating\" are so plain and normal.\nFor a slapstick example, consider this scene from a mo lei tau film: a man is battered by others but is still able to stand upright. He bravely tells his friend he can take the beating, whereupon his friend replies: \"Wow! After being hit so badly, you can still talk? If that was me I'd be puking right now!\". The man promptly starts vomiting. The scene is hackneyed, but can be seen even to this day in, for", "blood pressure to rise enough to cause the rupture of an aneurysm or to dislodge blood clots (see thrombosis). Also, in releasing the Valsalva maneuver blood pressure falls; this, coupled with standing up quickly to leave the toilet, can result in a blackout.\nDuring defecation, the external sphincter muscles relax. The anal and urethral sphincter muscles are closely linked. Experiments by Harrison Weed at the Ohio State University Medical Center have shown they can be contracted only together, not individually, and that both show relaxation during urination. This explains why defecation is frequently accompanied by urination. Voluntary and involuntary control Defecation", "Micturition syncope Micturition syncope or post-micturition syncope is the name given to the human phenomenon of fainting shortly after or during urination. The underlying cause is not fully understood but it may be a result of vasovagal response, postural hypotension, or a combination thereof.\nPeople often become pale, lightheaded, nauseated, sweaty and weak before they lose consciousness. Sometimes defecating, coughing, or severe vomiting may cause fainting in a similar way. Causes When one strains to increase the flow of urine, it stimulates the vagus nerve (usually more pronounced in elderly men with large prostates). The vagus nerve stimulus causes slowing down", "the pubococcygeus) muscle area, or some combination of the above, may be involved. It is possible that there is an inhibition of the detrusor command through a reflex pathway as well. The pontine micturition center (Barrington's nucleus) also may be involved, as its inhibition results in relaxation of the detrusor and prevents the relaxation of the internal sphincter. Impact Some people have brief, isolated episodes of urinary difficulty in situations where other people are in close proximity. Paruresis, however, goes beyond simple shyness, embarrassment, fear of exposure, or fear of being judged for not being able to urinate. Other", "sphincter and urethra), and relaxation of the bladder. At high bladder volumes, afferent firing increases, causing a conscious sensation of urinary urge. When the individual is ready to urinate, he or she consciously initiates voiding, causing the bladder to contract and the outlet to relax. Voiding continues until the bladder empties completely, at which point the bladder relaxes and the outlet contracts to re-initiate storage. The muscles controlling micturition are controlled by the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. During the storage phase the internal urethral sphincter remains tense and the detrusor muscle relaxed by sympathetic stimulation. During micturition, parasympathetic stimulation", "confusion for foreigners unaccustomed to these devices. There are humorous reports of individuals using a toilet, and randomly pressing buttons on the control panel either out of curiosity or in search for the flushing control, and suddenly to their horror receiving a jet of water directed at the genitals or anus. As the water jet continues for a few seconds after he jumps up, he also gets himself or the bathroom wet. Many Japanese toilets now feature pressure sensitive seats that automatically shut off the bidet when the person gets up. Many also have the buttons written in English to", "urine. Between bouts of torture Fillerbunny treats the reader to his dreams of a life where he's healthy, surrounded by friends, and no one shoots him in the legs when he tries to run. He awakes from this dream to his eyes being gouged out. Later, following a suicide attempt, he creates a comic of his own featuring little critters who are nice to each other. Except for that last critter. The session ends as Fillerbunny is forced to shit out his organs for no good purpose, all the while praying for sleep to take him, which it doesn't. So,", "three cups of urine in order to prevent his body from enduring the effects of fluid pressure before swimming down to drain it all out, is a parody of a scene in the 1989 film The Abyss, where the protagonist inhales a liquid breathing medium before venturing into the ocean depths.\nThere is also a reference to the film Alive (1993) when Randy comes to rescue the children on a helicopter. He is holding a red baby shoe, just as Nando Parrado at the end of the movie. Reception In its original American broadcast on November 18, 2009, \"Pee\" was watched", "episodes of urinary or fecal incontinence, are generally a normal part of toilet training and are usually not a sign of serious medical issues. Accidents that occur with additional problems, such as pain when urinating or defecating, chronic constipation, or blood in urine or feces, should be evaluated by a pediatrician. The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis, also known as bed wetting, may be as high as 9.7% of seven-year-olds, and 5.5% of ten-year-olds, eventually decreasing to a rate of about 0.5% in adults. Complications Toilet training can be increasingly difficult for parents of children who have certain developmental, behavioral or", "The mechanism by which voluntary urination is initiated remains unsettled. One possibility is that the voluntary relaxation of the muscles of the pelvic floor causes a sufficient downward tug on the detrusor muscle to initiate its contraction. Another possibility is the excitation or disinhibition of neurons in the pontine micturition center, which causes concurrent contraction of the bladder and relaxation of the sphincter.\nThere is an inhibitory area for micturition in the midbrain. After transection of the brain stem just above the pons, the threshold is lowered and less bladder filling is required to trigger it, whereas after transection at the", "and sometimes foul-smelling urine, while older children typically present with discomfort or pain with urination and frequent urination. Causes In healthy individuals the ureters enter the urinary bladder obliquely and run submucosally for some distance. This, in addition to the ureter's muscular attachments, helps secure and support them posteriorly. Together these features produce a valvelike effect that occludes the ureteric opening during storage and voiding of urine. In people with VUR, failure of this mechanism occurs, with resultant backward (retrograde) flow of urine. Primary VUR Insufficient submucosal length of the ureter relative to its diameter causes inadequacy of the valvular", "or are about to occur due to the loss of sensation in the rectum and the RAIR. Strong emotional reactions typically result from failed and repeated attempts to control this highly aversive bodily product. These reactions then in turn may complicate conventional treatments using stool softeners, sitting demands, and behavioral strategies.\nThe onset of encopresis is most often benign. The usual onset is associated with toilet training, demands that the child sit for long periods of time, and intense negative parental reactions to feces. Beginning school or preschool is another major environmental trigger with shared bathrooms. Feuding parents, siblings, moving, and", "urination urge only\", while 4 people responded that they experienced \"both a defecation and a urination urge\".\nThe defecation urge that is experienced has been explained to have characteristics such as \"a kind of heaving sensation in the rectal passage\", \"a dull convulsive pain in the gut\", \"a filling-up sensation in the lower abdominal area\", and \"a focusing of all nervous energy on the anal area\", and the intensity of the sensation has been variously described with expressions such as \"enough to make one scared about going to a bookstore again\", \"hellish\", and \"Armageddon-class\". Even in cases where the subject", "PEEP (iPEEP) or auto-PEEP—first described by John Marini of St. Paul Regions Hospital—is a potentially unrecognized contributor to PEEP in intubated individuals. When ventilating at high frequencies, its contribution can be substantial, particularly in people with obstructive lung disease such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). iPEEP has been measured in very few formal studies on ventilation in ARDS, and its contribution is largely unknown. Its measurement is recommended in the treatment of people who have ARDS, especially when using high-frequency (oscillatory/jet) ventilation. Prone position The position of lung infiltrates in acute respiratory distress syndrome is non-uniform.", "Urinary incontinence Mechanism Continence and micturition involve a balance between urethral closure and detrusor muscle activity. Urethral pressure normally exceeds bladder pressure, resulting in urine remaining in the bladder. The proximal urethra and bladder are both within the pelvis. Intra abdominal pressure increases (from coughing and sneezing) are transmitted to both urethra and bladder equally, leaving the pressure differential unchanged, resulting in continence. Normal voiding is the result of changes in both of these pressure factors: urethral pressure falls and bladder pressure rises.\nThe body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a", "Enuresis Signs and symptoms Nocturnal enuresis usually presents with voiding of urine during sleep in a child in whom it is difficult to wake. It may be accompanied by bladder dysfunction during the day which is termed non-mono symptomatic enuresis.↵Day time enuresis also known as urinary incontinence may also be accompanied by bladder dysfunction.\nThe symptoms of bladder dysfunction include\n1. Urge incontinence - the presence of an overwhelming urge to urinate, frequent urination, attempts to hold the urine and urinary tract infections.\n2. Voiding postponement - delaying urination in certain situations such as school\n3. Stress incontinence - incontinence that occurs in situations", "pressure frequently do accompany sexual arousal and are not cause for alarm. In fact, some interpret the symptoms of AD that occur during sexual activity as pleasant or arousing, or even climactic.\nA concern for sexual activity that is not dangerous but that can be upsetting for both partners is bladder or bowel leakage due to urinary or fecal incontinence. Couples can prepare for sex by draining the bladder using intermittent catheterization or placing towels down in advance. People with indwelling urinary catheters must take special care with them, removing them or taping them out of the way.\nBirth control is another" ]

[ "Looks price and class. That's it. When you pay for an escort you're paying for \"the girlfriend experience\" you talk to them eat with them you know go on a \"real\" date but at the end you know your getting lucky. With a whore your getting some drug addicted pimp abused woman who only wants to get you off as fast as she can so she can fuck some other guy in 10 seconds with out cleaning up. That's the difference.", "'Prostitute' is a word that describes somebody who has sex for money. It is slightly archaic, and most 'prostitutes' prefer the term 'sex worker' when talking about their profession. All sex workers are technically prostitutes. Well, almost all, as many porn, or cam, or massage girls may wish to define themselves differently.\n\nAn escort describes a certain kind of sex worker, typically one who works independently, either 'outcall' or visiting your place of residence, or 'incall' working from their own hotel or apartment. Another archaic term for escort is 'call girl'. An 'independant' girl could be truly independant, or they could use a booking agency, or they could be working a shift at a brothel and be sent on an outcall.\n\nEscorts occasionally accompany their client to social events or a restaurant, but frankly this is rare. The conceit is that they are *social* escorts that you compensate for their time, but I have never met an escort that I didn't have sex with. In 95%+ of bookings the client will meet the escort at a discrete locale primarily to have sex.\n\nThere is no 'class' of sex worker that specifically defines themselves as a prostitute. Nobody is going to say 'no, I am not an escort, I am a prostitute' or anything like that. Sex workers define themselves as 'streetwalkers', or brothel girls, or masseurs, or tantric massage providers, or many other terms describing the segment of the industry they are in.\n\nAs a client, you never ask for a 'prostitute' either. Firstly, if you are somewhere where sex work is criminalized, those laws may specifically define prostitution as an illegal act. It is hard to deny you are breaking the law, when you have specifically stated that you wish to break the law. You should speak in euphemistic terms, and ask to book an escort, or a date, or you ask the service if you could 'arrange to meet a girl'.", "They're similar and partially overlapping professions. An escort may or may not be a prostitute; a prostitute may advertise as an escort, but offers more 'services'. \n'Prostitute' effectively covers anyone you can pay for sexual 'services', from a hooker on the corner, to an expensive agency girl. Sometimes others like dominatrixes might fall into this category, or might fall outside of either. \nAn Escort could be a few different things:\n- someone you'd hire to be sexy & charming as your plus-one to an event (either if you're single or your SO couldn't make it). Nothing sexual, just to fill the expected seat. \n- someone you pay to take out on a date. Again nothing sexual, just company. \n- someone to offer either of the first two services and then all of the services offered by a prostitute afterwards too. \nUsually if you look up an escort service it'll be offering the last of these.", "Obvious throwaway.\nI once after a drug and alcohol fuelled night with my buddies, decided it was time to get laid. We ordered a couple of escorts from a page that seemed very professional. I think before they came they weren't naive enough to realize what we we're after. Once they came they we're friendly and could tell it was our first time with escorts. Each one of them paired up with one of us made quick 5 minute small talk then asked if we wanted to go somewhere private. We went with them and had a blast, but these girls set timers. Once the hour and fifty minuets was up, you could notice them starting to close it down. Right at 2 hours they were out. 7/10 would do it again.\n\nTl;DR nothing is different, they just keep track of time better, and aren't in it for crack money", "Officially, escorts do not provide sexual services. Perhaps you are a single businessman and have nobody to go along as your \"plus one\"; you book an escort.\n\nHowever, in places where prostitution is illegal, an escort agency may well be a front for actual prostitution. The authorities tend to leave escort agencies alone because all the records will show that you booked an escort for non-sexual services, and if she took a liking to you and slept with you, that's her private business so to speak. Also, the authorities in these places are more concerned with the more visible street prostitution and its attendant problems of drug abuse, human trafficking and so on." ]

[ "to prostitution, often confined to special red-light districts in big cities. Other names for brothels include bordello, whorehouse, cathouse, knocking shop, and general houses. Prostitution also occurs in some massage parlours, and in Asian countries in some barber shops where sexual services may be offered as a secondary function of the premises. Escorts Escort services may be distinguished from prostitution or other forms of prostitution in that sexual activities are often not explicitly advertised as necessarily included in these services; rather, payment is often noted as being for an escort's time and companionship only, although there is often an implicit", "assumption that sexual activities are expected.\nIn escort prostitution, the act takes place at the customer's residence or hotel room (referred to as out-call), or at the escort's residence or in a hotel room rented for the occasion by the escort (called in-call). The prostitute may be independent or working under the auspices of an escort agency. Services may be advertised over the Internet, in regional publications, or in local telephone listings.\nUse of the Internet by prostitutes and customers is common. A prostitute may use adult boards or create a website of their own with contact details, such as email addresses.", "Prostitution Etymology and terminology Prostitute is derived from the Latin prostituta. Some sources cite the verb as a composition of \"pro\" meaning \"up front\" or \"forward\" and \"stituere\", defined as \"to offer up for sale\". Another explanation is that prostituta is a composition of pro and statuere (to cause to stand, to station, place erect). A literal translation therefore is: \"to put up front for sale\" or \"to place forward\". The Online Etymology Dictionary states, \"The notion of 'sex for hire' is not inherent in the etymology, which rather suggests one 'exposed to lust' or sex 'indiscriminately offered.'\"\nThe word prostitute", "the internet.\nCorrectly or not, use of the word prostitute without specifying a sex may commonly be assumed to be female; compound terms such as male prostitution or male escort are therefore often used to identify males. Those offering services to female customers are commonly known as gigolos; those offering services to male customers are hustlers or rent boys. Procuring Organizers of prostitution may be known as pimps (if male) and madams or Mama-san (if female). More formally, one who is said to practice procuring is a procurer, or procuress. Clients Clients of prostitutes, most often men by prevalence, are", "as \"public girls\" who, day and night, received two or more men in their house, and as a woman who \"did business trading [their bodies], within the confine[s] of a brothel.\" A fourteenth-century English tract, Fasciculus Morum, states that the term prostitute (termed 'meretrix' in this document), \"must be applied only to those women who give themselves to anyone and will refuse none, and that for monetary gain\". In general prostitution was not typically a life-time career choice for women. Women usually alternated their career of prostitution with \"petty retailing, and victualing,\" or only occasionally turning to prostitution in times", "the definition of a brothel in English law is \"a place where people are allowed to resort for illicit intercourse\". It is not necessary that the premises are used for the purposes of prostitution since a brothel exists wherever more than one person offers sexual intercourse, whether for payment or not. Thus the prohibition on brothels covers premises where people go for non-commercial sexual encounters, such as certain saunas and adult clubs. However, premises which are frequented by men for intercourse with only one woman are not a brothel, and this is so whether she is a tenant or not.", "prostitute solicits customers while waiting at street corners, sometimes called \"the track\" by pimps and prostitutes alike. They usually dress in skimpy, provocative clothing, regardless of the weather. Street prostitutes are often called \"streetwalkers\" while their customers are referred to as \"tricks\" or \"johns.\" Servicing the customers is described as \"turning tricks.\" The sex is usually performed in the customer's car, in a nearby alley, or in a rented room. Motels and hotels that accommodate prostitutes commonly rent rooms by the half or full hour.\nIn Russia and other countries of the former USSR, prostitution takes the form", "denotes an area, specifically built for taxi operators by a municipality or city, where commuters may start and end their journey. Along the route Where they exist, share taxis provide service on set routes within and sometimes between towns.\nAfter a share taxi has picked up passengers at its terminus, it proceeds along a semi-fixed route where the driver may determine the actual route within an area according to traffic condition. Drivers will stop anywhere to allow riders to disembark, and may sometimes do the same when prospective passengers want to ride. Operational distinctions While all share taxis share certain characteristics—and", "Client (prostitution) Clients of prostitutes or sex workers are sometimes known as johns or tricks in North America and punters in the British Isles. In common parlance among prostitutes as well as with others, the act of negotiating and then engaging with a client is referred to as turning a trick. Female clients are sometimes called janes, although the vast majority of prostitution clients are male in almost all countries. Lexicology There are many terms for clients, including whoremonger, sex-buyer, UK slang such as punter, terms for those in a vehicle such as kerb crawler, as well as Caribbean slang", "Common prostitute \"Common prostitute\" is a term used in English law related to prostitution. The term was first used in the Vagrancy Act 1824. The term continued to be used in the Street Offences Act 1959 which maintained the illegality of street prostitution. Section 1 stated: \"It shall be an offence for a common prostitute to loiter or solicit in a street or public place for the purpose of prostitution.\"\nThe case of Director of Public Prosecutions v Bull [1994] 158 J.P. 1005 determined that the term could only be applied to female, and not male, prostitutes.\nThe term was widely regarded", "prostitution, but disguised as discos, hostels or restaurants. There is a form of prostitution often sheltered under the umbrella of escort agencies, who supply attractive escorts for social occasions; these escorts provide additional sexual services for the clients. Expensive and young prostitutes that advertise on the web and in the news stands can be easily found in the major cities and most crowded tourist resorts. Prostitution can also take place in the prostitute's apartment which may be located anywhere, from the suburban areas to expensive flats in the main town centers. Prostitution services' contacts are easily found in many magazines,", "from a vehicle parked in the non-commercial section of a truck stop parking lot, communicating through codes based on commercial driving slang, then join the driver in his truck. Window prostitution Window prostitution is a form of prostitution that is fairly common in the Netherlands and surrounding countries. The prostitute rents a window plus workspace off a window operator for a certain period of time, often per day or part of a day. The prostitute is also independent and recruits her own customers and also negotiates the price and the services to be provided. Brothels Brothels are establishments specifically dedicated", "taxis. These are normal taxis which carry one or more passengers travelling to destinations either en route to the final destination, or nearby the final destination. The passengers are charged according to the number of people with different destinations. A similar system exists for autorickshaws, known as Share autos.\nAs one example, \"Shared taxis\" – and known just as that – have been operating in Mumbai, India, since the early 1970s. These are more like a point to point service that operates only during the peak hours. During off peak hours, they ply just like the regular taxis, can be hailed", "escorts are prostitutes.\nThe English word whore derives from the Old English word hōra, from the Proto-Germanic *hōrōn (prostitute), which derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *keh₂- meaning \"desire\", a root which has also given us Latin cārus (dear), whence the French cher (dear, expensive) and the Latin cāritās (love, charity). Use of the word whore is widely considered pejorative, especially in its modern slang form of ho. In Germany, however, most prostitutes' organizations deliberately use the word Hure (whore) since they feel that prostitute is a bureaucratic term. Those seeking to remove the social stigma associated with prostitution often promote", "an intending passenger is entitled to choose any taxicab that is available for hire at an appointed taxi stand. The Commission for Taxi Regulation has deemed that the customer has the right to choose and that the principle of first come, first served, is dismissed. Around the world In some cities, such as London and New York, some older taxi stands are marked by special lamps with \"TAXI\" painted on the sides of them.\nSome major stands are divided into separate queues. For example, at the Nagoya railway station in Japan, small- and large-capacity taxis line up separately; while at", "with the Sexual Offences Act 2003) replaced most aspects of previous legislation relating to prostitution, although previous acts still remain in force. Working as a prostitute in private is not an offence, and neither is working as an outcall escort. Nor is it illegal for prostitutes to sell sex at a brothel provided they are not involved in management or control of the brothel. Street prostitution, however, is illegal. Street prostitution It is an offence to loiter or solicit persistently in a street or public place for the purpose of offering one's services as a prostitute. The term \"prostitute\" is", "or keeping a brothel (defined as more than one person selling sexual services in a given location) (S. 64). Soliciting The Policing and Crime Act 2009 (S. 20) replaced Ss 60–61 of the Sexual Offences (Northern Ireland) Order 2008 dealing with soliciting by a new offence, S. 60 \"Soliciting\":\n(1) It is an offence for a person in a street or public place to solicit another (B) for the purpose of obtaining B's sexual services as a prostitute.\n(2) The reference to a person in a street or public place includes a person in a vehicle in a street or public place.\n\n(3)", "Taxicabs of the United Kingdom Hackney carriages Only licensed hackney carriages can pick up passengers on the street and without pre-booking. London's traditional black cabs (so-called, despite being of various colours and advertising designs) are specially constructed vehicles designed to conform to the standards set out in the Conditions of Fitness. London taxi drivers are licensed and must have passed an extensive training course (the Knowledge). Unlike many other cities, the number of taxicab drivers in London is not limited. For many years purpose-designed vehicles were used, but from about 2008 specially-adapted \"people carrier\" vehicles have also been used.\nThere", "Brothel A brothel, bordello, or whorehouse is a place where people engage in sexual activity with prostitutes. Technically, any premises where prostitution commonly takes place qualifies as a brothel. However, for legal or cultural reasons, establishments often describe themselves as massage parlors, bars, strip clubs, body rub parlours, studios, or by some other description. Sex work in a brothel is considered safer than street prostitution. Legal status Around the world, attitudes towards prostitution and how and if it should be regulated vary considerably, and have varied over time. Part of the discussion impacts on whether the operation of brothels", "to pick up and set down passengers. They are known locally simply as taxi or, colloquially, twegerane, which means 'let's sit together' in the Kinyarwanda language (a conventional private taxi is referred to as a special hire or taxi voiture).\nThey almost always wait until full before departing, and can also wait for long periods in locations along the route if not enough people are on board.\nThe vehicles are usually Toyota minibuses owned by a private individual who employs a driver (Fr: chauffeur) and a conductor (Fr: convoyeur) to operate and maintain the vehicle on a day-to-day basis. Most have four", "Send me a DM [direct message]. \nThe so-called \"sasaeng taxi\" is a method used by sasaengs to follow idols to their scheduled activities or personal appointments. Such taxis charge an average of $600 a day, and will follow an idol or group for the entire day, exceeding speed limits and breaking other traffic rules. Drivers of such taxis may wait outside venues for customers.\nSuch methods, costly in terms of both time and money, have resulted in sasaeng fans missing or dropping out of school, sleeping in Internet cafes, or turning to prostitution to cover their sasaeng-related expenses.\nIn 2014, a 21-year-old", "procuring another person to work as a prostitute, providing premises for prostitution and living off the earnings of prostitution are illegal. Keeping, managing or assisting in the management of a brothel is also prohibited. Liquor licensing laws prohibit prostitution in bars.\nThe Summary Jurisdiction (Offences) Act Chapter 98 prohibits \"common prostitutes\" (women who have previously received a police warning) from soliciting in a street or public place for the purpose of prostitution. \"Male persons\" are prohibited from loitering for the purpose of prostitution, or to persistently solicit or importune for immoral purposes.\nThe laws treat prostitution offences as nuisances and penalties are", "be treated as such by concentrating them in a single neighbourhood, suggesting the \"sex industry\" was not yet commonly recognised as such. Prostitution Prostitution is a main component of the sex industry and may take place in a brothel, at a facility provided by the prostitute, at a client's hotel room, in a parked car, or on the street. Often this is arranged through a pimp or an escort agency. Prostitution involves a prostitute or sex worker providing commercial sexual services to a client. In some cases, the prostitute is at liberty to determine whether she or he will engage", "customer who wishes to take them out of the bar. In other cases, they may have a periodic quota of drinks or bar fines, or both. Prostitution Some bargirls also act as prostitutes, either on-site (with the bar effectively acting as a brothel) or by being hired upon payment of a bar fine. This practice is especially common in Asia. In South Korea, \"juicy bars\" near the gates of United States military bases provide prostitutes for soldiers.\nWhere bargirls act as prostitutes, patterns vary widely. Some seek to have as many customers as possible in a given day; these women generally", "stops for mini buses for most routes but some buses still pick up passengers at virtually any point on their routes. This practice often poses a serious inconvenience to other vehicles by disrupting the normal flow of traffic.\nTaxis have freer movement around the city and into rural areas. Their fare, while generally standard, is less regulated. Starting in 2010, all taxis must be painted yellow, a regulation designed to protect consumers and to distinguish the vehicles from others that are often used in committing crimes. All taxis are registered under the term \"Hackney Carriage\" and carry the letter H at", "Taxicab stand How stands work Stands are normally located at high-traffic locations such as airports, hotel driveways, railway stations, subway stations, bus depots, ferry terminals, shopping centres, and major street intersections. Usually stands are marked by simple painted signs. \nStands generally work as a first-come, first-served queue, so that the first taxicab to arrive on the stand (the one at the front of the line) serves the first passenger to arrive, and as the first taxicab leaves, each taxicab behind it moves ahead one spot, with the last taxicab to arrive taking the last spot.\nIn the Republic of Ireland", "did not prostitute themselwes at a brothel, but met their clients at the theater or Opera and received them in \ntheir own home or theirs, were protected from the police by a certificate of sponsorship by a client, or by having an official legal profession on paper, usually as an actress or singer. In parallel, elite brothels such as the Platskans jungfrubur, were also in practice protected from the police.\nIn 18th-century Stockholm, there were concerns that coffee houses which where managed by women, financed by former rich lovers, were in fact masked brothels, as were often pubs and bars,", "case of gay bars, or transsexual (\"kathoeys\") are employed by the bars either as dancers (in the case of go-go bars) or simply as hostesses who will encourage customers to buy them drinks. Apart from these sorts of bars, there are a number of other sex trade venues. In most of these establishments the prostitutes are directly employed, but in hotels, some bars and discos freelance prostitutes are allowed to solicit clients. Prostitutes will usually receive a commission when a customer buys drinks and sexual services can be arranged to take place on premises or elsewhere (with the latter requiring", "\"Taxi\" may ultimately be attributed to τάξις from τάσσω meaning \"to place in a certain order\" in Ancient Greek, as in commanding an orderly battle line, or in ordaining the payment of taxes, to the extent that ταξίδι (taxidi) now meaning \"journey\" in Greek initially denoted an orderly military march or campaign. Meter is from the Greek μέτρον (metron) meaning \"measure\". A \"cabriolet\" is a type of horse-drawn carriage, from the French word \"cabrioler\" (\"leap, caper\"), from Italian \"capriolare\" (\"to jump\"), from Latin \"capreolus\" (\"roebuck\", \"wild goat\"). In most European languages that word has taken on the meaning of a", "While this model recognises that a prostitute may choose to work in the trade, it declares that the trade is morally wrong. In this model, the law is designed to stop prostitution impacting on the public. An example is the England. Neo-abolitionism Neo-abolitionists believe there is no free choice for people entering prostitution, it violates their human rights and that prostitution is the sale and consumption of human bodies. Whilst prostitutes themselves commit no crime, clients and any third party involvement is criminalised; e.g. Sweden (also called the \"Swedish model\" or \"Nordic model\"). Legalization Whilst prostitution is not prohibited, there" ]

[ "Mostly Price. Where I live it costs around £1000-£1500 for 1 dental implant.", "We can and occasionally do, but why surgically rip out your teeth and implant fake ones when the originals do a fine job on their own?\n\nYou still have to clean and maintain the fakes, bacteria will try to colonize them both.", "I think you're underestimating the awesomeness of bone teeth.", "It's mainly money, but lemme tell you something.\n\nMy father is 50. He never lost all his milk teeth because the doctors in the army screwed up his teeth when he was still a teen. He had horrible teeth, all crooked, he never smiled fully cause he was embarassed of them.\n\nSo two years ago he whipped out 20k PLN and got himself full set of porcelain permanents. \n\nI don't think I've ever seen a man smile so much before.", "My grandmother had her teeth replaced and she was told without real teeth in the socket, the bone deteriorates underneath. Otherwise, barring price, we would just replace them.", "I asked my dentist sister in law this very question. Generally dental implants are weaker and more susceptible to bacteria. They are *harder* to care for than natural teeth. \n\nOf course, there may be higher end options, but the standard synthetic teeth are not ideal.", "I am in no way an expert, but I would guess money, pain and the possibility of rejection/infection. Plus, any operation that requires anesthetic carries some risk.", "The underlying issue with people considering implants over natural tooth structure boils down to maintenance. It is just like the argument 20 years ago: why should I fill the tooth, why not pull them all and put dentures in? That way I can throw them in a glass at night and never have to see a dentist! At the time this was the state-of-the-art option. Trauma aside, the number one cause of tooth loss is decay. This decay is caused by any number of strains of oral bacteria. The commercial world likes to classify these purely as \"plaque\" or in calcified form \"tartar\". This plaque not only causes decay in the natural tooth structure but will also cause significant bone loss, gum disease, infection. That is why dental professionals recommend brushing and flossing the teeth, multiple times a day. This removes food particles the bacteria feeds on as well as disturbs the biofilm on and around the teeth to prevent plaque and tartar formation. Now an implant will not decay, since the entire structure is metal and porcelain. The porcelain can still fracture due to trauma but this will not affect the underlying implant. What will cause an implant to fail is the bacteria, build up of plaque and tartar. As soon as the plaque builds up around the implant the bone starts to recede. This will rarely cause pain to the patient, and they will not notice until the implant starts to move and fall out. The basic anatomy of the implant placed in the bone is a screw like structure, it is not smooth so the bone can easily integrate around (and sometimes through) the titanium. The bacteria love rough surfaces and are attracted to these areas faster then natural smooth tooth structure. Thus the need for increased maintenance (brushing and flossing, regular hygiene visits) on these areas. What it comes down to is they have stronger, more decay resistant materials, but what they don't have is the Lazy-fool proof replacement that everyone is dreaming about.", "As someone with two dental implants and two more in my future, I would do about anything to have real teeth. They just don't feel right. I don't think there's anything they could do material wise or implant technique to fix the feeling of fake vs real. I can't invision anything that would make fake better than real.", "I had an implant a couple of years ago and asked this question.\n\nApparently it can be done, but it's about cost. For you and the dentists, who LOVE you coming back for regular treatments.\n\nImplants, BTW, will wear after about 50 years (I was told).", "Another reason natural teeth are better is that the ligament around each tooth provides sensory feedback during chewing, so we keep our jaw moving the right way. There is no equivalent for implants." ]

[ "in people.\nIn theory, stem cells taken from the patient could be coaxed in the lab turning into a tooth bud which, when implanted in the gums, will give rise to a new tooth, and would be expected to be grown in a time over three weeks. It will fuse with the jawbone and release chemicals that encourage nerves and blood vessels to connect with it. The process is similar to what happens when humans grow their original adult teeth. Many challenges remain, however, before stem cells could be a choice for the replacement of missing teeth in the future. Cochlear", "are then cut, chopped, milled and bleached (to lighten) into the individual toothpicks. Plastic toothpicks, also called dental pics, are still made in America in Georgia, by Armond's Manufacturing. The Mayo Clinic recommends using a dental pic in lieu of a wooden toothpick to clean one's teeth, as they clean more effectively and one does not risk injuring the gums.\nNowadays other means of dental hygiene are preferred such as dental floss and toothbrushes.", "metabolic problems. The use of small, frequent feedings and partial substitution of medium-chain triglycerides for polyunsaturated fats appears to be beneficial.\nPlastic surgery with implants of monolithic silicon rubber for correction of the deficient soft tissue of the face has been shown to be effective. False teeth may be useful in some cases for cosmetic reasons. Long-term treatment usually involves therapy for kidney and endocrine dysfunction.\nData on medications for APL are very limited. Thiazolidinediones have been used in the management of various types of lipodystrophies. They bind to peroxisome proliferator-activator receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma), which stimulates the transcription", "the implants that support them (a poor crown-to-root ratio). Similarly, grinding of the teeth, lack of bone or low diameter implants increase the biomechanical risk. Finally there are technological risks, where the implants themselves can fail due to fracture or a loss of retention to the teeth they are intended to support.\nFrom these theoretical risks, derive the real world complications. Long-term failures are due to either loss of bone around the tooth and/or gingiva due to peri-implantitis or a mechanical failure of the implant. Because there is no dental enamel on an implant, it does not fail due to cavities", "of dentures, artificial teeth, impression trays, maxillofacial / orthodontic appliances and temporary (provisional) restorations, however they can not be used as tooth filling materials because they can lead to pulpitis and periodontitis as they may generate heat and acids during (setting) curing, and in addition they shrink. Failure of dental restorations Fillings have a finite lifespan; composites appear to have a higher failure rate than amalgam over five to seven years. How well people keep their teeth clean and avoid cavities is probably a more important factor than the material chosen for the restoration. Evaluation and regulation of", "If performed correctly, it can be highly successful in preventing loss of teeth which would otherwise be extracted.", "Extraction of primary teeth are not considered a risk of OAC due to the presence of developing permanent teeth and the small size of a developing maxillary sinus. OAC can happen for many other reasons, such as acute or chronic inflammatory lesions around the apex of tooth root present in close proximity with the maxillary antrum, necrotic lesions of the maxilla, failure of sublabial incision to heal after Caldwell-luc antrostomy, multiple and extensive fractures of the facial region, osteomyelitis of the maxilla, injudicious use of instruments during oral procedures, malignancy of the maxillary sinus, Syphilis, malignant granuloma, radiotherapy, implant denture,", "like natural teeth. While large-scale, long-term studies are scarce, several systematic reviews estimate the long-term (five to ten years) survival of dental implants at 93–98 percent depending on their clinical use. During initial development of implant retained teeth, all crowns were attached to the teeth with screws, but more recent advancements have allowed placement of crowns on the abutments with dental cement (akin to placing a crown on a tooth). This has created the potential for cement, that escapes from under the crown during cementation to get caught in the gingiva and create a peri-implantitis (see picture below). While the", "1989 when Haywood and Heymann published an article that supported this method. Carbamide peroxide with a shelf life of one to two years, as opposed to hydrogen peroxide with a shelf life one to two months, was seen as a more stable agent for whitening teeth. Society and culture Teeth whitening has become the most promoted and mentioned methodology in cosmetic dentistry. In excess of 100 million Americans brighten their teeth using different methods; spending $15 billion in 2010. The US Food and Drug Administration only endorses gels that are under 6% hydrogen peroxide or 16% or less of carbamide", "service is only available at specialized laboratories. Treatment In 2006, retinoids and antibiotics have been used with a successful dental maintenance for one year. In the past, only Extraction of all teeth and construction of a complete denture were made.\nAn alternative to rehabilitation with conventional dental prothesis after total loss of the natural teeth was proposed by Drs Ahmad Alzahaili and his teacher Jean-François Tulasne (developer of the partial bone graft technique used). This approach entails transplanting bone extracted from the cortical external surface of the parietal bone to the patient’s mouth, affording the patient the opportunity to lead a", "a two-stage technique is the need for additional surgery and compromise of circulation to the tissue due to repeated surgeries. The choice of one or two-stages, now centers around how best to reconstruct the soft tissues around lost teeth. Immediate placement An increasingly common strategy to preserve bone and reduce treatment times includes the placement of a dental implant into a recent extraction site. On the one hand, it shortens treatment time and can improve aesthetics because the soft tissue envelope is preserved. On the other hand, implants may have a slightly higher rate of initial failure. Conclusions on this", "demethylase that modifies the methylation of homeobox and bone morphogenetic proteins. More studies are being done to differentiate genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors on methylation in teeth so that aging algorithms are more accurate.\nPreviously, measuring differences in between sets of teeth was done with calipers, but 2D and 3D imaging has become more available and allows for better accuracy of measurements. New programs are being developed to analyze these images of teeth. Mono-zygotic twin studies reveal 8-29% of changes between the twins' teeth is from the environment. Several studies of mono-zygotic twins have shown that when they have a tooth", "include full coverage crowns for MIH-affected permanent teeth. Generally cast restorations requiring tooth preparation are not recommended in young children due to large pulp size, short crown height and potential difficulties in obtaining a good impression for subgingival crown margins. Extractions A list of considerations can affect the final decision on whether extraction of the affected teeth should be carried out or should it be retained such as: severity of MIH; patient’s aesthetic expectations; whether the patient is suitable to undergo orthodontic treatment; orthodontic concerns (e.g. crowding, facial profile, missing or supernumerary teeth, presence of third molars).\nTimely extractions are often", "to correct crooked or excessively long teeth. The removed enamel is irreplaceable, and may sometimes expose dentin. It is also known as enameloplasty, odontoplasty, contouring, recontouring, slenderizing, stripping. This procedure offers fast results and can even be a substitute for braces under certain circumstances. Bonding Bonding is a process in which an enamel-like dental composite material is applied to a tooth's surface, sculpted into shape, hardened and then polished. An example of a bonding substance are inlays and onlays, which are used to repair decayed & cracked teeth. These are helped at those parts of teeth when a filling is", "scarcely time for the placement of adequate restorations. In the post-war years, children in Switzerland developed four carious teeth per year; frequently, the first permanent molars were extracted in 7 to 9-year olds for “prophylactic” reasons.\nDuring his years in the United States, Mühlemann had learned that caries incidence could be significantly reduced through fluoridation of the communal water supply. The assumption at that time was that fluoride by way of the blood vascular system would be incorporated into tooth substance during tooth development, and positively affect caries resistance. Mühlemann was able to demonstrate that fluoride was also effective when applied", "solid tooth structure, also requires a post and core, and thus, endodontic treatment, the total combined time, effort and cost of the various procedures, as well as the impaired prognosis due to the combined inherent failure rates of each procedure, might combine to make it reasonable to have the tooth extracted. If the patient and the extraction site make for eligible candidates, it might be possible to have an implant placed and restored with more esthetic, timely, inexpensive and reliable results. It is important to consider the many options available during the treatment planning stages of dental care.\nAn alternative", "therapy on teeth that develop abscesses as a resultant of obliteration of the pulp chambers and root canals. An alternative to conventional therapy would be retrograde filling and periapical curettage. However, these therapies are not recommended for teeth with roots that are too short. Removable dentures Teeth with short thin roots and marked cervical constrictions are less favourable for indirect restorations such as crown placements. If endodontics treatment fails, and abscess develops around the root apex, extraction of the affected teeth would be the best treatment option. Dentures or over dentures can be considered, as rehabilitation until growth is completed.", "bright pink, very strong attached mucosa, then a darker, larger area of unattached mucosa that folds into the cheeks. When replacing a tooth with an implant, a band of strong, attached gingiva is needed to keep the implant healthy in the long-term. This is especially important with implants because the blood supply is more precarious in the gingiva surrounding an implant, and is theoretically more susceptible to injury because of a longer attachment to the implant than on a tooth (a longer biologic width).\nWhen an adequate band of attached tissue is absent, it can be recreated with a soft tissue", "of damage or disease due to the loosening of their attachment within the gums and bones of the jaw. Should gum recession continue, bone and keratinized tissue will be at a greater risk of being damaged and permanently lost around the teeth. The aim of a gum graft is to extend keratinized tissue of the gums to cover tooth roots, which restores their firm placement within the jaw and prevents further damage. Options in gum grafting Traditional gum grafting will have a piece of the gums harvested from the roof of the mouth and sutured facing the exposed root to", "tooth after it has undergone endodontic therapy. Its physical and chemical properties, including but not limited to its inertness and biocompatibility, melting point, ductility, and malleability, make it important in endodontics, e.g. as gutta-percha points. Zinc oxide is added to reduce brittleness and improve plasticity. Barium sulfate is added to provide radiopacity so that its presence and location can be verified in dental X-ray images. Substitutes Gutta-percha remained an industrial staple well into the 20th century, when it was gradually replaced with superior synthetic materials such as Bakelite, though a similar and cheaper natural material called balatá was often used", "and flossing, if that's not possible, to prevent tooth decay and increase saliva production. Chewing gum can also help with the lack of saliva or xerostomia since it naturally stimulates saliva production. Saliva is made of chemicals, such as organic molecules, inorganic ions and macromolecules. 0.5% of saliva deals with dental health, since tooth enamel is made of calcium phosphate, those inorganic ions in saliva help repair the teeth and keep them in good condition. The pH of saliva is neutral, which having a pH of 7 allows it to remineralize tooth enamel. Falling below a pH of 5.5 (which", "components, CAD/CAM prosthetics, and biomaterials. Dental implants can replace single or multiple missing teeth. They are placed in a patient's jaw bone to provide a fixation for any prosthetic add-on, such as a crown, similar to the way the root of a tooth provides firm anchoring. There are several implant types that differ in their shape with their use depending on patients’ medical treatment requirements and the clinician's preference. Manufacturing plants for dental implants are based in Karlskoga (Sweden), Yorba Linda (USA) and Tel Aviv (Israel). Under the brand name NobelProcera, Nobel Biocare has a portfolio of dental prosthetic solutions", "in adhering to the surface of teeth. As the polymers accumulate, they help more acid-producing bacteria stay on teeth. Consequently, glucansucrase is such an attractive drug target to prevent tooth decay. If S. mutans can no longer break down sucrose and synthesize glucan, calcium phosphate is not degraded and bacteria cannot adhere as easily to teeth. Industry Bacteria with glucansucrase enzymes are used extensively in industry for a variety of applications. The polymer dextran is one prominent example of a very useful polymer. It is produced at commercial scale for uses in veterinary medicine, separation technology, biotechnology, the food industry", "of cosmetic gum lifts was first developed in the late 1980s, but there were few oral surgeons and dental practitioners available to perform the procedures. Gum lifts can also include bone shaping to reduce the prominence of the upper jaw and even out the tooth and gum ratio. This method provides permanent results, while simple gum contouring may result in relapse or regrowth of the gingiva. Advantages •Improves aesthetics of anterior teeth.\n•Requires minimal removal of soft tissue.\n•Does not compromise the periodontal structures.\n•Can correct uneven gingival zeniths (the most apical portion of the free gingiva). \n•Can lengthen clinical crown height (which", "together with stromal cells, creating an environment that mimics the conditions of bone marrow, the natural site of red-blood-cell growth. Erythropoietin, a growth factor, is added, coaxing the stem cells to complete terminal differentiation into red blood cells. Further research into this technique should have potential benefits to gene therapy, blood transfusion, and topical medicine. Regrowing teeth In 2004, scientists at King's College London discovered a way to cultivate a complete tooth in mice and were able to grow bioengineered teeth stand-alone in the laboratory. Researchers are confident that the tooth regeneration technology can be used to grow live teeth", "teeth with minimal trauma to the bone and surrounding tissues. It is especially useful in patients who are highly susceptible to complications such as bleeding, necrosis, or jaw fracture. It can also preserve bone for subsequent implant placement. Techniques involve minimal use of forceps, which damage socket walls, relying instead on luxators, elevators and syndesmotomy. History Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. Before the discovery of antibiotics, chronic tooth infections were often linked to a variety of health problems, and therefore removal of a diseased tooth was a common treatment for various medical conditions.", "removal of dental plaque and food from the teeth, it can aid in the elimination and/or masking of halitosis when tonsil stones are not the cause, and it can deliver active ingredients such as fluoride to prevent tooth and gum (gingiva) disease.\nThere is evidence that the addition of xylitol to fluoride-containing toothpastes reduces incidence of tooth decay by about 13%. Tooth powder Tooth powder (or 'toothpaste powder') is an alternative to toothpaste. It may be recommended for people with sensitive teeth. Tooth powder typically does not contain the chemical sodium lauryl sulphate which can be a skin irritant.", "maintain the surrounding dental tissues.\nRemovable dental prostheses (mainly dentures) are sometimes considered a form of indirect dental restoration, as they are made to replace missing teeth. There are numerous types of precision attachments (also known as combined restorations) to aid removable prosthetic attachment to teeth, including magnets, clips, hooks, and implants which may themselves be seen as a form of dental restoration.\nThe CEREC method is a chairside CAD/CAM restorative procedure. An optical impression of the prepared tooth is taken using a camera. Next, the specific software takes the digital picture and converts it into a 3D virtual model on the", "walls of the cavity preparation. This makes the tooth slightly more vulnerable to microleakage and recurrent decay. Microleakage can be minimized or eliminated by utilizing proper handling techniques and appropriate material selection.\nIn some circumstances, less tooth structure can be removed compared to preparation for other dental materials such as amalgam and many of the indirect methods of restoration. This is because composite resins bind to enamel (and dentin too, although not as well) via a micromechanical bond. As conservation of tooth structure is a key ingredient in tooth preservation, many dentists prefer placing materials like composite instead of amalgam", "a sufficient ferrule, but it was found that excessive amount of teeth removal may cause fracture to the teeth. The literature suggests that endocrowns may perform similarly or better than the conventional treatments using intraradicular posts, direct composite resin or inlay/onlay restorations. Indications and contraindications Endocrowns are especially indicated in cases of molar teeth with short, or fragile roots. They may also be used in situations of excessive loss of coronal dental tissue. Reinforced, acid etchable dental ceramics have been the materials of choice for the fabrication of endocrowns, because they guarantee the mechanical strength needed to withstand the forces" ]

[ "They get it from the food that they eat. Whales, and dolphins, can't starve to death, they die of dehydration first. \n\nThey do get a little bit from sea water but their kidneys can't remove much salt so if they accidentally drink too much sea water when they eat that could kill them." ]

[ "however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing urine more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.\nBaleen whales have a relatively small brain compared to their body mass. Like other mammals, their brain has a large, folded cerebrum, the part of the brain responsible for memory and processing sensory information. Their cerebrum only makes up about", "year when deprived of all food and water, surviving by breaking down their body fat to produce water as a byproduct. Tortoises also have very slow metabolisms. When thirsty, they may drink large quantities of water very quickly, storing it in their bladders and the \"root of the neck\" (the pericardium), both of which served to make them useful water sources on ships. On arid islands, tortoises lick morning dew from boulders, and the repeated action over many generations has formed half-sphere depressions in the rock. Senses Regarding their senses, Charles Darwin observed, \"The inhabitants believe that these animals are", "water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water (to the more negative surroundings) and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to. However, some fish show a tremendous ability to effectively osmoregulate across a broad range of salinities; fish with this ability are known as euryhaline species, e.g., salmon. Salmon has been observed to", "(dilute) urine to expel all the excess water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to. However, some fish show a tremendous ability to effectively osmoregulate across a broad range of salinities; fish with this ability are known as euryhaline species, e.g., Flounder. Flounder have been", "juvenile dandelions and different species of lettuce, though like very many plants, they should be fed rarely due to potentially harmful side effects (for the former) or a lack of nutritional value (for the latter). \nWater is important for all species, but the tortoise, being an arid species, will typically get water from their food, but they still need a constant supply. Tortoises should be soaked in warm water up to the mid shell. Tortoises typically empty their bowels in water as to hide their scent, this is an instinct, and it also helps keep their enclosure cleaner.\nRussian tortoises do", "off branches.\nAs they need a regular intake of water in their diet, they prefer living in places with a nearby water source. However, some adaptations they possess help them to survive even in the lack of water by maintaining a sufficient quantity of it in their body. They produce very dry dung compared to domestic cattle. In deserts, they can get their required water from the moisture of succulent plants. Another way in which they conserve water is by resting in the day and feeding at night, so that they minimize the water quantity required to cool themselves.\nSeveral studies have", "sheep and would even be viable in the absence of any bore water at all. The ecological arguments for kangaroos replacing sheep and cattle as arid land livestock are compelling, though they must be set against objections of kangaroos' lack of domestication and breeding rate.\nKangaroos are eaten in most states.", "chicks to avoid them chilling. Many animals drink by licking. While young mammals drink milk from their mothers' teats by sucking, the typical method of drinking for adult mammals involves dipping the tongue repeatedly into water and using it to scoop water into the mouth. This method of drinking relies in part on the water adhering to the surface of the tongue and in part on muscular control of the tongue to form it into a spoonlike shape. Cattle, horses and other animals lick rocks, salt licks or other objects to obtain mineral nutrients.\nGustation: Animals also use", "on wildlife conservation, toxicity, and animal rights grounds. Whale meat can be prepared in various ways, including salt-curing, which means that consumption is not necessarily restricted to coastal communities. History Whales were hunted in European waters throughout the Middle Ages for their meat and oil. Under Catholicism, aquatic creatures were generally considered \"fish\", therefore whale was deemed suitable for eating during Lent and other \"lean periods\". An alternative explanation is that the Church considered \"hot meat\" to raise the libido, making it unfit for holy days. Parts submerged in water, such as whale or beaver tails, were considered \"cold meat.\"", "example is freshwater fish. The gills actively uptake salt from the environment by the use of mitochondria-rich cells. Water will diffuse into the fish, so it excretes a very hypotonic (dilute) urine to expel all the excess water. A marine fish has an internal osmotic concentration lower than that of the surrounding seawater, so it tends to lose water and gain salt. It actively excretes salt out from the gills. Most fish are stenohaline, which means they are restricted to either salt or fresh water and cannot survive in water with a different salt concentration than they are adapted to.", "tide. It is for them not possible to keep herds and live on milk such as the surrounding tribes. They cannot even fight with wild animals, because all the bush country lies too far away. They braid ropes of sedges and rushes from the marshes with which they make nets to be able to catch fish, and they dig up mud with their hands and dry it more in wind than in the sun, and with soil as fuel they heat their food and their own bodies, frozen in northern wind. Their only drink comes from storing rain water in", "observed to inhabit two utterly disparate environments—marine and fresh water—and it is inherent to adapt to both by bringing in behavioral and physiological modifications.\nSome marine fish, like sharks, have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea damages living tissues so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain trimethylamine oxide. This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like fresh water fish. In plants While there are", "environment provides plenty of food for the animal, besides small fish, the animal could also feed on lake invertebrates. Orthosuchus has a small salt-secreting gland, which indicates that it is not a marine animal. And because the pubis articulates with the front region of the ischium, it is believed to be a basal animal that lived in swamps and lakes. The animal is probably quadrupedal because the fore limbs are approximately 91% the length of the hind limb, which also makes the walking on land easier. Unlike modern crocodiles, Orthosuchus does not creep on its belly; it probably walks at", "livestock for food and water, although dietary overlap in some habitats may be high only when food is limiting. When it comes to water, feral goats can even exclude some animals aggressively. The goats can cause water levels in rock holes to be so lowered as to exclude other animals or cause animals to fall in, drown and consequently, pollute the supply. Goat dung can be deposited around waterholes and springs to a depth of several centimeters. Dung, along with the bodies of goats that fall in water and decompose, is likely to eutrophicate the water and have a major", "animals) or salt water (marine animals). However, the adjective marine is most commonly used for animals that live in saltwater, i.e. in oceans, seas, etc.\nAquatic animals (especially freshwater animals) are often of special concern to conservationists because of the fragility of their environments. Aquatic animals are subject to pressure from overfishing, destructive fishing, marine pollution and climate change. Air-breathing aquatic animals In addition to water breathing animals, e.g., fish, most mollusks etc., the term \"aquatic animal\" can be applied to air-breathing aquatic or sea mammals such as those in the orders Cetacea (whales) and Sirenia (sea cows), which cannot survive", "them with modern-day whales. Most studies in the 19th and early 20th centuries concluded that sauropods were too large to have supported their weight on land, and therefore that they must have been mainly aquatic. Most life restorations of sauropods in art through the first three quarters of the 20th century depicted them fully or partially immersed in water. This early notion was cast in doubt beginning in the 1950s, when a study by Kermack (1951) demonstrated that, if the animal were submerged in several metres of water, the pressure would be enough to fatally collapse the lungs and airway.", "another species, A. franciscana. Unlike most aquatic animals, Artemia swims upside down.\nArtemia can live in water having much more or much less salt content than normal seawater. They tolerate salt amounts as high as 50%, which is nearly a saturated solution, and can live for several days in solutions very different from sea water, such as potassium permanganate or silver nitrate, while iodine—a frequent addition to edible salt—is harmful to them. The animal's colour depends on the salt concentration, with high concentrations giving them a slightly red appearance. In fresh water, Artemia salina dies after about an hour. It", "the same when they are living in water, making ammonia and no urea, but when the water dries up and they are forced to burrow down in the mud, they switch to urea production. Like cartilaginous fishes, the coelacanth can store urea in its blood, as can the only known amphibians that can live for long periods of time in salt water (the toad Bufo marinus and the frog Rana cancrivora). These are traits they have inherited from their ancestors.\nIf early tetrapods lived in freshwater, and if they lost the ability to produce urea and used ammonia only, they would", "Saltwater fish Saltwater fish, also called marine fish, are fish that live in ocean water. Saltwater fish can swim and live alone or live in a large group together, called a school of fish. Saltwater fish are very popular among deep sea fishermen and aquariums all over the country. Saltwater fish are very commonly kept in aquariums for entertainment. Many saltwater fish are also caught to be eaten. Diet Fish that live in the ocean can be carnivores, herbivores, or omnivores. Herbivores in the ocean eat things such as algae and flowering seagrasses. Many herbivores' diets consist of", "take schooling fish, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. All baleen whales except the gray whale feed near the water surface, rarely diving deeper than 100 m (330 ft) or for extended periods. Gray whales live in shallow waters feeding primarily on bottom-living organisms such as amphipods. Sponges Sponges have no true circulatory system; instead, they create a water current which is used for circulation. Dissolved gases are brought to cells and enter the cells via simple diffusion. Metabolic wastes are also transferred to the water through diffusion. Sponges pump remarkable amounts of water. Leuconia, for example, is a small leuconoid", "in less cyclical water flow in river and stream systems. This disruption to fresh water cycles disrupts the feeding, mating, and migration patterns of organisms reliant on fresh water ecosystems. Additionally, the encroachment of saline water into fresh water river systems endangers indigenous species which can only survive in fresh water. Species migration In 2010, a gray whale was found in the Mediterranean Sea, even though the species had not been seen in the North Atlantic Ocean since the 18th century. The whale is thought to have migrated from the Pacific Ocean via the Arctic. Climate Change &", "a special problem for osmoregulation: plant matter contains more potassium and has less nutritional content per gram than meat so more must be eaten to meet the lizard's metabolic needs. Unlike mammals, reptile kidneys cannot concentrate urine to save on water intake. Instead reptiles excrete toxic nitrogenous wastes as solid uric acid through their cloaca. In the case of the rock iguana which consumes large amounts of vegetation, these excess salt ions are excreted through their salt gland in the same manner as birds.\nThe record for the longest lived captive-born rock iguana is held by a Lesser Caymans iguana, which", "inhabit two utterly disparate environments — marine and fresh water — and it is inherent to adapt to both by bringing in behavioral and physiological modifications.\nSome marine fish, like sharks, have adopted a different, efficient mechanism to conserve water, i.e., osmoregulation. They retain urea in their blood in relatively higher concentration. Urea is damaging to living tissue so, to cope with this problem, some fish retain trimethylamine oxide. This provides a better solution to urea's toxicity. Sharks, having slightly higher solute concentration (i.e., above 1000 mOsm which is sea solute concentration), do not drink water like marine fish.", "and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as harvesting sea mammals such as seal, walrus, and whales. They processed fish and sea mammals in a variety of ways: dried, smoked, or roasted. Caribou, musk oxen, deer, moose, whale, and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. They dried berries. They were also processed as alutiqqutigaq, a mixture of berries, fat, and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale is a delicacy, as is that of walrus.\nToday, many Aleut continue to eat customary and locally sourced foods but also", "is more likely to have calculi. Amphibians Most aquatic and semi-aquatic amphibians have a membranous skin which allows them to absorb water directly through it. Some semi-aquatic animals also have similarly permeable bladder membrane. As a result, they tend to have high rates of urine production to offset this high water intake, and have urine which is low in dissolved salts. The urinary bladder assists such animals to retain salts. Some aquatic amphibian such as Xenopus do not reabsorb water, to prevent excessive water influx. For land-dwelling amphibians, dehydration results in reduced urine output.\nThe amphibian bladder is usually highly distensible", "cannot survive in a highly salty environment, due to the hypertonic nature of salt. Any living cell in such an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and die or become temporarily inactivated.\nThe water activity, aw, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic", "can store over 40% of the tortoise's body weight in water, urea, uric acid, and nitrogenous wastes. During very dry times, they may give off waste as a white paste rather than a watery urine. During periods of adequate rainfall, they drink copiously from any pools they find, and eliminate solid urates. The tortoises can increase their body weight by up to 40% after copious drinking. Adult tortoises can survive a year or more without access to water. During the summer and dry seasons, they rely on the water contained within cactus fruits and mesquite grass. To maintain sufficient water,", "repertoire.\nPigs are genetically related to animals such as hippopotamus and whales. It has been argued that wallowing behaviour and the desire to be in shallow, murky water could have been a step to the evolution of whales and other marine mammals from land-dwelling mammals. Sumatran rhinoceros The Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus Sumatrensis) spends a large part of its day wallowing. When mud holes are unavailable, the rhino will deepen puddles with its feet and horns. One 20-month study of wallowing behaviour found they will visit no more than three wallows at any given time. After two to 12 weeks using a", "water with nutrient-poor water at the surface. Until recently it has been assumed that they spend the day at greater depths and rise during the night toward the surface. It has been found that the deeper they go, the more they reduce their activity, apparently to reduce encounters with predators and to conserve energy.\nLater work suggested that swimming activity in krill varied with stomach fullness. Satiated animals that had been feeding at the surface swim less actively and therefor sink below the mixed layer. As they sink they produce faeces which may mean that they have an important role to", "can extract useful water from it is not yet certain. Domesticated camels are unable to drink such salty water. Description The Bactrian camel is the largest mammal in its native range and is the largest living camel. Shoulder height is from 180 to 230 cm (5.9 to 7.5 ft), head-and-body length is 225–350 cm (7.38–11.48 ft), and the tail length is 35–55 cm (14–22 in). At the top of the humps, the average height is 213 cm (6.99 ft). Body mass can range from 300 to 1,000 kg (660 to 2,200 lb), with males often being much larger and heavier than females. Its long, wooly coat varies in colour from" ]

[ "You've kind of hit the nail on the head. It tends to vary from place to place, but I think a lot of law enforcement organisations don't see a great deal of point going after small-time drug dealers. As you say, there's always going to be demand for drugs and if any police do turn up it's pretty easy just to disappear.\n\nIn Japan, 'grey area' industries like prostitution and drug dealing are technically illegal, but run by the Yakuza, who's existence is tolerated by the state. They don't want to make that stuff legal, but it's going to happen, so better that it happens in the open.", "You illustrated the answer with your words \"...peacefully, almost kindly ask you if you are interested in drugs\". Why should the police make a fuss over people doing anything peacefully and kindly? The police in many civilized countries (i.e. not America) would rather spend their time dealing with people who are being unpeaceful and unkind." ]

[ "of serious international crimes, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes helps to strengthen the rule of law by sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties. It also demonstrates that crime will not be tolerated, and that human rights abusers will be held accountable for their actions. From its historical roots in the Nuremberg Trials, recent examples have included International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, hybrid courts such as Special Court for Sierra Leone, Special Panels of the Dili District Court, Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia, Court of", "adopt efficient measures in their national laws to combat serious crime and to deprive criminals of the fruits of their illicit activities. Once again, wide discrepancy in national legislations and lack of powers for some law enforcement agencies was sometimes exploited by criminals to avoid detection and punishment.\nA third purpose of the Convention was to complement already existing instruments, drawn up within the framework of the Council of Europe, such as the European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters, the European Convention on the International Validity of Criminal Judgments and the European Convention on the Transfer of Proceedings in", "agents were bribing officials.\nEuropean states also ratified the Council of Europe's Criminal and Civil Law Convention on Corruption, which were adopted in 1999. The former was an addition extended by passing the Additional Protocol to the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption. The two conventions on criminal law were signed by Belarus and all Council of Europe members, with the exception of Estonia, which abstains from the Additional Protocol. The Criminal Law Convention is currently by 48 States, while the Additional Protocol is signed by 44 countries. Both conventions are aiming at the protection of judicial authorities against the negative impact", "in general – whether the authorities actually enforce the disputed law or not. Other definitions Legislatures can pass laws (called mala prohibita) that define crimes against social norms. These laws vary from time to time and from place to place: note variations in gambling laws, for example, and the prohibition or encouragement of duelling in history. Other crimes, called mala in se, count as outlawed in almost all societies, (murder, theft and rape, for example).\nEnglish criminal law and the related criminal law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation:", "other members, illustrates how powerful the code of silence can be. In Australia in 1994, by 46 votes to 45, independent politician John Hatton forced the New South Wales state government to override the Independent Commission Against Corruption and the advice of senior police to establish a ground-breaking Royal Commission into Police Corruption However, in a number of countries, such as China, Pakistan, Malaysia, Russia, Ukraine, Brazil or Mexico, police corruption remains to be one of the largest social problems facing their countries. Austria Until 2010, few corruption cases have been prosecuted against the Austrian police. There have been a", "International Criminal Court History The establishment of an international tribunal to judge political leaders accused of international crimes was first proposed during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 following the First World War by the Commission of Responsibilities. The issue was addressed again at a conference held in Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations in 1937, which resulted in the conclusion of the first convention stipulating the establishment of a permanent international court to try acts of international terrorism. The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it and the convention never entered into force.\nFollowing", "loyalty systems that favor bureaucratic power among political elites. Phone tapping and business raids are common practice in the country, and often fail to give due process to citizens. Proper investigations of police officials still remains lacking by western standards.\nIn 2012, Russia's top investigative agency investigated charges that four police officers had tortured detainees under custody. Human rights activists claim that Russian police use torture techniques to extract false confessions from detainees. Police regulations require quotas of officers for solved crimes, a practice that encourages false arrests to meet their numbers. Slovakia Police brutality in Slovakia is systematic and widely", "bribing domestic officials was criminalized in most countries even before the ratification of international conventions and treaties, many national law systems did not recognize bribing foreign officials, or more sophisticated methods of corruption as illegal. Only after ratifying and implementing above mentioned conventions the illegal character of those offenses was fully recognized. Where legislation existed prior to the ratification of the OECD convention, the implementation resulted in an increased compliance with the legal framework.\nCorruption is often addressed by specialized investigative or prosecution authorities, often labelled as anti-corruption agencies (ACA) that are tasked with varying duties, subject to varying degrees of", "Inter-American Convention Against Corruption (IACAC). The Convention, which targeted both active and passive bribing, came into force in 1997. It is currently ratified by all 34 active OAS-Member States. Europe In 1997 the European Union (EU) adopted the EU Convention against corruption involving officials, which makes it illegal to engage in corrupt activities with officials from the European Union's administrative staff, or with officials from any member state of the EU. It forces the signatories to outlaw both active and passive bribing which involves any aforementioned official. Liability for unlawful actions is extend to the heads of those entities, whose", "jus cogens.\nIn 1993, Belgium passed a \"law of universal jurisdiction\" to give its courts jurisdiction over crimes against humanity in other countries. In 1998, Augusto Pinochet was arrested in London following an indictment by Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón under the universal-jurisdiction principle.\nThe principle is supported by Amnesty International and other human rights organisations, which believe that certain crimes pose a threat to the international community as a whole, and that the community has a moral duty to act.\nOthers, like Henry Kissinger, argue that \"widespread agreement that human rights violations and crimes against humanity must be prosecuted has hindered active consideration", "in the European Court of Justice but upheld. As of 2007, the only other criminal law proposals which have been brought forward are on the intellectual property rights directive, and on an amendment to the 2002 counter-terrorism framework decision, outlawing terrorism‑related incitement, recruitment (especially via the internet) and training. Enforcement Once legislation is passed by the Council and Parliament, it is the Commission's responsibility to ensure it is implemented. It does this through the member states or through its agencies. In adopting the necessary technical measures, the Commission is assisted by committees made up of representatives of member states and", "to protect and enforce their illicit interests.\nThe Mexican police force often do not investigate crimes, will generally randomly select someone to be the guilty party then fabricate the evidence. This issue is a major problem throughout Mexico as many of the actual police force are the ones involved in the crimes or are trying to cover up their poor police work. Corruption in the judiciary A United Nations Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Mexico in 2002 to investigate reports by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights that the country's judiciary and administration of law was not independent. During", "criminalization is of particular importance in the case of terrorism. The criminalization of terrorist acts expresses society's repugnance at them, invokes social censure and shame, and stigmatizes those who commit them. Moreover, by creating and reaffirming values, criminalization may serve, in the long run, as a deterrent to terrorism, as those values are internalized.\" Thus, international criminal law treaties that seek to prevent, condemn and punish terrorist activities, require precise definitions:\nThe definition of the offence in criminal law treaty plays several roles. First and foremost, it has the symbolic, normative role of expressing society's condemnation of the", "private sectors, protected whistleblowers, and prohibited corrupt officials from holding certain administrative positions. But proper enforcement of the law continues to be complicated by a slow, overburdened judiciary.\nThere are effective means of investigating police abuse and corruption, but the process is hampered by slow courts. The Code of Conduct of Public Officials includes detailed prescriptions involving transparency, conflicts of interest, and gifts. There are also Rules on Protocol Gifts that forbid gifts to public officials, who are required to report their assets.\nItaly is a signatory to the Council of Europe’s Civil and Criminal Law Conventions against Corruption , the UNCAC,", "greatly influenced criminal courts even in states that have not directly drawn from it, and judges increasingly use the MPC as a source of the doctrines and principles underlying criminal liability. Unlawful acts explicitly set forth Another important feature is that under the MPC, any action not explicitly outlawed is legal. This concept follows the saying, \"That which is not forbidden is allowed\" as opposed to \"That which is not allowed is forbidden.\" Legal scholars contrast the MPC's limits with laws passed by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, which allowed people to be punished for acts not specifically outlawed", "rights violations.\nInvestigations and trials of leaders who have committed crimes and caused mass political or military atrocities is a key demand of victims of human rights abuses. Prosecution of such criminals can play a key role in restoring dignity to victims, and restoring trusting relationships in society.\nThe International Criminal Court, as described below, can play an important role in prosecuting international crimes in cases where domestic courts are unwilling or unable to do so. International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (French: Cour Pénale Internationale; commonly referred to as the ICC or ICCt) is a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals", "(1828) and the canton of Glarus in Switzerland (1851).\nUnder codified legal systems such as France, torture was superseded with a legal system that is highly dependent on investigating magistrates and the confession remains The Queen of Proofs. Such magistrates are often under pressure to produce results. It is alleged that in many cases police violence towards suspects has been ignored by the magistrates. In the adversarial system of Common Law used throughout the English-speaking world, the experience is a different one. As the two parties have to convince a jury whether the defendant in a case is", "approaches to be studied included \"more effective procedures considered to be appropriate for bringing them to justice through prosecution or extradition,\" freezing financial assets, travel restrictions and arms embargoes.\nThe text called on countries to prevent and punish \"criminal acts, including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act.\" Such", "the law then was mostly up to the private citizens, who had the right and duty to prosecute crimes in which they were involved or in which they were not. At the cry of 'murder!' or 'stop thief!' everyone was entitled and obliged to join the pursuit. Once the criminal had been apprehended, the parish constables and night watchmen, who were the only public figures provided by the state and who were typically part-time and local, would make the arrest.\nAs a result, the state set a reward to encourage citizens to arrest and prosecute offenders. The first of such rewards", "the country and to keep the current procedure. Arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of life While the government or its agents did not commit any politically motivated killings, there are reports that police committed killings involving unwarranted or excessive force. Generally, officers accused of wrongdoing are administratively suspended until completion of an investigation. Authorities investigated and in some cases detained, prosecuted, and convicted the officers involved.\nThe non-governmental organization (NGO) Coordinator Against Police Repression (CORREPI) reported that security forces using excessive force killed more than 200 persons each year.\nIn January 2008 local victim advocacy organization Madres del Dolor lodged with court a", "benefit, but instead to ensure the effective performance of their functions on behalf of their respective states. The court also stated that when abroad, state officials may enjoy immunity from arrest in another state on criminal charges, including charges of war crimes or crimes against humanity. But the ICJ qualified its conclusions, saying that state officers \"may be subject to criminal proceedings before certain international criminal courts, where they have jurisdiction. Examples include the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ..., and the future International Criminal Court.\"\nIn 2003, Charles Taylor, the former president", "Preventive police Preventive police is that aspect of law enforcement intended to act as a deterrent to the commission of crime. Preventive policing is considered a defining characteristic of the modern police, typically associated with Robert Peel's London Metropolitan Police, established in 1829. Reliance upon executions In the century following 1688, severe punishment was the legal mechanism in England for preventing crime, which included the designations of hundreds of crimes as capital crimes, punishable by death. Public executions were part of the formula, designed to deter criminals by demonstrating the brutal consequences of crime if apprehended.\nReformers argued that this method", "criminal activities or events. Crime Stoppers was developed to enable the public to participate without fear of reprisal and to make it easier for witnesses to volunteer information anonymously. There have been challenges to this aspect. History Crime Stoppers first began in Albuquerque, New Mexico in July 1976. That month Michael Carmen was fatally shot while he was working at night at a local filling station. After two weeks the police had not been able to gather any information about the killing. Detective Greg MacAleese approached the local television station to request they film a reconstruction of the crime. When", "fact night watchmen, constables and justices of the peace were not obligated to prosecute felons, but played a marginal role: night watchmen only provided surveillance for petty crimes, made rounds at night as a deterrent, and hosted those felons on hold to be brought before a justice of the peace the next day; while constables passively arrested people charged with a crime when already apprehended, and took them before a justice of the peace.\nAs a consequence, law enforcement was mainly a private matter. Capture, prosecution and provision of evidence for the conviction of serious offenders in trials were at", "defendant, exist outside Europe and North America. Police in some Latin American countries have those arrested confess to the crime before the cameras. In Mexico, the equivalent practice is called a presentacion (Spanish for \"introduction\"). Defendants suspected of involvement in the drug trade are posed for pictures surrounded by weapons, cash, and drugs, clothed in whatever they were wearing when arrested. Presentaciones have drawn criticisms similar to those directed at the perp walk.\nIn some Asian countries an arrested suspect is also exposed to the media. Police in Japan and South Korea often invite the media to re-enactments of crimes staged", "on the one hand, bring justice by holding individuals accountable for their wrongdoing, justice can be achieved by sanctioning those corrupted individuals, and potential criminals are deterred by having the consequences of their potential actions demonstrated to them. International law Approaching the fight against corruption in an international setting is often seen as preferential over addressing it exclusively in the context of the nation state. The reasons for such preference are multidimensional, ranging from the necessary international cooperation for tracing international corruption scandals, to the binding nature of international treaties, and the loss in relative competitiveness by outlawing an activity", "steps towards the institution of permanent courts with supranational jurisdiction. With the Hague International Peace Conferences, representatives of the most powerful nations made an attempt to harmonize laws of war and to limit the use of technologically advanced weapons. After World War I and even more after the heinous crimes committed during World War II, it became a priority to prosecute individuals responsible for egregious crimes so serious that they needed to be exemplified by being referred to as called \"crimes against humanity\". In order to re-affirm basic principles of democratic civilisation, the alleged criminals were not executed in public", "the criminal system: enforcement of foreign sentences, sales of pawns, exile criminals and the unwanted replaced all those magistratures that did not operate during public holidays.", "Crime against peace A crime against peace, in international law, is \"planning, preparation, initiation, or waging of wars of aggression, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing\". This definition of crimes against peace was first incorporated into the Nuremberg Principles and later included in the United Nations Charter. This definition would play a part in defining aggression as a crime against peace. It can also refer to the core international crimes set out in Rome Statute of the International Criminal", "in Australia under the Crimes Act 1914, and in the United Kingdom under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000. Controlled operations Controlled operations, an action by a law enforcement agency to allow a criminal act to occur, for example the importation of illicit substances, so that as many of the subjects involved in the act can be identified as possible during the process of importation. A controlled operation typically includes the substitution of all of the illicit substances, or the significant majority of them, by the law enforcement agency with similar looking but benign materials.\nIn open societies, controlled" ]

[ "Actions speak louder than words. Movement can encode aggression or play or healing or prayer or mating or celebration or grief. \n\nMovement attracts attention because people need to know how to interpret your intentions. Someone dancing through the front door of a bank will draw a different attention than someone dancing the same way through the door of a club, so context is also in play.\n\nAny gesture or movement, done in unison by a group, becomes a rhythmic dance that encodes some agreed on meaning; waving baseball caps up and down in the dugout helps the batter get a hit, or at least feel the support of his teammates.\n\nNow for the music side of your question. Music induces emotions in the audience. Good musical technique has been defined as the audience experiencing the emotions that the musician has prepared for them. \n\nThe derivation of the word 'emotion' contains this: from Latin emovere \"move out, remove, agitate,\". This are all actions.\n\nSo the simple answer is that music can make a group of people feel emotional, and if the emotions are strong enough, the group will move their bodies (dancing, fists in the air and shouting). Getting our emotions outside of ourselves lets us celebrate and control ourselves.\n\nHere's where the confusion comes in: Calm. This could be indifference to the music. This could be unfamiliarity with a specific kind of music. This could also be the intent of the music; creating a calm state of mind. Calm is not an emotion in the classical sense; it is stillness embodied and lacks agitation. However, in the modern sense of states of mind, calm is just another energy level that we can measure and it happens to be associated with stillness rather than actions.\n\nThe function that ties all this together is a shared experience. The musician creates it and the audience participates in it. And that, IMHO, is why we dance." ]

[ "the discovery that musical sensations of a rhythmic nature call for the muscular and nervous response of the whole organism\", to develop \"a special training designed to regulate nervous reactions and effect a co-ordination of muscles and nerves\" and ultimately to seek the connections between \"the art of music and the art of dance\", which he formulated into his system of eurhythmics. He concluded that \"musical rhythm is only the transposition into sound of movements and dynamisms spontaneously and involuntarily expressing emotion\".\nHence, though doubtless, as Shawn asserts, \"it is quite possible to develop the dance without music and... music is", "beat, and a performance that flows with elasticity and flexibility that emanates from the music itself. A rhythmically musical performance seems to take its cues from stylistic considerations, tempo, phrasing, and harmonic structure, as well as form. Sometimes we may not be exactly sure what makes a piece sound rhythmically musical, but we know it when we hear it.\nIt should not surprise us that some children do not know instinctively how to play musically. Many youngsters are surrounded by popular music that is rigid and inflexible in its rhythm, characterized by a relentless beat that is often synthesized or computerized.", "noticed that students would change their movements when following a crescendo, and would respond physically to the accents of the music. They also relaxed their muscles with the endings of phrases. As they seemed to hear the music, feeling its effects, he concluded that the students themselves were the instruments, not the piano. Dalcroze eurhythmics Dalcroze noticed that students had a mechanical understanding instead of a musical comprehension. They were not able to hear harmonies that they wrote in the music theory classes, and they could not create simple melodies and chord sequences. This resulted in a lack of musical", "link below for full answer to question) \"...if you know which kind of sound you must produce for this composition, your muscles automatically play what is needed for that. Because your brain dictates to your muscles much better than your teacher dictates to you. Sometimes of course I must make something technically more precise, but most important [is] your idea, how you must play in your brain.\"\nAlexander Markov is quoted as saying \"See I always felt about the music and the technical aspect of it, to me it's very much together, because I know some musicians, some violinists they isolate", "music. \nMIT researchers conducted a study to examine this notion. The results showed six neural clusters in the auditory cortex responding to the sounds. Four were triggered when hearing standard acoustic features, one specifically responded to speech, and the last exclusively responded to music. Researchers who studied the correlation between temporal evolution of timbral, tonal and rhythmic features of music, came to the conclusion that music engages the brain regions connected to motor actions, emotions and creativity. The research indicates that the whole brain \"lights up\" when listening to music. This amount of activity boosts memory preservation, hence pattern recognition.", "Exercise and music The interplay of exercise and music have been long-discussed, crossing the disciplines of biomechanics, neurology, physiology, and sport psychology. People \"automatically feel the beat\" of the music they listen to and instinctively adjust their walking pace and heart rate to the tempo of the music\n. Listening to music while exercising has been found in multiple studies to create an increased sense of motivation, distracting the mind while increasing heart rate. Faster tempo music has been found by researchers to motivate exercisers to work harder when performing at a moderate pace, but peak performance has been found to", "ballet), whereby the dancer would emulate the mechanical movements of a simple musical box doll. Music As with popping in general, the visual impact of the robot can be boosted by doing it in pace with music. The best effect is achieved with music that has very distinct beats such as electrofunk. It is nonetheless common to use music not particularly suited for the dance, but which has a \"robot theme\". In 1969 Jack Wild did the robot in the \"Mechanical Boy\" episode of H.R. Pufnstuf. The Jackson 5 first performed \"Dancing Machine\" on Soul Train in late October 1973,", "hormone that speeds up heart rate, metabolism, and body temperature in the presence of extreme stress. Then the sympathetic nervous system also causes the piloerection reflex, which makes the muscles attached to the base of each hair follicle contract and force the hair up. Music Canadian researchers have suggested that when humans are moved by music their brains behave as if reacting to delicious food, psychoactive drugs, or money. The pleasure experience is driven by the chemical dopamine, which produces physical effects known as \"chills\" that cause changes in heart rate, breathing, temperature and the skin's electrical conductance. The", "The couple then sways back and forth with the music. Foot movement is minimal, but the pair may use their feet to slowly turn on the spot. Because the dance requires little physical concentration, participants often talk to each other while dancing. Some couples who have a close relationship may dance very closely together, in a \"hug-and-sway\" fashion.", "temporal patterns induce arousal or feelings of unpleasantness in listeners...Such responses reflect the impact of auditory sensations – music as sound in the most basic sense.'\nRhythmic Entrainment: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is evoked by a piece of music because a powerful, external rhythm in the music influences some internal bodily rhythm of the listener (e.g. heart rate), such that the latter rhythm adjusts toward and eventually 'locks in' to a common periodicity. The adjusted heart rate can then spread to other components of emotion such as feeling, through proprioceptive feedback. This may produce an increased level", "and muscle tension, and increased skin temperature. Other research identifies outward physical responses such as shivers or goose bumps to be caused by changes in harmony and tears or lump-in-the-throat provoked by changes in melody. Researchers test these responses through the use of instruments for physiological measurement, such as recording pulse rate. Expressive behavior People are also known to show outward manifestations of their emotional states while listening to music. Studies using facial electromyography (EMG) have found that people react with subliminal facial expressions when listening to expressive music. In addition, music provides a stimulus for expressive behavior in many", "of this process. Various activities are at work in this recognition of a piece of music and its patterns. Researchers have begun to unveil the reasons behind the stimulated reactions to music. Montreal-based researchers asked ten volunteers who got \"chills\" listening to music to listen to their favorite songs while their brain activity was being monitored. The results show the significant role of the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) region – involved with cognitive processes such as motivation, reward, addiction, etc. – creating the neural arrangements that make up the experience. A sense of reward prediction is created by anticipation before the", "and motor systems to synthesize the energetic shaping of motion through time into significant events with unique expressive force. The biological and cultural motivations of musical gesture are further negotiated within the conventions of a musical style, whose elements include both the discrete (pitch, rhythm, meter) and the analog (dynamics, articulation, temporal pacing). Musical gestures are emergent gestalts that convey affective motion, emotion, and agency by fusing otherwise separate elements into continuities of shape and force.\"", "address her viewpoint, Eshkol used the example that someone does not swell their chest to express strength but instead the action of swelling the chest causes the feeling of strength. (This is somewhat parallel to the James-Lange theory of emotion.) Eshkol stated that by analyzing movement we might begin to understand how one movement evokes a certain emotion while another movement produces an entirely different feeling. The use of movement notation can also lead to the discovery of new laws of composition in particular dance styles, similar to those found in music or other types of art", "blood to the leg muscles, and the activation of the cerebellum, the brain region associated with physical movement. \nWhile retrieving the memory of a tune demonstrates general recognition of musical pattern, pattern recognition also occurs while listening to a tune for the first time. The recurring nature of the metre allows the listener to follow a tune, recognize the metre, expect its upcoming occurrence, and figure the rhythm. The excitement of following a familiar music pattern happens when the pattern breaks and becomes unpredictable. This following and breaking of a pattern creates a problem-solving opportunity for the mind that form", "This model holds that mind, centered in the brain, is an integral part of the body, and that both mind and body also interact with the social milieu. Each of the three factors — biology, psyche, and society — interacts with, and affects, the other two.\nKogan points out that listening to, or playing, music reduces stress levels by releasing the hormone, cortisol, and can reduce pain.\nMusic boosts immunity and releases dopamine, a brain neurotransmitter which is also released during other pleasurable activities such as sex or indulgence in good food.\nMusic benefits heart patients by reducing high blood pressure; in", "be suppressed. Examples of this can be seen in young children's spontaneous outbursts into motion upon hearing music, or exuberant expressions shown at concerts. Juslin & Västfjäll's BRECVEM model Juslin & Västfjäll developed a model of seven ways in which music can elicit emotion, called the BRECVEM model.\nBrain Stem Reflex: 'This refers to a process whereby an emotion is induced by music because one or more fundamental acoustical characteristics of the music are taken by the brain stem to signal a potentially important and urgent event. All other things being equal, sounds that are sudden, loud, dissonant, or feature fast", "skeleton of rhythmic beats\" that must have preceded any separate musical accompaniment, while dance itself, as much as music, requires time-keeping just as utilitarian repetitive movements such as walking, hauling and digging take on, as they become refined, something of the quality of dance.\nMusical accompaniment therefore arose in the earliest dance, so that ancient Egyptians attributed the origin of the dance to the divine Athotus, who was said to have observed that music accompanying religious rituals caused participants to move rhythmically and to have brought these movements into proportional measure. The same idea, that dance arises from musical rhythm, is", "musical beat in a sample of individuals who had had no previous musical training in their lives. The researchers presented a series of songs from different genres and the participants were instructed to simply bounce up and down to the beat of the music. Results indicated that all participants except for Mathieu were able to move in sync with the beat of the music. The researchers also presented video clips which showed a person dancing to music. Mathieu could not identify when the person was or was not dancing in time to the music. Other participants demonstrated no problem with", "of language and musical melodies are processed by the same brain areas. In 2006, Brown, Martinez and Parsons found that listening to a melody or a sentence resulted in activation of many of the same areas including the primary motor cortex, the supplementary motor area, the Brocas area, anterior insula, the primary audio cortex, the thalamus, the basal ganglia and the cerebellum.\nA 2008 study by Koelsch, Sallat and Friederici found that language impairment may also affect the ability to process music. Children with specific language impairments, or SLIs were not as proficient at matching tones to one another or at", "varied and distorted as the piece of music progresses. The core music forms a reference point to which everything else is directed, even when we are walking in a completely different direction. Sometimes we will be less aware that it is the same musical material we are hearing; sometimes we may have been listening for a while before realising that we have heard this music before (just as one might have been looking up the street before realising that it is the town square that can be glimpsed through the traffic). He is not, therefore, suggesting that we imagine this", "Jerk (dance) Description The jerk is similar to the monkey. The arms move and hands move as if conducting. The wrists cross in front of the chest and then sweep out in time, or at half time, with the music. The hands are up at face level. On count 1, the outward sweep, the hands are quickly pushed out, giving the jerky motion. For a little more style, the fingers may be snapped on the two outward movements—the first and third counts of the hand motion. Songs featuring or suggesting the dance Released as a single in 1964 on the", "instruments cooperatively together in groups. Playing a musical instrument in a group is a tremendously demanding task for the human brain that potentially engages all cognitive processes that we are aware of. It involves perception, action, learning, memory, emotion, etc., making music an ideal tool to investigate human cognition and the underlying brain mechanisms. The relatively young discipline of 'neurocognition of music' includes a wide field of biopsychological research, beginning with the investigation of psychoacoustics and the neural coding of sounds, and ending with brain functions underlying cognition and emotion during the perception and production of highly complex musical information.", "This Is Your Brain on Music Overview The aim of This Is Your Brain on Music was to make recent findings in cognitive neuroscience of music accessible to the educated layperson. Characteristics and theoretical parameters of music are explained alongside scientific findings about how the brain interprets and processes these characteristics. The neuroanatomy of musical expectation, emotion, listening and performance is discussed.\nThis Is Your Brain on Music describes the components of music, such as timbre, rhythm, pitch, and harmony and ties them to neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, cognitive psychology, and evolution, while also making these topics accessible to nonexpert readers by avoiding", "the experiences of the actors we observe: our heart, for instance, starts beating faster while we see an actor slip from the roof of a tall building. Why? Specific brain areas are involved when we perform certain actions or have certain emotions or sensations. Some of these areas are also recruited when we simply observe someone else performing similar actions, having similar sensations or having similar emotions. These areas called 'shared circuits' transform what we see into what we would have done or felt in the same situation. With such brain areas, understanding other people is not an effort of", "as well as sticks, various sounds and tempi, deep and full, soft and tender, and menacing sounds, and fast and slow beats, can be created to suit the mood of the audience. Using this capability, a dextrous performer can dance along moving his or her shoulders up and down and make the audience become carried away and dance along with him", "of steps vary with the change of dancing environment and emotion. With a strong emotion, they will stamp feet repeatedly, clap chest, rib, and the whole body very red with hands; while in a comfortable mood, they will lift chests, turn over palms and twist waists as well as hips, soft and happy, which creates a kind of lively and humorous atmosphere.\nThe dance emphasizes the rhythm of clapping the body. On the one hand, it reflects the characteristics of the dance itself. On the other hand, it is used to coordinate group movements and create a dancing atmosphere, well preserving", "Empathy Empathy mediates cognition in dance improvisation. Through understanding others' emotions and intentions, dancers make affective motor decisions. Improvised movement is based on embodied cognition, the theory that the body reveals the nature of the mind, motor cognition, that cognition is embodied in action, social cognition, dancers' understanding of others' actions and emotions, and situated cognition, that knowing is inseparable from action. Mirror neurons underlie many movements, allowing dancers to subconsciously respond to stimuli from the other dancers. Empathy provides temporary structuring of movements, which allows contact improvisation to be a kind of choreography. Creativity Emotions were shown to affect", "protocols to analyze human rhythmic processing. This is rhythm in its most obvious form. Human beings have an innate ability to listen to a rhythm and track the beat, as seen here \"Dueling Banjos\". This can be done by bobbing the head, tapping of the feet or even clapping. Jessica Grahn and Matthew Brett call this spontaneous movement \"motor prediction\". They hypothesized that it is caused by the basal ganglia and the supplementary motor area (SMA). This would mean that those areas of the brain would be responsible for spontaneous rhythm generation, although further research is required to prove this.", "state. For instance, the speed, rhythm, and melody are some aspects of music that can affect the human mind and emotions. Early forms of music such as communal chanting was often used in religious settings in order to evoke a feeling of safety and unity within the community. Some researchers consensually agree that music’s soothing effect is due to inhibiting other sensory input (taste, sight, etc.), from affecting the senses. Different forms of music can affect one’s mood. For instance, seasonal music may make one feel more cheerful, while martial music can make one feel more combative and quarrelsome. Taste" ]

[ "Brains are complex things. While dreaming you are thought to be basically consolidating the memories you want to keep and not keep, and you create scenes in your mind involving things that were important to you recently (consciously or unconsciously). So while your brain is doing all of that, your ears, eyes, nose, and mouth are still wired in. Incoming stimuli from any one of those sensory organs can be implemented into the seemingly chaotic mess of neural activity that we call dreaming." ]

[ "first step to begin reaching my dreams, I'm in front of you with a new sound.\"", "Selected Ambient Works Volume II Composition James stated that the sounds on Selected Ambient Works Volume II were inspired by lucid dreams, and that upon awaking, he would attempt to re-create the sounds and record them. He claimed to have natural synaesthesia, which contributed to this album. James described the album as being \"like standing in a power station on acid\"; he continued that \"if you just stand in the middle of a really massive one, you get a really weird presence and you've got that hum. You just feel electricity around you. That's totally dreamlike for me. It's just", "a portion of white noise atmospherics, which is soon contrasted by a graceful trumpet solo. Dual harmonica parts enter, interspersed with a police siren, followed by more backwards tape sounds; guitar, flange-treated piano and Mellotron are also heard. Music journalist D.J. Pangburn likens this final part to \"Indian-inspired jazz\". The song fades out with a slowed-down spoken voice over the sound of church bells.\nLeng identifies \"Dream Scene\" as a \"juxtaposition of opposites\" due to its contrasting musical styles and moods. He notes that it was recorded several months before \"Revolution 9\" – Lennon's well-known sound collage, which incorporates musique concrète", "Dreamsong \"Dreamsong\" is a 1978 recording created by American computer music musician and composer Michael McNabb at the Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics in Stanford University. The composition has been discussed by numerous composers and book authors, one of them including Adrian Moore who labeled it a \"pioneering work\" of electroacoustic music. It is significant for being one of the earliest examples of works that combine natural and non-natural \"new\" sounds in a sophisticated manner with digital processing. MUS10, a compiler developed from Max Mathews' Music IV synthesis software that had a huge amount of flexibility in", "which is a slow-paced alternative R&B song features the sounds that often appear in Tsai's dreams. Inspired by Carl Jung's psychological term \"shadow\", the song was written with Taiwanese songwriters Huang Tzu-yuan, Mickey Lin, and Sam Ho, and it was written through live instruments and musical improvisation in the studio. Tsai described: \"Dream is a spiritual journey of loneliness, and I believe in the words the subconscious wants to tell me.\" Artwork and packaging On November 27, 2018, Tsai released the cover art of the album's pre-order limited edition and the first series of promotional artworks for the album, which", "Dream trance Definition The key element of dream trance resides in catchy and deep melodies of such tracks, typically played on an acoustic instrument (piano, violin, saxophone, etc.) that are mastered and then sampled onto an electronic beat structure. The melodies are considered \"dreamy\", i.e. tending to alter the listener's mind, hence the name. Origins The creation of dream trance was a response to social pressures in Italy during the early 1990s; the growth of rave culture among young adults, and the ensuing popularity of nightclub attendance, had created a weekly trend of deaths due to car accidents as clubbers", "Acoustic Dreams Reception Tina Roumelioti of Buzznet gave the EP a positive review, saying, \"My only wish is that this album were longer, but good things come in small packages. Take a moment out of your day to pick up Acoustic Dreams, lie on your bedroom floor with a pair of headphones and start dreaming.\"\nMatt Collar of AllMusic gave a brief, indifferent review, noting, \"...Acoustic Dreams, finds the California-based pop/rock outfit taking several tracks from its 2013 full-length album, Talking Dreams, and reworking them in an acoustic style. Featured here are such Echosmith fan favorites as \"Let's Love,\" \"Cool", "/ Love in the Asylum / Mars Suite, a compilation of three early compositions made at the center, released on October 30, 1993. \"Dreamsong\" is significant for being one of the earliest examples of works to combine natural and non-natural \"new\" sounds in a sophisticated manner with digital processing. Numerous books about electronic and acoustic written by composers and authors such as Simon Emmerson, Andrew Hugill, Barry Truax and Trevor Wishart have discussed \"Dreamsong\". The composition has been considered by British composer Adrian Moore as a \"pioneering work\" of electroacoustic music and labeled by music critic Andrew Porter as \"a", "Dreams was centred around surrealism and dreams themselves, Sasaki discarded tying the game's music down to a single genre and took the approach of not having a clear musical policy. Sasaki also ensured that each theme included the exhilaration of \"flying in the air\", as it was a core element of gameplay. Hataya echoed that the music of the game was produced by focusing on being able to empathise with the feeling of flying, as well as to exemplify the game's atmosphere and characters. Since the team were aware that Journey of Dreams had a greater sense of adventure than", "I want it to be a seduction.\"\nHe cites childhood experiences birdwatching for reed warbler with his father as the starting point for his interest in sound in space. He has stated, \"If you just looked in the reeds you'd see nothing. If you listened you got an idea of space and a sense of where it might be, then you understood it. That's probably my first experience with these ideas of space and sound, which are basically the fundamental building blocks of what I've been interested in since then.\" These experiences have led to a long engagement with field recordings,", "in their dreams. Not all, but most of their music is inspired—you could say ‘composed’, although they say received—in their dreams through encounters with other worlds. When people come and visit the community from the outside, one of the things the Xavante ask them to do is sing them a song. Music is this medium for entering into relations with others—others meaning spiritual beings or, for example, white society or other cultures. The Xavante want to be known and they want their culture to be known. They want their music to be known because they think it’s beautiful and view", "In Dreams (Howard Shore song) \"In Dreams\" is a song by Howard Shore, with lyrics by Fran Walsh, originally written for the motion picture The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. In the movie, it was sung by the boy soprano Edward Ross and a boy choir. It was also sung by another boy soprano named James Wilson, but was not noted on the album. \nThe song is one of the musical themes or leitmotives used in the music written for film series. It is a variation on Frodo's theme, which is a hymn-like variation on the", "fluid. I imagine the quiet parts of the song sung from a small, dorm-style room, and the loud parts as a scene out of a musical, where the worker sings and dances through the factory lines with total freedom and abandon. Such a great crew of musicians came together to bring these feelings and sounds to life.\" Wolf also discussed the album itself, describing it as \"the feeling of when you're dreaming, and you briefly wake up, but then fall back asleep into the same dream, diving quickly into your own subconscious.\"\nOn June 2, a second song from the album", "tried to fall asleep again. Again he dreamt of the same song and the same instrument. Sangguana was enjoying his dream, but eventually he had to wake up. Not wanting to lose the beautiful sounds from his dream, Sangguana tried to recreate the sounds and quickly created a musical instrument from palmyra leaves with the strings in the middle, based on his memory from the dream, which became the basis of the sasando.", "log extensions at the corners of the log cabin\". Continuous sounds—human-made as well as natural—fascinated him as a child. He described himself as fascinated from a young age by droning sounds, such as \"the sound of the wind blowing\", the \"60 cycle per second drone [of] step-down transformers on telephone poles\", the tanpura drone and the alap of Indian classical music, \"certain static aspects of serialism, as in the Webern slow movement of the Symphony Opus 21\", and Japanese gagaku \"which has sustained tones in it in the instruments such as the Sho\". The four pitches he later named the", "a dream to me?\".\nThe song was used in the Lloyd fantasy scene in the 1994 film Dumb and Dumber.", "Dream\" was featured in a 2009 Gillette commercial. The song was included on their self-released 2010 album The Ones Who Get It Are The Ones Who Need Not To Know.", "incredibly unusual music and gave Melvoin and Coleman a lot of freedom and permission to experiment. In the pilot episode, Kring suggested that a \"dreamy\" cue be used in the scene involving Claire Bennet running into a burning train. The \"dreamy\" cue has since become a signature piece of the show. Melvoin and Coleman developed musical cues for each character. Claude's theme involved wind and voices to create the feeling of a ghost-like presence. Sylar's involves marimbas and bassoons with staccato to re-create the sound of clocks ticking in reference to the character's power. Matt Parkman's theme involves voices being", "night, yume (夢, meaning \"dream\") bubbles may appear over their head. By tapping the bubble, the player may enter the dream the Mii is experiencing. After the dream concludes, the Mii will wake up and, if they are in bed when they wake up, fall back asleep, and the player will swipe an object from the Mii's dream, bringing it into reality and inserting it into their inventory. Development The game was developed by a small, young team at Nintendo SPD Group No.1 with Yoshio Sakamoto as producer. According to an interview, it was originally titled Otona no Onna no", "downloads as of March 6, 2013. I Heard Your Voice In a Dream \"I Heard Your Voice In a Dream\" is an original song introduced in the eighth episode of the second season of the musical TV series Smash, entitled \"The Bells and Whistles\". It was written by Andrew McMahon, but in the show's universe, it was written by songwriting team Jimmy Collins (Jeremy Jordan) and Kyle Bishop (Andy Mientus) for their Hit List musical.\nIn the episode, the Hit List team is working on staging the song, but Jimmy and Derek Wills (Jack Davenport) are clashing, with Derek wanting a", "dream and describes his adventure to all those present, who assure him it was indeed a dream. However, as he and the group ascend the stairs and pass a painting of the late Baron von Honeydew, the painting appears to move and say 'shush' to Robin as the Power Glove suddenly appears on Robin's hand again, indicating his adventure may well have been something more than a dream after all. Gameplay The game draws heavily on PlayStation standard platformers of its day, most prominently Spyro (with which it shared a sound designer, Michael Gollom). Other notable inspirations are Crash Bandicoot", "\"My Dreams\" through the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection. In order to increase the population in a \"My Dream\", Nightopians must be captured in the game's story mode. If there are more Nightopians than Nightmarens in the player's \"My Dream\", then the environment will look more like Nightopia and if there are more Nightmarens the landscape will change accordingly.\nJourney of Dreams features four different control options: the Wii remote as a standalone controller, the Wii remote in combination with the Nunchuk, the Classic Controller, and the GameCube controller. If the Wii remote is used by itself, Nights' flight is controlled by pointing", "me up and start running around the room, 'Where's my guitar, where did I put my guitar, before I forget it?' I don't often remember dreams, only when they're musical.\"\nA straight ahead rocker, but sets the scene of a long time, up and down, love affair between the singer and the subject:\nOne time you were my baby chicken, Now you've grown into a fox; Once upon a time I was your little rooster, But now I'm just one of your cocks.\nIt's rough justice, oh yeah, We never thought it risky; It's rough justice, But you know I'll never break your", "\"chamber of the dream\" as well as \"dream, Chamber\" (the second name of the main character). By getting Charlie asleep, the player can go back to the places visited by him, enabling him to find new clues which he had perceived only subliminally during the day. Moreover, while dreaming Charlie will be able to visit Charles, his own subconscious, who can provide him with additional information. The Battle-questioning To get information from the game characters Charlie, who easily gets bored and has difficulty in focusing on cases, has overcome those issues by a trick: he envisages the questioning as an", "A Head Full of Dreams (song) Background The song was recorded by the band during sessions for their seventh studio album in 2014, at their purpose-built studios The Bakery and The Beehive in North London, England, both originally constructed for work on their three previous studio albums.\nThe song \"fades in with distantly chiming bells, a synthetic dance pulse, a drum set shuffling complicatedly, and a guitar repeatedly drawing a high, short melody\". Critical reception The Atlantic's Spencer Kornhaber called the song's arrangement \"cool\" and \"unusual\". Furthermore, he said that the bells, dance pulse, drums, and guitar parts \"[drop] out for", "make me realise I'm just a total outcast. I just can't really talk to anyone without feeling stupid.\" and \"Sometimes I just want to run home and never come out of my bedroom again\".\nMultiple songs from Lonerism also feature ambient sounds recorded by Parker on his dictaphone, which Parker explained \"I obsessively record sounds wherever I am. Like, if I'm at a train station, I'll record the trains or a megaphone talking. I love ambient sounds. For me it's like taking photos. I love the idea of recording a collection or a library of weird sounds of stuff.\" An example", "your dreams. We wanted to make a record that you can lay down with, shut off the lights and have a total outerbody experience. We also wanted the record to be like a rollercoaster ride with explosive highs, beautiful lows and everything in between.\" Singles and videos The Dream's first single was \"Forever\", which was released in August while the music video appeared weeks later. The video was directed by David Brodsky and features the band performing near the ocean and scenes of Maria underwater, which was filmed in a huge aquarium.\nThe band had been eyeing \"Lost at Sea\" or", "music by using different field recordings to do so. He's slept in the Sahara desert, been chased by bears, hung out in the Amazon for a bit and climbed some of the world's tallest mountains alongside his trusty recorder while he does so to capture the sounds of those different landscapes. The sound ends up being reminiscent of Sigur Ros, Olafur Arnalds, or Explosions in the Sky, and it's absolutely stunning.\"\nOn June 22, he released a full-length album entitled \"Elements.\" This music originated as the soundtrack for Tony's G's series with Udaya.com. It was filmed and performed live in Sofia", "KL-10 was used for carrying out all computations for \"Dreamsong\".\nThe composition consisted of both natural sounds tracked digitally that were recognizable to the human listener and non-natural sounds made with synthesizers that were described by McNabb as \"totally new\" and took the song into \"the dream realm of the imagination, with all that that implies with regard to transitions, recurring elements, and the unexpected\". \"Dreamsong\" includes numerous forms of processed digital recordings of soprano vocals by Marilyn Barber. The soprano singing ten held notes of various pitches and syllables, as well as a glissando, were recorded. Some of the soprano", "that the intent is for active listening by the audience, it can be argued that Soundscapes may not be considered as a type of ambient music, as it is sometimes described. \nThe performances are improvised: they can be quite loud, lengthy, dramatic, soothing, eerie, and possibly alarming. Because Soundscapes are often held as part of a rock concert, they can prove somewhat taxing on an unprepared audience.\nAnother common Fripp quote regarding Soundscapes is that\n\"this remains the best way I know of making a lot of noise with one guitar\"." ]

[ "PC hardware comes typically with only a single program baked in, called the \"bootloader\". This program is designed to boot up whatever Operating System, or OS, has been installed on it.\n\nWhen you turn on the PC or PS4, it starts the bootloader, which is a relatively small program that simply loads the PS4 OS or Windows or MacOS or Android, etc.\n\nWhen you restart the PC or PS4 (without shutting it down or turning it off), the OS program exits with an additional instruction to the bootloader program to reload the OS. And that's exactly what the bootloader does: it resets the starting environment and loads the OS, as though it had been turned on for the first time.\n\n*edit, phrasing*" ]

[ "drive before restarting the machine. In the latter case, many times it switches off the system instead of restarting it (the reset button is actually also the on/off button, but under normal circumstances, the button needs to be held for 2–4 seconds to turn the system off). However older systems would turn off with a single press or flick of the button/switch.\nOn certain games (especially those that use autosave), one can gain an advantage by using the reset button. If a mistake is made, such as getting a character killed, the reset button can be pressed instead of saving, and", "and waiting approximately 10 seconds for residual current in the RAM chips to dissipate. Game consoles On game consoles, many times it is simply a software signal. For example, on the Nintendo 64 and the GameCube, it instructs the currently running software (game or console BIOS) to restart forcibly, usually fading out the volume and/or screen brightness for a cleaner effect. On the PlayStation 2, the button is by default programmed to restart the whole system, but, especially on games using the Network Adapter/HDD, it might clean up the connection, unmount hard drive partitions, and remove power from the hard", "involves turning a system off then subsequently back on again, the operating system does not start from scratch, thereby differentiating this process from rebooting. Simulated reboot A reboot may be simulated by software running on an operating system. For example: the Sysinternals BlueScreen utility, which is used for pranking; or some modes of the bsod XScreenSaver \"hack\", for entertainment (albeit possibly concerning at first glance). Malware may also simulate a reboot, and thereby deceive a computer user for some nefarious purpose.\nMicrosoft App-V sequencing tool captures all the file system operations of an installer in order to create a virtualized", "in all the latest versions of the OS. It reverts system files and settings to a previous point in time without affecting personal files. When enabled, the software automatically creates Restore Points at regular intervals and before every major instance of configuration alteration like driver update or new application installation. When a device malfunctions, running System Restore rolls back the configuration to a Restore Point where the particular issue did not exist. Reset [Windows 8] The Reset option was introduced with Windows 8 and is used for restoring systems to factory defaults. It re-installs the Windows OS and permanently discards", "if held down for a few seconds. When the OS hangs, the reset button is no longer \"integrated with the power button\".\nMany early microcomputers sported a reset button or key, such as the Apple II, TRS-80, and Atari 8-bit. Commodore did not include one on their computers until the CBM-II line.\nThe original IBM PC had no hardware reset button and IBM did not include one on any of their personal computers until the early 1990s, however many clones began sporting them early on. All PC compatibles can be rebooted by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del, which triggers the BIOS startup routines and re-initializes", "Reboot In computing, rebooting is the process by which a running computer system is restarted, either intentionally or unintentionally. Reboots can be either \"cold\" (alternatively known as \"hard\") where the power to the system is physically turned off and back on again, causing an initial boot of the machine, or warm (alternatively known as soft) where the system restarts without the need to interrupt the power. The term restart is used to refer to a reboot when the operating system closes all programs and finalizes all pending input and output operations before initiating a soft reboot. Origin of the term", "but may cause problems (hangs), when trying to shutdown the Atari session itself (pausing the emulation and then closing it is possible as work-around). It can help to change the original \"Shutdown\" program that comes with MagiC (and is ending an Atari session) for a different one. Restarting a session is then done using the \"MagiC\" menu bar under Windows. Installing Magic-PC on a USB flash drive is also possible, so the emulation environment can be used on computers under Windows 7 and higher.\nAn alternative to MagiC-PC would be Hatari (emulator), especially under other free operating systems like GNU/Linux. Because", "or else it will, in fact, explode. If the player's car explodes, the player will re-spawn nearby; however, the brief delay between the car exploding and re-spawning allows many other drivers to pass the player, causing a large dent in their ranking.\nEach version of the game has its own unique control method. The PS2 version uses a standard control setup, where the buttons are used for driving and attacking, while the DS uses the stylus in conjunction with the touchscreen. The Wii version can be controlled by holding the Wii Remote sideways, and also with the Wii Wheel peripheral, and", "button will always be present. Selecting this will exit a game or a Wii Menu channel and return the player to the Wii Menu, where users can choose another channel. When playing certain Virtual Console titles, with the exception of the Nintendo 64 and Neo Geo, this will also create a suspend point.\nReset: In applications and games (both retail and downloadable), the Reset button is available. This performs a soft reset of that particular application, for example returning a game to its title screen or the loading screen of a Wii Menu channel, the same as what would happen if", "power was restored.\nDepending on the architecture, the reset button might have different effects. On PCs, usually it is connected to the motherboard, and when pressed it sends a reset signal to all peripherals.\nMany newer computers have no separate button for resetting the computer; it is integrated with the power button. On most newer operating systems, the user can customize what happens when they press the power button. For example, they may set it to 'Do nothing', 'restart', 'shutdown', or 'stand by'. This is only for pressing the button once; on most computers the power button can remove power immediately", "ground\nNot ever destroying NPC's nor randomly creating them en masse with zone resets\nState is not lost on reboot, except for the connection state of the player. Statedumps Statedumps are dumps of the state, or memory, to the hard disk, similar to how a computer dumps its memory to hard disk when it goes into hibernation. The driver can start from a statedump and have the game be exactly in the same state it was before reboot, minus network connections. This is why it is possible to reboot and easily maintain persistence of the way things were before the reboot. It", "they will warp to the same place after a short period of time.\nThe first player, who controls Mario, navigates the world map and selects stages. Players return to the map screen if they all die before anybody respawns in the stage. If all players run out of lives and get a game over, they must restart from their last save point. If a player dies, they re-emerge in the level encased in a bubble. They can resume play when another player breaks the bubble. A player can break the bubble by touching it, or by hitting it with a fireball,", "and jump in or out of the game with any available instrument at any point, including while playing a song. Players also will have the ability to pause the game and make changes in difficulty; when leaving the pause menu, the song rewinds a few seconds to allow all players to synchronize before the scoring restarts. Due to the limitations in the number of local players on this generation of consoles, only four of the five parts (lead and bass guitar, drums, harmonized vocals, and keyboards) can be played in online and local career and competitive modes. The game attempts", "Round 0 and have activated the Resume feature they will be able to try it again the next time they load the game. If the player is not using the Resume feature, or when prompted chooses End rather than Continue, there is no way to get back to it during normal gameplay and the game will need to be completed \"perfectly\" again. Map edit, and Edited game In map edit the player can create their own stages and test them, up to 30 stages can be saved on the cartridge. A stage must feature the boy and princess, can have", " Unfortunately, since the Xbox requires the clock to be valid and the dashboard itself is where you set the clock there is problem if the RTC backup capacitor discharges. The Xbox will detect that the clock isn't set and therefore force the dashboard to be loaded which then promptly reboots due to the buffer overflow exploit. Upon restarting, the Xbox detects the clock is invalid and the process repeats. This became known as the infamous \"clockloop\". Softmods for PlayStation Portable Much like the Xbox, it is possible to softmod almost any PSP. Using various exploits (such as", "reboot following a system crash, whose root cause may not immediately be evident to the user. Such crashes may occur due to a multitude of software and hardware problems, such as triple faults. They are generally symptomatic of an error in ring 0 that is not trapped by an error handler in an operating system or a hardware-triggered non-maskable interrupt.\nSystems may be configured to reboot automatically after a power failure, or a fatal system error or kernel panic. The method by which this is done varies depending whether the reboot can be handled in software, or must be handled", "state.\nThe suspend feature will not be available if the user resets the Wii with the reset button on the front of the console during gameplay. Further, if the Wii loses power during gameplay, there will be no further suspend state, nor will there be a way to restart from the previous suspend state. There are some exceptions, however. Arcade games released by Bandai Namco feature an updated menu and when reset during gameplay the save state will be saved before the console is reset. South Korea releases There were 10 titles total of NES, Super NES and Nintendo 64", "that, when played back on the actual console, achieves the target criterion. The basic method used to construct such a set of inputs is to record one's input while playing the game on an emulator, all the while saving and loading the emulator's state repeatedly to test out various possibilities and only keep the best result. To make this more precise, the game is slowed down. Initially, it was common to slow down to some low fraction (e.g. 5%) of normal speed. However, due to advances in the field, it is now expected that frame-advance, manually stepping through emulation one", "repeat phrases, and will not let them play until they get it right. If the player inputs something offensive, however, he will get furious.\nIn Animal Crossing: New Leaf, Mr. Resetti appears the first time the player turns the 3DS off without saving. However, he explains that the Reset Surveillance Center (the facility Resetti works for) has been closed down, and that he will not be able to make any more visits. If the player so chooses, the Reset Surveillance Center can be reopened, allowing Resetti to resume his former role.\nDue to the auto-save function on the Nintendo Switch, Resetti will", "also allows for a concept called virtual uptime, where while the game is actually down but when it comes back up it is still the same as it was before. This virtual uptime means the game has never reset itself in any way and all changes are persistent between real downtime. Dynamic Recompilation The dynamic recompilation feature allows one to recompile the logic of a master object during runtime, automatically upgrading all instances to the new version. Inherited objects cannot be recompiled in this way, they must instead be destructed and then compiled again. This will leave inheriting objects referring", "continue and restart the game wherever they have last obtained a password, even after the console has been shut off; passwords also allow players to resume play at a later time. In addition, for users with a TurboGrafx-CD or a TurboBooster-Plus, they can save their progress in the systems' RAM via a \"File Cabinet\" feature; in the same places where passwords are distributed, players have the option to save the game in one of four available file slots, each of which can be overwritten at any time with a new file. Development Neutopia was developed by Hudson Soft and was", " Two exceptions to this are the N64 and Neo Geo AES, titles which do not support this feature. The N64 will allow play to be halted by returning to the Wii Menu but will require the person to start from the title screen to continue playing. Note that suspending play enables the player to pause the game indefinitely but does not function as a \"save state\" in that, once the game is resumed, the user will be able to pause play again (overwriting the suspend point) but will not be able to return to the previously suspended", "example, for a Windows Mobile 5.0 device, the former is a cold boot and the latter is a clean boot. Hard reboot A hard reboot means that the system is not shut down in an orderly manner, skipping file system synchronisation and other activities that would occur on an orderly shutdown. This can be achieved by either applying a reset, by cycling power, by issuing the halt -q command in most Unix-like systems, or by triggering a kernel panic. Restart The term \"restart\" is used by Microsoft Windows and Linux family of operating systems to denote an operating system-assisted reboot.", "ability to reset the player's avatar without resetting the entire game is considered one of the earliest examples of a \"continue game\" option in video games.\nThe game offers three different skill levels. Level 1 is the easiest, as it uses a simplified room layout and doesn't include the White Castle, bat, Rhindle the red dragon, nor invisible mazes. Level 2 is the full version of the game, with the various objects appearing in set positions at the start of the game. Level 3 is similar to Level 2, but the location of the objects is randomized to provide a more", "to change game cartridges with power-on. When pressing the reset button, it was possible to remove the cartridge from the system and induce various memory dump pattern sequences. Digital TV Dinner is a collection of these curious states of silicon epilepsy set to music composed and generated upon this same platform. Misregistration Misregistration is produced by the physical noise of historically analog media such as motion picture film. It includes dirt, scratches, smudges and markings that can distort physical media also impact the playback of digital recordings on media such as CDs and DVDs, as electronic music composer Kim Cascone", "game no longer requires the traditional \"point off-screen\" reload, but rather reloads automatically. Reloading still takes time, but happens without prompt as soon as the gun needs it. The arcade version differs here, because there is the presence of light guns, allowing for similar speedy reloading. A reload is achieved by pumping the shotgun controller. While playing the game on Xbox, the light gun controller released by Madcatz may be used; however, the traditional \"shoot off-screen\" reload was reintroduced in the Wii version.\nA branching storyline existed in the previous games, but was handled differently. In The House of the Dead", "from the other. The reset button does not reset the game, but instead is used by different games to reset individual elements, such as making a player's dot visible after it is turned off during a game. The system can be powered by six C batteries, which were included. An optional AC power supply was sold separately. The Odyssey lacks sound capability and can only display monochrome white shapes on a blank black screen.\nInternally, the Odyssey architecture is composed of digital computing parts. The circuitry is implemented in diode–transistor logic using discrete transistors and diodes, rather than the newly", "indicating that the game had ended. The phrase might also be followed by the message \"Play Again?\" and a prompt asking the player to insert additional tokens to prevent the game from terminating and instead allowing the player to continue their progress. The message can also be seen flashing on certain arcade games while in attract mode, until a player inserts a credit; at this point the message would change to the number of credits inserted and \"Press 1 or 2 player start\", or some variation thereof.\nAs these games were ported to home consoles, the \"Game over\" screen and \"Continue?\"", "they can press the A button to start it. A warning will appear, the \"healthy gaming advice\" screen required to be shown by Chinese law, followed by a screen with some more information about the game, such as its ISBN (if it has one). The first time a game is played after having been transferred to the console, a loading bar will also appear as the console 'recrypts' (i.e. applies a second layer of encryption using a randomly-generated key) the game.\nIf the player instead presses Z on the highlighted game, a menu will appear allowing the player to allocate memory", "from a previous game is shown in the same session, players can hit the \"Return\" button on their remote in order to start a new question. Some DVD players do not support this technology, but players can choose from 20-25 (depends on version) pre-set games to play. As their title suggests, these game sets are not random, and stay constant, no matter how many times the DVD is reset. Dave Long The creator, Dave Long, made the first prototype of Scene It? in 1992, when he placed several hit films on a VHS tape and had guests identify them as" ]

[ "People live sheltered lives, some going through all of it without killing any animals or getting into a fight. There's also social conditioning, people being told since they're toddlers that it's a heinous act to hurt people and animals. People like to elevate themselves to a moral highground by bashing the 'barbaric' practices of their ancestors, something they can afford to do because they've never experienced starvation. Killing animals is necessary to our survival, the only difference is that nowadays the majority of people don't have to get their hands dirty to enjoy the meat and hides." ]

[ "It is thought that the animals helped with the hunting, but they would, by the nature of the hunt, have gradually become adept at herding.", "Hunting strategy Still Hunting Still hunting is a common method of hunting used to hunt North American big game species such as deer, elk, bear, and feral hogs. Still hunting is the process of hunting an animal by sneaking into habitats where the animal lives and trying to spot the animal before the animal spots you. The still hunting method of hunting is not the most popular hunting technique because it takes a fair amount of skill and time. Still hunting is an ancient method of hunting that was used by our ancestors to hunt and kill animals to eat.", "a joyful activity, hunting (even permitted animals) has ethical ramifications: “The Guarani [Waodani] must kill animals to live, but they believed dead animal spirits live on and must be placated or else do harm in angry retribution.” To counterbalance the offense of hunting, a shaman demonstrated respect through the ritual preparation of the poison, curare, used in blow darts. Hunting with such darts is not considered killing, but retrieving, essentially a kind of harvesting from the trees.\nPlants, especially trees, continue to hold an important interest for the Waodani. Their store of botanical knowledge is extensive, ranging from knowledge of", "They avoided killing any animals and believed that the rules allowing the killing of some animals are created by Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan and their followers.", "animals are slaughtered for their meat every year in the U.S., yet most of the animals are never seen—they are kept in confined animal feeding operations, invisible to the public and off limits to the media. Joy maintains that the choice to eat meat is not natural or a given as proponents of meat claim, but influenced by social conditioning. The majority of people, Joy claims, care deeply about animals and do not want them to suffer.\nJoy argues there is a neurological basis for empathy; most people care about nonhuman animals and want to prevent their suffering. ", "Slaughter The consumption of horse meat is an ethical question beyond that of the suffering of the animal. This ethical issue is invoked by animal-protection associations like the SPA, which state that retired horses are slaughtered for meat after having served humans. \"After being loved and carefully tended, whatever its merits, the brave horse will not experience a peaceful retreat: at its first failure, it becomes butcher's meat, and will be led to slaughter the very next day\". Horses intended for consumption are rarely killed where they lived. The question of equine welfare arises during the transport to slaughter as", "Hunting weapon Hunting weapons are weapons designed or used primarily for hunting game animals for food or sport, as distinct from defensive weapons or weapons used primarily in warfare. Characteristics Since human beings are lacking in the natural weapons possessed by other predators, humans have a long history of making tools to overcome this shortcoming. The evolution of hunting weapons shows an ever-increasing ability to extend the hunter's reach, while maintaining the ability to produce disabling or lethal wounds, allowing the hunter to capture the game.\nThe spear was in use for hunting as early as five million years ago in", "carcass which make them more vulnerable to being killed by humans Likelihood of retaliation Social and economic differences also impact motivation to hunt lions in reaction to livestock losses. People who have lost a higher proportion of their livestock to depredation (often those with smaller farms to begin with) as well as those owning livestock for the purpose of sale as opposed to traditional or subsistence reasons have been found to report a higher willingness to retaliate. Both higher proportional losses and keeping livestock for sale increase the value of cattle and therefore increase the financial incentive to", "Hunting hypothesis In paleoanthropology, the hunting hypothesis is the hypothesis that human evolution was primarily influenced by the activity of hunting for relatively large and fast animals, and that the activity of hunting distinguished human ancestors from other hominins.\nWhile it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this fact for the final steps in the emergence of the genus Homo out of earlier australopithecines, with its bipedalism and production of stone tools (from about 2.5 million years ago), and eventually also control of fire (from about 1.5 million years ago), is emphasized in the \"hunting", "humans do not have a duty to intervene in natural cases. He celebrates carnivores in nature because of the significant ecological role they play. Others have argued that the reason that humans have a duty to protect other humans from predation is because humans are part of the cultural world rather than the natural world and so different rules apply to them in these situations. Others argue that prey animals are fulfilling their natural function, and thus flourishing, when they are preyed upon or otherwise die, since this allows natural selection to work. This can be seen by some as", "not hunt because it is dangerous and less profitable. Gijsbert Stoet highlights the fact that men are more competent in throwing skills, focused attention, and spatial abilities. (Experiments 1 and 2). Another possible explanation for women gathering is their inherent prioritization of rearing offspring, which is difficult to uphold if women were hunting. Parental investment Buss purports that the hunting hypothesis explains the high level of human male parental investment in offspring as compared to primates. Meat is an economical and condensed food resource in that it can be brought home to feed the young, however it is not efficient", "areas. Prior to the fox hunting ban in the UK, hounds contributed to the deaths of 6.3% of the 400,000 foxes killed annually.\nThe hunts claim to provide and maintain a good habitat for foxes and other game, and, in the US, have fostered conservation legislation and put land into conservation easements. Anti-hunting campaigners cite the widespread existence of artificial earths and the historic practice by hunts of introducing foxes, as indicating that hunts do not believe foxes to be pests.\nIt is also argued that hunting with dogs has the advantage of weeding out old, sick, and weak animals because", "exist were it not for the human desire for their flesh is irrelevant: it is not clear that creating animals is good for them, and, even if it is, doing a good thing for an animal will not justify subsequently harming them, just as it would not in a human case. Second, Cochrane considers the fact that some animals are killed by nonhuman predators. He rejects Regan's claim that intervention is not required when killers are not moral agents and the consequentialist claim that interference will do more harm than good, instead suggesting that nonhuman predators need to kill to", "tailed the hunter, scared away the prey by being loud, and sometimes got in the line of fire. Hindi said hunting is not necessary in modern society to gather food, so to hunt animals \"for the fun of man or woman already denotes a certain loss of ethic\".\nJim Ritter of the Chicago Sun-Times said in 1995 that Hindi was \"perhaps the most admired animal rights crusader in the Chicago area. And the most hated.\" The Morning Call's Paul Carpenter, who like Hindi wanted the Hegins pigeon shoot to shut down, wrote that Hindi \"calibrate[s] our moral compasses\" and is a", "British Hunting Act determined that the legislative aim of the Hunting Act was \"a composite one of preventing or reducing unnecessary suffering to wild mammals, overlaid by a moral viewpoint that causing suffering to animals for sport is unethical.\"\nAnti-hunting campaigners also criticised UK hunts of which the Burns Inquiry estimated that foxhound packs put down around 3,000 hounds, and the hare hunts killed around 900 hounds per year, in each case after the hounds' working life had come to an end.\nIn June 2016, three people associated with the South Herefordshire Hunt (UK) were arrested on suspicion of causing suffering to", "body, making them rare undertakings.\nFinally, in critique of Liebenberg's research on modern day persistence hunting, it was revealed that the majority of the hunts initiated were prompted for filming rather than spontaneous, and that few of these hunts were successful. The hunts that were successful involved external factors such as the hunters being able to stop and refill water bottles.\nA response to these criticisms has been formulated by Lieberman et al., noting that it is unclear how humans could have grown to occupy a new niche as a diurnal social carnivore without persistence hunting, as the weapons preferred in modern", "hunted with close-quarters weapons, with spears that were thrown at animals from a short distance, clubs, thrown rocks, weapons like that. They weren’t using long distance projectile weapons that we know of. The Homo erectus hunt was simple but effective. It fed not just their larger brains, but the growing complexity of that early human society.\nScientific American wrote about the controversy:\nFor decades researchers have been locked in debate over how and when hunting began and how big a role it played in human evolution. Recent analyses of human anatomy, stone tools and animal bones are helping to fill in the", "upon by dogs. This ranges from rat-baiting and badger-baiting to bear-baiting and lion-baiting. There are even some tales of human-baiting.\nAnimals that take part in animal fights are usually specifically bred for strength and stamina. Hunting Hunting began as a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies, being an important source of food. The domestication of animals and the development of agriculture lessened the need for hunts, with food being more readily available. Hunting became a sport for those of the high social classes. In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper-class (aristocracy and higher clergy) obtained as privilege", "bones, skins and feathers of slain animals as a source of income. These hunters focused on species which gathered in large numbers for breeding, feeding, or migration and was organized into factory-like groups that would systematically depopulate an area of any valuable wildlife over a short period of time. The animals which were hunted included bison, deer, ducks and other waterfowl, geese, pigeons and many other birds, seals and walruses, fish, river mussels, and clams.\nPopulations of large birds were severely depleted through the 19th and early 20th century. The extermination of several species and the threatened loss of others caused", "meat goes up considerably. To meet the demand, the slaughtering of animals becomes considerably high and necessary.\nHowever, for the past few years, the animal rights activists in the country have been continuously opposing these acts of slaughter. They have been requesting people to stop such inhuman acts and instead have suggested them to offer fruits and vegetables to the goddesses since they believe that it is mentioned nowhere in the Hindu religious books that animal sacrifices appease the gods and goddesses. Exodus out of valley The Dashain festival was on 30 September in the year 2019. On 4 October 2019,", "trail (similar to drag hunting) rather than a live quarry has subsequently grown in importance in Great Britain, as has hunting foxes to a bird of prey. \nThe British Association for Shooting and Conservation (BASC) says that over a million people a year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay shooting and target shooting. In 2005 it became unlawful in England and Wales to shoot flights or game birds while they are not in flight, an action which has long been considered unsporting in any event. History Hunting has been practised in Britain since prehistoric times; it was a crucial", "halal abattoir in Wales, in which animals are not to be stunned prior to killing. Concerns about animal suffering from slaughter without prior stunning has resulted in the ban of slaughter of unstunned animals in Denmark, Luxembourg, Belgium, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. Generally, killing animals in Islam is only permissible for two main reasons, to be eaten and to eliminate a danger, e.g. a rabid dog. Meat slaughtered or prepared by non-Muslims Animals slaughtered by Christians or Jews is halal only if the slaughter is carried out by jugular slice, it is mentioned before slaughter that the", "horses destined for slaughter, but the people acquiring them do not always have the knowledge or the financial means to ensure their welfare over the long term. These animals are thus condemned to a \"slow death\". Another example the \"false good idea\" to ban the slaughter of horses, which has led to even more of the suffering that it was meant to prevent. Similarly, the natural horsemanship approach (treeless saddles, bits without mouthpieces, bare feet...) sometimes leads to the inappropriate use of equipment, or its removal when it is necessary.", "to describe doing good for others or taking a short-term loss in return for a greater power gain, such as in a game of chess. Animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by adherents of many religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature. It also served a social or economic function in those cultures where the edible portions of the animal were distributed among those attending the sacrifice for consumption. Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures,", "by men with traditional implements such as bows and arrows, spears, blowguns, and traps. In addition, firearms are becoming much more common in modern times. Though most hunting is done on a small scale, larger-scale techniques are sometimes employed. In these bigger hunts, people set fire to areas of forest or grassland in order to flush out prey. Other hunters or dogs frighten the animals into running toward armed men who then kill them. Industry The major industry of the East is forestry. The region has vast tracts of forest, and African and European companies have exploited these heavily. Because", "During the course of the project, animals experienced a poaching event, resulting in the deaths of three animals. Additionally, seven animals were killed by domestic dogs from nearby military outposts, suggesting that the animals do not recognize potential predators. This milestone project proved that reintroduction of wild animals in this part of the world is extremely difficult despite the favorable sentiment of the majority of local communities.", "foxes, magpies and birds of prey almost to extirpation in popular areas, and landowners improved their coverts and other habitats for game. Game Laws were relaxed in 1831 which meant anyone could obtain a permit to shoot rabbits, hares, and gamebirds, although shooting and taking away any birds or animals on someone else's land without their permission continued to be the crime of poaching, as it still is. \nHunting was formerly a royal sport, and to an extent shooting still is, with many Kings and Queens being involved in hunting and shooting, including King Edward VII, King George V (who", "it was not practical. Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson commented:\nNo, for the simple reason that we can't be bothered. It's far easier to just get a carcass so that's what we do. In earlier times it was normal to slaughter the animal in place because people couldn't store meat. But in modern circumstances it's completely unnecessary and too much trouble.\"\nNevertheless, during the first public blót \"a sympathizing visual artist brought along a live cock and had it beheaded in the kitchen, while the lamb was being cooked\".\nÁsatrúarfélagið has since stated that it rejects the use of Ásatrú as a justification for animal sacrifice,", "Animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of an animal usually as part of a religious ritual or to appease or maintain favour with a deity. Animal sacrifices were common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East until the spread of Christianity in Late Antiquity, and continue in some cultures or religions today. Human sacrifice, where it existed, was always much more rare. \nAll or only part of a sacrificial animal may be offered; some cultures, like the ancient and modern Greeks, eat most of the edible parts of the sacrifice in a feast, and burnt the", "Cattle are very sacred to them, therefore when they do eat cattle they honor its ghost. They typically just eat the cattle that is up in age on dying because of sickness. But even if they do so, they all gather together performing rituals,dances or songs before and after they slaughter the cattle. Never do they just kill cattle for the fun of it. “Never do Nuer slaughter animals solely because the desire to eat meat. There is the danger of the ox’s spirit visiting a curse on any individual who would slaughter it without ritual intent, aiming only to" ]

[ "So I'm not quite sure why you have this labeled as chemistry, so I'm going to do my best to mention chemistry, but this is more of a biology question.\n\nYou have these things called **neurotransmitters**. Some of them dictate how you feel. Serotonin is a mood stabilizer, it's very important in making sure you can have \"normal\" emotions. Some people have problems with their serotonin levels, take me. I make maybe half or less of the normal serotonin that a healthy person does. This leads to difficulty controlling my emotions, especially those of anger and depression.\n\nDepression has many forms besides the one above, but in most cases it can become very difficult to think happy thoughts. You may have self deprecating thoughts or focus solely on the negatives.\n\nFinal point: depression is different for everyone, and this answer is influenced by **my** experience.\n\nHope this answered your question." ]

[ "the distortion of one uncontrollable aspect of a person's life being viewed as representative of all aspects of their life – suggesting a mismatch between ultimate cause and modern manifestation. Analytical rumination hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that depression is an adaptation that causes the affected individual to concentrate his or her attention and focus on a complex problem in order to analyze and solve it.\nOne way depression increases the individual's focus on a problem is by inducing rumination. Depression activates the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which increases attention control and maintains problem-related information in an \"active, accessible state\" referred to", "major depression serve as costly and therefore honest signals of need, they also compel reluctant social partners to respond to that need in order to prevent their own fitness from being reduced. Social navigation or niche change theory The social navigation or niche change hypothesis proposes that depression is a social navigation adaptation of last resort, designed especially to help individuals overcome costly, complex contractual constraints on their social niche. The hypothesis combines the analytical rumination and bargaining hypotheses and suggests that depression, operationally defined as a combination of prolonged anhedonia and psychomotor retardation or agitation, provides a focused sober", "as \"working memory\", or WM. As a result, depressed individuals have been shown to ruminate, reflecting on the reasons for their current problems. Feelings of regret associated with depression also cause individuals to reflect and analyze past events in order to determine why they happened and how they could have been prevented.\nLikewise, ruminative tendency itself, some cognitive psychologists argue, increases the likelihood of the onset of depression.\nAnother way depression increases an individual's ability to concentrate on a problem is by reducing distraction from the problem. For example, anhedonia, which is often associated with depression, decreases an individual's desire to", "or even biology. Aaron Beck argues that depression is due to unrealistic negative views about the world. Beck starts treatment by engaging in conversation with clients about their unhelpful thoughts. Pessimists, however, are often able to provide arguments that suggest that their understanding of reality is justified; as in Depressive realism or (pessimistic realism). Deflection is a common method used by those who are depressed. They let people assume they are revealing everything which proves to be an effective way of hiding. The pessimism item on the Beck Depression Inventory has been judged useful in predicting suicides. The", "with depression act in ways that maintain their depression and locates the origin of depressive episodes in the environment. While BA theories do not deny biological factors that contribute to depression, they assert that it is ultimately the combination of a stressful event in an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces a depressive episode. Individuals with depression may display socially aversive behaviors, fail to engage in enjoyable activities, ruminate on their problems, or engage in other maladaptive activities. According to BA theory, these behaviors most often function as avoidance mechanisms while the individual tries to cope", "Behavioral theories of depression Behavioral theories of depression explain the etiology of depression based on the behavioural sciences, and they form the basis for behavioral therapies for depression. Introduction Depression is a significant mental illness with physiological and psychological consequences, including sluggishness, diminished interest and pleasure, and disturbances in sleep and appetite. It is predicted that by the year 2030, depression will be the number one cause of disability in the United States and other high-income countries.\nBehavioral theories of depression emphasize the role maladaptive actions play in the onset and maintenance of depression. These theories stem from work concerning the", "learning to ask themselves whether their thoughts are completely true, and whether those thoughts are helping them to meet their goals. Thoughts that do not meet this description may then be shifted to something more accurate or helpful, leading to more positive emotion, more desirable behavior, and movement toward the person's goals. Cognitive therapy takes a skill-building approach, where the therapist helps the person to learn and practice these skills independently, eventually \"becoming his or her own therapist.\" Depression According to Beck's theory of the etiology of depression, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and", "therapy, MBCT does not emphasise changing thought contents or core beliefs related to depression. It instead focuses on meta-cognitive awareness techniques, which are said to change the relationship between one’s thoughts and feelings.\nThe act of passively and repetitively focusing one’s attention on the symptoms, meanings, causes, and consequences of the negative emotional state of depression is called rumination. MBCT aims to reduce rumination by addressing the cognitive patterns associated with negative thinking and cultivating mindfulness of these patterns through meditation and self-awareness exercises that will give patients the ability to identify them. Once awareness of these feelings and thoughts has", "to postulate that depression could be the result of changes in levels of neurogenesis in the adult brain, specifically in the dentate gyrus. Studies indicate that stress affects neurogenesis by increasing Glucocorticoids and decreasing neurotransmitters such as serotonin. These effects were further verified by inducing stress in lab animals, which resulted in decreased levels of neurogenesis. Additionally, modern therapies that treat depression also promote neurogenesis. Ongoing research is looking to further verify this connection and define the mechanism by which it occurs. This could potentially lead to a better understanding of the development of depression as well as future methods", "refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a", "unnecessary harm. In this way, depression helps maintain a social hierarchy. This theory is a special case of a more general theory derived from the psychic pain hypothesis: that the cognitive response that produces modern-day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal, and if they are, to motivate them to desist. Social risk hypothesis This hypothesis is similar to the social rank hypothesis but focuses more on the importance of avoiding exclusion from social groups, rather than direct dominance contests. The fitness benefits of forming cooperative bonds", " The solution to depression offered, therefore, is to end the conflict (get these needs met): Navigate oneself into an unconditionally accepting social environment, so one can internalize this social acceptance into self-acceptance, winning one peace both internally and externally (through self-acceptance and social acceptance—self-esteem and belonging, respectively), ending the conflict, and the depression. (Treynor obtained this result and framework by piecing together social psychological science research findings using mathematical logic.) But what if one cannot find an unconditionally accepting group to navigate oneself into? If one cannot find such a group, the solution the framework", "the depressive under status quo socioeconomic arrangements.\nThus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared", "Management of depression Depression is a symptom of some physical diseases; a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments; and a symptom of some mood disorders such as major depressive disorder or dysthymia. Physical causes are ruled out with a clinical assessment of depression that measures vitamins, minerals, electrolytes, and hormones. Management of depression may involve a number of different therapies: medications, behavior therapy, psychotherapy, and medical devices.\nThough psychiatric medication is the most frequently prescribed therapy for major depression, psychotherapy may be effective, either alone or in combination with medication. Combining psychotherapy and antidepressants may provide a \"slight", "Biology of depression Scientific studies have found that numerous brain areas show altered activity in people with major depressive disorder, and this has encouraged advocates of various theories that seek to identify a biochemical origin of the disease, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Factors spanning these causative groups include nutritional deficiencies in magnesium, vitamin D, and tryptophan with situational origin but biological impact. Several theories concerning the biologically based cause of depression have been suggested over the years, including theories revolving around monoamine neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, inflammation and the circadian rhythm. Physical illnesses, including", "late life or earlier onset depression are unknown. It is known, however, that brain changes can be triggered by the stresses of certain life events such as illness, childbirth, death of a loved one, life transitions (such as retirement), interpersonal conflicts, or social isolation. Risk factors for depression in elderly persons include a history of depression, chronic medical illness, female sex, being single or divorced, brain disease, alcohol abuse, use of certain medications, and stressful life events. Treatments Treatment is effective in about 80% of identified cases, when treatment is provided. Effective management requires a biopsychosocial approach, combining pharmacotherapy and", "a 1℃ change in body temperature. Therefore, depression allows one to conserve and allocate energy to the immune system more efficiently.\nDepression further prevents infection by discouraging social interactions and activities that may result in exchange of infections. For example, the loss of interest discourages one from engaging in sexual activity, which, in turn, prevents the exchange of sexually transmitted diseases. Similarly, depressed mothers may interact less with their children, reducing the probability of the mother infecting her kin.\nLastly, the lack of appetite associated with depression may also reduce exposure to food-borne parasites.\nHowever, it should also be noted that chronic illness", "depression. The behavioral component had existed as a stand-alone treatment in the early work of Peter Lewinsohn and thus a group of behaviorists decided that it might be more efficient to pursue a purer behavioral treatment for the disorder. The theory holds that not enough environmental reinforcement or too much environmental punishment can contribute to depression. The goal of the intervention is to increase environmental reinforcement and reduce punishment.\nThe theoretical underpinnings of behavioral activation for depression is Charles Ferster's functional analysis of depression. Ferster's basic model has been strengthened by further development in the study of reinforcement principles which led", "major depression, and this work made a rapid impact.  He started with a theoretical paper (Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2009) that presented a novel synthesis of findings from psychiatry, neuroscience and cognitive psychology, which gave rise to an overarching hypothesis linking mood with thinking patterns and associative processing.  The crux of his groundbreaking hypothesis is that a thinking pattern that involves a broad associative scope elicits positive mood, while a ruminative thinking pattern and inhibition trigger negative mood. Through extensive and fruitful collaborations first with the outstanding department of psychiatry at the Harvard medical school and the Massachusetts General Hospital,", "depression and its accompanying behavioral manifestations that promote extreme energy reservation. The third ventricle hypothesis The third ventricle hypothesis of depression proposes that the behavioural cluster associated with depression (hunched posture, avoidance of eye contact, reduced appetites for food and sex plus social withdrawal and sleep disturbance) serves to reduce an individual's attack-provoking stimuli within the context of a chronically hostile social environment. It further proposes that this response is mediated by the acute release of an unknown (probably cytokine) inflammatory agent into the third ventricular space. In support of this suggestion imaging studies reveal that the third ventricle is", "with a stressful life event, resulting in a decrease in positive reinforcers or perceived control. Rumination is particularly important in the onset of depression. There are two main coping mechanisms, rumination and distraction. Ruminators spend time focusing on the stressful event and their feelings, while distractors engage in activities that distance them from the event and their feelings. Ruminators are much more likely to become depressed than distractors. Social skills Deficits in social skills and positive social interactions have been empirically proven to be main contributors to the maintenance of depression. Individuals with depression typically interact with others less frequently", "therapy (CBT) is based on the assumption that depression has its roots in negative thought patterns that then result in negative behavior patterns. Aaron Beck is cited as the first to develop this cognitive-behavioral approach, focusing on the here and now rather than predisposing factors. Beck's theories are based on his cognitive triad: a negative view of self, the world, and the future. Individuals with depression have unwarranted negative views of themselves and the world and, consequently, have overly negative expectations for the future. These negative expectations result in aversive behaviors; however, the behaviors are only a symptom of the", "depression. The first is whether cognitive processes are actually caused by the onset of clinically diagnosed symptoms of major depression or just generalized sadness or anxiousness. The second is whether emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety are able to be considered as caused by cognitions. And the third is whether different specific cognitive processes are able to be considered associates of different disorders. Kovacs and Beck (1977) posited a schematic model of depression where an already depressed self was primed by outside prompts that negatively impacted cognitive illusions of the world in the eye of oneself. These prompts only", "not initiate the disorder. Depending on the individual's subjective perception of an event, the diathesis leads to a certain psychological illness. Depression Through several cognitive biases, selective mood-congruent cues become established over long intervals. Emotional stimuli matching the emotional concerns create an aggregate effect on symptoms related to depression. Depression is associated with selective orientation. It prevents attention toward emotional cues that do not fit the internalized scheme to which the individual has become vulnerable, and leads to comorbid anxiety. When individuals who are prone to depression are asked to recall a specific event, they explain the general", "Evolutionary approaches to depression Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists to use the theory of evolution to shed light on the problem of mood disorders. Depression is generally thought of as dysfunction, but it is much more common than schizophrenia or autism, and its prevalence does not increase with age the way dementia and other organic dysfunction commonly does. Some researchers have surmised that the disorder may have evolutionary roots, in the same way that others suggest evolutionary contributions to schizophrenia, sickle cell anemia and other disorders. Psychology and psychiatry have not generally embraced evolutionary explanations for", "often used when people are thinking about their specific qualities, or more of who they are overall. So when thinking about oneself in the present, people tend to be more focused on their individual concrete qualities in more detail, versus when they think of themselves in the future, they think more of how they will be in the years to come in an overall abstract way. Decision-making and risky behavior Distance or high-level construals can make alternative choices that are hard to accomplish more desirable. Near-future or low-level construals can oppositely make alternative choices that are hard to accomplish", "the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one's ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move.", "alternatives, Observe results and (Now) evaluate). The goal being the understanding of the relationship between actions and emotional consequences and a systematic replacement of dysfunctional patterns with adaptive ones. Additionally, focus is given to quality sleep, and improving social functioning. Research support Recent reviews of behavioral activation studies for depression found that it has a robust effect and that policy makers should consider it an effective treatment. A large-scale treatment study found behavioral activation to be more effective than cognitive therapy and on par with medication for treating depression. More recently, a meta-analysis study comprising 34 Randomized Control Trials found", "respond appropriately and avoid upsetting someone already in physical or emotional pain. Again, this is important in maintaining social relationships.\nBehavioral control is an important application of cognitive inhibition in behavioral psychology, as is emotional control. Depression is an example of cognitive inhibition failure in emotion control. Correctly functioning cognitive inhibition would result in reduced selective attention to negative stimuli and retention of negative thoughts. \"There is emerging evidence that depression is characterized by deficits in the inhibition of mood-congruent material. These deficits could result in prolonged processing of negative, goal-irrelevant aspects of presented information thereby hindering recovery from negative mood", "behaviors, and the proposed explanations for the evolution of depression remain controversial. Background Major depression (also called \"major depressive disorder\", \"clinical depression\" or often simply \"depression\") is a leading cause of disability worldwide, and in 2000 was the fourth leading contributor to the global burden of disease (measured in DALYs); it is also an important risk factor for suicide. It is understandable, then, that clinical depression is thought to be a pathology—a major dysfunction of the brain.\nIn most cases, rates of organ dysfunction increase with age, with low rates in adolescents and young adults, and the highest rates in the" ]

[ "A boat motor works similar to a car motor except they're usually direct drive or have a simple single speed forward gearing, as well as a reverse gear. You have a shaft attached directly to the engine rather than a complex gearbox. The shaft runs through what's called a stuffing box, which is a grease filled tube that keeps water out. \n\nVery large boats (cruise ships, container ships) use azimuth thrusters. Large rotating pods which contain an electric motor that is powered by a diesel generator in the ship's engine room. So no need for a stuffing \n\nAs for the propeller, they work the same way an airplane propeller does, or a fan, or a swimmer doing the front crawl. They scoop water and push it back. Since every action has an equal and opposite reaction, this causes the boat to move forward. Thrust. \n\nYou can change how much water they scoop by adjusting the angle of the blades, the pitch. The sharper the angle, the more water they can scoop at a lower rotational speed. Allowing them to work more efficiently. Since water is more viscous (thicker) than air, you don't need as much surface area or rotational speed as you would with say a plane. Nor will you need to go nearly as fast. So you can make the prop smaller. The downside with adding more pitch is it requires more torque, rotational power. Which is why boats are often powered by high torque engines like diesel, steam, and electric as opposed to gas. With a gas engine, the prop has to turn faster, so it needs a shallower pitch to get the same amount of speed. But it's doing less work per rotation. So when buying a prop, you really have to keep in mind the ones that are designed to work with your engine. \n\nThere's another issue that crops up too if you spin a prop too fast: cavitation. The spinning prop creates a low pressure zone which causes water to boil at below 100c. Bubbles of steam appear and pop, which cause shock waves that can actually damage the prop.", "The small propeller moves a small stream of water, just as wide as the propeller, at a speed that's much faster than the boat moves. This stream of water has more mass than you'd think, because water is quite heavy, and it has a momentum (m • v). All this momentum goes into the boat, because momentum is conserved (the old physics rule \"Every action has an equal and opposite reaction\") so since the boat has a larger mass it gets a smaller increase in velocity.\n\nIt's surprisingly effective because well designed boats experience very little water friction, that's how you can paddle a canoe that floats your weight, plus the canoe, plus your stuff." ]

[ "rotate through 180 degrees, allowing steering by thrust vectoring. The propeller is mounted directly on the driveshaft with no additional gearing or transmission. Usually the engine also swivels up and down to provide a \"neutral gear\" where the propeller does not contact the water. The driveshaft must be extended by several metres of metal rod to properly position the propeller, giving the boat its name and distinct appearance.\nAdvantages to the inboard engine with a long driveshaft include keeping the engine relatively dry. Following the basic design pattern allows a variety of engines to be attached to a variety of different", "is a device used to transmit the power produced by the steam engine of the vessel to the surrounding water. The wheel functions by using buckets or paddles attached to the circumference of a rotating wheel that displace water with their movement, ultimately propelling the ship forward. Screw Also known as a propeller, a screw is a device that uses sloped surfaces to transition rotational motion created by the steam engine into an axial force that moves the vessel forward. Systems that use propellers are regarded as more efficient than comparative paddle-wheels due to the reduced weight of rotating components", "motor to another boat or for storage - all that is needed is to lift it out. The pivoting design allows the outboard motor to be swiveled by the operator in almost all directions: Sideways for direction, up and down to change the thrust line according to speed or bow lift, elevate completely out of water for easy starting, placing the drive shaft and the propeller forward along the side of the boat for reverse, or put them inside the boat for propeller replacement, which can be a regular occurrence to the cheap cast aluminum propellers on the often debris-prone", "Jetboat Function A conventional screw propeller works within the body of water below a boat hull, effectively \"screwing\" through the water to drive a vessel forward by generating a difference in pressure between the forward and rear surfaces of the propeller blades and by accelerating a mass of water rearward. By contrast, a waterjet unit delivers a high-pressure \"push\" from the stern of a vessel by accelerating a volume of water as it passes through a specialised pump mounted above the waterline inside the boat hull. Both methods yield thrust due to Newton's third law— every action has", "by small pedal-powered paddle boats and by some ships that operate tourist voyages. The latter are often powered by diesel engines. Paddle wheels The paddle wheel is a large steel framework wheel. The outer edge of the wheel is fitted with numerous, regularly-spaced paddle blades (called floats or buckets). The bottom quarter or so of the wheel travels underwater. An engine rotates the paddle wheel in the water to produce thrust, forward or backward as required. More advanced paddle wheel designs feature feathering methods that keep each paddle blade closer to vertical while in the water to increase efficiency. The", "single propeller, but some large vessels may have up to four propellers supplemented with transverse thrusters for maneuvring at ports. The propeller is connected to the main engine via a propeller shaft and, in case of medium- and high-speed engines, a reduction gearbox. Some modern vessels have a diesel-electric powertrain in which the propeller is turned by an electric motor powered by the ship's generators. Steering systems For ships with independent propulsion systems for each side, such as manual oars or some paddles, steering systems may not be necessary. In most designs, such as boats propelled by engines or sails,", "such as screw-propelled vehicles which use auger-like barrels which propel a vehicle through muddy terrain with a twisting motion. litres) and will need additional buoyancy measures. These can take the form of inflatable floatation devices, much like the sides of a rubber dinghy, or a waterproof fabric skirt raised from the top perimeter of the vehicle, to increase its displacement.\nFor propulsion in or on the water some vehicles simply make do by spinning their wheels or tracks, while others can power their way forward more effectively using (additional) screw propeller(s) or water jet(s). Most amphibians will work only as a", "Sterndrive Operation The drive unit (outdrive) carries power from the inboard engine, typically mounted above the waterline, outboard through the transom and downward to the propeller below the waterline.\nThe outdrive resembles the bottom half of an outboard motor and is composed of two sub-units: an upper containing a driveshaft connected through the transom to an engine which transmits power to a 90-degree-angle gearbox; and the lower containing a vertical driveshaft receiving power from the upper unit gearbox, transmitted through another 90-degree-angle gearbox to the propeller shaft.\nThe boat is steered by pivoting the outdrive, as on an outboard motor; no rudder", "Propeller A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil-shaped blades, and a fluid (such as air or water) is accelerated by the pressure difference. Propeller dynamics, like those of aircraft wings, can be modelled by Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law. Most marine propellers are screw propellers with helical blades rotating around an approximately horizontal axis or propeller shaft. Early developments The principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the", "objective is to minimize the movement of the operator’s hands, and the side-to-side movement of the boat, so the boat moves through the water slowly and steadily. \nThis minimal rotation keeps the water moving over the top of the blade and results in forces that transfer to the multi directional row-lock, or pivoting mount, on the side of the hull thus pushing the boat forward. Steering the boat is a matter of rotating the oar to produce more thrust on a push or pull of the oar, depending upon which way the operator wants to go. China The Chinese \"yuloh\"", "contra-rotating, they allow the vessel to spin around its own vertical axis. Some vessels had a single screw in addition to two paddle wheels, to gain the advantages of both types of propulsion. Pump jet A pump-jet, hydrojet, water jet, or jet drive uses a ducted propeller (axial-flow pump), centrifugal pump, or mixed flow pump to create a jet of water for propulsion.\nThese incorporate an intake for source water and a nozzle to direct its flow out, generating momentum, and in most cases, employing a pivot, steering.\nPump-jets are found on personal watercraft, shallow-draft river boats, and torpedoes. Sail The", "For a boat, the principal input axis is the longitudinal axis of the boat since that is the axis around which the boat rolls. The principal output axis is the transverse (athwartship) axis about which the gyro rotates or precesses in reaction to an input.\nWhen the boat rolls, the rotation acts as an input to the gyro, causing the gyro to generate rotation around its output axis such that the spin axis rotates to align itself with the input axis. This output rotation is called precession and, in the boat case, the gyro will rotate fore and aft about the", "Paddle wheel Physics The paddle wheel is a device for converting between rotary motion of a shaft and linear motion of a fluid. In the linear-to-rotary direction, it is placed in a fluid stream to convert the linear motion of the fluid into rotation of the wheel. This rotation can be used as a source of power, or as an indication of the speed of flow. In the rotary-to-linear direction, it is driven by a prime mover such as an electric motor or steam engine and used to pump a fluid or propel a vehicle such as a paddle-wheel steamer", "utilize fixed-pitch propellers, power is always fed through a variable-frequency drive or cycloconverter that allows speed and direction control of the propulsion motors.\nThe pod's propeller usually faces forward because in this pulling (or tractor) configuration the propeller is more efficient due to operation in undisturbed flow. Because it can rotate around its mount axis, the pod can apply its thrust in any direction. Azimuth thrusters allow ships to be more maneuverable and enable them to travel backward nearly as efficiently as they can travel forward. In order to get the most out of it, shiphandling training on simulators and", "Ship's wheel A ship's wheel or boat's wheel is a device used aboard a water vessel to steer that vessel and control its course. Together with the rest of the steering mechanism, it forms part of the helm. It is connected to a mechanical, electric servo, or hydraulic system which alters the vertical angle of the vessel's rudder relative to its hull. In some modern ships the wheel is replaced with a simple toggle that remotely controls an electro-mechanical or electro-hydraulic drive for the rudder, with a rudder position indicator presenting feedback to the helmsman. History Prior to the invention", "an engine or other power source, into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial airfoil-section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. Three types of aviation engines used to power propellors include reciprocating engines (or piston engines), gas turbine engines, and electric motors. The amount of thrust a propeller creates is determined by its disk area—the area in which the blades rotate. If the area is too small, efficiency is poor, and if the area is large, the propeller must rotate", "the blades are tilted rearward along the longitudinal axis, giving the propeller an overall cup-shaped appearance. This design preserves thrust efficiency while reducing cavitation, and thus makes for a quiet, stealthy design.\nA small number of ships use propellers with winglets similar to those on some airplanes, reducing tip vortices and improving efficiency. Modular propeller A modular propeller provides more control over the boat's performance. There is no need to change an entire prop, when there is an opportunity to only change the pitch or the damaged blades. Being able to adjust pitch will allow for boaters to have better performance", "Water wheel A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms of power, often in a watermill. A water wheel consists of a wheel (usually constructed from wood or metal), with a number of blades or buckets arranged on the outside rim forming the driving surface.\nWater wheels were still in commercial use well into the 20th century but they are no longer in common use. Uses included milling flour in gristmills, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, hammering wrought iron, machining, ore crushing and pounding fiber for use in the", "In boating, blade pitch is measured in the number of inches of forward propulsion through the water for one complete revolution of the propeller. For example, a propeller with a 12\" pitch when rotated once, will propel the vessel 12\" ahead. Note that this is the theoretical maximum distance; in reality, due to \"slip\" between the propeller and the water, the actual distance propelled will invariably be less. Variable pitch Some composite propellers have interchangeable blades, which enables the blade pitch to be adjusted. Changing the blade pitch in different elevations can be very beneficial to a boater. Typically, using", "electrical – hydraulic system with the thrusts powered by a hydraulic system. The main shrouded propeller is located in the center of the crucifix control surfaces at the stern, which enables the submersible to turn in the horizontal plan, but the main shrouded propeller cannot control the motion in the vertical plan, which is controlled by auxiliary propellers. These auxiliary propulsion systems also enable the submersibles to move sideways. Hydraulic system is selected for its high efficiency, compact size, light weight and the ease of installation, and with the thrusters installed outside the pressure hull, there no need", "while in different altitudes, water sports, and/or cruising. Voith Schneider propeller Voith Schneider propellers use four untwisted straight blades turning around a vertical axis instead of helical blades and can provide thrust in any direction at any time, at the cost of higher mechanical complexity. Protection of small engines For smaller engines, such as outboards, where the propeller is exposed to the risk of collision with heavy objects, the propeller often includes a device that is designed to fail when overloaded; the device or the whole propeller is sacrificed so that the more expensive transmission and engine are not damaged.\nTypically", "such as tankers, container ships and bulk carriers may have single screws for reasons of fuel efficiency. Other vessels may have twin, triple or quadruple screws. Power is transmitted from the engine to the screw by way of a propeller shaft, which may be connected to a gearbox. Paddle wheel The paddle wheel is a large wheel, generally built of a steel framework, upon the outer edge of which are fitted numerous paddle blades (called floats or buckets). The bottom quarter or so of the wheel travels underwater. Rotation of the paddle wheel produces thrust, forward", "in smaller (less than 10 hp or 7.5 kW) and older engines, a narrow shear pin through the drive shaft and propeller hub transmits the power of the engine at normal loads. The pin is designed to shear when the propeller is put under a load that could damage the engine. After the pin is sheared the engine is unable to provide propulsive power to the boat until a new shear pin is fitted.\nIn larger and more modern engines, a rubber bushing transmits the torque of the drive shaft to the propeller's hub. Under a damaging load the friction of the bushing", "wheel. It comprises a conveyor chain equipped with profiled paddles circulating around two wheels. These wheels are arranged so that the flowing water drives the conveyor chain on an inclined plane. Different turbine inclinations are possible.\nWater is fed to the Steffturbine through an inlet channel. The inflow of water loads the paddles. The power thus exerted onto the paddles causes the chain, which is mounted to run on roller bearings, to move. In turn, the circulating chain imparts a rotational motion to the drive wheels. A generator is connected to the rotating drive wheels via an overdrive transmission. The generator", "the engine block, linkage gears, and propeller within a single unit, taking the place of a rudder. Outboard drives are mounted to the transom and steered by a remote system leading to a wheel mounted on the boat's console. \nInboard-Outboard (or stern drives) are a hybrid, with an engine block mounted within the hull linked to a pivotable lower drive unit which steers the craft, similar to an outboard motor.\nJet Drives have a propeller enclosed in a pump-jet that draws water from underneath the hull and expels it through a swiveling nozzle in the stern. They are highly maneuverable", "or less commonly, by small gates on either side that deflect the jetstream. Because the jetboat relies on the flow of water through the nozzle for control, it is not possible to steer a conventional jetboat without the engine running.\nUnlike conventional propeller systems where the rotation of the propeller is reversed to provide astern movement, a waterjet will continue to pump normally while a deflector is lowered into the jetstream after it leaves the outlet nozzle. This deflector redirects thrust forces forward to provide reverse thrust. Most highly developed reverse deflectors redirect the jetstream down and to each", "an equal and opposite reaction.\nIn a jetboat, the waterjet draws water from beneath the hull, where it passes through a series of impellers and stators – known as stages – which increase the velocity of the waterflow. Most modern jets are single-stage, while older waterjets may have as many as three stages. The tail section of the waterjet unit extends out through the transom of the hull, above the waterline. This jetstream exits the unit through a small nozzle at high velocity to push the boat forward. Steering is accomplished by moving this nozzle to either side,", "steer the same way by rotating the front skis. Horse-drawn sleighs and dog sleds are steered by changing the direction of pull. Zero-turn lawn mowers use independent hydraulic wheel drive to turn on the spot. Watercraft steering Ships and boats are usually steered with a rudder. Depending on the size of the vessel, rudders can be manually actuated, or operated using a servomechanism, or a trim tab/servo tab system. Boats using outboard motors steer by rotating the entire drive unit. Boats with inboard motors sometimes steer by rotating the propeller pod only (i.e. Volvo Penta IPS drive). Modern ships with", "a channel, flowing horizontally. The blades of the wheel were angled so they entered the flowing water vertically. The inside of the wheel was open, so the water could flow up into the channel without the air pressure building up and impeding the flow. The water flowed back out again after a short time, the wheel turning perhaps 30 to 45 degrees, into the lower altitude tailrace.\nSagebien built his first wheel around 1850, and made the first full-sized version, at 6 to 7 horsepower, at a flour mill in Ronquerolles in 1851. Testing demonstrated this wheel operated at about 85%", "hull. The propeller is coupled to the prime mover with shafts and bevel gears that allow rotating the propeller about a vertical axis. This type of propulsion system has a long tradition throughout the 1990s and today such propulsion units are produced by a number of companies around the world.\nIn the Azipod unit, the electric motor is mounted inside the propulsion unit and the propeller is connected directly to the motor shaft. Electric power for the propulsion motor is conducted through slip rings that let the Azipod unit rotate 360 degrees about the vertical axis. Because Azipod units" ]

[ "There is always more than one lens/curved mirror inside the telescope, so the result is different if you reverse the order light goes through them. When there's only one symmetric lens looking either way through it produces same result." ]

[ "as a single object. Thus larger telescopes can image not only dimmer objects (because they collect more light), but resolve objects that are closer together as well.\nThis improvement of resolution breaks down due to the practical limits imposed by the atmosphere, whose random nature disrupts the single spot of the Airy disk into a pattern of similarly-sized spots scattered over a much larger area (see the adjacent image of a binary). For typical seeing, the practical resolution limits are at mirror sizes much less than the mechanical limits for the size of mirrors, namely at a mirror diameter equal", "magnifying glass. The eye (3) then sees an inverted magnified virtual image (6) of the object. Inverted images Most telescope designs produce an inverted image at the focal plane; these are referred to as inverting telescopes. In fact, the image is both turned upside down and reversed left to right, so that altogether it is rotated by 180 degrees from the object orientation. In astronomical telescopes the rotated view is normally not corrected, since it does not affect how the telescope is used. However, a mirror diagonal is often used to place the eyepiece in a more convenient viewing location,", "cannot collect all the rays which come from one point of an object, so as to make them convene at its focus in less room than in a circular space, whose diameter is the 50th part of the diameter of its aperture: which is an irregularity some hundreds of times greater, than a circularly figured lens, of so small a section as the object-glasses of long telescopes are, would cause by the unfitness of its figure, were light uniform.\" He adds: \"This made me take reflections into consideration, and finding them regular, so that the Angle of Reflection of all", "these objects can not be seen as too close, since there is always a limit of the parallax range for comfortable viewing.\nIf a scene is viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the window, if the scene is distant, it would be some distance behind the window, if it is nearby, it would appear to be just beyond the window. An object smaller than the window itself could even go through the window and appear partially or completely in front of it. The same applies to a part of a larger object that is smaller", "2 shows the object to be pivoted about the imagined eye to a new position, while maintaining its original face toward the eye. In a natural view, if the pivoting angle is not wide, even if the observer would not turn together with the object, the new object image would appear the same to the eye as it is at the original position because it is projected to the retina, which is concave. Or to say it another way, even if the observer looks at the image in a distorted (skewed) direction the image appears undistorted to the eye.\nBut note", "mirror can only be pointed straight up. Research is underway to develop telescopes that can be tilted, but currently if a liquid mirror were to tilt out of the zenith, it would lose its shape. Therefore, the mirror's view changes as the Earth rotates and objects cannot be physically tracked. An object can be briefly electronically tracked while in the field of view by shifting electrons across the CCD at the same speed as the image moves; this tactic is called time delay and integration or drift scanning. Some types of astronomical research are unaffected by these limitations, such as", "a fixed size on the retina, resulting from adaptation of the rod cells and cone cells of the retina. When an afterimage is viewed on the far wall of a room it looks large; when it is viewed on one's hand, it looks small. It is consistent with the geometry of the world: an object with a particular visual angle (given by the size of the retinal image) must be large if it is far away and small if it is near.\nConvergence micropsia implies that the state of convergence of the eyes contributes to determining the distance of an object", "deforming glass. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens sags due to gravity, distorting the images it produces. The largest practical lens size in a refracting telescope is around 1 meter (39 in).\nThere is a further problem of glass defects, striae or small air bubbles trapped within the glass. In addition, glass is opaque to certain wavelengths, and even visible light is dimmed by reflection and absorption when it crosses the air-glass interfaces and passes through the glass itself. Most of these problems are avoided or diminished in reflecting telescopes,", "lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on the foreground) blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses tend to magnify distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field.\nAnother result of using a wide-angle lens is a greater apparent perspective distortion when the camera is not aligned perpendicularly to the subject: parallel lines converge at the same rate as with a normal lens, but converge more due to the wider total field. For example, buildings appear to be falling backwards much more severely when the camera is pointed upward from ground", "their objectives rather than by the magnification which can be changed by switching eyepieces. Because the magnification of a telescope is equal to the focal length of the objective divided by the focal length of the eyepiece, smaller focal-length eyepieces cause greater magnification.\nSince crafting large lenses is much more difficult than crafting large mirrors, most modern telescopes are reflecting telescopes, that is, telescopes that use a primary mirror rather than an objective lens. The same general optical considerations apply to reflecting telescopes that applied to refracting telescopes, namely, the larger the primary mirror, the more light collected, and the magnification", "scale of your subject, one would require a lens in the magnitude of 1000mm+ with a massive glass surface large enough to visually encompass the entire subject.\nWith Olivo Barbieri's method, which also tricks the eye into seeing a real landscape as miniature via the shift-tilt method, certain objects in the frame betray the illusion. For example: a telephone pole extending vertically from the bottom to the top of frame will appear soft focus at the bottom, sharp focus in the middle and return to soft focus at the top. In reality, because the telephone pole is within a single plane", "highly magnified or highly diminished images when the object is placed at certain distances. Convex mirrors A convex mirror or diverging mirror is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges towards the light source. Convex mirrors reflect light outwards, therefore they are not used to focus light. Such mirrors always form a virtual image, since the focal point (F) and the centre of curvature (2F) are both imaginary points \"inside\" the mirror, that cannot be reached. As a result, images formed by these mirrors cannot be projected on a screen, since the image is inside the", "coming from the same object (but each passing through a different hole) are diffracted back toward the eye and onto different places on the retina. This leads to double vision (objects having doubled edges) around the rim of each hole the eye is not focussing on, which can make the overall image disturbing and tiring to look at for prolonged periods of time.\nUnlike conventional prescription glasses, pinhole glasses produce an image without the pincushion effect around the edges (which makes straight lines appear curved). While pinhole glasses are claimed to be useful for people who are both near- and far-sighted,", "away are made smaller in relation to those that are closer to the eye. Programs produce perspective by multiplying a dilation constant raised to the power of the negative of the distance from the observer. A dilation constant of one means that there is no perspective. High dilation constants can cause a \"fish-eye\" effect in which image distortion begins to occur. Orthographic projection is used mainly in CAD or CAM applications where scientific modeling requires precise measurements and preservation of the third dimension.", "and a telescope starts is debatable but a telescope is normally used for high magnifications (>20×) and with correspondingly larger objective lens diameter (e.g. 60–90mm). A telescope will be significantly heavier, more bulky and much more expensive than a monocular and due to the high magnifications, will normally need a tripod, telescopes used for astronomy typically have inverted images. Most popular monocular sizes mimic popular binoculars – e.g. 7×25, 8×20, 8×30, 8×42, 10×42.", "the smaller aperture was a circle about 3 arcsec in diameter. The quality of the telescope optics was such that point sources appeared about 3 arcsec across, so use of the smaller aperture required very accurate pointing, and it did not necessarily capture all of the light from the object. The larger aperture was therefore most commonly used, and the smaller aperture only used when the larger field of view would have contained unwanted emission from other objects.\nThere were two cameras for each spectrograph, one designated the primary and the second being redundant in case of failure of the first.", "Circle being placed here, stopp'd much of the erroneous Light, which other wise would have disturbed the Vision. By comparing it with a pretty good Perspective of four Feet in length, made with a concave Eye-glass, I could read at a greater distance with my own Instrument than with the Glass. Yet Objects appeared much darker in it than in the Glass, and that partly because more Light was lost by Reflexion in the Metal, than by Refraction in the Glass, and partly because my Instrument was overcharged. Had it magnified but 30 or 25 times, it would have made", "the image is formed behind the primary mirror, at the focal point of the secondary mirror. An observer views through the rear of the telescope, or a camera or other instrument is mounted on the rear. Cassegrain focus is commonly used for amateur telescopes or smaller research telescopes. However, for large telescopes with correspondingly large instruments, an instrument at Cassegrain focus must move with the telescope as it slews; this places additional requirements on the strength of the instrument support structure, and potentially limits the movement of the telescope in order to avoid collision with obstacles such as walls or", "diameter or \"seeing\") is the best possible angular resolution that can be achieved by an optical telescope in a long-exposure image, and corresponds to the FWHM of the fuzzy blob seen when observing a point-like source (such as a star) through the atmosphere. The size of the seeing disc is determined by the seeing conditions at the time of the observation. The best conditions give a seeing disk diameter of ~0.4 arcseconds and are found at high-altitude observatories on small islands such as Mauna Kea or La Palma.\nSeeing is one of the biggest problems for Earth-based astronomy. While large telescopes", "from the pinhole light source is interrupted by the knife edge. Viewing the mirror from behind the knife edge shows a pattern on the mirror surface. If the mirror surface is part of a perfect sphere, the mirror appears evenly lighted across the entire surface. If the mirror is spherical but with defects such as bumps or depressions, the defects appear greatly magnified in height. If the surface is paraboloidal, the mirror looks like a doughnut or lozenge. It is possible to calculate how closely the mirror surface resembles a perfect paraboloid by placing a special mask over the", "achieved by using a stationary camera and continuously rotating an otherwise stationary object. If the movement stops, the eye looking through the dark lens (which could be either eye depending on the direction the camera is moving) will \"catch up\" and the effect will disappear. One advantage of this system is that people not wearing the glasses will see a perfectly normal picture. Explanation The widely accepted explanation of the apparent depth is that a reduction in retinal illumination (relative to the fellow eye) yields a corresponding delay in signal transmission, imparting instantaneous spatial disparity in moving objects. This seems", "the closeness of the target this induces some aiming error. For larger targets at a distance (given the non-magnifying, quick target acquisitions nature of the sight) this aiming error is considered trivial. On small arms aimed at close targets this is compensated for by keeping the reticle in the middle of the optical window (sighting down its optical axis). Some manufacturers of small arms sights also make models with the optical collimator set at a finite distance. This gives the sight parallax due to eye movement the size of the optical window at close range which diminishes to a minimal", "enlargement. Usages in context include maximum permissible circle of confusion, circle of confusion diameter limit, and the circle of confusion criterion.\nReal lenses do not focus all rays perfectly, so that even at best focus, a point is imaged as a spot rather than a point. The smallest such spot that a lens can produce is often referred to as the circle of least confusion. Two uses Two important uses of this term and concept need to be distinguished:\n1. For describing the largest blur spot that is indistinguishable from a point. A lens can precisely focus objects at only one", "have this and thus has to be very rigid. The optical part of the telescope is mounted 2 meters in front of the main mirror, and to prevent blurred images, the cameras are mounted very rigidly and can move with a precision of micrometres.\nThe telescope mirror can be upgraded in size to 3/4 of a meter with small modification, and even larger with additional adaptions. Custom designed roof Another novel feature of the DOT is the roof which is made of a special polymer fibre which retains its shape after being stretched and does not loosen after time. The shape", "a single rigid piece of glass. Using a monolithic mirror much larger than the 5-meter Hale or 6-meter BTA-6 is prohibitively expensive due to the cost of both the mirror, and the massive structure needed to support it. A mirror beyond that size would also sag slightly under its own weight as the telescope is rotated to different positions, changing the precision shape of the surface, which must be accurate to within 2 millionths of an inch (50 nm). Modern telescopes over 9 meters use a different mirror design to solve this problem, with either a single thin flexible mirror or a", "addition, the mirror system is superior to a lens in gathering light. It is likely that the main eye serves to detect objects silhouetted against the sunlight, while the diverticulum serves to detect bioluminescent flashes from the sides and below.", "object is visible to the observer.\nAlternately, a single moving hole or slot can be used with a fixed/stationary hole or slot. The stationary hole or slot limits the light to a single viewing path and reduces glare from light passing through other parts of the moving hole/slot.\nViewing through a single line of holes/slots does not work, since the holes/slots appear to just sweep across the object without a strobe effect.\nThe rotational speed is adjusted so that it becomes synchronised with the movement of the observed system, which seems to slow and stop. The illusion is caused by temporal aliasing, commonly", "lenses, I think I choose them because it makes me feel like I'm in the space of the film, I'm surrounded. My prevalent vision is full of detail, and that's what I like about it. It's actually harder to do, it's harder to light. The other thing I like about wide-angle lenses is that I'm not forcing the audience to look at just the one thing that is important. It's there, but there's other things to occupy, and some people don't like that because I'm not pointing things out as precisely as I could if I was to use a", "the observer's eye. The observer is looking at a point, the fixation point, on the interior of the sphere. The visual field can be considered to be all parts of the sphere for which the observer can see a particular test stimulus. If we consider this surface to be that on which an observer can see anything, then it is a section of the sphere somewhat larger than a hemisphere. In reality it is smaller than this, and irregular, because when the observer is looking straight ahead, his or her nose blocks vision of some possible parts of the surface.", "two different apertures.\nAs an example, the light-gathering power of a 10-meter telescope is 25x that of a 2-meter telescope: \nFor a survey of a given area, the field of view is just as important as raw light gathering power. Survey telescopes such as the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope try to maximize the product of mirror area and field of view (or etendue) rather than raw light gathering ability alone. Magnification The magnification through a telescope makes an object appear larger while limiting the FOV. Magnification is often misleading as the optical power of the telescope, its characteristic is the most" ]

[ "\"Political economics\" is an old phrase which means the same thing as just plain \"economics\" means today (or perhaps \"macroeconomics\", if you want to get less-like 5)\n\nBasically, what people used to call \"economics\" is now called \"home economics\", or \"home ec\". And what they used to call \"political economics\" is now just \"economics\".\n\n\"Moral economics\" is just some self-righteous people trying to tell everyone else what to do. It is not particularly comparable to economics as a whole, any more than \"I like blue and so should you\" is comparable to \"color exists and is a property of light as perceived by the brain through the eyes\".\n\nUnless you meant \"moral philosophy\", which is from the same time period as the term \"political economics\" is." ]

[ "Political economy Etymology Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production or consumption within limited parameters was organized in nation-states. In that way, political economy expanded the emphasis of economics, which comes from the Greek oikos (meaning \"home\") and nomos (meaning \"law\" or \"order\"). Political economy was thus meant to express the laws of production of wealth at the state level, just as economics was the ordering of the home. The phrase économie politique (translated in English as \"political economy\") first appeared in France in 1615 with the well-known book by Antoine de Montchrétien, Traité de", "economy is a science, and consequently that its results are entirely neutral with respect to social facts or systems. It has simply to trace the necessary connections among the phenomena of wealth and dictates no rules for practice. Further, he is distinctly opposed both to those who would treat political economy as an integral part of social philosophy, and to those who have attempted to express economic facts in quantitative formulae and to make economy a branch of applied mathematics. According to him political economy is a mixed science, its field being partly mental, partly physical. It may be called", "usage of the term as that:\n[just as] economy in general [is] the art of providing for all the wants of a family, [so the science of political economy] seeks to secure a certain fund of subsistence for all the inhabitants, to obviate every circumstance which may render it precarious; to provide every thing necessary for supplying the wants of the society, and to employ the inhabitants ... in such manner as naturally to create reciprocal relations and dependencies between them, so as to supply one another with reciprocal wants.\nThe book was the most complete and systematic survey of the science", "meaning “one who manages a household or estate.” Political economy thus can be understood as the study of how a country—the public’s household—is managed or governed, taking into account both political and economic factors. Political economy is a very old subject of intellectual inquiry.\nIPE scholars are at the center of the debate and research surrounding globalization, international trade, international finance, financial crises, microeconomics, macroeconomics, development economics, (poverty and the role of institutions in development), global markets, political risk, multi-state cooperation in solving trans-border economic problems, and the structural balance of power between and among states and institutions. Origin Political economy", "society and those who govern it ought not to make any judgement about what is desirable for people, but just leave individuals as free as possible to pursue their own aims, what ever those may be. With relation to the economy, the current mainstream view sees capitalism as an end in itself, the expression of a population's will relayed via the market. This is contrasted with Keynes's view that capitalism is a means rather than an end, and ought to aim at allowing populations the leisure to pursue the \"good life\" chiefly living ethically, and having time", "economies, including those based on capitalism. He began by describing the term \"economic\" as a combination of two separate meanings. The first is a \"substantive meaning\" that refers to the relationship humans have with one another and to the earth. The second is a \"formal meaning\" that deals with a \"means-ends relationship\" which focuses on economizing one's means to maximize one's ends (a \"logical\" and mechanistic understanding of what it means to be a human and participate in an economy) (Polanyi 1957:243). Polanyi charts how reciprocity, redistribution and exchange have been conducted in different cultures across time (Polanyi 1957:250-56). Polanyi", "was then called political economy as \"an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations\", in particular as:\na branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... [and] to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services.\nJean-Baptiste Say (1803), distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle (1849) coined \"the dismal science\" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly", "Right.\nEconomic liberalism is also called economic rationalism in Australia. The term\"economic rationalism\" was first used by Labor's Gough Whitlam. to describe a market-oriented form of social democracy, but its meaning subsequently evolved. It is a philosophy which tends to advocate a free market economy, increased deregulation, privatisation, lower direct taxation and higher indirect taxation, and a reduction of the size of the welfare state. The politicians favouring New Right ideology were referred to as \"dries\", while those advocating continuation of the economic policies of the post-war consensus, typically Keynesian economics, or were more socially liberal, were called \"wets\" (the term", "free market global economy. An economically just economy is one in which every citizen can be a capital owner without taking property away from the currently wealthy (whom the system allowed to monopolize ownership of increasingly productive labor displacing-technologies).\nCESJ defines “capitalism” as a system in which proprietary rights to profits and control over capital assets is concentrated in a small private elite, and “socialism” as a system in which capital ownership or control is vested in the State. In both systems most people are dependent on wages and welfare for subsistence. CESJ prefers the term “Just Third", "Socialism for the rich and capitalism for the poor Socialism for the rich and capitalism for the poor is a classical political-economic argument, stating that in the advanced capitalist societies state policies assure that more resources flow to the rich than to the poor, for example in the form of transfer payments. The term corporate welfare is widely used to describe the bestowal of favorable treatment to particular corporations by the government. One of the most commonly raised forms of criticism are statements that the capitalist political economy toward large corporations allows them to \"privatize profits and socialize losses.\"", "\"economic democracy\" meant in its profoundest sense was free, \"democratic\" access to the means of life, the counterpart of political democracy, that is, the guarantee of freedom from material want. It is a dirty bourgeois trick, in which many radicals unknowingly participate, that \"economic democracy\" has been re-interpreted as \"employee ownership\" and \"workplace democracy\" and has come to mean workers' \"participation\" in profit sharing and industrial management rather than freedom from the tyranny of the factory, rationalized labor, and \"planned production,\" which is usually exploitative production with the complicity of the workers.\n\nAs such, Bookchin argued: \nWhereas the syndicalist alternative re-privatizes", "Economic rationalism Criticism The term \"economic rationalism\" is commonly used in criticism of free-market economic policies as amoral or asocial. In this context, it may be summarised as \"the view that commercial activity... represents a sphere of activity in which moral considerations, beyond the rule of business probity dictated by enlightened self-interest, have no role to play\" (Quiggin 1997).\nThe well-known statement of Margaret Thatcher, \"There is no such thing as society. There are individuals, and there are families,\" is often quoted in that context, but the interpretation of that statement is disputed. Support Supporters of economic rationalism have presented two", "International political economy International political economy (IPE), also known as global political economy (GPE), refers to either economics or an interdisciplinary academic discipline that analyzes economics, politics and international relations. When it is used to refer to the latter, it usually focuses on political economy and economics, although it may also draw on a few other distinct academic schools, notably political science, also sociology, history, and cultural studies. IPE is most closely linked to the fields of macroeconomics, international business, international development and development economics.\nThe term political economy is derived from the Greek polis, meaning “city” or “state,” and oikonomos,", "usually government. The subject addresses such matters as tax incidence (who really pays a particular tax), cost-benefit analysis of government programmes, effects on economic efficiency and income distribution of different kinds of spending and taxes, and fiscal politics. The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.\nMuch of economics is positive, seeking to describe and predict economic phenomena. Normative economics seeks to identify what economies ought to be like.\nWelfare economics is a normative branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to simultaneously determine the allocative efficiency within", "Economics and the Public Purpose Economics and the Public Purpose is a 1973 book by Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith. Galbraith advocates a \"new socialism\" as the solution, nationalising military production and public services such as health care. He also advocates introducing disciplined wage, salary, profit and price controls on the economy to reduce inequality and restrain the power of giant corporations. Socialisation of the \"unduly weak industries and unduly strong ones\" together with planning for the remainder would allow the public interest to be accorded its rightful preference, argues Galbraith, over private interests. He adds that this can only", "describes the economy as being composed of value-adding processes; that is, labour and skill is added to techniques and crafts and the product is sold at a higher value. He also made the distinction between \"profit\" and \"sustenance\", in modern political economy terms, surplus and that required for the reproduction of classes respectively. He also calls for the creation of a science to explain society and goes on to outline these ideas in his major work, the Muqaddimah. In Al-Muqaddimah Khaldun states, “Civilization and its well-being, as well as business prosperity, depend on productivity and people’s efforts in", "on profit maximizing principle. So he considers that in order to guarantee the existence of humankind we have to change the capitalistic economy to an alternative much more socialized economic system, which is called socialistic economy.", "Malthus, in 1805, became England's first professor of political economy, at the East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire. In its contemporary meaning, political economy refers to different yet related approaches to studying economic and related behaviours, ranging from the combination of economics with other fields to the use of different, fundamental assumptions that challenge earlier economic assumptions:", "The Economy of God Meaning of Economy \"The economy of God\" is a quotation from 1 Timothy 1:4, according to the Greek. Economy is the Greek word \"oikonomia\", which primarily signifies the household management, the household administration, arrangement and distribution, or dispensation. The word \"economy\" is used with the intention of stressing the focal point of God's divine enterprise, which is to distribute, or dispense, Himself into man.\nAs noted above, the word \"economy\" is the anglicized form of the Greek word οἰκονομία (oikonomia). Οἰκονομία signifies the management of a household or of household affairs. Another definition is the management or", "\"economy\" and \"economics\" can be traced back to the Greek word οἰκονόμος (i.e. \"household management\"), a composite word derived from οἶκος (\"house;household;home\") and νέμω (\"manage; distribute;to deal out;dispense\") by way of οἰκονομία (\"household management\").\nThe first recorded sense of the word \"economy\" is in the phrase \"the management of œconomic affairs\", found in a work possibly composed in a monastery in 1440. \"Economy\" is later recorded in more general senses, including \"thrift\" and \"administration\".\nThe most frequently used current sense, denoting \"the economic system of a country or an area\", seems not to have developed until the 1650s. Ancient times As long", "Per Capita Philosophy As a progressive, centre-left think tank, Per Capita's approach is to view the role of government as a market designer: setting parameters for a liberal economy to produce better social outcomes.\nPer Capita's thinking draws on market design theory, full-cost economics, behavioural economics, and political philosophy. Impact Per Capita is recognised as a leading think tank of the centre-left in Australia, with a more centrist orientation than counterparts such as the Australia Institute and the Centre for Policy Development. An observer has noted that the think tank has influenced thinking about economic reform within the Gillard government. Research", "expressed concern about the inappropriate use of economic metaphors in other contexts, suggesting that this may have political implications. The argument they make is that by treating everything as a kind of \"economy\" they make a particular vision of the way an economy works seem more natural. Thus, they suggest, rational choice is as much ideological as it is scientific, which does not in and of itself negate its scientific utility.\nAn evolutionary psychology perspective is that many of the seeming contradictions and biases regarding rational choice can be explained as being rational in the context of maximizing biological fitness in", "labor market more inclusive by valuing previously ignored forms of work. Some acknowledge the non-monetary economy as having a moral or socially conscious philosophy that attempts to end social exclusion by including poor and unemployed individuals, providing economic opportunities and access to services and goods. Community-based and grassroots movements encourage the community to be more participatory, thus providing a more democratic economic structure. Core (or social) economy The social economy refers to the space between public and private sectors occupied by civil society, including community organizations, volunteering, social enterprises, and cooperatives. The social economy represents “a wide family of initiatives", "of economic democracy. Economic democracy is a socioeconomic philosophy that suggests an expansion of decision-making power from a small minority of corporate shareholders to a larger majority of public stakeholders. There are many different approaches to thinking about and building economic democracy. Anarchists are committed to libertarian socialism and have focused on local organization, including locally managed cooperatives, linked through confederations of unions, cooperatives and communities. Marxists, who as socialists have likewise held and worked for the goal of democratizing productive and reproductive relationships, often placed a greater strategic emphasis on confronting the larger scales of human organization. As they", "economic institutions themselves. Socio-cultural obligations, norms and values play a significant role in people's livelihood strategies. Consequently, any analysis of economics as an analytically distinct entity isolated from its socio-cultural and political context is flawed from the outset. A substantivist analysis of economics will therefore focus on the study of the various social institutions on which people's livelihoods are based. The market is only one amongst many institutions that determine the nature of economic transactions. Polanyi's central argument is that institutions are the primary organisers of economic processes. The substantive economy is an \"instituted process of interaction between man and", "Economic system Typology There are several basic questions that must be answered in order for an economy to run satisfactorily. The scarcity problem, for example, requires answers to basic questions, such as what to produce, how to produce it and who gets what is produced. An economic system is a way of answering these basic questions and different economic systems answer them differently. Many different objectives may be seen as desirable for an economy, like efficiency, growth, liberty and equality.\nEconomic systems are commonly segmented by their property rights regime for the means of production and by their dominant resource allocation", "bureaucracy and laud individualism as the source of prosperity while also initiating social control of economic matters. This obscures the question referred to in the chapter title of whether this social control will consist of haphazard responses to events that threaten business aimed at pecuniary profit or else from public and intelligent planning aimed at ordered social development. The chapter accepts economic determinism as a fact and regards politics as secondary. Politics is a means, and acknowledged as such attention then can be paid to the ends it serves.\n7. The Crisis in Culture:\nThe American pecuniary culture hinders the growth of", "how the world might be organized to provide such goods “so as to raise the wealth of all nations.”(p77) It proposed organizing the world not from the top down but from the bottom up, “to empower the rationality of every individual.”(p79) It is not sufficient, but it is necessary. Sin “Political economy must deal with humans as they are”,(p82) including evil. Each system identifies the greatest evil. For traditional societies it is disorder, for socialist societies, inequality, for democratic capitalist societies it is tyranny.\nIn democratic capitalism we turn attention from “the moral intentions of individuals and toward", "subordinate other policy areas to economic considerations. The perceived competency on the economy of political parties is in turn a key indicator of electoral success. In an econocracy a broad range of activities from the arts, education, health and literature are justified as valuable because they contribute positively to the economy.\nEconocracy undermines participatory and deliberative democracy because it delegates decision-making to economic experts and because public discourse is jargon-heavy and expert-led. For example, in the UK, only 12% of respondents in a YouGov poll believe that politicians and the media talk about economics in a way that is accessible. In", "if elected use the machinery of government to pass political and social reforms for the purposes of ameliorating the instabilities and inequities of capitalism. Economics Socialist economics starts from the premise that \"individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members\".\nThe original conception of socialism was" ]

[ "I work at a research university, and system administration of our supercomputers falls under my team's responsibilities. What ours supercomputer do is simulation. They simulate things like chemicals interactions, nuclear reactions, electronic systems, and many other things. In many areas of research, it is a lot cheaper to develop models that can be simulated in supercomputers to test ideas, instead of experimenting with real world systems.\n\nOur research groups use their models on our supercomputers to research solar energy, advanced films, water treatment, artificial intelligence, medical imaging, and a lot more.\n\nAll of this requires a lot of processing power because 1, these are complex models involving the interactions between multiple dimensions of variables; 2, because being able to perform calculations faster means either getting results sooner, or being able to simulate systems in more detail, with better results.", "Yucky medicine takes a very long time to make. Because people eat the yucky medicine, it's important that we know what it'll do to our tummies. Because everybody is different, some medicine might make you more sick instead of better!\n\nSometimes the companies will run a computer program that imagines all the different types of tummies and what the yucky medicine will do to the tummies. It's not just tummies either, yucky medicine can effect all the areas of the bodies, even your bum! \n\nTo imagine what the medicine would do to all the areas of your body would be very hard for a human. For a normal computer like yours and mine it would take a really long time! To make things quicker, the companies will get lots of computers and join them together like Lego to make a super computer. This makes all the imagining really quick!", "It depends. It's not very hard to make a model that requires extremely high computing. Say a particle simulation with tons of particles. Some models require numerous iterations to find a solution, particularly flow fields. So a singular \"timestep\" in a simulation that spans some time, could take several iterations for the flow field to be solved. Some simulations require monte-carlo approaches, which means you repeat the same thing a ton of times with certain variables slightly tweaked or some stochastic process added. This is necessary to test uncertainty/sensitivity and get most probably outcome on models that aren't solid enough to run once at take that result." ]

[ "of calculation. The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of today's supercomputers tends to become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer. Supercomputer processing speeds are measured in floating point operations per second, or FLOPS. An example of a floating point operation is the calculation of mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomputers are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing. Servers Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to", "is either quoted based on the theoretical floating point performance of a processor (derived from manufacturer's processor specifications and shown as \"Rpeak\" in the TOP500 lists), which is generally unachievable when running real workloads, or the achievable throughput, derived from the LINPACK benchmarks and shown as \"Rmax\" in the TOP500 list. The LINPACK benchmark typically performs LU decomposition of a large matrix. The LINPACK performance gives some indication of performance for some real-world problems, but does not necessarily match the processing requirements of many other supercomputer workloads, which for example may require more memory bandwidth, or may require better integer", "that \"A supercomputer is a device for turning compute-bound problems into I/O-bound problems.\"", "so that both the latency and the asymptotic throughput are functions of the number of processors. Peak measured throughput The above values are theoretical or calculated. Peak measured throughput is throughput measured by a real, implemented system, or a simulated system. The value is the throughput measured over a short period of time; mathematically, this is the limit taken with respect to throughput as time approaches zero. This term is synonymous with instantaneous throughput. This number is useful for systems that rely on burst data transmission; however, for systems with a high duty cycle this is less likely to be", "to service multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. These computers are capable of handling and processing very large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe computers are used in large institutions such as government, banks and large corporations.\nThey are measured in MIPS (million instructions per second) and can respond to hundreds of millions of users at a time. Supercomputers A Supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations such as weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical astrophysics, and complex scientific computations. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the front-line of current processing capacity, particularly speed", "very complex weather simulation application.\nCapacity computing, in contrast, is typically thought of as using efficient cost-effective computing power to solve a few somewhat large problems or many small problems. Architectures that lend themselves to supporting many users for routine everyday tasks may have a lot of capacity but are not typically considered supercomputers, given that they do not solve a single very complex problem. Performance metrics In general, the speed of supercomputers is measured and benchmarked in \"FLOPS\" (FLoating point Operations Per Second), and not in terms of \"MIPS\" (Million Instructions Per Second), as is the case with general-purpose computers.", "computing performance, or may need a high performance I/O system to achieve high levels of performance. Development and trends In the 2010s, China, the United States, the European Union, and others competed to be the first to create a 1 exaFLOP (10¹⁸ or one quintillion FLOPS) supercomputer. Erik P. DeBenedictis of Sandia National Laboratories has theorized that a zettaFLOPS (10²¹ or one sextillion FLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full weather modeling, which could cover a two-week time span accurately. Such systems might be built around 2030.\nMany Monte Carlo simulations use the same algorithm to process a randomly generated data", "Transcomputational problem In computational complexity theory, a transcomputational problem is a problem that requires processing of more than 10⁹³ bits of information. Any number greater than 10⁹³ is called a transcomputational number. The number 10⁹³, called Bremermann's limit, is, according to Hans-Joachim Bremermann, the total number of bits processed by a hypothetical computer the size of the Earth within a time period equal to the estimated age of the Earth. The term transcomputational was coined by Bremermann. Testing integrated circuits Exhaustively testing all combinations of an integrated circuit with 309 inputs and 1 output requires testing of a total of", "TOP500 The TOP500 project ranks and details the 500 most powerful non-distributed computer systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the supercomputers twice a year. The first of these updates always coincides with the International Supercomputing Conference in June, and the second is presented at the ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference in November. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL, a portable implementation of the high-performance LINPACK benchmark written in Fortran for distributed-memory computers.\nChina currently dominates the list with", "adopted a figure of 10¹⁶ computations per second (cps). (For comparison, if a \"computation\" was equivalent to one \"floating point operation\" – a measure used to rate current supercomputers – then 10¹⁶ \"computations\" would be equivalent to 10 petaFLOPS, achieved in 2011). He used this figure to predict the necessary hardware would be available sometime between 2015 and 2025, if the exponential growth in computer power at the time of writing continued. Modelling the neurons in more detail The artificial neuron model assumed by Kurzweil and used in many current artificial neural network implementations is simple compared with biological", "high logic values at regular intervals. As the hertz has become the primary unit of measurement accepted by the general populace to determine the performance of a CPU, many experts have criticized this approach, which they claim is an easily manipulable benchmark. Some processors use multiple clock periods to perform a single operation, while others can perform multiple operations in a single cycle. For personal computers, CPU clock speeds have ranged from approximately 1 MHz in the late 1970s (Atari, Commodore, Apple computers) to up to 6 GHz in IBM POWER microprocessors.\nVarious computer buses, such as the front-side bus connecting the CPU", "highest transistor count in a non-memory chip is a deep learning engine called the Wafer Scale Engine by Cerebras, using a special design to route around any non-functional core on the device; it has 1.2 trillion MOSFETs, manufactured using TSMC's 16 nm FinFET process.\nIn terms of computer systems that consist of numerous integrated circuits, the supercomputer with the highest transistor count as of 2016 is the Chinese-designed Sunway TaihuLight, which has for all CPUs/nodes (10¹² for the 10 million cores and for RAM 10¹⁵ for the 1.3 million GB) combined \"about 400 trillion transistors in the processing part of the hardware\" and", "two numbers and then multiplies by a third; in the Cray, these would all be fetched at once, and both added and multiplied in a single operation. Using the pseudocode above, the Cray did:\nread instruction and decode it\nfetch these 10 numbers\nfetch those 10 numbers\nfetch another 10 numbers\nadd and multiply them\nput the results here\nThe math operations thus completed far faster overall, the limiting factor being the time required to fetch the data from memory.\nNot all problems can be attacked with this sort of solution. Including these types of instructions necessarily adds complexity to the core CPU. That complexity typically makes other", "energy, and other fields. Computer specs At the release of the TOP500 supercomputer rankings in June 2010 the CCI was ranked the 80th most powerful supercomputer in the world, with a peak processing power of 91.75 Teraflops or 91.75 trillion floating point operations per second. When finished, all of the systems at the center will have a combined power surpassing 100 teraflops. Hardware The original supercomputer consisted of a series of IBM BlueGene/L systems which contain a total of 32,768 PowerPC 440 700 MHz processors. There is also a heterogeneous array of Power-based Linux machines and AMD Opteron processor-based clusters running", "graph, and the traversal is the ability of the machine to communicate data between these two points. The standardized benchmark associated with Graph500, as of September, 2011, calls for executing graph generation and search algorithms on graphs as large as 1.1 Petabyte.\nThe ability of an application to utilize a supercomputer cluster effectively depends not only on the raw speed of each processor, but also on the communication network. The importance of communication capability varies from application to application, but it is clear that the LINPACK benchmarks traditionally used for rating the FLOPS of supercomputers do not require the same communications", "as random numbers. Memory and variables The 35s provides 30k bytes of user memory, which is shared among data, stored equations, and programs.\nSince complex numbers and vectors of up to three elements can be stored as a single value, each data variable occupies 37 bytes, enough for a type indicator and three floating-point numbers.\nThe 26 alpha-labelled variables and the six statistics registers are permanently allocated; the rest of the memory space can be occupied by up to 801 more variables which can only be accessed indirectly. Indirect access to any variable is achieved by storing its sequence number (0 upwards)", "Complexity (C3) program which envisions a new generation of superconducting supercomputers that operate at exascale speeds based on Superconducting logic. In December 2014 it announced a multi-year contract with International Business Machines, Raytheon BBN Technologies and Northrop Grumman to develop the technologies for C3 program.\nOn 29 July 2015, President Obama signed an executive order creating a National Strategic Computing Initiative calling for the accelerated development of an exascale system and funding research into post-semiconductor computing. The Exascale Computing Project hopes to build an exascale computer by 2021.\nOn 18 March 2019, the United States Department of Energy and Intel announced", "Supercomputer A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS). Since 2017, there are supercomputers which can perform over a hundred quadrillion FLOPS. Since November 2017, all of the world's fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-based operating systems. Additional research is being conducted in China, the United States, the European Union, Taiwan and Japan to build even faster, more powerful and technologically superior exascale supercomputers.\nSupercomputers play an important role in the field of", "Megaputer Intelligence PolyAnalyst Their flagship software program performs analysis on both structured and unstructured forms of data. The program is referred to as an end-to-end data processing tool in that it can load data from several different sources and take it all the way to reporting analytical results. The process details a cleansing and prepping stage which leads to analysis using machine learning and text analysis functions until the results are published on a web-based interactive interface. Or the results can be exported into formats for use in other programs. Annual Conference Megaputer hosts an annual analytics conference for PolyAnalyst", "These measurements are commonly used with an SI prefix such as tera-, combined into the shorthand \"TFLOPS\" (10¹² FLOPS, pronounced teraflops), or peta-, combined into the shorthand \"PFLOPS\" (10¹⁵ FLOPS, pronounced petaflops.) \"Petascale\" supercomputers can process one quadrillion (10¹⁵) (1000 trillion) FLOPS. Exascale is computing performance in the exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) range. An EFLOPS is one quintillion (10¹⁸) FLOPS (one million TFLOPS).\nNo single number can reflect the overall performance of a computer system, yet the goal of the Linpack benchmark is to approximate how fast the computer solves numerical problems and it is widely used in the industry. The FLOPS measurement", "for one. If you have several processors, you can compute the sequence S for a different set of random vectors in parallel on all the computers.\nIt turns out, by a generalization of the Berlekamp–Massey algorithm to provide a sequence of small matrices, that you can take the sequence produced for a large number of vectors and generate a kernel vector of the original large matrix. You need to compute y_i \\cdot M^t x_j for some i = 0 \\ldots i_\\max, j=0 \\ldots j_\\max, t = 0 \\ldots t_\\max where i_\\max, j_\\max, t_\\max need to satisfy t_\\max > \\frac{d}{i_\\max} +", "uses a macroscopic number of identical computers. Each computer contains a certain number of qubits, and the computational operations are performed simultaneously on all the computers. The output of the computation can be obtained by measuring the state of the entire ensemble, which would be the average output of each computer in it. Since the number of computers is macroscopic, the output signal is easier to detect and measure than the output signal of each single computer.\nThis model is widely used in NMR quantum computing: each computer is represented by a single (identical) molecule, and the qubits of each computer", "W=G(M) gives a very simple, but effective, description of the relation between computation and memory requirement. From an architecture viewpoint, the memory-bounded model suggests the size, as well as speed, of the cache(s) should match the CPU performance. Today, modern microprocessors such as the Pentium Pro, Alpha 21164, Strong Arm SA110, and Longson-3A use 80% or more of their transistors for the on-chip cache rather than computing components. From an algorithm design viewpoint, we should reduce the number of memory accesses. That is, reuse the data when it is possible. The function G() gives the reuse rate. Today, the term", "data streams on the L1 cache), and goes directly to the L2 cache.\nThe system allows for the GPU to directly read data produced by the CPU without going to main memory. In this specific case of data streaming, called Xbox procedural synthesis (XPS), the CPU is effectively a data decompressor, generating geometry on-the-fly for consumption by the GPU 3D core. Graphics processing unit While the first Xbox's graphics processing unit was produced by Nvidia, the Xbox 360 had a chip designed by ATI called Xenos. The chip was developed under the name \"C1\" and \"R500\" was often used to refer", "so there were two forms of zero: positive zero and negative zero. The A and Q register could function as a combined 48-bit register for certain arithmetic instructions. The E register had 48 bits.\nThe 3600 CPU could execute around one million instructions per second (1 MIPS), giving it supercomputer status in 1965.\nMuch of the basic architecture design of the 3000 series was done by Seymour Cray, then passed on to others to complete as he moved on to designing the CDC 6000 series. Several of the innovative features that made the 6600 'the first supercomputer' can be seen", "for the user. The user told the machine where in memory the list of numbers was stored, then fed in a single instruction a(1..1000000) = addv b(1..1000000), c(1..1000000). At first glance it appears the savings are limited; in this case the machine fetches and decodes only a single instruction instead of 1,000,000, thereby saving 1,000,000 fetches and decodes, perhaps one-fourth of the overall time.\nThe real savings are not so obvious. Internally, the CPU of the computer is built up from a number of separate parts dedicated to a single task, for instance, adding a number, or fetching from memory. Normally,", "and elapsed real time Elapsed real time is always greater than or equal to the CPU time for computer programs which use only one CPU for processing. If no wait is involved for I/O or other resources, elapsed real time and CPU time are very similar. CPU time and elapsed real time for parallel processing technology If a program uses parallel processing, total CPU time for that program would be more than its elapsed real time. (Total CPU time)/(Number of CPUs) would be same as elapsed real time if the work load is evenly distributed on each CPU and", "makes a superscalar processor is boolean logic. In the early 1990s, a significant innovation was to realize that the coordination of a multi-ALU computer could be moved into the compiler, the software that translates a programmer's instructions into machine-level instructions.\nThis type of computer is called a very long instruction word (VLIW) computer.\nScheduling instructions statically in the compiler (versus scheduling dynamically in the processor) can reduce CPU complexity. This can improve performance, and reduce heat and cost.\nUnfortunately, the compiler lacks accurate knowledge of runtime scheduling issues. Merely changing the CPU core frequency multiplier will have an effect on scheduling. Operation of", "number generators is in the field of data encryption, for example to create random cryptographic keys and nonces needed to encrypt and sign data. They are a more secure alternative to pseudorandom number generators (PRNGs), software programs commonly used in computers to generate \"random\" numbers. PRNGs use a deterministic algorithm to produce numerical sequences. Although these pseudorandom sequences pass statistical pattern tests for randomness, by knowing the algorithm and the conditions used to initialize it, called the \"seed\", the output can be predicted. Because the sequence of numbers produced by a PRNG is in principle", "performance often make it more difficult to design and verify a correct\ndata structure implementation.\nA key measure for performance is scalability, captured by the speedup of the implementation. Speedup is a measure of how\neffectively the application is utilizing the machine it is running\non. On a machine with P processors, the speedup is the ratio of the structures execution time on a single processor to its execution time on T processors. Ideally, we want linear speedup: we would like to achieve a\nspeedup of P when using P processors. Data structures whose\nspeedup grows with P are called scalable. The extent to" ]

[ "Because at one point during the war (1943) the Italian King had Mussolini arrested and at this point Italy was not part of the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan) anymore. Germany, from an ally became an invading force of Italy. Also, the anti-Jewish laws were repealed by the new Badoglio government while the war was still going on. \n\n\nBasically, by the end of the war, Italy was not viewed as one of the 'bad guys' anymore. So while for Germany there were the [Nuremberg trials](_URL_0_), where all the atrocities committed by Germany came into surface, no such trial took place against Italy. \n\nSo it's a combination of two things: a. Italy probably didn't commit atrocities comparable to Germany; b. any war crimes Italy did commit did not undergo the same level of inquiry of those commited by Germany.", "My Great Grandfather took part of invading Sicily, and he described it as almost a liberation. The Italians cheered the allied forces and he became friends with many, even a \"POW\". From what i understood from him, he was very well liked, his troop would share their candy rations with the kids, and he got blessed by Pope Pius XII. I feel the Italians were not as caught up in the \"Nazi Craze\" as the Germans were.", "Italy gave hitler the framework for the nazis, tried to act hard, even gassed Ethiopians... Things got hard and they tucked up their penises and ran, crap enemies, crap allies, crap from top to bottom. Italy is shaped like a boot because that much shit won't fit into a running shoe." ]

[ "Germany–Italy relations History Relations were established after the Unification of Italy. The two countries historically enjoy a special relationship since they fought together against the Austrian Empire and parts of their respective territories belonged to the Holy Roman Empire and the German Confederation. Italy and Germany were both part of the Triple Alliance but they became enemies during World War I. Both countries eventually became members of the Axis powers during World War II, formed an alliance during the Cold War (West Germany), were among the inner six and became two of the G6 nations after their economic miracle.\nPrime Minister", "limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini's Italy towards alliance with Hitler's Germany anyway. In 1937 Italy left the League of Nations and joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, which had been signed by Germany and Japan the preceding year. In March/April 1939 Italian troops invaded and annexed Albania. Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Steel on May 22.\nItaly entered World War II on 10 June 1940. In September 1940 Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact.\nItaly was ill-prepared for war, in spite of the fact that it had continuously been involved in conflict since 1935, first with", "France and Britain, but the situation changed in 1935–36, when Italy invaded the Ethiopian Empire despite their opposition (Second Italo-Abyssinian War); because of this and of the ideological affinities with the Nazi party led by Hitler. It was a main part of the Axis Powers in World War II with allies being Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. Italian occupation of Albania (April 1939) As Germany annexed Austria and moved against Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming a second-rate member of the Axis. The imminent birth of an Albanian royal child meanwhile threatened to give King Zog a", "claims of Italian irredentists. In 1935–36, in its second invasion of Ethiopia Italy was successful and merged its new conquest with its older east African colonies. In 1939, Italy invaded Albania and incorporated it into the Fascist state. During the Second World War (1939–45), Italy formed the axis alliance with Japan and Germany and occupied several territories (such as parts of France, Greece, Egypt and Tunisia) but was forced in the final peace to abandon all its colonies and protectorates. Following the civil war and the economic depression caused by World War II, Italy enjoyed an economic miracle, promoted European", "this alliance, thinking of it as more of a submission to Germany, knowing that Italian interests were likely not to be favored in the relationship. The alliance also technically forced Italy to join in any war that Germany had entered, so that Germany could at any time present the treaty and force Mussolini to enter, though they did not end up using this right. World War II Nazi Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, but Italy remained neutral for the following ten months even though it was one of the Axis powers.\nItalian dictator Benito Mussolini's Under-Secretary for War Production,", "Nazi Party and its Austrian branch, which Germany claimed was responsible for the political crisis.\nItaly effectively abandoned diplomatic relations with Germany while turning to France in order to challenge Germany's intransigence by signing a Franco-Italian accord to protect Austrian independence. French and Italian military staff discussed possible military cooperation involving a war with Germany should Hitler dare to attack Austria.\nRelations between Germany and Italy recovered due to Hitler's support of Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, while other countries condemned the invasion and advocated sanctions against Italy. Development of German–Italian–Japanese alliance Interest in Germany and Japan in forming an alliance", "an alliance between Italy and Germany, then under Nazi rule. Because of that concern, their response to the invasion of Ethiopia by Italy and its involvement in the Spanish Civil War was weak and ineffectual. Italy meanwhile was looking to cleave Britain away from France, so that Britain would remain neutral when Italy would decide to attack France. This policy lasted until the Italian entry into the Second World War in June 1940. Terms of the agreements In the several agreements signed on the same day, the British and the Italian governments undertook to observe the order in the Mediterranean,", "Axis war crimes in Italy Background The Kingdom of Italy, until 8 September 1943, was an ally of Nazi Germany and part of the Axis powers. After the Armistice of Cassibile on 8 September and the surrender of Italy to the Allies the Italian Social Republic, the Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI, was formed in the territory remaining under German control. The new republic, with Benito Mussolini as head of state, was a German puppet state, with its government under German control.\nEven before these events Germany had begun distrusting Italy as an ally and, by July 1943, had begun sending", "the Nationalist forces led by Francisco Franco. Mussolini had engaged in \"a full-scale external war\" due to the insinuation of future Spanish subservience to the Italian Empire, and as a way of placing the country on a war footing and creating \"a warrior culture\". The aftermath of the war in Ethiopia saw a reconciliation of German-Italian relations following years of a previously strained relationship, resulting in the signing of a treaty of mutual interest in October 1936. Mussolini referred to this treaty as the creation of a Berlin-Rome Axis, which Europe would revolve around. The treaty was the result of", "to establish a unified military entity to combat the United States Allied Powers. Although both sides established a governmental agreement, Italy and Germany remained fearful and distrusted towards one another. This distrust between the two governments would often contradict their military actions of uninosnese to being ones aimed against one another. In 1940 the original bipolar pact between Germany and Italy would be adding an existing member with Japan becoming the Tripartite Pact. Italian Social Republic In 1943 members of the Italian Grand Council voted against Benito Mussolini's political  power and demanded his resignation. The decline in support from Mussolini's", "and Albania to Italy as had been promised in the Treaty of London. Britain, France and Japan divided the German overseas colonies into mandates of their own, excluding Italy. Italy also gained no territory from the breakup of the Ottoman Empire. Civil unrest erupted in Italy between nationalists who supported the war effort and opposed what they called the \"mutilated victory\" (as nationalists referred to it) and leftists who were opposed to the war.\nThe Fascist government that came to power with Benito Mussolini in 1922 sought to increase the size of the Italian empire and to satisfy the", "(Italia irredenta). Although initially neutral, Italy entered World War I on the side of the Allies against Germany and Austria-Hungary when promised several territories (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia). After the war had ended, Italy was rewarded with these territories under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.\nIn Germany and Austria, the annexation of Alto Adige/South Tyrol was controversial as the province was made up of a large majority of German speakers. While Hitler did not pursue this claim, many in the Nazi Party felt differently. In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler agreed on the South Tyrol Option Agreement.", "the victory of the rebel forces led by Francisco Franco. Mussolini had engaged in \"a full-scale external war\" due to the insinuation of future Spanish subservience to the Italian Empire, and as a way of placing the country on a war footing and creating \"a warrior culture\". The aftermath of the war in Ethiopia saw a reconciliation of German-Italian relations following years of a previously strained relationship, resulting in the signing of a treaty of mutual interest in October 1936. Mussolini referred to this treaty as the creation of a Berlin-Rome Axis, which Europe would revolve around. The treaty was", "Pact of Steel Background Germany and Italy fought against each other in World War I. Popularity and support for extremist political parties, such as the Nazis of Adolf Hitler and the Fascists of Benito Mussolini, exploded after the Great Depression severely hampered the economy of both countries.\nIn 1922, Mussolini secured his position as Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy. His first actions made him immensely popular - massive programs of public works provided employment and transformed Italy's infrastructure. In the Mediterranean Mussolini launched a powerful navy, larger than the combined might of the British and French Mediterranean fleets.\nWhen he", "concerns of German expansionism, Italy joined the Stresa Front with France and the United Kingdom, which existed from 1935 to 1936. The Fascist regime held negative relations with Yugoslavia, as it continued to claim Dalmatia.\nDuring the Spanish Civil War between the socialist Republicans and Nationalists led by Francisco Franco, Italy sent arms and over 60,000 troops to aid the Nationalist faction. This secured Italy's naval access to Spanish ports and increased Italian influence in the Mediterranean. The Italian Navy committed 91 warships and submarines and sank 72,800 tons of Republican and neutral shipping. (In addition, the Nationalist Spanish Navy sank", "and participation in \"bourgeois governments\", although Léon Blum maintained a socialist rhetoric. Italy In 1882 Italy joined with the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire to form the Triple Alliance. However, even if relations with Berlin became very friendly, the alliance with Vienna remained purely formal, as the Italians were keen to acquire Trentino and Trieste, parts of the Austro-Hungarian empire populated by Italians.\nDuring World War I Italy aligned with the Allies, instead of joining Germany and Austria. This could happen since the alliance formally had merely defensive prerogatives, while the Central Empires were the ones who started the offensive.", "Axis powers Initial proposals of a German–Italian alliance Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini had pursued a strategic alliance of Italy with Germany against France since the early 1920s. Prior to becoming head of government in Italy as leader of the Italian Fascist movement, Mussolini had advocated alliance with defeated Germany after the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 settled World War I. He believed that Italy could expand its influence in Europe by allying with Germany against France. In early 1923, as a goodwill gesture to Germany, Italy secretly delivered weapons for the German Army, which had faced major disarmament under", "and traditional ethnic borders. Evident in Italy's rapid takeover of surrounding territories under Fascist leader Benito Mussolini and claims following the collapsed 1915 Treaty of London and 1919 Treaty of Versailles which established feelings of betrayal. Mussolini and Hitler's similarities including a joint hatred towards the French and wanting to expand their territories brought the two leaders together, solidified in the Pact of Steel and later WW2. By 1942 Italy had conquered Abyssinia (modern day Ethiopia), Libya, much of Egypt, Tunisia, Kenya and Somalia. And – on the European continent – Istria, Dalmatia, Albania, Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, the Spanish island", "between Germany, Italy and Hungary by acting as an intermediary between Germany and Italy, whose two fascist regimes had nearly come to conflict in 1934 over the issue of Austrian independence. Gömbös eventually persuaded Mussolini to accept Hitler's annexation of Austria in the late 1930s. Gömbös is said to have coined the phrase \"axis\", which he applied to his intention to create an alliance with Germany and Italy; those two countries used it to term their alliance as the Rome–Berlin axis. Just prior to the Second World War, Hungary benefited from its close ties with Germany and Italy when", "as foreign rule. This situation gave rise to the idea that parts of Italy were still unredeemed, hence Italian irredentism became an important ideological component of the political life of the Kingdom of Italy: see Italia irredenta.\nIn 1882 Italy signed a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany (see Triple Alliance). However, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about the alignment with Austria-Hungary, still perceiving it as the historical enemy of Italy. In the years before World War I, many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would change sides.\nItaly declared its neutrality at the beginning of World War I, because the Triple", "Giulio Andreotti was not in favour of the German reunification but today the Italian government and the German one are full and leading members of the European Union. In 2005, a German cardinal was elected Bishop of Rome. Germany has an embassy in Rome and consulates in Milan and Naples, while Italy has an embassy in Berlin and consulates in Frankfurt, Freiburg, Hamburg, Hanover, Munich, Nuremberg, Saarbrücken, and Stuttgart. Italy - Germany Relations (1939) Before the eruption of World War II the Italian government, lead by Benito Mussolini, established The Pact of Steel between Adolf Hitler's Germany government in efforts", "rise of a large Italian resistance movement that fought the Germans and the RSI in the north. Aftermath of World War II Defeat in World War II led to the loss of the entire Italian Colonial Empire (including colonies that had not been conquered by the Fascist government (such as Libya)) among other territorial losses as stipulated in the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947. Post World War II Post-war Italy adopted a republican constitution and became one of the founding members of the Western Bloc military alliance NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) that was formed 4 April 1949 and", "represented a territory Italy could acquire for \"'living space' to ease its overpopulation\" as well as the foothold needed to launch other expansionist conflicts in the Balkans. On 22 May 1939, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel joining both countries in a military alliance. The pact was the culmination of German-Italian relations from 1936 and was not defensive in nature. Rather, the pact was designed for a \"joint war against France and Britain\", although the Italian hierarchy held the understanding that such a war would not take place for several years. However, despite the Italian impression, the", "opinion remained unenthusiastic about their country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification, and whose Italian populated districts in the Trentino and Istria were seen as occupied territories by Italian irredentists. In the years before World War I, many distinguished military analysts predicted that Italy would attack its supposed ally in the event of a large scale conflict. Italy's adherence to the Triple Alliance was doubted and from 1903 plans for a possible war against Rome were again maintained by the Austrian general staff. Mutual suspicions led to reinforcement of the frontier and speculation in the press about", "of the fascist movement in Italy and promoting it to Italians and the world through supporting the arts. However, within the Italian fascist movement there were a minority who endorsed Hitler's antisemitism as Roberto Farinacci, who was part of the far-right wing of the party.\nThere were also nationalist reasons why Germany and Italy were not immediate allies. Habsburg Austria (Hitler's birthplace) had an antagonistic relationship with Italy since it was formed, largely because Austria-Hungary had seized most of the territories once belonging to Italian states such as Venice. Italian irredentist claims sought the return of these lands to Italian rule", "Germany and Italy. The discussions concluded that Germans still wanted a war of revenge against France but were short on weapons and hoped that Italy could assist Germany.\nHowever at this time Mussolini stressed one important condition that Italy must pursue in an alliance with Germany: that Italy \"must ... tow them, not be towed by them\". Italian foreign minister Dino Grandi in the early 1930s stressed the importance of \"decisive weight\", involving Italy's relations between France and Germany, in which he recognized that Italy was not yet a major power, but perceived that Italy did have strong enough influence to alter", "Italy initially remained neutral, although it had an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1915, it switched to the side of the Entente powers, hoping to gain territory from its former ally. Wartime foreign policy The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany. The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Instead as the war went on the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration. ", "to an increasing military expenditure. After the invasion of Ethiopia, Italy intervened to support Franco's nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. By 1939, Italy had the highest percentage of state-owned enterprises after the Soviet Union.\nItaly's involvement in World War II as a member of the Axis powers required the establishment of a war economy. The Allied invasion of Italy in 1943 eventually caused the Italian political structure – and the economy – to rapidly collapse. The Allies, on the one hand, and the Germans on the other, took over the administration of the areas of Italy under their control. By", "Italy could acquire for \"'living space' to ease its overpopulation\" as well as the foothold needed to launch other expansionist conflicts in the Balkans. On 22 May 1939, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel joining both countries in a military alliance. The pact was the culmination of German-Italian relations from 1936 and was not defensive in nature. Rather, the pact was designed for a \"joint war against France and Britain\", although the Italian hierarchy held the understanding that such a war would not take place for several years. However, despite the Italian impression, the pact made no reference", "signed on 27 September 1940, Germany was obliged to join with Italy to defend its ally Japan. Hitler stated that, \"After victory has been achieved, Germany, Italy and Japan will continue in closest co-operation with a view to establishing a new and just order.\" Text of the declaration This is another day of solemn decision in Italy’s history and of memorable events destined to give a new course to the history of continents.\nThe powers of the steel pact, Fascist Italy and Nationalist Socialist Germany, ever closely linked, participate from today on the side of heroic Japan against the United States" ]

[ "> but what are the \"eruptions\" coming from it? Was it detonated in the air?\n\nIt was detonated on the top of a tall tower. The \"eruptions\" are the guy-wires that stabilized the tower being boiled into gas and plasma from the light of the explosion before the blast wave proper reaches them." ]

[ "the video was inspired by the 1968 sci-fi film Barbarella, the Star Wars series and space in general. The plot consists of Grande on a fictional planet renouncing her allegiance to an evil regime of extraterrestrials and freeing a group of prisoners from their cages. She subsequently attacks a giant robot using missiles, but the robot managed to release its hand to catch her, bringing her to the planet's overlord. Her character succeeds in defeating the villain, and the clip ends with Grande and the prisoners she rescued flying away in a spaceship, partying with the crew, as Beats by", "however, gives her a demonstration of his secret project, which horrifies her. She is sworn to secrecy and unable to bring herself to break off the engagement. Godzilla surfaces from Tokyo Bay, unharmed by the depth charges, and attacks the city, destroying a train before returning to the bay. The next morning, to repel the monster, the JSDF supercharges the tall electrical towers along Tokyo's coast.\nThe King of the Monsters resurfaces that night and breaks through the electrical towers and JSDF tank and artillery defense line using his atomic heat breath. With his tape recorder, Martin documents Godzilla's annihilation of", "Editor, Sebastian J. Brook and Blendtec C.E.O, Tom Dickson, attempt to blend an Ironside Dalek action figure. The video has proved popular on YouTube with over 200,000 views so far.\nThe site also has its own Minecraft server, containing a survival section, a minigames section where players can participate in Doctor Who-themed games and challenges, and a creative section where players can construct Doctor Who-inspired builds and replicas. Community The original forum went live in April 2003 and was powered using the Ezboard provider. Due to membership increasing, the forum was upgraded a few years later. The online community has over", "aide in finding it.\nThe next day, the games begin on schedule, but Locksley calls everyone to his ship to look at new pictures of the monster that his mini-sub's sunken (and yet obviously still working) camera had taken, at a depth well below what a ramshackle home-made submarine like Pembrooke's could survive. These, plus three other photos that Pembrooke had taken several days earlier are enough to convince him that the Loch Ness Monster might be real. The film ends with the gang leaving Blake Castle, during which Velma admits that she is actually glad they didn't find out if", "June, 2019, Corridor Digital released a video in which a robot in the style of Boston Dynamics is abused in a variety of manners, before finally fighting back against the humans attacking it. The video, watermarked \"Bosstown Dynamics\", instead of \"Boston Dynamics\", went viral across platforms, although most versions of the video dropped attribution to the original source, with many claiming it to be an authentic Boston Dynamics video. \nDespite the online confusion, Corridor clarified that the video was never meant to be interpreted as \"real\", and that they would \"like for people to be able to see the original\",", "to further pieces of concept art and actual, in-game screenshots, the first official teaser was released. Despite (or perhaps because of) the fan video eight months prior, it also portrays Alice in therapy: after being hypnotized by her doctor in a bizarre office filled with dismembered arms hanging from the ceiling, as she opens her mouth to speak, large amounts of blood and teeth pour out. As the game title appears, a whispering voice is heard saying, \"What have you done?\"\nDuring the 2010 Tokyo Game Show, new assets, including a second trailer, were released. Alice is seen strolling through a", "Boiling Point☆LOVE IS POWER☆) by the Earth Defense Club (Kazutomi Yamamoto, Yuichiro Umehara, Kotaro Nishiyama, Yusuke Shirai, and Toshiki Masuda), the ending theme is \"Anata wa Haruka Ittousei\" (あなたは遥か一等星 You’re a distant star of the first magnitude) by the Vepper/ Beppu brothers Keisuke Koumoto and Yoshiki Murakami Manga A parallel manga entitled Binan Kokou Chikyuu Seifuku-bu Love! (lit. 'Cute High Earth Conquest Club Love!') has finished its monthly serialization in Pony Canyon's web comics magazine, having started on October 16, 2014. The manga focuses more on the lives of the series' antagonists. Light Novel A light novel series written by", "video shows a race through the desert. \"I'll be there\" is the video showing where the map led. In the video, Kumi is seen on a beach in Morocco, relaxing while enjoying the weather. The video ends with her finding the treasure. \"Ningyo-hime\" shows what the treasure led to. Its theme has Kumi being controlled by a doctor, who is notorious for fusing parts of dolls together. While \"ningyo hime\" can translate to \"mermaid princess,\" it can also translate to \"doll princess,\" which is what the music video depicts. \n\"Yume no Uta\" was a story of a woman, played by", "her hand to attempt to see if the person she sees is real. Next we see Molly explaining away 13 lost hours of video from the space station. Gordon Kern, (the deputy director of ISEA) mentions the backup cameras on board the Seraphim, and questions Molly about the lost footage which she explains away (not convincingly to Director Sparks) as a glitch.\nWe see Molly wake up in the lab and in a frantic scene we see her playback the security video footage to see if Marcus is there, and he's not, but she realizes she has to hide the footage", "world, Al Gore, who has previously attempted to warn the public of the danger of ManBearPig, shows his staff the video made of that creature's appearance at The Pentagon in the previous episode, and embarks on an investigation of those events on behalf of the American people.\nKyle Broflovski awakens from his coma to see that Eric Cartman is making preparations in anticipation of Kyle sucking his testicles, completely ignoring the Imaginationland crises and setting up a photo-shoot. Kyle finds that he has a telepathic link to Stan in Imaginationland, who alerts him to the events transpiring in that realm, where", "by the Pentagon alongside the 2004 FLIR1 footage. Although the media often present the two videos together to illustrate the 2004 USS Nimitz UFO incident, the GIMBAL video is unrelated, and was filmed on the East Coast of the United States at an unknown date.\nIn May 2019, journalists from Las Vegas station KLAS 10 determined that the videos were indeed released by the Pentagon, and not by any private individuals or organizations. Skeptical views Defense and security writer Kyle Mizokami suggested three possibilities that could explain the sightings. The first is equipment malfunction or misinterpretation; USS Princeton's radars and the", "title. In Pokémon Go, \"CP\" is an abbreviation of \"Combat Power\" — a level system in the game, and \"CP\" is an abbreviation of Club Penguin, but it was believed that YouTube's filters had accidentally interpreted it as referring to child pornography. The affected channels were restored, and YouTube apologized for the inconvenience.", "Pokémon episodes removed from rotation \"Dennō Senshi Porygon\" (Episode 38) \"Dennō Senshi Porygon\" (でんのうせんしポリゴン Dennō Senshi Porigon, translated as \"Cyber Soldier Porygon\", though more commonly referred to as \"Electric Soldier Porygon\") aired on TV Tokyo in Japan on December 16, 1997 at 6:30 PM Japan Standard Time. This episode was claimed to be dangerous for health. 20 minutes into the episode, there is a scene in which Pikachu stops some vaccine missiles with its Thunderbolt attack, resulting in a huge explosion that rapidly flashes red and blue lights. Although there were similar parts in the episode with red and blue", "through Hadouken!'s channel on 5 October 2010. It is a 3D anime music video that features various explosive battles between mecha in a futuristic city. The battles grow more violent, and the city is reduced to ruins as a result of the combat. The video itself is a compilation of scenes from the 2004 anime film Appleseed.\nAlso released was a video named 'PEOPLE ARE AWESOME' which consisted of a compilation of 'awesome people doing incredible things'. The video was accompanied by the song and has received over 81 million views.", "launch while Squall's team returns to Balamb Garden and activates its mobile functions to evade the missiles. Garden cannot be controlled, however, and it crashes into the docks at Fishermans' Horizon. While Garden is being repaired, Galbadia invades the town in search of a girl named Ellone, who had been staying at Balamb Garden. Before leaving, Ellone reveals that she has been \"sending\" Squall and his team into flashbacks set 17 years earlier in a vain effort to alter history. The scenes center on Laguna and his friends as he evolves from Galbadian soldier (where he shared a crush with", "the following month. Murakami stated in a press release that the anime-style video, which was animated using motion capture technology, took eight months for him to create. The video opens with an animated version of Eilish, dressed in a neon-green shirt and shorts, eventually morphing into a spider-like monster that wreaks havoc on a miniature city. The video features the \"Blohsh\", Eilish's signature logo, as well as Murakami's flowers. Usage in media \"You Should See Me in a Crown\" was used in a promotional ad for the boxing match between Deontay Wilder and Tyson Fury. It also features on FIFA", "killed instead.\nInspecting the warehouse in the future, Power and Kitty discover Uranium-238 in with the Christmas decorations, but are discovered by Big Buddha, who has been expecting them for the last three weeks. Limited by the restriction that he can only travel to locations he can see, Power bounces between barrels as Dragon agents hunt him. Kitty confronts Big Buddha, wanting revenge for his war crimes as executioner during the Nanking Massacre, including the death of her parents seven years earlier,(This is a plot hole, since the Nanking Massacre was in 1937–1938) but she is captured. Power surrenders to Big", "Mel Gibson, who suggests that they examine the video the terrorists sent and determine if there is anyone in it that somehow doesn't fit. The officials at the Pentagon immediately perform a background check on the video and realize that Butters is not an imaginary character. The general orders his men to locate both Stan and Kyle.\nIn Imaginationland, the terrorists take one of the creatures, \"Rockety Rocket\", and launch him at \"the Barrier\", the wall that separates the good and evil halves of Imaginationland. Despite Butters' attempts to stop them, the terrorists destroy the wall and unleash the evil imaginary", "in a rusty room sparsely decorated with a table, a chair, and a bed with no mattress and a curtain as a blanket. He happens to stumble upon a wooden box, which he opens near the beginning. Its contents are kept hidden for the majority of the video's duration, but it seems whatever it is has had adverse mind altering effects – there are repeated shots of the humanoid levitating in his chair, and his head and arm vibrating wildly. While experiencing these effects, the figure ventures through his living quarters and its many corridors.\nThe climax provides a barrage of", "the camera below it would descend, giving the illusion the platform is ascending. The visual effect of the tools used to create Cybermen were reused from the Doctor Who episode \"The Age of Steel\", while the UFO footage when the Torchwood team return from the drinks was a tin foil-covered frisbee on a fishing line. Ratings and critical reception \"Cyberwoman\" was first broadcast on BBC Three during the 10 pm time slot on Sunday 5 November 2006. The episode was seen by 1.391 million viewers, the highest viewing on the channel the week it was broadcast. The repeat on terrestrial", "the anime-style video, which was animated using motion capture technology, took eight months for him to create. The video opens with an animated version of Eilish, dressed in a neon-green shirt and shorts, eventually morphing into a spider-like monster that wreaks havoc on a miniature city. The video features the \"Blohsh\", Eilish's signature logo, as well as Murakami's flowers. Market value On November 11, 2003, ArtNews has described Murakami's work as being in great demand. Hiropon (1997), a life-sized satirical sculpture of an anime character with gigantic lactating breasts whose milk stream forms a jump rope, sold for $427,500 at", "video begins near a trailer home whose residents are watching Zimmerman and Gerard battle with giant robotic mice at a UFC match inside a dome (a reference to the Thunderdome from the Mad Max franchise), with a crowd watching (consisting of the aforementioned 2000 fans). Throughout the video, it cuts to various people watching the match on TV. Gerard is initially winning the battle, but a robotic version of \"Meowingtons\", Zimmerman's cat, enters and chews the wires to Gerard's controls. This renders Gerard's robot idle, which allows Zimmerman to win the match. But immediately after, the robotic cat assumes control", "Bruce Lee (video game) Gameplay The plot involves the eponymous martial artist advancing from chamber to chamber in a wizard's tower, seeking to claim infinite wealth and the secret of immortality. There are twenty chambers, each represented by a single screen with platforms and ladders. To progress, the player must collect a number of lanterns suspended from various points in the chamber.\nMost chambers are guarded by two mobile enemies; The Ninja, who attacks with a \"bokken stick\" and The Green Yamo, a large unarmed warrior, visually styled as a sumo wrestler but attacking with punches and \"crushing kicks\". On platforms", "pieces of the base into small glowing cubes and one of the soldiers is abducted.\nBrenner works at the home of divorcée and U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Violet Van Patten, but the two are separately summoned to the White House. Upon seeing the video footage and meeting with Ludlow \"The Wonder Kid\" Lamonsoff, a friend he made at the video game tournament, Brenner determines the aliens have found the videocassette images to be a declaration of war and are attacking with a spacecraft resembling those of their classic video games. This is affirmed when the aliens (appearing as 1980s celebrities) interrupt", "to Mogo, Mogo creates a scenario in which the Corps is attacked by their doppelgangers. Mogo freezes the doppelgangers and confesses the ruse to the Corps, stating that it was done to test their will and strength and prepare them to fight against the First Lantern. After the Lights Out crossover and the destruction by Relic, Mogo became the new headquarters of the Green Lantern Corps.\nMogo's ring is later stolen by the forces of New Genesis. This causes Mogo's rotation to slow and its systems to crumble. Several Green Lanterns perish in an attempt to rescue Mogo's ring. Following the", "When the robots report an obstruction on their drilling path, George investigates and discovers a frozen Big Show. After George brings him home and thaws him out, Big Show discovers that he was frozen for 100 years.\nThe next day, Elroy brings Big Show to his school for show and tell. Here, Big Show discovers that the WWE still exists, but is now a robot wrestling promotion. He steals the robot remote controller from Mr. McMoon, the descendant of Mr. McMahon, and uses the robots to take over Orbit City.\nThe Jetsons escape and travel to the Albuquerque show. George interferes with", "Kong]) are all present during this scene. There is also a mini Space Ranger in what looks like a X Wing. The Guests enter Zurg's DreadNought down a hallway shooting batteries until you reach his laboratory. Zurg is shooting his \"Zurgatronic Ion Blaster\" (he dubbed it this in BLoSC). He is standing behind his now damaged Spiderbot. Guests are about to transition into the next room while robots are being electrocuted trying to land the DreadNought. The Guests enter Planet Z (In the France Version of the ride Buzz Lightyear says \"Attention Space Rangers, you've landed on Planet Z! Be", "watching a television broadcast showing the nation's plight, Serizawa finally gives in to their pleas.\nA Navy ship takes Ogata, Serizawa, Yamame, Martin, and Emiko out to the deepest part of Tokyo Bay. Wearing deep sea diving gear, Ogata and Serizawa are lowered down by lifelines near the sleeping Godzilla to plant the weapon. On the bottom, they quickly move into position, awakening the monster. Serizawa signals the surface and Ogata is pulled up, but Serizawa delays his ascent and activates the device. He radios the surface to tell them that it is working and also wishes Emiko and Ogata", "Leeroy Jenkins Video The original video was released by a World of Warcraft player guild to video-sharing site Warcraftmovies on May 11, 2005. The video features a group of players discussing a detailed battle plan for their next encounter while Leeroy is away from his computer, preparing a plate of chicken. This plan is intended to help Leeroy obtain a piece of armor from the boss monsters, but is ruined when Leeroy himself returns and, ignorant of the strategy, immediately rushes headlong into battle shouting his own name in a stylized battle cry. His companions rush to help, but Leeroy's", "LRH who shows them the real bubble. Squidward reminds them that the bubble that Patrick destroyed was a prop for tourists. Patrick again accidentally pops it for real and the group must run from Atlantean forces, searching for paper clips to open doors. Sandy uses Squidward as a gun to take down the soldiers. Plankton rampages around the city in his tank just like in the beginning and confronts the gang in which ends the duo's flashback of how they got here. He fires his weapon, but is shocked to see it shoots ice cream. LRH captures Plankton, believing he" ]

[ "Chemical reactions but instead of releasing (like most of them) heat as energy, or even electricity they release photons aka light" ]

[ "Bioluminescence Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism. It is a form of chemiluminescence. Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms including some bioluminescent bacteria and terrestrial invertebrates such as fireflies. In some animals, the light is bacteriogenic, produced by symbiotic organisms such as Vibrio bacteria; in others, it is autogenic, produced by the animals themselves.\nIn a general sense, the principal chemical reaction in bioluminescence involves some light-emitting molecule and an enzyme, generally called the luciferin and the luciferase, respectively. Because these are generic names, the luciferins", "fluorescent light. Bioluminescence is caused by the action of luciferases, enzymes that produce light by the oxidation of a luciferin (a pigment). The biological purpose of bioluminescence in fungi is not definitively known, although several hypotheses have been suggested: it may help attract insects to help with spore dispersal, it may be a by-product of other biochemical functions, or it may help deter heterotrophs that might consume the fungus. Humongous fungus Researchers reported finding Armillaria gallica in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the early 1990s, during an unrelated research project to study the possible biological effects of extremely low", "biochemical basis of bioluminescence in M. haematopus has not been scientifically investigated, in general, bioluminescence is caused by the action of luciferases, enzymes that produce light by the oxidation of a luciferin (a pigment). The biological purpose of bioluminescence in fungi is not definitively known, although several hypotheses have been suggested: it may help attract insects to help with spore dispersal, it may be a by-product of other biochemical functions, or it may help deter heterotrophs that might consume the fungus. Natural products Several unique chemicals are produced by Mycena haematopus. The primary pigment is haematopodin B, which is so chemically sensitive", "geographically representative collections of the fungus, but observed a reduced ability to cross between Northern Hemisphere and Oceanian collections, as well as between and within Oceanian collections. Bioluminescence Bioluminescence refers to the ability of certain living things in the environment to produce light by the action of enzymes. Bioluminescent fungi are widespread, and over 70 species are known (List of bioluminescent fungus species). Although the intensity of their luminescence is generally low compared to many other bioluminescent organisms, fungi glow continuously for days, so their total emission is comparable with that of most brightly luminescent organisms, such as fireflies. Luminous", "Sporangium Fungi In some phyla of fungi, the sporangium plays a role in asexual reproduction, and may play an indirect role in sexual reproduction. The sporangium forms on the sporangiophore and contains haploid nuclei and cytoplasm . Spores are formed in the sporangiophore by encasing each haploid nucleus and cytoplasm in a tough outer membrane. During asexual reproduction, these spores are dispersed via wind and germinate into haploid hyphae. \nAlthough sexual reproduction in fungi varies between phyla, for some fungi the sporangium plays an indirect role in sexual reproduction. For Zygomycota, sexual reproduction occurs when the haploid hyphae from two", "Sporogenesis Sporogenesis is the production of spores in biology. The term is also used to refer to the process of reproduction via spores. Reproductive spores were found to be formed in eukaryotic organisms, such as plants, algae and fungi, during their normal reproductive life cycle. Dormant spores are formed, for example by certain fungi and algae, primarily in response to unfavorable growing conditions. Most eukaryotic spores are haploid and form through cell division, though some types are diploid or dikaryons and form through cell fusion. Reproduction via spores Reproductive spores are generally the result of cell division, most commonly meiosis", "at a lower energy (=higher wavelength), while bioluminescence is biological chemiluminescence, a property where light is generated by a chemical reaction of an enzyme on a substrate.\nPhosphorescence is a property of materials to absorb light and emit the energy several milliseconds or more later (due to forbidden transitions to the ground state of a triplet state, while fluorescence occurs in exited singlet states). Until recently was not applicable to life science research due to the size of the inorganic particles. However the boundary between the fluorescence and phosphorescence is not clean cut as transition metal-ligand complexes, which combine a metal", "a luminous mycelium, the mycelium would therefore have a dual function in performing the fungal translocation that permits transport of substances from the further environment back to the fruiting body, and in attracting disseminating vectors towards environments favorable for development of the species. Chemical basis In general, bioluminescence is caused by the action of luciferases, enzymes that produce light by the oxidation of a luciferin (a pigment). Several studies have evaluated the biochemical basis of light production in Panellus stipticus, and concluded that there is no specific fungal luciferase. The fungus was shown in 1988 to contain the sesquiterpene panal,", "living cell. It essentially serves as a precise, quantitative tool regarding biochemical applications.\nA common misconception, fluorescence differs from bioluminescence by how the proteins from each process produce light. Bioluminescence is a chemical process that involves enzymes breaking down a substrate to produce light. Fluorescence is the physical excitation of an electron, and subsequent return to emit light. Fluorescence mechanism When a certain molecule absorbs light, the energy of the molecule is briefly raised to a higher excited state. The subsequent return to ground state results in emission of fluorescent light that can be detected and measured. The emitted light, resulting", "allow their chromatophores to expand, creating a pattern of larger dark spots, and making their bodies appear dark. Amphibians such as frogs have three kinds of star-shaped chromatophore cells in separate layers of their skin. The top layer contains 'xanthophores' with orange, red, or yellow pigments; the middle layer contains 'iridophores' with a silvery light-reflecting pigment; while the bottom layer contains 'melanophores' with dark melanin. Bioluminescence Bioluminescence is the production of light, such as by the photophores of marine animals, and the tails of glow-worms and fireflies. Bioluminescence, like other forms of metabolism, releases energy derived from the chemical energy", "Quantula striata is the only terrestrial gastropod known to exhibit bioluminescence. This was not discovered until 1942, when it was reported by Dr. Yata Haneda (see also Haneda 1946), probably because the flashes are quite dim. The purpose of the snail's bioluminescence is not yet fully understood, but it is thought to have some relation to animal communication. Light is emitted by an organ known as the \"organ of Haneda,\" located in the head-foot region of the adult snail. This organ consists of a 0.5 mm-wide cluster of giant cells and is a part of the suprapedal gland. The snail", "In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as hydrophobins, for spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of osmolytes in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the", "in three families of earthworm (Oligochaeta), such as Diplocardia longa where the coelomic fluid produces light when the animal moves. The following functions are reasonably well established in the named organisms. Counterillumination camouflage In many animals of the deep sea, including several squid species, bacterial bioluminescence is used for camouflage by counterillumination, in which the animal matches the overhead environmental light as seen from below. In these animals, photoreceptors control the illumination to match the brightness of the background. These light organs are usually separate from the tissue containing the bioluminescent bacteria. However, in one species, Euprymna scolopes, the bacteria", "evolved to detoxify oxygen. So bioluminescence evolved parallel with photosynthetic organism. Today bioluminescence has other purposes. Distribution Bioluminescence occurs widely among animals, especially in the open sea, including fish, jellyfish, comb jellies, crustaceans, and cephalopod molluscs; in some fungi and bacteria; and in various terrestrial invertebrates including insects. About 76% of the main taxa of deep-sea animals produce light. Most marine light-emission is in the blue and green light spectrum. However, some loose-jawed fish emit red and infrared light, and the genus Tomopteris emits yellow light.\nThe most frequently encountered bioluminescent organisms may be the dinoflagellates present in the surface layers", "often occurs as a result of fertilization or karyogamy forming a diploid spore equivalent to a zygote. Therefore, zygospores are the result of sexual reproduction.\nReproduction via spores involves the spreading of the spores by water or air. Algae and some fungi (chytrids) often use motile zoospores that can swim to new locations before developing into sessile organisms. Airborne spores are obvious in fungi, for example when they are released from puffballs. Other fungi have more active spore dispersal mechanisms. For example, the fungus Pilobolus can shoot its sporangia towards light. Plant spores designed for dispersal are also referred to as", "(microspore) functioning as a \"male\". Such plants typically give rise to the two kind of spores from within separate sporangia, either a megasporangium that produces megaspores or a microsporangium that produces microspores. In flowering plants, these sporangia occur within the carpel and anthers, respectively. Fungi Fungi commonly produce spores, as a result of sexual, or asexual, reproduction. Spores are usually haploid and grow into mature haploid individuals through mitotic division of cells (Urediniospores and Teliospores among rusts are dikaryotic). Dikaryotic cells result from the fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two", "This emission of light is only observable whilst the exciation light is still providing photons to the fluorescent molecule and is typically excited by blue or green light and emits purple, yellow, orange, green, cyan, or red. Biofluorescence is often confused with the following forms of biotic light: bioluminescence and biophosphorescence. Bioluminescence Bioluminescence differs from biofluorescence in that it is the natural production of light by chemical reactions within an organism, whereas biofluorescence and biophosphorescence are the absorption and reemission of light from the natural environment. Biophosphorescence Biophosphorescence is similar to biofluorescence in its requirement of light at specified wavelengths", "could be a possible aid in feeding and species recognition in the dim mesopelagic and the dark bathypelagic. The bioluminescence is done endogenously, meaning that light is produced from their own bodies instead of from symbiotic bacteria in photophores.", "following forms of biotic light, bioluminescence and biophosphorescence. Pumpkin toadlets that live in the Brazilian Atlantic forest are fluorescent. Bioluminescence Bioluminescence differs from fluorescence in that it is the natural production of light by chemical reactions within an organism, whereas fluorescence is the absorption and reemission of light from the environment. A firefly and anglerfish are two example of bioluminescent organisms. Phosphorescence Biophosphorescence is similar to fluorescence in its requirement of light wavelengths as a provider of excitation energy. The difference here lies in the relative stability of the energized electron. Unlike with fluorescence, in phosphorescence the electron retains stability,", "Pyrosome Bioluminescence Although many planktonic organisms are bioluminescent, pyrosome bioluminescence is unusual in its brilliance and sustained light emission, and evoked the following comment when seen by the eminent scientist Thomas Huxley at sea:\n\"I have just watched the moon set in all her glory, and looked at those lesser moons, the beautiful Pyrosoma, shining like white-hot cylinders in the water\" (T.H. Huxley, 1849).\nPyrosomes often exhibit waves of light passing back and forth through the colony, as each individual zooid detects light and then emits light in response. Each zooid contains a pair of light organs located near the outside surface of", "Somatic hyphae The lifestage at which a fungus lives, grows, and develops, gathering nutrients and energy. \nThe fungi uses this stage to proliferate itself through asexually created mitotic spores.\nCycles through somatic hyphae, zoosporangium, zoospores, encystation & germination, and back to somatic hyphae.", "Luminescent bacteria Luminescent bacteria emit light as the result of a chemical reaction during which chemical energy is converted to light energy. Luminescent bacteria exist as symbiotic organisms carried within a larger organism, such as many deep sea organisms, including the Lantern Fish, the Angler fish, certain jellyfish, certain clams and the Gulper eel. The light is generated by an enzyme-catalyzed chemoluminescence reaction, wherein the pigment luciferin is oxidised by the enzyme luciferase. The expression of genes related to bioluminescence is controlled by an operon called the lux operon.\nSome species of luminescent bacteria possess quorum sensing, the ability to determine", "emitting species. Several authors in the 1950s came to the view that candoluminescence was simply an instance of selective thermal emission, and one of the most prominent researchers in the field, V. A. Sokolov, once advocated eliminating the term from the literature in his noted 1952 review article, only to revise his view several years later. The modern scientific consensus is that candoluminescence does occur, that it is not always simply due to selective thermal emission, but the mechanisms vary depending on the materials involved and the method of heating, particularly the type of flame and the position of the", "Lyoluminescence Lyoluminescence refers to the emission of light while dissolving a solid into a liquid solvent. It is actually a form of chemiluminescence. The most common lyoluminescent effect is seen when solid samples which have been heavily irradiated by ionizing radiation are dissolved in water. The total amount of light emitted by the material increases proportionally with the total radiation dose received by the material up to a certain level called the saturation value.\nMany gamma-irradiated substances are known to lyoluminescence; these include spices, powdered milk, soups, cotton and paper. While the broad variety of materials which exhibit lyoluminescence confounds explanation", "in hemoglobin. When chemiluminescence takes place in living organisms, the phenomenon is called bioluminescence. A light stick emits light by chemiluminescence. Infrared chemiluminescence In chemical kinetics, infrared chemiluminiscence (IRCL) refers to the emission of infrared photons from vibrationally excited product molecules immediately after their formation. The intensities of infrared emission lines from vibrationally excited molecules are used to measure the populations of vibrational states of product molecules.\nThe observation of IRCL was developed as a kinetic technique by John Polanyi, who used it to study the attractive or repulsive nature of the potential energy surface for gas-phase reactions. In general the", "Electroluminescence Mechanism Electroluminescence is the result of radiative recombination of electrons & holes in a material, usually a semiconductor. The excited electrons release their energy as photons - light. Prior to recombination, electrons and holes may be separated either by doping the material to form a p-n junction (in semiconductor electroluminescent devices such as light-emitting diodes) or through excitation by impact of high-energy electrons accelerated by a strong electric field (as with the phosphors in electroluminescent displays).\nIt has been recently shown that as a solar cell improves its light-to-electricity efficiency (improved open-circuit voltage), it will also improve its electricity-to-light (EL)", "diaspores. Plant spores are most obvious in the reproduction of ferns and mosses. However, they also exist in flowering plants where they develop hidden inside the flower. For example, the pollen grains of flowering plants develop out of microspores produced in the anthers.\nReproductive spores grow into multicellular haploid individuals or sporelings. In heterosporous organisms, two types of spores exist: microspores give rise to males and megaspores to females. In homosporous organisms, all spores look alike and grow into individuals carrying reproductive parts of both genders. Formation of reproductive spores Sporogenesis occurs in reproductive structures termed sporangia. The process involves sporogenous", "Lithophile Lithophiles are micro-organisms that can live within the pore interstices of sedimentary and even fractured igneous rocks to depths of several kilometers.\nSome are known to live on surface rocks, and make use of photosynthesis for energy.\nThose that live in deeper rocks cannot use photosynthesis to gather energy, but instead extract energy from minerals around them. They live in cracks in the rock where water seeps down. The water contains dissolved carbon dioxide (CO₂) which the organisms use for their carbon needs. They have been detected in rocks down to depths of nearly three km, where the temperature is", "Phycomyces Asexual reproduction Phycomyces can reproduce via extension of mycelia, or by production of spores either asexually or sexually. The asexual cycle includes the formation of spore containing sporangia borne on the top of sporangiophores that may extend 10 to 15 cm above the surface of the fungal colony from which they emerged. The long filamentous sporangiophores respond to divergent environmental signals including light, gravity, wind, chemicals and adjacent objects. The sporangia contain vegetative spores with one to six haploid nuclei. These spores when dispersed can establish new colonies. Sexual reproduction Phycomyces have two mating types that are", "release chemical stress signals that cause the cells to aggregate into a swarm which allows the newly formed superorganism to feed on much larger animals and produce a fruiting body that releases spores for reproduction." ]

[ "I once had someone cure my hiccups by asking me \"Hey, what color is eggplant? Do you see anything eggplant colored in this room?\" I looked around intently and couldn't find anything, and I told him no. He then asked me if they were gone, and sure enough, totally cured. I think something about the act of suddenly focusing on something else entirely had something to do with it. Maybe someone asking you for money you owe them has a similary effect?" ]

[ "a particular number of days late, and then repossesses the goods before that date, the creditor is guilty of conversion (i.e., civil theft). That being said, unless the consumer received permission to make a late payment in writing, it may be difficult for him or her to later prove that the creditor agreed to permit the late payment. Because of the difficulty proving oral statements, some unscrupulous creditors try to lull debtors into false senses of security with a tactic sometimes called the \"gab and grab\". The creditor will orally agree to give the debtor extra time to make a", "he does not want to give it back, because they stole his life. At this point, the Mafia boss ominously tells a subordinate to transfer Titta's account to someone else before asking Titta to tell him where the money is. Titta again refuses. He is led away by guards and the next morning is taken to a building site. Here he is suspended from a crane above a container of fresh concrete, and told that unless he reveals the money's whereabouts, he will be drowned in the concrete. As he has already given the money to the elderly aristocrats in", "owe does not exist and therefore will not be paid back.\nEventually the beadle from the nearby town hears the ruckus and decides to take the four travellers before the mayor of the town for judgement. The mayor condemns the pedlar to imprisonment, the donkey to be thrashed, and the tail-feathers of the raven and hedge-sparrow be pulled out. As each of the four travellers receive their punishments they vow to never trust, or be deceived, by each other again. Publication The short story was first published in The Necklace Of Princess Firmonde by Macmillan & Co. in 1886, in", "as to render it inequitable to require them to make restitution. Even before the fraudulent amendment to the instrument, Mr and Mrs Goss were required to repay the money which had been advanced to them by the company. That obligation was not affected by the fact they had on-loaned it to another person. By lending that money on to Mr Haddon they were necessarily taking the risk that he might not be able to repay them, \"in which event they themselves would have to repay it without recourse to him.\" The court stated that any action by Mr and Mrs", "are also situations in which they do not. Thus, creditors who remit will also forgo. \nA particular instance of \"wait for payment\" is provided by section 2(3), which was a necessary amendment because of the general principle that accepting a cheque (even a worthless cheque) as the means of payment, means that, until the creditor receives notice that the cheque has been dishonoured, they stop seeking payment: see R v Hammond. Section 2(3) provides that a person induced to take a cheque or other security for money by way of conditional satisfaction of an existing liability is to be treated", "payment—this is the \"gab\". But the creditor is only doing this to facilitate the repossession—the \"grab\". The creditor ignores the oral agreement to extend the time of payment and arranges for an immediate repossession. This tactic has been deemed unlawful by numerous courts. However, in states which have \"one-party\" consent laws governing the recording of telephone calls and private conversations, a consumer may record such a conversation he has with a creditor, and later admit the recording against the creditor as evidence of a de facto oral contract. \nIf a lender finds itself in the situation of needing to repossess", "separated man (or men) who contributed towards its cost would have money returned to him.\nAfter decades during which antisocial individuals were selectively eliminated and the Authority exercised little real control, the Loonies live by the following code: Pay your debts, collect what is owed to you, and maintain your reputation and that of your family. As a result, little theft occurs, and disputes are settled privately or by informal Judges of good reputation. Failure to pay debts results in public shaming. Reputation is highly important in this society; with a bad reputation, a person may find others unwilling to buy", "back”), and therefore does not owe the plaintiff the money. In the second example, the defendant denies that he ever borrowed a hundred coins but received them in another way and thus does not owe them. Reply by Way of Former Judgment If the plaint “You owe me a hundred coins because you borrowed them from me” was responded to with “I do not owe you a hundred coins, since this matter has been decided in the court before,” or “I do not owe you a hundred coins, because I never borrowed them, and that matter has been previously settled", "making sure debts are paid (including for murder). If the member could not be made to pay, the fee was normally paid by members of the kin-group. He was also responsible for unmarried women after the death of their fathers.\nAs mentioned above, the actions of a member could require other kin to pay a fine. However, in certain cases the kin-group could refuse liabilities, although in some cases only after they been proclaimed as a non-member, which might occur if the member did not carry out his responsibilities to the kin. One particularly heinous crime in early Irish law was", "funds or credit results from an adjustment to the person's account by the credit institution without notice to the person.\"\nGenerally the intent to defraud is an element of the crime; therefore, when someone is paying by check where they know that they do not have enough money to cover the check then, but will have within, say, 3 or 4 days (like a person writing a check just before direct deposit of their paycheck), if they inform the person that the check would bounce, and the party deposits it anyway, while they would be liable for service charges and possibly", "time after indebtedness should become immediately payable, the debtor was authorised to appoint administrative receivers. Soon after a demand was made by the defendant. The plaintiff said that the best that could be done was repayment of half. The defendant appointed administrative receivers to recover the debt as outlined by the charge. The plaintiff sued and claimed claim the time was insufficient. The court held that; \"It is physically impossible in most cases for a person to keep the money required to discharge the debt about his person. Must have had reasonable opportunity of implementing reasonable mechanics of payment he", "until [their] posterity wakes up homeless...\", a paraphrased quotation attributed to Thomas Jefferson. Bank fraud The Freemen were known to produce their own very realistic counterfeit checks and money orders, sometimes ordering items and deliberately overpaying so they could demand refunds. The president of one bank reported that over an 18-month period his bank received two to five complaints a week about Freemen checks. In 1995, members wrote a fraudulent check to try to purchase $1.4 million worth of firearms, ammunition, and bulletproof vests. Standoff In late 1994, foreclosure proceedings were initiated against the farm that contained Justus Township. The", "Haute, under a contempt of court order for continuing to send redemption instruments and other false paperwork from prison.\nAside from the risk of criminal charges, redemption processes also fail to discharge debts. In a frequently-cited 2007 foreclosure case, a debtor attempted to pay her home mortgage with a redemption \"bill of exchange\" at the suggestion of promoter Barton Buhtz. A United States District Court concluded that \"the legal authorities Plaintiff cites and the facts she alleges suggest that she did not tender payment, but rather a worthless piece of paper. Other courts addressing claims nearly identical to Plaintiff's have found", "giving a reason. In that event, the payee has to pay all fees for the transaction and may eventually lose his or her ability to initiate direct debits if this occurs too often. However, it still requires all the account holders (not merely the payer) to watch statements and request returns if necessary, unless they have instructed their bank to block all direct debits.\nThe other method requires the payer to instruct his or her bank to honour direct debit notes from the payee. The payee is then notified that he or she is now authorised to initiate direct debit transfers", "the testimony of the (false) witnesses sought to have the borrower lose; therefore, it is the sum that they must pay.\" \nThe notion was later described by Martín de Azpilcueta (1491–1586) of the School of Salamanca.", "this is theft; they were collected by compulsion: this is extortion. A melon was added for the widows and orphans. It was owed by no one. It is another theft, another extortion. Return it whence it came, with the others. It is not permissible here to apply to any purpose goods dishonestly obtained; not even to the feeding of widows and orphans, for this would be to put a shame upon charity and dishonor it.” He said it in open court, before everybody, and to me it did not seem very kind. Ament's Response When Ament became aware of the", "debts ... money!!! ... I am haunted by the vivid memories of killings & corpses & anger & pain ... of starving or wounded children, of trigger-happy madmen, often police, of killer executioners ... I have gone to join Ken if I am that lucky.\nThe final line is a reference to his recently deceased colleague Ken Oosterbroek.\nThe 1996 song \"Kevin Carter\" by rock band Manic Street Preachers, from their fourth album Everything Must Go, was inspired by Carter's life and suicide. The lyrics were written by Richey Edwards shortly before his own disappearance.", "owed him small sums just to scare other debtors into paying their bigger debts.\nDeStefano would give his loan shark victims presents, such as a gold watch with his name engraved on the back, so that if he had to kill his victim and the police accused him he could use the watch as proof of how close he was to the victim and why he could never have killed him. He wore thick black rimmed glasses, making people believe he couldn't see without them, when in truth he could see everything that was going on and would take mental notes", "impose heavy burdens on those claiming the return of usurious payments, employing also various pretexts and ingenious frauds to hinder the return. We, therefore, wishing to get rid of these pernicious practices, decree with the approval of the sacred council that all the magistrates, captains, rulers, consuls, judges, counsellors or any other officials of these communities who presume in the future to make, write or dictate such statutes, or knowingly decide that usury be paid or, if paid, that it be not fully and freely restored when claimed, incur the sentence of excommunication. They shall also incur the same sentence", "he gave with one hand could just as easily be taken away with the other. The illicit nature of the payments was emphasised by Lammers's warning to them not to speak about the payments to anyone and to keep as few written records as possible.\nThe money from Konto 5 was deposited for the officer's lifetime and did not stop when he retired. In the last months of the war, Erich von Manstein, Wilhelm List, Georg von Küchler and Maximilian von Weichs kept on changing the bank accounts into which Lammers had to deposit the money from Konto 5 to avoid", "paying off his debt. He goes to find dirt on him but soon finds that he was a recovering addict trying to turn his life around and he was unable to go after him.\nIn \"Saved\", he witnesses a girl, Hannah Cates, from his past getting into an unknown SUV with a man she met in the alley. He gives chase but he had to turn the car around when he hears gunshots coming from a local credit union building. He and Ruzek have just walked into a robbery in progress. But during the investigation, surveillance photos surface showing Hannah holding", "could otherwise be reached by the creditor in order to avoid the creditor's levy. The debtor voluntarily conveys property where he sells it for less than fair market value after becoming insolvent, or where the sale of that property itself causes the debtor to become insolvent. A creditor who is able to prove that a fraudulent or voluntary conveyance has occurred may be able to avoid or upset the conveyance, which will restore the property to the debtor's possession, from which the creditor may levy on it.\nThe ability of a creditor to undo a fraudulent or voluntary conveyance depends on", "supply.\nAfter some hours, the police release Bello, having encountered difficulty in extorting money from either him or Babajide; however they refuse to help him find his wallet, which is later revealed to have been stolen by Charles in the cell. Afterwards he is set free after his Parole Officer warns him that he will not be given a second chance if he breaks the law again. He sets out to his father's house, where the nagging of his mum about his way of life drove him out. Charles and Chichi meets on a hill, where they discuss the previous night", "Callisher v Bischoffsheim Facts Callisher alleged that money was owed to him from the Government of Honduras, and was about to take proceedings to enforce payment. In consideration that the plaintiff would forbear taking such proceedings for an agreed time, the defendant promised to deliver to Callisher a set of Honduras Railway Loan Bonds. But then, they did not deliver the debentures, and argued that their promise to do so was unenforceable because the original suit was groundless.", "creditors, strengthen protection for vulnerable people and ensure that individuals, business and Government are able to collect the debts they are owed – but in a way that is fair and regulated by law.\" Many firms have welcomed the attempt to deal with rogue practices and say the suggestion of a regulatory body with a clear complaints process will help build the reputation of the industry. Presumption of death In July 2012 Jonathan Djanogly announced the Government's intention to introduce a certificate declaring someone as 'presumed dead' to help families resolve the affairs of a missing person. He explained that", "compensation to the creditor, it was merely a means of avoiding punishment. If the debtor or his family didn't have the means to pay then the old rules still applied as outlined in the twelve tables, specifically table 3. This section, despite how harsh it may appear to us, was originally developed as a means to protect debtors from the excessive abuses of creditors.", "needing to verify the information, to being on the individual to prove they did not owe the funds, with human interaction being very limited in the dispatch of the debt letters.\nThe process, however, was touted to save the government $300m, and as such has now been considered for recovery action against the Aged Pension and Disability Pension, which may recover $1b.\nThe program was the subject of a Senate committee inquiry.\nAppearing before the Senate committee inquiry, the Department was asked how many people had become deceased after receiving a letter under the debt recovery program. After the question was taken on", "claim back for money once every five years during the period of employment or upon reaching the age of 60 years. Persons who due to leave the country permanently can claim before their departure. Cessation of employment due to permanent and total incapacity for work is another point that the employee can claim for the ETF. In the event of the death of a member, the funds in the ETF account will be paid to the nominee and if there is no nominee, then it will be paid to the executor or administrator of the member’s estate or to his/her", "payment in money or in kind (bōt, literally 'remedy') to the wronged person or their clan. Wīte (literally 'blame, fault') was paid to the king or holder of a court for disturbances of public order.\nWeregild, which was a murder fine based on a victim's worth, was intended to prevent blood feuds. Some wrongs in later law codes were botleas 'without remedy' (e.g. theft, open murder, arson, treason against one's lord), that is, unable to be compensated, and those convicted of a botleas crime were at the king's mercy. Items or creatures which caused death were also destroyed as deodands. Assessing", "reported on the record number of complaints filed with the Federal Trade Commission in 2011 against the debt collection industry and the aggressive tactics used by “death debt collectors” to collect money from family members of the deceased.  U.S. Senator Sherrod Brown cited one of Silver-Greenberg’s articles on the use of credit card offers to secure payment on already-expired debts in a letter calling on the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau to ban the practice. 2016: New York Times investigation of forced arbitration After moving to The New York Times in 2012, Silver-Greenberg became a finalist for the 2016 Pulitzer Prize" ]

[ "Well, most people use the word \"clone\" to mean something other than it actually is. I blame the popular sci-fi use of cloning to refer to creating an exact duplicate of a person, along with their memories and personality and such.\n\nIn real life, cloning means to take the DNA of an animal, and create a new baby animal with the same DNA. So it's more like creating a new identical twin baby of the original creature, and not at all like creating an exact copy of that creature.", "The how part is that you take the DNA from the living animal, grab an egg cell from the same species and replace the DNA in the egg with the DNA from the live animal. Then you transfer the now fertilized egg into the womb of a surrogate mother. After gestation, you have a genetic duplicate of the original." ]

[ "involving the use of a pioneering cloning technique, Japanese researchers created 25 generations of healthy cloned mice with normal lifespans, demonstrating that clones are not intrinsically shorter-lived than naturally born animals. Other sources have noted that the offspring of clones tend to be healthier than the original clones and indistinguishable from animals produced naturally.\nDolly the sheep was cloned from a six year old cell sample from a mammary gland. Because of this, some posited she may have aged more quickly than other naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six. Ultimately, her", "humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs. In the long-running British television series Doctor Who, the Fourth Doctor and his companion Leela were cloned in a matter of seconds from DNA samples (\"The Invisible Enemy\", 1977) and then—in an apparent homage to the 1966 film Fantastic Voyage—shrunk to microscopic size in order to enter the Doctor's body to combat an alien virus. The clones in this story are short-lived, and can only survive a matter of minutes", "humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs. In the long-running British television series Doctor Who, the Fourth Doctor and his companion Leela were cloned in a matter of seconds from DNA samples (\"The Invisible Enemy\", 1977) and then — in an apparent homage to the 1966 film Fantastic Voyage — shrunk to microscopic size in order to enter the Doctor's body to combat an alien virus. The clones in this story are short-lived, and can only survive", "clones Using clones to generate a physical map is a bottom-up approach with fairly high resolution. It uses the existing cloned fragments in genomic libraries to form contigs. Through cloning the partially digested fragments generated by bacterial transformation, the immortal clones with overlapping regions of the genome, which will be examined by fingerprinting methods and stored in the libraries, are produced. During sequencing process, the clones are randomly selected and placed on a set of microtitre plates randomly. They will be fingerprinted by different methods. To ensure there is a minimum set of clones that form one config for a", "In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last bucardo (Pyrenean ibex) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah. However, cloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die. Interspecific pregnancy A potential technique", "life; others support therapeutic cloning's potential life-saving benefits.\nCloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from malformations before they die, and while food from cloned animals has been approved by the US FDA, its use is opposed by groups concerned about food safety. Cloning extinct and endangered species Cloning, or more precisely, the reconstruction of functional DNA from extinct species has, for decades, been a dream. Possible implications of this were dramatized in the 1984 novel Carnosaur and the 1990 novel Jurassic Park. The best current cloning techniques have an average", "extinction. The technique is similar to SCNT cloning which typically is between domestic animals and rodents, or where there is a ready supply of oocytes and surrogate animals. However, the cloning of highly endangered or extinct species requires the use of an alternative method of cloning. Interspecies nuclear transfer utilizes a host and a donor of two different organisms that are closely related species and within the same genus. In 2000, Robert Lanza was able to produce a cloned fetus of a gaur, Bos gaurus, combining it successfully with a domestic cow, Bos taurus.\nInterspecies nuclear transfer provides evidence of the", "laboratory in SNU to clone dogs during his experiments throughout the early 2000s. He claimed that it was possible to clone mammals and that probability for success can be better than 1 in 277 attempts (as in similar cases such as Dolly). Hwang was the first in the world to clone a dog, an Afghan hound called Snuppy in 2005. He described his procedure for cloning in the journal Nature. Researchers from the Seoul National University and the US National Institutes of Health confirmed that Snuppy was a clone. Since then Hwang and his associates have cloned", "article made the institute possible.\nThe Yanagimachi laboratory and his former associates continued to make advances in cloning. The first male animal cloned from adult cells was announced in 1999. In 2004 the laboratory participated in the cloning of an infertile male mouse. This advance may be used to produce many infertile animals for use in research in human infertility.\nMice cloned by the Honolulu technique were displayed at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, and the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago, Illinois. Major work before and after 1960 As a graduate student of Hokkaido University in Japan Yanagimachi studied", "escape their enclosures. Despite being selectively cloned as females to prevent them from breeding, the dinosaurs develop the ability to reproduce through parthenogenesis. Cloning for warfare The use of cloning for military purposes has also been explored in several fictional works. In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial \"The Time Warrior\". Sontarans are depicted as squat, bald creatures who have been genetically engineered for combat. Their weak spot is a \"probic vent\", a small socket at the back of their neck which is associated with the cloning process. The", "clones. There can be two kinds of Item Cloning: On the one hand, the item model may consist of an item with one or more open places, and cloning is done by filling each place with an element selected from a list of possibilities. On the other hand, the item model could be an intact item which is cloned by introducing transformations, for example changing the angle of an object of spatial ability tests. The variation of these items’ surface characteristics should not significantly influence the testee's responses. This is the reason why it is believed that incidentals produce only", "Scientists knew that many cloned animals suffer arthritis and ailments with the lungs and liver, and they were concerned that too many unanswered questions surround the prospect of cloning of humans safely. Clonaid set up press conferences in which they described their method of cloning, but they did not give any details. However, they did say that the third cloning was different in that it did not involve a mother's egg, but the surrogate's egg with the injection of the boy's DNA.\nAccording to Boisselier, Mark and Tracy Hunt, who were seeking to clone their dead son, invested $500,000", "cloned lab mouse escapes, and their cat chases it all over the lab. It then accidentally knocks over the cloning formula, which drips through a crack in the floor and all over an \"Ocean Pups\" kit. When Victor and Conrad find out about Will ordering the kit, they decide to spy on the house and take the possible clone back to the lab for experimentation.\nWhile working with the kit, Will accidentally clones himself after stirring the water with his comb that has his hair on it that contains his DNA. While the clone reads Will's science book, he rapidly learns", "interest. Virtually any tissue source can be used (even tissues from extinct animals), as long as the DNA is not extensively degraded. The DNA is then purified using simple methods to remove contaminating proteins (extraction with phenol), RNA (ribonuclease) and smaller molecules (precipitation and/or chromatography). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods are often used for amplification of specific DNA or RNA (RT-PCR) sequences prior to molecular cloning.\nDNA for cloning experiments may also be obtained from RNA using reverse transcriptase (complementary DNA or cDNA cloning), or in the form of synthetic DNA (artificial gene synthesis). cDNA cloning is usually used to obtain", "Plenty of Room at the Bottom. Cloning and body part replacement Some life extensionists suggest that therapeutic cloning and stem cell research could one day provide a way to generate cells, body parts, or even entire bodies (generally referred to as reproductive cloning) that would be genetically identical to a prospective patient. Recently, the US Department of Defense initiated a program to research the possibility of growing human body parts on mice. Complex biological structures, such as mammalian joints and limbs, have not yet been replicated. Dog and primate brain transplantation experiments were conducted in the mid-20th century but failed", "this system is the requirement of an additional screening step for selecting viable clones. Excavata Leishmania tarentolae (cannot infect mammals) expression systems allow stable and lasting production of proteins at high yield, in chemically defined media. Produced proteins exhibit fully eukaryotic post-translational modifications, including glycosylation and disulfide bond formation. Cell-free systems Cell-free production of proteins is performed in vitro using purified RNA polymerase, ribosomes, tRNA and ribonucleotides. These reagents may be produced by extraction from cells or from a cell-based expression system. Due to the low expression levels and high cost of cell-free systems, cell-based systems are more widely used.", "are questionable. Cloning Cloning is the method discussed as an option for bringing back extinct species. This can be done by extracting the nucleus from a preserved cell from the extinct species and swapping it into an egg of the nearest living relative. This egg can then be inserted into a relative host. It is important to note that this method can only be used when a preserved cell is available. This means that it is most feasible for recently extinct species.\nAlthough de-extinction efforts have not yet succeeded in producing viable offspring of a previously extinct species, the same process", "believe it's just common sense.\" Cloning Some, such as Harvard geneticist George M. Church, believe that ongoing technological advances will let us \"bring back to life\" an extinct species by cloning, using DNA from the remains of that species. Proposed targets for cloning include the mammoth, the thylacine, and the Pyrenean ibex. For this to succeed, enough individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. Though bioethical and philosophical objections have been raised, the cloning of extinct creatures seems theoretically possible.\nIn 2003, scientists tried", "The resulting animal will be a nearly genetically identical clone to the animal from which the nucleus was taken. The only difference is caused by any mitochondrial DNA that is retained in the ovum, which is different from the cell that donated the nucleus. In practice, this technique has so far been problematic, although there have been a few high-profile successes, such as Dolly the Sheep and, more recently, Snuppy, the first cloned dog.\nSomatic cells have also been collected in the practice of cryoconservation of animal genetic resources as a means of conserving animal genetic material, including to clone", "Some DNA, however, cannot be stably maintained in E. coli, for example very large DNA fragments, and other organisms such as yeast may be used. Cloning vectors in yeast include yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs). Features of a cloning vector All commonly used cloning vectors in molecular biology have key features necessary for their function, such as a suitable cloning site and selectable marker. Others may have additional features specific to their use. For reason of ease and convenience, cloning is often performed using E. coli. Thus, the cloning vectors used often have elements necessary for their propagation", "cloned a dog that had been dead for such a long time.\nIn 2016, Hwang's company was regularly cloning pigs which were genetically predisposed to certain diseases so that they could be used for testing pharmaceuticals and cloning cattle which were highly valued for their meat. In total Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing roughly 500 cloned embryos a day from various species. They were also reported to be attempting to clone the Ethiopian wolf, one of the world's rarest canids, of which there are only 500 in the wild, another endangered canid, the Dhole, of which there only about", "taken from the animal being cloned. The enucleated egg is then fused together with the nucleus of the cloning subject's cell using electricity. This creates an embryo, which is implanted into a surrogate mother through in vitro fertilization. If the procedure is successful, then the surrogate mother will give birth to a baby that is a clone of the cloning subject at the end of a normal gestation period. In 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten but in 1996 it took 277 attempts to create Dolly.\nHwang allegedly used this technique at his", "success rate of 9.4 percent (and as high as 25 percent) when working with familiar species such as mice, while cloning wild animals is usually less than 1 percent successful. Several tissue banks have come into existence, including the \"Frozen Zoo\" at the San Diego Zoo, to store frozen tissue from the world's rarest and most endangered species.\nIn 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian gaur, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days. In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen", "into any cell type. SCNT stem cells do not pose such a problem and continue to remain relevant in stem cell studies. Reproductive cloning This technique is currently the basis for cloning animals (such as the famous Dolly the sheep), and has been theoretically proposed as a possible way to clone humans. Using SCNT in reproductive cloning has proven difficult with limited success. High fetal and neonatal death make the process very inefficient. Resulting cloned offspring are also plagued with development and imprinting disorders in non-human species. For these reasons, along with moral and ethical objections, reproductive cloning in humans", "used.\nCloning vectors without promoter and RBS for the cloned DNA sequence are sometimes used, for example when cloning genes whose products are toxic to E. coli cells. Promoter and RBS for the cloned DNA sequence are also unnecessary when first making a genomic or cDNA library of clones since the cloned genes are normally subcloned into a more appropriate expression vector if their expression is required.\nSome vectors are designed for transcription only with no heterologous protein expressed, for example for in vitro mRNA production. These vectors are called transcription vectors. They may lack the sequences necessary for", "a day in 2016. In 2015, the longest period after which Sooam Biotech could clone a puppy was 12 days from the death of the original pet dog. Controversies Some critics accuse pet cloning proponents of encouraging prospective pet cloning clients to falsely expect that their new pets will be indistinguishable from their old pets. Although the animal in question is technically \"cloned\", there are still phenotypical differences that may affect its appearance or health. This issue was brought up in the cloning of a cat named Rainbow. Rainbow's clone later named CC was genetically identical to Rainbow yet the", "and the clone. In another example, there may be expectations that the cloned individuals would act identically to the human from which they were cloned, which could infringe on the right to self-determination.\nProponents of animal rights argue that non-human animals possess certain moral rights as living entities and should therefore be afforded the same ethical considerations as human beings. This would negate the exploitation of animals in scientific research on cloning, cloning used in food production, or as other resources for human use or consumption. Religious views Religious views of cloning are mixed. Judaism Jewish view on cloning is", "are transgenic or genetically modified microorganisms (GMO). This process takes advantage of the fact that a single bacterial cell can be induced to take up and replicate a single recombinant DNA molecule. This single cell can then be expanded exponentially to generate a large amount of bacteria, each of which contain copies of the original recombinant molecule. Thus, both the resulting bacterial population, and the recombinant DNA molecule, are commonly referred to as \"clones\". Strictly speaking, recombinant DNA refers to DNA molecules, while molecular cloning refers to the experimental methods used to assemble them. The idea arose that different DNA", "and repair, as these extracts fully support DNA replication and other related processes in a cell-free environment which allows easier manipulation.\nThe first vertebrate ever to be cloned was an African clawed frog, an experiment for which Sir John Gurdon was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 \"for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent\".\nAdditionally, several African clawed frogs were present on the Space Shuttle Endeavour (which was launched into space on September 12, 1992) so that scientists could test whether reproduction and development could occur normally in zero gravity.\nXenopus laevis is also notable", "embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last bucardo (Pyrenean ibex) were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after it died in 2000. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda and cheetah.\nIn 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), at the time extinct for about 65 years, using polymerase chain reaction. However, on 15 February 2005 the museum announced that it was stopping the project" ]

[ "Shampoo is a type of soap designed for your hair. It gets grease out of your hair. You should only shampoo your head. Don't put shampoo on the ends of your hair if you're a girl, it's too harsh and will damage your hair.\n\nConditioner puts the life back in hair after being shampooed. It moisturizes it.\n\nBody soap is a soap designed for your skin. It gets dirt off your skin. You can't just wash dirt and grease off with water because water and oil don't mix. Soap is an \"emulsifier\" it means that it makes it so water can wash away oil.\n\n2-in-1 is conditioner and shampoo mixed together. So you only have to use one product to wash your hair. There's a lot of rumors that it's bad for your hair. From what I've learned, if you have very fine hair then it's better to not use a 2 in 1. But most hair works just fine for a 2 in 1. \n\n3 in 1 is shampoo, conditioner and body soap all mixed in one. Guys usually use this. You can literally put it on any part of your body." ]

[ "acid; therefore, what's now marketed as \"original formula\" Is not the same product. Frequent Anti-Dandruff is formulated for daily use. 2 in 1 Gentle Action contains a conditioner Activating Shampoo for thinning hair.\nThe Activating Shampoo has a counterpart Activating Tonic, designed to be used in conjunction with the Activating Shampoo as a hair thinning treatment.\nA range for children is marketed under the Vosene Kids brand and was introduced in 2008. In this range are Extra Shine Detangler Spray, Advanced Conditioning Defence Spray, Conditioning Shampoo, Conditioning Shampoo and Mega Hold Styling Gel. Acquisition The Vosene products are now marketed by Lornamead,", "approximately the same result as using a moisturising shampoo. Marketing Like shampoo and bubble bath products, many are marketed directly towards children. These often feature scents intended to appeal to children, such as fruit scents, or cookies or cotton candy scents. Many bottles feature popular characters from children's television or movies. As with men's body wash, they often are specifically designed to be used also as a shampoo and conditioner. They also often contain gentle ingredients designed for young skin.", "Chattem announced that on November 1, 2005, they would introduce a new line of shampoos under the brand name Selsun Salon. These contained a different active ingredient than Selsun Blue, pyrithione zinc 1%, and are oriented toward the higher-end shampoo market. Other active ingredients such as salicylic acid and botanicals are in other versions of Selsun Blue brand dandruff shampoo.\nIn 2011, the Selsun Blue brand consisted of 15 products spread across two brand segments, Naturals and Base. The Naturals line of products contains the active ingredient salicylic acid in addition to 8 moisturizers & botanicals plus vitamins B5", "to consumer use. Though these agents are not as effective as traditional soaps, they are extremely mild, which makes them quite literally easy on the eyes and perfect for a baby's sensitive but presumably not-too-dirty skin. Designing this new category of cleaners for this user segment enabled Johnson & Johnson to capture a category it still dominates today, more than fifty years later. Within six months of its introduction, Johnson & Johnson had captured 75 percent of the baby shampoo market, a share it held as recently as 1995.\nIn 1955 Johnson & Johnson placed advertising at the \"Adventures of Robin", "emulsion that is then rinsed away with the water. This is known as the emulsifying action. Sulfate free shampoos are less harming on color treated hair than normal shampoos that contain sulfates. Sulfates strip away natural oils as well as hair dye. Sulfates are also responsible for the foaming effect of shampoos.\nShampoos have a pH of between 4 & 6. Acidic shampoos are the most common type used and maintain or improve the condition of the hair as they don't swell the hairshaft and don't strip the natural oils.\nConditioners are often used after shampooing", "products to the product range.\n2003 – Launch of shampoos with the accent on \"the authenticity and naturalness, inspired by the Mediterranean origin\" and grew the market share in shampoos to 4.1 percent by the end of the year.\nExplaining communication \"formula\" of \"Le Petit Marseillais\" Stéphanie Perrouty notes that it typically includes \"a moment of pleasure and care\" as well as characteristics of flavours (\"delicate fruit notes\", \"delicate fresh notes\", \"intense accents for gourmet\", \"gourmet fruit notes\" etc.).\nThe brand stands for naturalness, Provence origin and unique combination of fragrances like apple and kiwi, peach and apricot, cherry and almond. Other brands", "Soap dish A soap dish is a shallow, open container or platform where a bar of soap may be placed to dry after use. Soap dishes are usually located in or near a sink, shower, or bathtub. Most soap dishes are made from waterproof materials such as plastic, ceramic, metal, or glass, though some are made from bamboo. A china saucer or sponge may serve as a soap dish. A soap dish accommodates bar soap, whereas a soap dispenser accommodates liquid soap or foam soap. Design elements Elements in the design of a soap dish include safety, ventilation, cleanliness, placement,", "the mixture, though sugar or more glycerin is sometimes added. Glycerin soap can also be produced without remelting soap through directly cooking raw home-made soap.\nModern clear glycerin soaps bases are produced by combining various glycerol and polyols with soap and other surfactants in a manner similar to traditional glycerin soap making methods. These modern clear soaps have the benefit of being easily re-meltable and are often sold in bulk to customers for melt-and-pour soap crafting.", "hair tonic, hair dry powder shampoo, and heat protection sprays are frequently used hairstyling products in salons and homes across the country.", "it is mixed in, the mix is taken from the vat and poured over a large sheet of waxed paper on the floor of the factory. At this point the soap is a large, green, flat mass, and it is allowed to cool down and harden for about a day. While the soap is cooling, workers with planks of wood strapped to their feet walk over the soap to try to smooth out the batch and make it an even thickness.\nThe soap is then cut in cubes. The cubes of soap are stacked in staggered cylinders to allow maximum air", " This method is ideal for producing soaps that are derived from a single fatty acid, which leads to soaps with predictable physical properties, as required by many engineering applications. Soft versus hard soap Depending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) gives \"hard soap\"; hard soaps can also be used in water containing Mg, Cl, and Ca salts. By contrast, potassium soaps, (derived using KOH) are soft soap. The fatty acid source also affects the soap's melting point. Most early hard soaps were manufactured using animal fats and", "aesthetics, and cost. When a soap dish is part of a bath accessories set, coordinated group design may be utilized. Notable soap dish designs include Leonard L Hierath's May 2018 US Patent #US-9962042 Article Support (soap dish) US Patent and Trademark Office; Robert A. Pitton's 1956 US patent for a reversible, hemispherical soap dish and Bernard Cohen's October 2017 design for the \"SoapAnchor\" (patent pending). Safety Because of their intended use in wet and potentially hazardous environments, most soap dishes are designed with safety in mind. Such features include unbreakable materials, non-slip surfaces, rounded edges, and secure installation elements (e.g.,", "recently, soap has been used. Thickening The second function of fulling was to thicken cloth by matting the fibres together to give it strength and increase waterproofing (felting). This was vital in the case of woollens, made from carding wool, but not for worsted materials made from combing wool. After this stage, water was used to rinse out the foul-smelling liquor used during cleansing. Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation because the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibres hook together, somewhat like Velcro. Fulling mills From the medieval period, the fulling of cloth often", "Shampoo.", "Shaving soap Shaving soap is a hard soap that is whipped into a lather using a shaving brush. The lather it produces is used to coat the face during shaving, providing protection and lubrication for the razor. Among cartridge razor users, shaving soap has largely been displaced by canned shaving foam or gel, but hard shaving soaps are still utilized by users of double-edge safety razors and straight razors. History Hard shaving soaps in their modern form have existed since at least the early 19th century. Williams (a common American shaving soap intended for use in a mug rather than", "oils to their soaps.\nUnlike most soaps, Aleppo soap will float in water. Skin care properties Aleppo soap can be used daily as soap for washing and shampooing, as face mask, as shaving cream, and for bathing infants and babies. Laurel oil is an effective cleanser, antibiotic, anti-fungal and anti-itching agent.", "Labels on these products may not always use the word soap, but they will list \"potassium salts of fatty acids\" or \"potassium laurate\" as the active ingredient. Certain types of household soaps (not synthetic detergents) are also suitable, but it may be difficult to tell the composition and water content from the label. Potassium-based soaps are typically soft or liquid. Affected organisms Insecticidal soap works best on soft-bodied insects and arthropods such as aphids, adelgids,\nmealybugs, spider mites, thrips, jumping plant lice, scale insects, whiteflies, and sawfly larvae. It can also be used for caterpillars and leafhoppers, but these large-bodied insects", "skin than normal soaps, as well as shampoos that reduce the risk of scalp folliculitis, are recommended. Treatment measures with topical antibiotic medication can be helpful. Related products Cosmeceuticals are topically-applied, combination products that bring together cosmetics and \"biologically active ingredients\". Products which are similar in perceived benefits but ingested orally are known as nutricosmetics. According to the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act \"does not recognize any such category as \"cosmeceuticals.\" A product can be a drug, a cosmetic, or a combination of both, but the term \"cosmeceutical\" has no meaning under", "Hard soap Hard soap or curd soap is a kind of soap; examples are Aleppo soap, Castile soap, and Marseille soap or savon de Marseille. During the preparation of the soap, common salt (sodium chloride) is added to the liquid soap mass. This leads to the soap mass separating from glycerin, resulting in a harder soap. It can be made using sodium hydroxide.", "Defense Soap Defense Soap (Product) Defense Soap is a brand of soap (available in both bar and shower gel forms) created by Guy Sako to prevent outbreaks of skin infection on his wrestling team. Since then the soap has been marketed to wrestlers, Judoka, Jiu-Jitsu practitioners, and Mixed Martial Artists. Both the bar and shower gel versions of this soap are made with tea tree oil and eucalyptus extract, and are triclosan free. The manufacturers claim that Defense soap is effective in preventing MRSA, Staph, Impetigo, Ringworm, and Herpes. Defense Soap has been accepted as the", "provides for Soap and organic surface-active products and preparations, in the form of bars, cakes, moulded pieces or shapes, and paper, wadding, felt and nonwovens, impregnated, coated or covered with soap or detergent: For toilet use (including medicated products). Conversely, liquid personal hygiene soap is classified under either 3401.20, which provides for Soap in other forms, or 3401.30, which provides for Organic surface-active products and preparations for washing the skin, in the form of liquid or cream and put up for retail sale, whether or not containing soap.\nAn example of a product classified according to its function is a carbon", "starting with a line of \"machineless\" waving pads, drastically simplifying the permanent wave process.\nThe company developed Lanolin Creme Shampoo, one of the country's first detergent-based shampoos, in the mid-1930s. The popularity of the shampoo, available only in beauty salons, prompted the company to follow it up with Suave Hairdressing in 1937. The demand for the hair tonic became so great that the company began manufacturing small retail sizes for salon resale. Suave would eventually become one of the company's flagship product lines.\nDuring World War II, the company's name changed to National Industries, Inc., and factories were converted to manufacture non-haircare-related", "hair look more dense. Volumizers come in many forms such as shampoos, conditioners, sprays, pomades and lotions.\nHair volumizers contain humectants, which work by attracting moisture from the surrounding areas to the hair strand, thereby swelling the hair and making it look thicker. Various polymers present in the volumizer coat the hair strand, making it look thicker and shiny.\nShampoo and conditioner forms of the volumizers are used just like ordinary shampoo or conditioners. The spray and lotion form of volumizers are used on damp hair near the roots of the hair. In order to use a hair volumizer, the person using", "product, deodorant and antiperspirant. The DADMAC monomer is highly hydrophilic. Absorption of moisture from the air lends \"conditioning\" properties to the products that contain the copolymer such as shampoos, hair and skin conditioners and other personal care products including some bar soaps. Safety According to its safety data sheet, it is not persistent, bioaccumulative, or toxic. Not a hazardous substance or mixture according to Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 or EC-directives 67/548/EEC or 1999/45/EC. Scientific studies The influence of the synthetic cationic polymer polyquaternium-7 on the rheology and microstructure of creams was investigated.\nEfficacy, mechanism and test methods of conditioning polymers in", "Clean & Clear History The first Clean & Clear product was a skin cleanser. Revlon introduced lotions and bar soap by 1986, and hair conditioner and shampoo by 1989.\nThe brand was originally developed by Revlon as a line of sensitive skin personal care items and was introduced by 1956. The Clean & Clear name referred to the fact that the products contained no fragrance or dyes, and left no residue after rinsing. The original line featured shampoos, conditioners and facial skincare products. In 1991, Revlon sold Clean & Clear to Johnson & Johnson. Advertising and partnerships In 1993, Clean &", "bathing, and cleaning. Soaps for cleansing are made by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term \"lye soap\" refers almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings about a chemical reaction known as saponification. In this reaction, the triglyceride fats are first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, and then these combine with the alkali to form crude soap: a combination of various soap", "Vosene Brand background Vosene was established in 1949, becoming famous for its medicated formula and remedying dandruff. It was used by generations of British families, but lost favour in the 1980s.\nVosene shampoo is available in four varieties:\nOriginal Medicated, Frequent Anti-Dandruff, 2 in 1 Gentle Action and Activating Shampoo.\nThe Original formula contains salicylic acid, an anti-dandruff ingredient. However, this was not the active ingredient prior to the late 1980s. Before the change to Salicylic acid, the two active ingredients in Vosene were Coal Tar and Sulphusuccinated Undecylenic Monoalcoalamide. These chemicals were discovered to be carcinogenic, leading to their replacement with Salicylic", "and acne creams). Some products, such as moisturizing sunscreens and anti-dandruff shampoos, are regulated within both categories. In addition to brushes, a makeup sponge is a popular applicator. Makeup sponges can be used to apply foundation, blend concealer, and apply powder or highlighter. The most popular brand of makeup sponges is the Beauty Blender. Ingredients A variety of organic compounds and inorganic compounds comprise typical cosmetics. Typical organic compounds are modified natural oils and fats as well as a variety of petrochemically derived agents. Inorganic compounds are processed minerals such as iron oxides, talc, and zinc oxide. ", "Nice 'n Easy (hair coloring) Nice ’n Easy is a shampoo-in permanent hair-colouring product for home use. It was introduced in 1965, billed as the first shampoo-in hair colour, with the advertising tagline, “The closer he gets...the better you look.”\nManufactured by Clairol (division of company Coty), Nice ’n Easy extended the company’s home hair colour product lines, which debuted in 1956 with Miss Clairol Hair Colour Bath and the famous “Does she...or doesn’t she?” advertising campaign. History In the 1950s, just 7% of American women used hair color (or admitted to doing so), at a time when the common belief", "outside the perimeter of a faucet's or showerhead's stream helps the soap to avoid excess erosion. Aesthetics Though utilitarian in purpose, soap dishes may be given aesthetic treatment. A soap dish in the form of a whale, for example, was patented in 1961 by Sonia Adelson, with \"the mouth portion thereof being adapted to receive and dispense a bar of soap in an amusing, novel and useful manner\". Another example is the \"Bodoni Soap Dish\", a February 2013 design by David Strauss that was inspired by the legacy of Massimo Vignelli. History A soap dish played a role in" ]

[ "Basically, it comes down to sensing versus perceiving. Generally everyone senses the same things the same way, from vision to taste, excluding those with sensory deprivations (colorblindness, deafness, etc.). \n\nPerceiving is a different story. It's all in your head. We attach meaning to different sensations. Like when you see your SO and get happy if you're in a great relationship. Basically you attach meaning to different sounds you hear. People tend to like major keys that are consonant, but of course not all because different people attach different meanings based on their experiences!\n\nHope this helps, this is the first ELI5 explanation that I've done! Feel free to ask further questions!" ]

[ "almost every circumstance I can think of.\" In another interview with Billboard, Womack said, \"When a song really connects with so many people, it's because they felt something when they heard it. This song makes you think about and feel for the people you really love in your life. Who doesn't have someone like that in their life?\"\nIn 2006 Womack told Billboard about an incident at the Country Radio Seminar and said, \"I made some new friends at radio, caught up with friends that I had known since the beginning of my career and was able to enjoy a few", "picking through all the songs that people our age weren't about to avoid growing up. It could be Loverboy, Steve Miller, the Cars, Journey. You don't even know if you like it or hate it; it just pops into your head. Sometimes when we're arranging a song we all remember something at the same time so we'll throw it in there. It's not even really conscious.\"\nCollingwood's songwriting contributions on this album - including \"Troubled Times\", \"A Fine Day for a Parade\" and \"\"Amity Gardens\" - tended to be more serious than Schlesinger's. According to Collingwood, \"I think I was a", "feelings because it was different from what people expected. The album was nearly all spontaneously written and performed in Ibiza - it was an experiment in the sense that before this we had already written the majority of the songs before going into the studio.", "each day. While music is commonly thought of as only a means of entertainment, studies have found that music is often chosen by youth because it mirrors their own feelings and the content of the lyrics is important to them. Numerous studies have been conducted to research how music influences listeners behaviors and beliefs. For example, a study featured in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence found that when compared to adolescent males who did not like heavy metal music, those who liked heavy metal had a higher occurrence of deviant behaviors. These behaviors included sexual misconduct, substance abuse and", "positive or negative associations elicited by certain music should fit the nature of the advertisement and product. Music and productivity Several studies have recognized that listening to music while working affects the productivity of people performing complex cognitive tasks. One study suggested that listening to one's preferred genre of music can enhance productivity in the workplace, though other research has found that listening to music while working can be a source of distraction, with loudness and lyrical content possibly playing a role. Other factors proposed to affect the relationship between music listening and productivity include musical structure, task complexity, and", "the song. Songs previously unheard result in strong responses whereas familiar songs result in little or no response. Pure tones or white noise do not evoke any response. It is thought that the purpose of this genetic response to social stimuli is to update the brain's catalog of the changing natural environment. For example, it would be advantageous for a songbird to express more egr1 in a situation where there is a new song heard (a potential intruder) compared to the familiar song of a known individual. In contrast, for the species of highly social cichlid fish A. burtoni, the", "backlash.\n\"Most people like music because it gives them certain emotions such as joy, grief, sadness, and image of nature, a subject for daydreams or – still better – oblivion from “everyday life”. They want a drug – dope -…. Music would not be worth much if it were reduced to such an end. When people have learned to love music for itself, when they listen with other ears, their enjoyment will be of a far higher and more potent order, and they will be able to judge it on a higher plane and realise its intrinsic value.\" - Igor Stravinsky", "selfish thing to do, but it gave me an immense sense of freedom, to feel that I couldn't rely on any of those things. It's like I'm approaching it all from the ground up now, starting with 'Okay, we know what songs we needn't do anymore. What, of my past, did I really like?' You pick things that were really good songs, and you try to recontextualize them, by giving them current, contemporary rhythms. And we've been knocking around ideas like 'Shopping for Girls' from Tin Machine, 'Repetition' and 'Quicksand' from Hunky Dory. Certain songs that I probably haven't ever", "releasing of endorphin's, and increased lung capacity. Effect on the brain John Daniel Scott, among others, have cited that \"people who sing are more likely to be happy\". This is because \"singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being\". Humans have a long prehistory of music, especially singing; before written language, stories were passed down through song, because song is often more memorable. There is also evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans before language. Levitin, in his This is Your Brain on Music, argues that \"music may be the activity", "that melody better indicates moods and unknown feelings. He did demonstrate that songs on the mind could be effectively interacted with in a psychotherapeutic fashion in a way that helped resolve repressed conflict.\nThe flow of studies and articles from the latter part of the twentieth century was summarised in the two-volume essay collection Psychoanalytic Explorations in Music (1990–1993). Future: psychoanalysis, neuroscience and music Recent developments in cognitive neuroscience of music have led to a new way of looking at music and emotion. Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that music occupies more areas of the brain than language does, and that humans", "That's what 'I Wonder Why' was about. We kind of invented this percussive rhythmic sound. If you listen to that song, everybody was doing something different. There's four guys, one guy was doing bass, I was singing lead, one guy's going 'ooh wah ooh,' and another guy's doing tenor. It was totally amazing. When I listen to it today, oftentimes I think, 'man, those kids are talented.'\"\nTheir initial hit was followed by \"No One Knows\" and \"Don't Pity Me\", which also charted the Billboard Top 100. This success won a place for Dion and the Belmonts on the ill-fated \"The", "Music-specific disorders Neuroscientists have learned a lot about the role of the brain in numerous cognitive mechanisms by understanding corresponding disorders. Similarly, neuroscientists have come to learn a lot about music cognition by studying music-specific disorders. Even though music is most often viewed from a \"historical perspective rather than a biological one\" music has significantly gained the attention of neuroscientists all around the world. For many centuries music has been strongly associated with art and culture. The reason for this increased interest in music is because it \"provides a tool to study numerous aspects of neuroscience, from motor skill learning", "connection in this area of the brain than those who are found to have the condition. Social stigma The majority of the world's population enjoys listening to music. According to some, for this reason, music can be considered to be a universal language. Individuals who suffer from musical anhedonia tend to find it challenging for themselves to understand why it is that they do not gain pleasure from listening to music. The core societal benefits that have emerged out of the new empirical research on the phenomenon are two-fold: it has helped people with this condition to better understand why", "in a different way who also got the music and brought something to it and there was just very little ego involved—a very different creative process to what being in a band can be like, where people sometimes get very protective about their parts, even if it means not doing things that might make the record better. In popular culture The track was featured in the first episode of season 3 of Gossip Girl.", "Walker said, \"It's so exciting to see the reaction of the fans and realize that this song has moved them the way it moved me the first time I heard it.\"\nDuring an interview with CMT Walker revealed that philosophical songs like \"A Few Questions\", \"The Chain of Love\" and \"It Ain't Pretty\", are not his favorite form of songs when he said, \"Those kinds of story songs are the ones that choke you up. I'm not a person that tends to listen to those songs a whole lot because they are deep. I like something with a little more vocal", "When asked if he still felt a connection to the song, two decades after its recording, he responded: \"It's a love-hate thing. To me, it was a philosophical kind of question: How did we have one of our first songs, if not our first? How do you feel not a part of it? I always feel I wish I wrote better lyrics, yet at the time it was so different for pop-punk. It was, like, so fast.\" Music The song is composed in the key of D major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo", "in music have been studied as they relate to the Big Five personality traits: openness to experience, agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness. In general, the plasticity traits (openness to experience and extraversion) affect music preference more than the stability traits (agreeableness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness). Gender has been shown to influence preference, with men choosing music for primarily cognitive reasons and women for emotional reasons. Relationships with music preference have also been found with mood and nostalgic association. Background music The study of background music focuses on the impact of music with non-musical tasks, including changes in behavior in the presence", "music. \nMIT researchers conducted a study to examine this notion. The results showed six neural clusters in the auditory cortex responding to the sounds. Four were triggered when hearing standard acoustic features, one specifically responded to speech, and the last exclusively responded to music. Researchers who studied the correlation between temporal evolution of timbral, tonal and rhythmic features of music, came to the conclusion that music engages the brain regions connected to motor actions, emotions and creativity. The research indicates that the whole brain \"lights up\" when listening to music. This amount of activity boosts memory preservation, hence pattern recognition.", "weirder than those experienced by the people who are hearing them – so not surprisingly, the songs maintain that same somnolent quality... And with many of the tracks melding together, the dream-like delirium is maintained throughout.\"\nOurStage.com - \"Making a dramatic shift in how you approach songwriting can be incredibly difficult, especially for those who've been set in one way for a long time. So, when you look at the case of Ben Lee, who's been making his mark in the music industry since he was fourteen, solo and in the band Noise Addict, it makes his latest output all", "song is my reflection on my relationship with music. That’s who the ‘she’ is. And not just music, but the music industry in general. So there’s a love-hate relationship there that really kind of comes into view. There's the old adage, 'Be careful what you wish for,' and, 'Be careful doing what you love, because sometimes it will turn on you.' And, you know, anytime you mix something that you love and business, you're gonna find the rusty cracks in there that piss you off. So that song, really, is about how much I still love making music, but also", "\"I guess I wrote it because there was a part of myself that I was looking for. Maybe now that I feel more comfortable with the way that I live my life and my mental state (laughs) and my spiritual state whatever, maybe I feel there's some kind of unity now. That song for me always exemplified kind of how you feel when you're young, when you know that there's a piece of yourself that you haven't really put together yet. You have this great searching, this great need to find out who you really are.\"", "individual preferences that can generate certain emotions, feelings and behaviors.\nMusic is an aesthetic product as it often provides an emotional or spiritually moving experience specific to an individual. Holbrook also states that music is appreciated primarily for its internal essence as opposed to being viewed strictly as an objective product. However, consumer research literature focusing on these types of products often uses the terms \"aesthetic\" and \"hedonic\" almost interchangeably. Charters (2006) points out \"hedonic consumption is essentially about pleasure\" (p. 240), and that pleasure is but one aspect of the overall aesthetic experience. He also notes that \"popular culture works may", "that the song's \"soft and demure\" nature was a conscious decision to a certain extent, Who explained that she intended \"to switch things up\" and \"emphasize the fact that I just wanna write songs\". Who hails its lyrics as \"one of my favorite stories I’ve ever told,” expounding, \"It feels so good to finally have it out in the world instead of banging around my own brain.” Thematically, Who drew similarities between the song and \"Just Thought You Should Know\", another track written for her then-forthcoming album. A fan of the television series Parks and Recreation, Who also believes that", "but it just goes unsaid\", and found this experience to be universal among her co-writers, discussing how often people must feel similarly. Who believes that this experience has become more common in modern times because of social media, explaining that \"human interaction and confrontation has gotten a lot harder.\" Thomas Walsh also produced the track.\nRevealing that the track makes her feel emotional, the singer identified \"Between You & Me\" as an ode to how she began writing music originally, recalling a time when she was 14 years-old and using solely a guitar or piano to write about her feelings. Admitting", "songs he thinks I'd like. He does like to throw curveballs sometimes and try different things. But most of the time we have the same taste.\"\nThe first song on the album is \"This Time\". The uptempo hip hop track has been called a personal favorite of JoJo's, with her performing it multiple times live. Lyrically, the song speaks of not letting someone she likes \"get away\" like she did with the last one. \"The Way You Do Me\" is the second song on the album, and was released as a promotional single for the album on September 20, 2006. Like", "hearing love songs playing on the radio, as they remind him of his last relationship and breakup. Ne-Yo has later confirmed that he got the idea for the song from a former girlfriend: \"It's about the first time I fell in love with a girl in a way that I completely screwed it up. So it was a story that I didn't have to think really hard about putting it together. A lot of heartbreak went into that song, so that's why I think a lot of people dug it the way they did – because you can feel it.\"", "to classify your own sound, especially when you feel it constantly changing under your feet. But I try to write full structured songs that make people feel. They’re usually based around my piano or keyboard playing, and production could be reminiscent of anything from an old paul simon track to a new mgmt track. That’s where the fun comes in I guess. People have said --which musicians LOVE hearing --\"Oh, you sound like David Gray, James Taylor, or Zero7!\" I take them all as compliments, and keep doing my thing. Ironically enough, I compare my style to a lot of", "We're much better when we're not thinking.\"\nGossard on the song:\nI think the band definitely progressed and did some things we haven't done before. When people talk about \"pop\" I think it's about a simplicity of melody and a simplicity of arrangement that doesn't over complicate a good idea or a great lyric. I think \"The Fixer\" is a great example. You really hear something about Eddie's personality in the lyric and you get a view that a lot of people don't get from him which is a sort of optimistic and playful melody and lyric. Lyrics Commenting on the suggestion", "because he's not trying to force it. A lot of his lyrics are off the top of his head when he first hears the song, because that makes it more natural, it's legitimately what he is thinking about and how he is feeling when he hears that song.\"", "on five occasions.\nAbout his approach to music:\nMusic is about all the different kinds of feelings we can have -- we can be scared, we can be angry, we can be hopeful, we can be sad. We can be all these things and have company in it. Music is sacred ground and it shouldn't be reduced to that kind of simplified demographic target-marketing.\n— David Wilcox, 1998\nThe song has to offer something universal. I want songs that people can understand the first time... I write songs with layers in them, so they stay interesting over the years.\n— David Wilcox, 1999\nHis 2005 album Out Beyond" ]

[ "Op are you talking about Laser Temperature Guns/thermometers?? (That tell the temp after pointing the device and laser at an object) \n\nIf you are: the laser doesn't have anything to do with the temp, it just aligns the sensor that is located right next to the laser on the front of the device.", "An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns, to describe the device's ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can often be determined. Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as \"thermal radiation thermometers\"." ]

[ "Light-addressable potentiometric sensor A light-addressable potentiometric sensor (LAPS) is a sensor that uses light (e.g. LEDs) to select what will be measured. Light can activate carriers in semiconductors. History An example is the pH-sensitive LAPS (range pH4 to pH10) that uses LEDs in combination with (semi-conducting) silicon and pH-sensitive Ta₂O₅ (SiO₂; Si₃N₄) insulator. The LAPS has several advantages over other types of chemical sensors. The sensor surface is completely flat, no structures, wiring or passivation are required. At the same time, the \"light-addressability\" of the LAPS makes it possible to obtain a spatially resolved map of the distribution of the", "Thermoscope A thermoscope is a device that shows changes in temperature. A typical design is a tube in which a liquid rises and falls as the temperature changes. The modern thermometer gradually evolved from it with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century and standardisation through the 17th and 18th centuries. Function Devices employing both heat and pressure were common during Galileo's time, used for fountains, nursing, or bleeding in medicine. The device was built from a small vase filled with water, attached to a thin vertically rising pipe, with a large empty glass ball at the", "high), but rather as several segments that are noticeable as visible horizontal bands every few feet: these show where the LED equipment is supported. The heat generated is handled by fans that cool the air at the bottom, that then works its way through the chimney-like tower. Perceptibility was determined to be optimal with LED lights 2 inches (51 mm) behind the glass.\nLEDs were chosen because they were viewed as the lowest maintenance option of the possible color changing fixtures. LEDs fit into an electrical circuit, causing illumination by the movement of electrons in the semiconductor material and making a filament", "Breguet's thermometer Breguet's thermometer, also called a spiral thermometer, is a type of thermometer which uses the expansion of metal under heat to produce a measurement more sensitive, and with a higher range, than both mercury and air thermometers. Working on the principle of a bimetallic strip, it consists of a very slender strip of platinum soldered to a similar strip of silver, with a slip of gold soldered in between.\nThe strips of soldered metals are curved into a helix (a). The upper extremity of the helix is fastened to a metallic support (c) and the lower extremity is connected", "Optics (1992), entitled “Sun Photometer with light-emitting diodes as spectrally selective photodiodes”, Mims describes how LEDs can function as light detectors. In 2002, Mims followed with another LED sun photometer paper, “An inexpensive and stable LED Sun photometer for measuring\nthe water vapor column over South Texas from 1990 to 2001”.\nIn addition to his many electronics books written for Radio Shack, Mims developed several electronics kits for them. One kit in particular made use of the \"Mims Effect\" of LEDs, by utilizing 4 LEDs acting as narrow band light sensors to perform atmospheric analysis. Dubbed the Sun & Sky", "as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements of the sensors. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. Pulse oximeters use them for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by", "measure magnetic fields in geomagnetic surveys; they may be fixed base stations, as in the INTERMAGNET network, or mobile magnetometers used to scan a geographic region. Early magnetometers The compass, consisting of a magnetized needle whose orientation changes in response to the ambient magnetic field, is a simple type of magnetometer, one that measures the direction of the field. The oscillation frequency of a magnetized needle is proportional to the square-root of the strength of the ambient magnetic field; so, for example, the oscillation frequency of the needle of a horizontally situated compass is proportional to the square-root of the", "tapped so that the mercury in the reservoir lodges in the bend (B) at the end of the stem. Next, the bulb is heated until the mercury in the stem joins the mercury in the reservoir. The thermometer is then placed in a bath one or two degrees above the upper limit of temperatures to be measured.\nThe upper end of the tube is gently tapped with the finger, and the mercury suspended in the upper part of the reservoir will be jarred down, thus separating it from the thread at the bend (B). The thermometer will then be set for", "produces a color change that depends on the presence or activity of the material being studied. Optical thermometers have been created by calibrating the change in absorbance of a material against temperature. There are many other examples.\nSpectrophotometers are used to measure the specular reflectance of mirrors and the diffuse reflectance of colored objects. They are used to characterize the performance of sunglasses, laser protective glasses, and other optical filters. There are many other examples.\nIn the UV, visible and near IR, absorbance and reflectance spectrophotometers usually illuminate the sample with monochromatic light. In the corresponding IR instruments, the monochromator is usually", "thermometer, the bulb is made to reach thermal equilibrium with a temperature standard such as an ice/water mixture, and then with another standard such as water/vapour, and the tube is divided into regular intervals between the fixed points. In principle, thermometers made of different material (e.g., coloured alcohol thermometers) might be expected to give different intermediate readings due to different expansion properties; in practice the substances used are chosen to have reasonably linear expansion characteristics as a function of true thermodynamic temperature, and so give similar results.\nThe application of mercury (1714) and Fahrenheit scale (1724) for liquid-in-glass thermometers ushered in", "a new era of accuracy and precision in thermometry, and is still to this day regarded as one of the most accurate thermometers available. Maximum thermometer One special kind of mercury-in-glass thermometer, called a maximum thermometer, works by having a constriction in the neck close to the bulb. As the temperature rises, the mercury is pushed up through the constriction by the force of expansion. When the temperature falls, the column of mercury breaks at the constriction and cannot return to the bulb, thus remaining stationary in the tube. The observer can then read the maximum temperature over the set", "and on early models allowed for a heat sink on the back of the tube to prolong LED service life. This is a large part of the reason that linear LEDs are nearly twice as energy-efficient as linear fluorescents, in addition to having greater actual lumens per watt. Slimline lamps Slimline lamps operate on an instant start ballast and are recognizable by their single-pin bases. High output/very high output lamps High-output lamps are brighter and are driven at a higher electric current, have different ends on the pins so they cannot be used in the wrong fixture, and are", "plants. Beam angle Typical SMD LEDs are rated as having a 120° beam angle, directed \"up\", i.e. perpendicular to the mounting surface. 'Side View' or 'Edge Emitter' SMDs are designed such that light is emitted parallel to the adhering surface (i.e., 90 degree difference to typical tape design). These allow the construction of LED strips which wash surfaces within less space or accent edge profiles such as signage. Dimming LED strips are not dimmable in the conventional sense. Attempting to vary the brightness of the LEDs by changing the external voltage is impractical. However, they can be dimmed using pulse-width", "Anemoscope An anemoscope is a device invented to show the direction of the wind, or to foretell a change of wind direction or weather.\nHygroscopic devices, in particular those utilizing catgut, were considered as very good anemoscopes, seldom failing to foretell the shifting of the wind. The ancient anemoscope seems, by Vitruvius's description of it, to have been intended to show which way the wind actually blew, rather than to foretell into which quarter it would change.\nOtto von Guericke gave the title anemoscope to a machine invented by him to foretell the change of the weather, as to fair and rain.", "panels, use a phosphor layer to produce glare-free illumination or as numeric and graphic display devices. White LED lamps consist of a blue or ultra-violet emitter with a phosphor coating that emits at longer wavelengths, giving a full spectrum of visible light. Unfocused and undeflected cathode ray tubes were used as stroboscope lamps since 1958. Phosphor thermometry Phosphor thermometry is a temperature measurement approach that uses the temperature dependence of certain phosphors. For this, a phosphor coating is applied to a surface of interest and, usually, the decay time is the emission parameter that indicates temperature. Because the illumination and", "types) that produce an electric signal when exposed to light. Simple applications of this technology include switching luminaires on and off based on ambient light conditions, and light meters, used to measure the total amount of light incident on a point.\nMore complex forms of photometric measurement are used frequently within the lighting industry. Spherical photometers can be used to measure the directional luminous flux produced by lamps, and consist of a large-diameter globe with a lamp mounted at its center. A photocell rotates about the lamp in three axes, measuring the output of the lamp from all", "the microscope. The condenser concentrates and controls the light that passes through the specimen prior to entering the objective. It has two controls, one which moves the Abbe condenser closer to or further from the stage, and another, the iris diaphragm, which controls the diameter of the beam of light. The controls can be used to optimize brightness, evenness of illumination, and contrast. Abbe condensers are difficult to use for magnifications of above 400X, as the aplanatic cone is only representative of a numerical aperture (NA) of 0.6.\nThis condenser is composed of two lenses, a plano-convex lens somewhat larger than", "to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and torsion. A solid state version of the gyroscope, using the interference of light, has been developed. The fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) has no moving parts, and exploits the Sagnac effect to detect mechanical rotation.\nCommon uses for fiber optic sensors includes advanced intrusion detection security systems. The light is transmitted along a fiber", "Disappearing-filament pyrometer The disappearing-filament pyrometer is an optical pyrometer, in which the temperature of a glowing incandescent object is measured by comparing it to the light of a heated filament. Invented independently in 1901 by Ludwig Holborn and Ferdinand Kurlbaum in Germany and Harmon Northrup Morse in the United States, it was the first device which could measure temperatures above 1000 °C. Disappearing filament pyrometers have been used to measure temperatures between about 600 °C and 3000 °C. Like other optical pyrometers they are used to measure the temperature of objects too hot for contact thermometers, such as molten metals.", "seismometers were very sensitive to tilt and were leveled to high accuracy by means of a two-axis motor-driven gimbal operated by ground command. A third motor adjusted the vertical component seismometer in the vertical direction. A fourth, short-period (SP) seismometer with a resonant period of 1 second measured vertical motion at a peak sensitivity of 8 Hz and a response range from 0.05 to 20 Hz. A thermal shroud and 2.5-W heater for thermal control comprised the rest of the experiment package. The thermal shroud was aluminized mylar which covered the instrument and the ground surrounding the base out to", "sides.\nLamps and lighting fixtures are tested using goniophotometers and rotating mirror photometers, which keep the photocell stationary at a sufficient distance that the luminaire can be considered a point source. Rotating mirror photometers use a motorized system of mirrors to reflect light emanating from the luminaire in all directions to the distant photocell; goniophotometers use a rotating 2-axis table to change the orientation of the luminaire with respect to the photocell. In either case, luminous intensity is tabulated from this data and used in lighting design.", "radiation, which means that the light beam generated by an LED is cool.\nThe waste heat in a high-power LED is conducted through the device to a heat sink, which dissipates heat to the surrounding air. Since the maximum operating temperature of the LED is limited, the thermal resistances of the package, the heat sink and the interface must be calculated. Medium-power LEDs are often designed to solder directly to a printed circuit board that contains a thermally conductive metal layer. High-power LEDs are packaged in large-area ceramic packages that attach to a metal heat sink using thermal grease or other", "Pyrometric device Pyrometric devices gauge heatwork (the combined effect of both time and temperature) when firing materials inside a kiln. Pyrometric devices do not measure temperature, but can report temperature equivalents. In principle, a pyrometric device relates the amount of heat work on ware to a measurable shrinkage or deformation of a regular shape.\nCare should be taken with the interpretation, as some naively assume they are a measure of temperature alone. History In 1782, Josiah Wedgwood created accurately scaled pyrometric device, with details published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London in 1782 (Vol. LXXII, part 2).", "seen by the detector, indicates the humidity, according to the Beer–Lambert law. Types include the Lyman-alpha hygrometer (using Lyman-alpha light emitted by hydrogen), the krypton hygrometer (using 123.58 nm light emitted by krypton), and the differential absorption hygrometer (using light emitted by two lasers operating at different wavelengths, one absorbed by humidity and the other not). Applications Aside from greenhouses and industrial spaces, hygrometers are also used in some incubators, saunas, humidors and museums. They are also used in the care of wooden musical instruments such as pianos, guitars, violins, and harps which can be damaged by improper humidity conditions.", " Inexpensive or home-made test lamps may not include sufficient protection against high-energy faults. It is customary to connect a test lamp to a known live circuit both before and after testing an unknown circuit, to check for failure of the test lamp itself.\nIn the UK, guidelines established by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) provide recommendations for the construction and use of test lamps. Probes must be well-insulated, with minimal exposure of live terminals, with finger guards to prevent accidental contact, and must not expose live wires if the test lamp glass bulb is broken. To limit the", "Fluorometer A fluorometer or fluorimeter is a device used to measure parameters of visible spectrum fluorescence: its intensity and wavelength distribution of emission spectrum after excitation by a certain spectrum of light. These parameters are used to identify the presence and the amount of specific molecules in a medium. Modern fluorometers are capable of detecting fluorescent molecule concentrations as low as 1 part per trillion.\nFluorescence analysis can be orders of magnitude more sensitive than other techniques. Applications include chemistry/biochemistry, medicine, environmental monitoring. For instance, they are used to measure chlorophyll fluorescence to investigate plant physiology. Components and Design Typically", "magnetometer is obsolete. Hall effect magnetometer The most common magnetic sensing devices are solid-state Hall effect sensors. These sensors produce a voltage proportional to the applied magnetic field and also sense polarity. They are used in applications where the magnetic field strength is relatively large, such as in anti-lock braking systems in cars, which sense wheel rotation speed via slots in the wheel disks. Magnetoresistive devices These are made of thin strips of permalloy (NiFe magnetic film) whose electrical resistance varies with a change in magnetic field. They have a well-defined axis of sensitivity, can be produced in 3-D versions", "Ebulliometer An ebulliometer is designed to accurately measure the boiling point of liquids by measuring the temperature of the vapor-liquid equilibrium either isobarically or isothermally.\nThe primary components in a Swietoslawski ebulliometer, which operates isobarically, are the boiler, the Cottrell pumps, the thermowell, and the condenser. Such an ebulliometer can be used for extremely accurate measurements of boiling temperature, molecular weights, mutual solubilities, and solvent purities by using a resistance thermometer (RTD) to measure the near-equilibrium conditions of the thermowell.\nThe ebulliometer is frequently used for measuring the alcohol content of dry wines. See also Sweetness of wine and Oechsle scale.", "systems. Baseboard heaters will especially benefit from a programmable thermostat which is capable of continuous control (as are at least some Honeywell models), effectively controlling the heater like a lamp dimmer, and gradually increasing and decreasing heating to ensure an extremely constant room temperature (continuous control rather than relying on the averaging effects of hysteresis). Systems which include a fan (electric furnaces, wall heaters, etc.) must typically use simple on/off controls. Digital electronic thermostats Newer digital thermostats have no moving parts to measure temperature and instead rely on thermistors or other semiconductor devices such as a resistance thermometer (resistance temperature", "to the dew point temperature. The hygrometer measures the dew point by directing a light beam from a small infrared diode to the surface of the mirror at an angle of 45 degrees. Two photo transistors are mounted so they measure a high degree of reflected light when the mirror is clear (direct) and scattered light when the mirror is clouded with visible condensation (indirect). With the formation of condensation on the mirror, the degree of cloudiness of the mirror surface increases with the direct transistor receiving less light and the indirect transistor more light. The output from these photo" ]

[ "You need a second camera that is filming from a slightly different perspective, just like humans can see in three dimensions because they have two eyes set slightly apart. (In computer animation you can arbitrarily create a second perspective on a scene, so it's easier but it still requires extra rendering to produce the film.) You play back footage from both perspectives at the same time, but the viewer wears polarized lenses which filter the image so that the left eye sees one thing and the right eye another. You may recall older 3D using colored lenses for the same purpose.\n\nYou can also process a standard film to give it computer-generated 3D effects. This is a lot cheaper than filming a real 3D movie, but the result tends to be ugly." ]

[ "the world at hand.\" Bordwell said that, other than \"to awe us with special effects\", 3D's purposes are typically to be realistic in its enhancement of the depth of objects and \"advancing our understanding of the story\", which is usually achieved with only one part of the screen in 3D while the rest is out of focus and in 2D. In Goodbye to Language Godard uses 3D in deep focus shots with images that allow the audience to scan the entire frame. Bordwell wrote that Godard's use of 3D \"is aiming to make us perceive the world stripped of our", "3-D (three-dimensional) film or S3D (stereoscopic 3D) film is a motion picture that enhances the illusion of depth perception. The most common approach to the production of 3D films is derived from stereoscopic photography. In it, a regular motion picture camera system is used to record the images as seen from two perspectives (or computer-generated imagery generates the two perspectives in post-production), and special projection hardware and/or eyewear are used to provide the illusion of depth when viewing the film. Some methods of producing 3D films do not require the use of two images. 3D films are not limited to", "technique known as \"over/under\". This allows filming to proceed as for any standard 2D film, without the considerable additional expense of having to double up on cameras and film stock for every shot. When the resultant film is projected through a normal projector (albeit one requiring a special lens that combines the upper and lower images), a true polarized 3D image is produced. This system allows 3D films to be shown in almost any cinema since it does not require two projectors running simultaneously through the presentation ⁠— something most cinemas are not equipped to handle. What is required of the theatre", "for producing 3D displays which are both autostereoscopic and multiscopic, meaning that the 3D image is viewed without the use of special glasses and different aspects are seen when it is viewed from positions that differ either horizontally or vertically. This is achieved by using an array of microlenses (akin to a lenticular lens, but an X–Y or \"fly's eye\" array in which each lenslet typically forms its own image of the scene without assistance from a larger objective lens) or pinholes to capture and display the scene as a 4D light field, producing stereoscopic images that exhibit realistic alterations", "At first Guillermo del Toro decided not to shoot or convert the film to 3D, as the effect would not work due to the sheer size of the film's robots and monsters, explaining\nI didn't want to make the movie 3D because when you have things that big ... the thing that happens naturally, you're looking at two buildings lets say at 300 feet [away], if you move there is no parallax. They're so big that, in 3D, you barely notice anything no matter how fast you move ... To force the 3D effects for robots and monsters that are supposed", "used when film or video material is not available. Action is given to still photographs by slowly zooming in on subjects of interest and panning from one subject to another. For example, in a photograph of a baseball team, one might slowly pan across the faces of the players and come to a rest on the player the narrator is discussing. By employing simulated parallax, a two-dimensional image can appear as 3D, with the viewpoint seeming to enter the picture and move among the figures. \nThe effect can be used as a transition between clips as well. For example, to", "RealD 3D RealD 3D is a digital stereoscopic projection technology made and sold by RealD. It is currently the most widely used technology for watching 3D films in theaters (cinemas). Worldwide, RealD 3D is installed in more than 26,500 auditoriums by approximately 1,200 exhibitors in 72 countries as of June 2015. Technology RealD 3D cinema technology is a polarized 3D system that uses circularly polarized light to produce stereoscopic image projection. The advantage of circular polarization over linear polarization is that viewers are able to tilt their head and look about the theater naturally without seeing double or darkened images.", "digital 3D technology medium, the Shapiros met producer Steve Schklair, founder of Cobalt Entertainment in 2000. Schklair had recently developed a digital 3D filming technique known as \"active depth cut\", which allowed for smooth cuts between shots that would normally not line up when filmed in 3D. This was done using motion control photography and real-time image processing to create a realistic 3D experience without subjecting the viewer to excessive motion sickness or eye strain. It was intended to be an inexpensive and effective way to shoot live events such as concerts or sports. With the help of John and", "of the applications of Pulfrich involve deliberately causing just this sort of effect, which has given the technique a bad reputation. When the only movement is lateral movement of the camera then the effect is as real as any other form of stereoscopy, but this seldom happens except in highly contrived situations. It can, however, be effective as a novelty effect in contrived visual scenarios. One advantage of material produced to take advantage of the Pulfrich effect is that it is fully backward-compatible with \"regular\" viewing; unlike stereoscopic (two-image) video, a 3D Pulfrich effect only has one image and as", "In 3DMM, a movie camera works by recording images (frames) in quick succession. 3DMM stores the positions of the characters and objects for each frame; it moves at about 6 to 8 frames per second, making the movies choppier than expected. The finished movie can only be viewed inside 3DMM using the virtual auditorium or the studio, unless converted to a video file format with a third-party utility. The application's user interface is centered upon a theater building consisting of several rooms: the ticket booth, where the user is greeted by McZee and then asked to play or create a", "the 3D image apart and then restores it in a single shot\" and \"he uses stereo to elevate the mundane\" instead of spectacular subjects like superhero or fantasy films. Frazer said that Godard \"wants to experiment with the technology, draw attention to it, test its boundaries, and see what happens when the image falls apart completely.\" Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote that \"rather than using 3-D as an effect to create a sensation of flight or to make a viewer feel like the target of propelled objects, Godard uses 3-D to emphasize the materiality, the physical properties, of", "technology featuring a 3D virtual representation of their real sound stage to allow the filmmakers to design a choreography with the actress to match the virtual world to the real one and vice versa, with visual feedback in real time. This was truly a teamwork effort of narrative visual effects to capture a complex vision in a simple cinematic way.\n“I wanted to take this technology at its maximum expression in terms of narrative to tell the story of ECHO, and the team at Stiller Studios accepted the challenge. The result is a whole short film shot entirely in just five", "a technique should be used.\nIn movies and other forms of \"3D\" entertainment, hyperstereo may be used to simulate the viewpoint of a giant, with eyes a hundred feet apart. The miniaturization would be just what the photographer (or designer in the case of drawings/computer generated images) had in mind. On the other hand, in the case of a massive ship flying through space the impression that it is a miniature model is probably not what the film makers intended!\nHyper stereo can also lead to cardboarding, an effect that creates stereos in which different objects seem well separated in depth, but", "enhance the 3D effects, and up to five images were layered together in a single shot. This made U2 3D the first 3D film to feature composite images with more than two layers, and the first to be edited specifically to prevent the viewer from experiencing motion sickness or eye strain. Software did not exist at the time to layer the 3D images, so new software had to be developed. Because the project was captured in high-definition video, each frame used nearly 20 megabytes of data on 3ality Digital's servers, and the entire film used almost a petabyte (10¹⁵", "is shown more than once to increase the rate and suppress flicker. The viewer wears shutter glasses with liquid crystal shutters that block or transmit light in sync with the projectors, so each eye sees only the images meant for it.\nSeveral of the early films that had been produced in digital 3D for release in conventional theaters were also presented in IMAX 3D, including Avatar, Gravity and The Amazing Spider-Man. The first full-color IMAX 3D film was the 1986 short documentary Transitions, produced for Expo 86 in Vancouver. HD Variations on IMAX included the 48 frames per second IMAX HD", "it as the first major \"exterior movie\" to be shot in 3D, as Avatar was mostly done in sound stages. At first Marshall was not much interested in 3D, but the director eventually considered it a film that could benefit from the format. \"You are on an adventure and with the 3D experience you are inside that adventure.\" While the original plan was to add 3D effects during post-production, the decision was made to shoot digitally with 3D cameras. Only one sequence was shot conventionally and needed a 3D conversion. The cameras were improved versions of the ones James Cameron", "screen.\nA significant aspect of the film is that it illustrates the use of the long shot to establish the setting of the film, followed by a medium shot, and then a close-up. As the camera is static for the entire film, the effect of these various \"shots\" is achieved by the movement of the subject alone. Nonetheless, it is these different types of shots are clearly illustrated here, and later film makers moved their cameras to achieve these shots. 3D version What most film histories leave out is that the Lumière Brothers were trying to achieve a 3D image", "darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive.\" Richard Corliss of Time who was very critical in 1997 remained in the same mood, \"I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water-logged.\" In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the \"careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments ... [but] in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels.\" Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking \"whether the film's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron's", "of situations. Monocular cues methods Monocular cues methods refer to using one or more images from one viewpoint (camera) to proceed to 3D construction. It makes use of 2D characteristics(e.g. Silhouettes, shading and texture) to measure 3D shape, and that's why it is also named Shape-From-X, where X can be silhouettes, shading, texture etc. 3D reconstruction through monocular cues is simple and quick, and only one appropriate digital image is needed thus only one camera is adequate. Technically, it avoids stereo correspondence, which is fairly complex.\nShape-from-shading Due to the analysis of the shade information in the image, by using Lambertian", "simulate depth by using 3-D glasses with red and blue lenses (anaglyph), polarized (linear and circular), and other techniques. 3-D glasses deliver the proper image to the proper eye and make the image appear to \"pop-out\" at the viewer and even follow the viewer when he/she moves so viewers relatively see the same image.\nThe earliest 3D movies were presented in the 1920s. There have been several prior \"waves\" of 3D movie distribution, most notably in the 1950s when they were promoted as a way to offer audiences something that they could not see at home on television. Still the process", "projected onto a flat cinema screen are coming to life in full three-dimensional glory. Through this way, the audience's fright factor is enhanced. Those who came to see a 3-D movie inside a theater were given the familiar disposable cardboard anaglyph 3D glasses to wear which will allow them to see the images come to life.\nIn April 1953, Warner Bros. presented the horror-thriller House of Wax, the first 3D feature with stereophonic sound. The film, which stars Vincent Price, tells a story of a disfigured sculptor who repopulates his destroyed wax museum by murdering people and using their wax-coated", "are sequences of the film that 3D is actually necessary to tell the dimensional story that is happening through visuals\". However, he noted that during visual effects reviews for the film it became apparent that these sequences were adversely affecting the story when viewed in 2D, which necessitated adjustments so the sequences would work in all formats. Over one hour of footage in the film was \"specially formatted\" for IMAX. Visual effects Visual effects for Doctor Strange were provided by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Method Studios, Framestore, Lola VFX, Luma Pictures, Rise FX, Crafty Apes, and SPOV, contributing to", "vision to fuse a series of slices of the 3D object into a single 3D image. A variety of swept-volume displays have been created.\nFor example, the 3D scene is computationally decomposed into a series of \"slices\", which can be rectangular, disc-shaped, or helically cross-sectioned, whereupon they are projected onto or from a display surface undergoing motion. The image on the 2D surface (created by projection onto the surface, LEDs embedded in the surface, or other techniques) changes as the surface moves or rotates. Due to the persistence of vision, humans perceive a continuous volume of light. The display", "3D pose estimation 3D pose estimation is the problem of determining the transformation of an object in a 2D image which gives the 3D object. One of the requirements of 3D pose estimation arises from the limitations of feature-based pose estimation. There exist environments where it is difficult to extract corners or edges from an image. To circumvent these issues, the object is dealt with as a whole in noted techniques through the use of free-form contours. From an uncalibrated 2D camera It is possible to estimate the 3D rotation and translation of a 3D object from", "is not used to exhibit 3D films in theaters; they are shown in either RealD 3D or IMAX 3D. 2D to 3D conversion In the case of 2D CGI animated films that were generated from 3D models, it is possible to return to the models to generate a 3D version.\nFor all other 2D films, different techniques must be employed. For example, for the 3D re-release of the 1993 film The Nightmare Before Christmas, Walt Disney Pictures scanned each original frame and manipulated them to produce left-eye and right-eye versions. Dozens of films have now been converted from 2D to 3D.", "is either monoscopic, with one image directed to both eyes, or stereoscopic, viewed as two distinct images directed individually to each eye for a 3D effect. Due to this projection and stitching, equirectangular video exhibits a lower quality in the middle of the image than at the top and bottom. Spherical videos are frequently in curvilinear perspective with a fisheye effect. The heavy barrel distortion often requires rectilinear correction before applications in detection, tracking or navigation.\nSpecialized omnidirectional cameras and rigs have been developed for the purpose of filming 360-degree video, including rigs such as GoPro's Omni and Odyssey (which consist", "Transformation is the general term for the four specific ways that manipulate the shape or position of a point, line or shape. Lighting In order to give the model a more realistic appearance, one or more light sources are usually established during transformation. However, this stage cannot be reached without first transforming the 3D scene into view space. In view space, the observer (camera) is typically placed at the origin. If using a right-handed coordinate system (which is considered standard), the observer looks in the direction of the negative z-axis with the y-axis pointing upwards and the x-axis pointing to", "manipulation of two-dimensional transformations, particularly for changing an object's translation, rotation, and scaling. The model was then incorporated into Maya for animation using scene geometry deformation. This would render \"multiple simultaneous projections and camera angles\" to a single frame. The nonlinear projections were also used to establish a \"cinematic mood\" for the setting. Software and algorithms The students at Seneca College used eight workstations with \"the latest 3D digital technology\". The Maya software by Alias (now part of Autodesk) was used for 3D modeling, rigging, lighting, rendering, and animation. The brushes smear, blur, and erase were used extensively to create", "these moments. We've had a very flat surface to try to get a reaction out of you. Now, we get to push out a bit and envelop the viewer, still maintaining the patterns that have worked and been successful, but also to raise it up a notch.\" Commenting on the change to filming in 3D, Bell stated it would not affect his performance or methods of acting, noting that it would be an \"interesting experience\". Mandylor called the 3D shoot \"more tedious and longer\". Flannery described the 3D aspect as being \"[not] shot in 3D so that you can,", "Dark and Warner Bros. House of Wax, the first 3D feature with stereophonic sound. For many years, most 3-D movies were shown in amusement parks and even \"4-D\" techniques have been used when certain effects such as spraying of water, movement of seats, and other effects are used to simulate actions seen on the screen. The first decline in the theatrical 3D craze started in August and September 1953.\nIn 2009, movie exhibitors became more interested in 3D film. The number of 3D screens in theaters is increasing. The RealD company expects 15,000 screens worldwide in 2010. The availability of 3D" ]

[ "When you wake up in the morning, you get something called sleep inertia. It's the groggyness you feel up to two hours (usually half an hour) after you have woken up. \n\nIt's a \"false\" kind of sleepy, which makes you want to stay in bed. This combined with how comfortable your warm, soft bed is, makes it so darn hard to get up. \n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nedit: a word.", "An object in motion tends to stay in motion, while an object at rest tends to stay at rest.", "Well, in one situation you're trying to fall asleep. In the other you're trying to wake up. And nobody wants to go to work or school.", "I know what you're talking about. Sleeping in on the weekends/days off never ever feels as good as clinging to an extra ten minutes of zzz's on a workday. The one time the universe really lets you enjoy this kind of sleeping in is inclement weather (snow days, rained out events). That beautiful moment when you wake up for 10-20 minutes to find you can unexpectedly crawl right back to bed.", "That's because of the obligation factor, the 'I have to' is the killer. Think about it, same time of the morning, same cozy bed, but if this time it's YOU who decides to go out for a walk that would not be a problem.", "Philosophically speaking: it's because your consciousness, from the day before, died, and a new you (that happens to have access to the other person's memories) has been reborn in the morning. You are fresh, new, and actually need to orient yourself in order to even remember the stressful burdens which plagued the last consciousness, weighing it down. The sudden urge to escape back into the mindless void, is only natural.", "When you dont move for a long time your muscles start to relax. Thats why in the morning every position feels comfortable and when you are trying to get to sleep you should focus on not moving for the same muscle relaxations." ]

[ "of growth hormones and enzymes necessary for brain and heart growth. Also, the physiology of co-sleeping babies is more stable, including more stable temperatures, more regular heart rhythms, and fewer long pauses in breathing than babies who sleep alone.\nBesides physical developmental advantages, co-sleeping may also promote long-term emotional health. In long-term follow-up studies of infants who slept with their parents and those who slept alone, the children who co-slept were happier, less anxious, had higher self-esteem, were less likely to be afraid of sleep, had fewer behavioral problems, tended to be more comfortable with intimacy, and were generally more independent", "quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time", "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", "the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after", "linked to decreased academic success because lack of sleep affects the memory ability needed in learning new material, studying for exams, and test taking skills. In fact, research on learning suggests that sleep is critical at almost all stages of memory formation, memory processing, and long-term memory retention, which are key aspects associated with academic success. Without proper sleep, an individual's brain becomes less effective at absorbing new information and the ability to retain recently learned information is impaired. Research has shown that individuals with excessive technology use in the bedroom have later bedtimes and tend to sleep later in", "hour naps two to three times a day, with the third nap dropped by about nine months. By one year of age, the amount of sleep that most infants get nightly approximates to that of adults. Good sleep conditions Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first", "sleep time of fourteen hours.\nThough sleep is a primarily biological process, it can be treated as a behavior. This means that it can be altered and managed through practice and can be learned by the child. Healthy sleep habits can be established during the first four months to lay a foundation for healthy sleep. These habits typically include sleeping in a crib (instead of a car seat, stroller, or swing), being put down to sleep drowsy but awake, and avoiding negative sleep associations, such as nursing to sleep or using a pacifier to fall asleep, which may be hard to", "Effects of sleep deprivation on college students Sleep Hygiene Inadequate sleep hygiene is one primary cause as to why college students experience sleep deprivation. Sleep hygiene is defined as habits or practices that allow for healthy amounts of sleep on a daily basis. Good sleep hygiene habits include keeping a consistent sleep schedule, having a quiet sleep environment, and avoiding consuming caffeine and alcohol before sleeping. Many students have inadequate sleep hygiene that leads to sleep deprivation. Technology The blue light that is emitted from the screens of phones, computers and other devices stops the production of melatonin, the hormone", "spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to", "will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better", "infants. \nLastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.", "improve the amount and quality of sleep which the child is getting. It is also important to have a good sleep hygiene, if a child has night terrors parents could try to change their sleep hygiene. Another option could be to adapt child's naps so that they are not too long or too short. Then, excessive stress or conflicts in a child's life could also have an impact on their sleep too, so to have some strategies to cope with stress combined with psychotherapy could decrease the frequency of the episodes. A polysomnography can be recommended if the child continues", "noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.\nThere is support", "of these children to crawl into their parent's bed in ages past infancy. Safety and health Health care professionals disagree about bed-sharing techniques, effectiveness and ethics. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly discourage bed-sharing because of the risk of suffocation or strangulation, but some pediatricians and breast-feeding advocates have opposed this position. Advantages One study reported mothers getting more sleep and breast-feeding by co-sleeping than other arrangements. Parents also experience less exhaustion with such ease in feeding and comforting their child by simply reaching over to the child. As a result, co-sleeping also", "Infant sleep training The development of sleep over the first year During the first year of life, infants spend most of their time in the sleeping state. Assessment of sleep during infancy presents an opportunity to study the impact of sleep on the maturation of the central nervous system (CNS), overall functioning, and future cognitive, psychomotor, and temperament development. Sleep is essential to human life and involves both physiologic and behavioral processes. Sleep is now understood as not simply a resting state, but a state that involves intense brain activity. The first year of life is a time of substantial", "during NREM sleep in adolescence. School schedules are often incompatible with a corresponding delay in sleep offset, leading to a less than optimal amount of sleep for the majority of adolescents. Hospital stay A study performed nationwide in the Netherlands found that general ward patients staying at the hospital experienced shorter total sleep (83 min. less), more night-time awakenings, and earlier awakenings compared to sleeping at home. Over 70% experienced being woken up by external causes, such as hospital staff (35.8%). Sleep disturbing factors included noise of other patients, medical devices, pain, and toilet visits. Sleep deprivation is even", "increases the responsiveness of parents to their child's needs.\nIt has been argued that co-sleeping evolved over five million years, that it alters the infant's sleep experience and the number of maternal inspections of the infant, and that it provides a beginning point for considering possibly unconventional ways of helping reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).\nStress hormones are lower in mothers and babies who co-sleep, specifically the balance of the stress hormone cortisol, the control of which is essential for a baby's healthy growth. In studies with animals, infants who stayed close to their mothers had higher levels", "the morning. The reliance on technology, specifically in the bedroom, which should be associated with sleep, created the difficulty with separating waking and sleeping activities. When measuring the amount of sleep during the week compared to the weekend, students with four or more technological devices in their bedroom had significantly less sleep compared to those with three or fewer devices. Since many students do not utilize sleep mode or do not disturb or silence their phones at night, each notification and alert from their phones disrupts their sleep in terms of sleep quality and duration of sleep. Caffeine A study", "the cortex via the hypothalamus. During NREM sleep this system is inhibited by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic area and parafacial zone, as well as other sleep-promoting neurons in distinct brain regions. Sleep function The need and function of sleep are among the least clearly understood areas in sleep research. When asked, after 50 years of research, what he knew about the reason people sleep, William C. Dement, founder of Stanford University's Sleep Research Center, answered, \"As far as I know, the only reason we need to sleep that is really, really solid is because we get sleepy.\" It", "compared with that which is exhibited in daily life, is open to debate. However, the comparative literature strongly suggests that shorter, polyphasically-placed sleep is the rule, rather than the exception, across the entire animal kingdom (Campbell and Tobler, 1984; Tobler, 1989). There is little reason to believe that the human sleep/wake system would evolve in a fundamentally different manner. That people often do not exhibit such sleep organization in daily life merely suggests that humans have the capacity (often with the aid of stimulants such as caffeine or increased physical activity) to overcome the propensity for sleep when it is", "while sleeping, he added.\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also", "providers.\nCollege students are at risk of engaging in poor sleep hygiene and also of being unaware of the resulting effects of sleep deprivation. Because of irregular weekly schedules and the campus environment, college students may be likely to have variable sleep-wake schedules across the week, take naps, drink caffeine or alcohol near bedtime, and sleep in disruptive sleeping environments. Because of this, researchers recommend sleep hygiene education on college campuses. Harvard University, for example, requires all incoming first-year undergraduates to take a short online course on the subject before the fall semester begins.\nSimilarly, shift workers have difficulty maintaining a", "as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in", "on infant sleep A number of factors have been shown to be associated with problems in sleep consolidation, including a child’s temperament, the degree to which s/he is breast-fed vs. bottle-fed, and his/her activities and sleepiness during the day. Moreover, co-sleeping, which is defined here as sharing a room or bed with parents or siblings in response to an awakening, can be detrimental to sleep consolidation. It is important to note that none of these factors have been directly shown to cause children’s sleep consolidation issues. \nIn terms of infant feeding, breastfeeding has been found to be associated with", "naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions", "and anxiety, which may make sleep more difficult and of inferior quality. This is the well-known first night effect. Complete adaptation to the sleep laboratory may take four days or longer, which is longer than the duration of most laboratory studies. Also, the content of dreams at the laboratory has been observed to be different from dreams at home. Similarly, the laboratory environment may alter the content of dreams recalled from spontaneous awakenings at the end of a night's sleep, as indicated by high frequency of laboratory references in morning spontaneous awakenings in REM and NREM dream reports).", "was even more pronounced on the second day of extended wakefulness. Duration The wake maintenance zone generally lasts 2 to 3 hours, during which one is less inclined to fall asleep. While potentially useful for completing urgent tasks, it may have a potentially unwanted side-effect of keeping one awake for several hours after the task has been completed. The hypervigilance and stimulation brought on by a second wind can cause fatigue, which, in the case of infants, can be literally painful. Thus, an infant may begin crying when sleep habits are disrupted.\n\nOne can avoid \"getting a second wind\" by practicing", "the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian", "inability to fall asleep and experience marked decrease in sleep efficiency. There may also be some changes in circadian rhythms. Studies are ongoing about what causes these changes and how they may be reduced to ensure comfortable sleep of old adults. Brain activity during sleep Understanding the activity of different parts of the brain during sleep can give a clue to the functions of sleep. It has been observed that mental activity is present during all stages of sleep, though from different regions in the brain. So, contrary to popular understanding, the brain never completely shuts down during sleep. Also,", "healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking" ]

[ "Passing around the data itself can get very expensive. It is fine when the data is small, like a single number or even a small string of text. When you get to large objects or data structures like arrays, it becomes prohibitvely expensive to just pass the data. Instead you pass around pointers to the data, so the data can just sit where it is, and whoever needs it can get to it via the pointer.\n\nFurthermore, pointers give you a layer of abstraction above the data. On this iteration through the loop, the pointer can point to data structure X. On the next iteration through the loop, maybe it points to data structure X-prime. This gives the programmer a general way to use different data objects without having to rewrite the code to copy them around all over the place.\n\nYou posted an example of an array data structure in Java below. That is actually a pointer to the array, under the covers. Languages like C and C++ make this pointer explicit, because they are intended for people who want to be a bit closer to the underlying hardware (for performance reasons, typically).", "As others have said, other languages use pointers behind the scenes. Java (for example) abstracts this away, which is more convenient and less prone to error. In fact, most languages hide these details.\n\nYour question is: why do some languages expose pointers directly instead of hiding them? The answer is that manually using pointers lets the programmer specify in much greater detail exactly what the computer is doing under the hood. In some cases, the programmer can write code that is faster than it would be if the computer were handling the details.\n\nGenerally, programmers use languages like C that expose pointers when they absolutely need the best performance and they're willing to spend a lot more time writing, testing, and debugging the code in order to attain that performance. For example, the performance-critical chunks of most operating systems are written in C or C++, as are the graphical engines of most 3D video games.\n\nAnother reason to use pointers is to interface with hardware at a very low and direct level. Some hardware devices are controlled by writing values to special places in memory. A language that seems to do this without pointers must really be using pointers behind the scenes. Again, abstracting this away is convenient and helps to avoid bugs, but there can be a performance cost. Also, *someone* has to actually write the pointer code to work with the hardware; if you have an uncommon, obscure, or very specific piece of hardware, there may not be a convenient pointer-free abstraction, and writing one may be more inconvenient than just writing it with pointers yourself." ]

[ "pointers are routinely used to represent conditions such as the end of a list of unknown length or the failure to perform some action; this use of null pointers can be compared to nullable types and to the Nothing value in an option type. Based pointer A based pointer is a pointer whose value is an offset from the value of another pointer. This can be used to store and load blocks of data, assigning the address of the beginning of the block to the base pointer. Multiple indirection In some languages, a pointer can reference another pointer, requiring multiple", "useful features of pointers without some of their pitfalls, also sometimes referred to as pointer hazards. In this context, pointers that directly address memory (as used in this article) are referred to as raw pointers, by contrast with smart pointers or other variants.\nOne major problem with pointers is that as long as they can be directly manipulated as a number, they can be made to point to unused addresses or to data which is being used for other purposes. Many languages, including most functional programming languages and recent imperative languages like Java, replace pointers with a more opaque type of", "Pointer analysis In computer science, pointer analysis, or points-to analysis, is a static code analysis technique that establishes which pointers, or heap references, can point to which variables, or storage locations. It is often a component of more complex analyses such as escape analysis. A closely related technique is shape analysis.\n(This is the most common colloquial use of the term. A secondary use has pointer analysis be the collective name for both points-to analysis, defined as above, and alias analysis. Points-to and alias analysis are closely related but not always equivalent problems.) Example For the following example program,", "to select a function to execute based on run-time values.\nFunction pointers are supported by third-generation programming languages (such as PL/I, COBOL, Fortran, dBASE dBL, and C) and object-oriented programming languages (such as C++ and D). Simple function pointers The simplest implementation of a function (or subroutine) pointer is as a variable containing the address of the function within executable memory. Older third-generation languages such as PL/I and COBOL, as well as more modern languages such as Pascal and C generally implement function pointers in this manner. Functors Functors, or function objects, are similar to function pointers, and can be used", "been entirely eliminated.\nHowever, in some commercial and open source Pascal (or derivatives) compiler implementations —like Free Pascal, Turbo Pascal or the Object Pascal in Embarcadero Delphi— a pointer is allowed to reference standard static or local variables and can be cast from one pointer type to another. Moreover, pointer arithmetic is unrestricted: adding or subtracting from a pointer moves it by that number of bytes in either direction, but using the Inc or Dec standard procedures with it moves the pointer by the size of the data type it is declared to point to. An untyped pointer is also provided", "a pointer, something which is not normally permitted. (Pointers cannot be read or written, only assigned .) Assigning a value to an integer variant of a pointer would allow examining or writing to any location in system memory:\n PP^.L := 0;\n PP := PP^.P; (*PP now points to address 0 *)\n K := PP^.L; (*K contains the value of word 0 *)\n Writeln('Word 0 of this machine contains ',K);\nThis construct may cause a program check or protection violation if address 0 is protected against reading on the machine the program is running upon or the", "approach works by having the compiler add code to automatically XOR-encode pointers before and after they are used. Because the attacker (theoretically) does not know what value will be used to encode/decode the pointer, he cannot predict what it will point to if he overwrites it with a new value. PointGuard was never released, but Microsoft implemented a similar approach beginning in Windows XP SP2 and Windows Server 2003 SP1. Rather than implement pointer protection as an automatic feature, Microsoft added an API routine that can be called at the discretion of the programmer. This allows", "field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as", "Pointer (computer programming) History Harold Lawson is credited with the invention, in 1964, of the pointer. In 2000, Lawson was presented the Computer Pioneer Award by the IEEE \"[f]or inventing the pointer variable and introducing this concept into PL/I, thus providing for the first time, the capability to flexibly treat linked lists in a general-purpose high level language\". His seminal paper on the concepts appeared in the June, 1967 issue of CACM entitled: PL/I List Processing. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word pointer first appeared in print as a stack pointer in a technical memorandum by the", "Bounded pointer In computer science, a bounded pointer is a pointer that is augmented with additional information that enable the storage bounds within which it may point to be deduced. This additional information sometimes takes the form of two pointers holding the upper and lower addresses of the storage occupied by the object to which the bounded pointer points.\nUse of bound information makes it possible for a compiler to generate code that performs bounds checking, i.e. that tests if a pointer's value lies within the bounds prior to dereferencing the pointer or modifying the value of the pointer. If the", "Function pointer A function pointer, also called a subroutine pointer or procedure pointer, is a pointer that points to a function. As opposed to referencing a data value, a function pointer points to executable code within memory. Dereferencing the function pointer yields the referenced function, which can be invoked and passed arguments just as in a normal function call. Such an invocation is also known as an \"indirect\" call, because the function is being invoked indirectly through a variable instead of directly through a fixed identifier or address.\nFunction pointers can be used to simplify code by providing a simple way", "used in some situations as a safer alternative to primitive C pointers. C++ also supports another form of reference, quite different from a pointer, called simply a reference or reference type.\nPointer arithmetic, that is, the ability to modify a pointer's target address with arithmetic operations (as well as magnitude comparisons), is restricted by the language standard to remain within the bounds of a single array object (or just after it), and will otherwise invoke undefined behavior. Adding or subtracting from a pointer moves it by a multiple of the size of its datatype. For example, adding 1 to a pointer", "is often amply compensated for by significantly reduced non-indexed table lookups. Method pointers C++ includes support for object-oriented programming, so classes can have methods (usually referred to as member functions). Non-static member functions (instance methods) have an implicit parameter (the this pointer) which is the pointer to the object it is operating on, so the type of the object must be included as part of the type of the function pointer. The method is then used on an object of that class by using one of the \"pointer-to-member\" operators: .* or ->* (for an object or a pointer to object,", "to recognize. Therefore, this approach is less useful for local pointers and it is more often used with pointers stored in long-living structs. In general though, setting pointers to NULL is good practice as it allows a programmer is NULL-check pointers prior to dereferencing, thus helping prevent crashes.\nRecalling the array example, one could also create a fixed-size array through dynamic allocation:\nint (*a)[100] = malloc(sizeof *a);\n...Which yields a pointer-to-array.\nAccessing the pointer-to-array can be done in two ways:\n(*a)[index];index[*a];\nIterating can also be done in two ways:\nfor (int i = 0; i < 100; i++)\n (*a)[i];for (int *i = a[0]; i", "a pointer, and can only change the object's content by calling some procedure that has the missing information.\nOpaque pointers are a way to hide the implementation details of an interface from ordinary clients, so that the implementation may be changed without the need to recompile the modules using it. This benefits the programmer as well since a simple interface can be created, and most details can be hidden in another file. This is important for providing binary code compatibility through different versions of a shared library, for example.\nThis technique is described in Design Patterns as the Bridge pattern. ", "of pointers in that language. In C++, a class can overload all of the pointer operations, so an iterator can be implemented that acts more or less like a pointer, complete with dereference, increment, and decrement. This has the advantage that C++ algorithms such as std::sort can immediately be applied to plain old memory buffers, and that there is no new syntax to learn. However, it requires an \"end\" iterator to test for equality, rather than allowing an iterator to know that it has reached the end. In C++ language, we say that an iterator models the iterator concept. Java", " // is not correctly aligned\"\nIn languages that allow pointer arithmetic, arithmetic on pointers takes into account the size of the type. For example, adding an integer number to a pointer produces another pointer that points to an address that is higher by that number times the size of the type. This allows us to easily compute the address of elements of an array of a given type, as was shown in the C arrays example above. When a pointer of one type", "or wild pointers. Smart pointers are opaque data structures that act like pointers but can only be accessed through particular methods.\nA handle is an abstract reference, and may be represented in various ways. A common example are file handles (the FILE data structure in the C standard I/O library), used to abstract file content. It usually represents both the file itself, as when requesting a lock on the file, and a specific position within the file's content, as when reading a file.\nIn distributed computing, the reference may contain more than an address or identifier; it may also include an embedded", "data structures, such as linked lists, pointers are used as references to explicitly tie one piece of the structure to another.\nPointers are used to pass parameters by reference. This is useful if the programmer wants a function's modifications to a parameter to be visible to the function's caller. This is also useful for returning multiple values from a function.\nPointers can also be used to allocate and deallocate dynamic variables and arrays in memory. Since a variable will often become redundant after it has served its purpose, it is a waste of memory to keep it, and therefore it is", "are not a \ndistinct data type (and so no 'pointer arithmetic' is possible). \nREAL, POINTER :: var\nThey are conceptually a descriptor listing the attributes of the objects \n(targets) that the pointer may point to, and the address, if any, of a target. \nThey have no associated storage until it is allocated or otherwise associated \n(by pointer assignment, see below): \nALLOCATE (var)\nand they are dereferenced automatically, so no special symbol required. In \nvar = var + 2.3\nthe value of the target of var is used and modified. Pointers cannot be \ntransferred via I/O. The statement\nWRITE *, var\nwrites the value of the", "it does have an indirection operator that covers the most common use of C pointers. Each pointer is bound to a single dynamic data item, and can only be moved by assignment:\ntype a = ^integer;\n \nvar b, c: a;\n \nnew(b);c := b;\nPointers in Pascal are type safe; i.e. a pointer to one data type can only be assigned to a pointer of the same data type. Also pointers can never be assigned to non-pointer variables. Pointer arithmetic (a common source of programming errors in C, especially when combined with endianness issues and platform-independent type sizes) is not permitted in Pascal.\nAll", "some internal or implicit use. For example, the call by reference calling convention can be implemented with either explicit or implicit use of references. Examples Pointers are the most primitive. Due to their intimate relationship with the underlying hardware, they are one of the most powerful and efficient types of references. However, also due to this relationship, pointers require a strong understanding by the programmer of the details of memory architecture. Because pointers store a memory location's address, instead of a value directly, inappropriate use of pointers can lead to undefined behavior in a program, particularly due to dangling pointers", "Pointer state In quantum Darwinism and similar theories, pointer states are quantum states, sometimes of a measuring apparatus, if present, that are less perturbed by decoherence than other states, and are the quantum equivalents of the classical states of the system after decoherence has occurred through interaction with the environment. 'Pointer' refers to the reading of a recording or measuring device, which in old analog versions would often have a gauge or pointer display.", "pointer format The limited pointer format uses a set number of pointers to track the processors that are caching the data. When a new processor caches a block, a free pointer is chosen from a pool to point to that processor. There are a few options for handling cases when the number of sharers exceeds the number of free pointers. One method is to invalidate one of the sharers, using its pointer for the new requestor, though this can be costly in cases where a block has a large number of readers, such as a lock. Another method is to", "Features In C++, a smart pointer is implemented as a template class that mimics, by means of operator overloading, the behaviors of a traditional (raw) pointer, (e.g. dereferencing, assignment) while providing additional memory management features.\nSmart pointers can facilitate intentional programming by expressing, in the type, how the memory of the referent of the pointer will be managed. For example, if a C++ function returns a pointer, there is no way to know whether the caller should delete the memory of the referent when the caller is finished with the information.\nSomeType* AmbiguousFunction(); // What should be done with the result?\nTraditionally,", "memory address (that is, which datum) is to be used in a calculation. Because indirection is a fundamental aspect of algorithms, pointers are often expressed as a fundamental data type in programming languages; in statically (or strongly) typed programming languages, the type of a pointer determines the type of the datum to which the pointer points. Use in data structures When setting up data structures like lists, queues and trees, it is necessary to have pointers to help manage how the structure is implemented and controlled. Typical examples of pointers are start pointers, end pointers, and stack pointers. These pointers", "typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although", "pointer whose value was never a valid memory address would cause a program to crash. To ameliorate this potential problem, pointers are considered a separate type to the type of data they point to, even if the underlying representation is the same. Utility types For convenience, high-level languages may supply ready-made \"real world\" data types, for instance times, dates and monetary values and memory, even where the language allows them to be built from primitive types. Type systems A type system associates types with computed values. By examining the flow of these values, a type system attempts to prove that", "Pointer (rod) A pointer or pointing stick is a solid rod used to point manually, in the form of a stick, but always finished off or artificially produced.\nThe typical pointer is simply a long, slender, often flexible stick made in a strong material, designed to indicate places on maps, words on blackboards etc.\nIn addition it may be used like any ordinary stick for other purposes, e.g. for punitive caning (compare rulering).\nSome are telescopic and can be carried in a pocket like a pen.", "The unresolved pointer contains an indication of the name of the segment to which the pointer refers and an offset within the segment; the handler for the trap maps the segment into the address space, puts the segment number into the pointer, changes the tag field in the pointer so that it no longer causes a trap, and returns to the code where the trap occurred, re-executing the instruction that caused the trap. This eliminates the need for a linker completely and works when different processes map the same file into different places in their private address spaces. Address space" ]

[ "When you stand, blood briefly pools in your lower extremities. Your body undergoes what is called vasoconstriction, to equalize the blood pressure pretty quickly, by squeezing blood back up into your body. However, you have a brief period of insufficient blood in your upper body, leaving you to feel faint. People occasionally *do* faint from this in fact, if the effect is severe enough. \n\nThis is called orthostatic hypotension." ]

[ "dizziness, weakness or fainting. Usually this failure of compensation is due to diseases or drugs that affect the sympathetic nervous system. A similar effect is observed following the experience of excessive gravitational forces (G-loading), such as routinely experienced by aerobatic or combat pilots 'pulling Gs' where the extreme hydrostatic pressures exceed the ability of the body's compensatory mechanisms. Fluctuating blood pressure Normal fluctuation in blood pressure is adaptive and necessary. Fluctuations in pressure that are significantly greater than the norm are associated with greater white matter hyperintensity, a finding consistent with reduced local cerebral blood flow and a heightened", "in any of the vestibular, visual, or proprioceptive systems. Abnormalities in balance function may indicate a wide range of pathologies from causes like inner ear disorders, low blood pressure, brain tumors, and brain injury including stroke.Presyncope\nPre-syncope is a feeling of lightheadedness or simply feeling faint. Syncope, by contrast, is actually fainting. A circulatory system deficiency, such as low blood pressure, can contribute to a feeling of dizziness when one suddenly stands up. Diagnosis The difficulty of making the right vestibular diagnosis is reflected in the fact that in some populations, more than one third of the patients with a", "vomiting, headaches, and low blood pressure and the latter can lead to fainting or dizziness, especially if the standing position is assumed quickly.\nIn severe heat stroke, they may be confused, hostile, or seemingly intoxicated behavior. Heart rate and respiration rate will increase (tachycardia and tachypnea) as blood pressure drops and the heart attempts to maintain adequate circulation. The decrease in blood pressure can then cause blood vessels to contract reflexively, resulting in a pale or bluish skin color in advanced cases. Young children, in particular, may have seizures. Eventually, organ failure, unconsciousness and death will result. Causes", "Dizziness Epidemiology About 20–30% of the population report to have experienced dizziness at some point in the previous year. Disequilibrium In medicine, disequilibrium refers to impaired equilibrioception that can be characterised as a sensation of impending fall or of the need to obtain external assistance for proper locomotion.It is sometimes described as a feeling of improper tilt of the floor, or as a sense of floating. This sensation can originate in the inner ear or other motion sensors, or in the central nervous system. Neurologic disorders tend to cause constant vertigo or disequilibrium and usually have other symptoms of neurologic", "blood flow to be taken away from the stomach, causing nausea.\nAnother possible cause of exercise induced nausea is overhydration. Drinking too much water before, during, or after extreme exercise (such as a marathon) can cause nausea, diarrhea, confusion, and muscle tremors. Excessive water consumption reduces or dilutes electrolyte levels in the body causing hyponatremia.", "dizziness In some cases, the results of vestibular tests are normal, yet the patient experiences vestibular symptoms, especially balance issues and dangerous falls. Some diagnoses that result in non-vestibular dizziness are concussions, Parkinson's disease, cerebellar ataxia, normal-pressure hydrocephalus, leukoaraiosis, progressive supranuclear palsy, and large-fiber peripheral neuropathy. There are also several disorders known as chronic situation-related dizziness disorders. For example, phobic postural vertigo (PPV) occurs when an individual with obsessive-compulsive characteristics experiences a sense of imbalance, despite the absence of balance issues. Chronic subjective dizziness (CSD) is a similar condition characterized by persistent vertigo, hypersensitivity to motion stimuli, and difficulty with", "vertigo including: lesions caused by infarctions or hemorrhage, tumors present in the cerebellopontine angle such as a vestibular schwannoma or cerebellar tumors, epilepsy, cervical spine disorders such as cervical spondylosis, degenerative ataxia disorders, migraine headaches, lateral medullary syndrome, Chiari malformation, multiple sclerosis, parkinsonism, as well as cerebral dysfunction. Central vertigo may not improve or may do so more slowly than vertigo caused by disturbance to peripheral structures. Signs and symptoms Vertigo is a sensation of spinning while stationary. It is commonly associated with nausea or vomiting, unsteadiness (postural instability), falls, changes to a person's thoughts, and difficulties in", "(dyspnea), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), causing compensatory metabolic acidosis activating chemosensing mechanisms which translate this pH shift into autonomic and respiratory responses. The person him/herself may overlook the hyperventilation, having become preoccupied with the associated somatic symptoms.\nMoreover, this hypocapnia and release of adrenaline during a panic attack cause vasoconstriction resulting in slightly less blood flow to the head which causes dizziness and lightheadedness. A panic attack can", "being a sudden reversible loss of consciousness due to decreased blood flow to the brain. Management Recommended acute treatment of vasovagal and orthostatic (hypotension) syncope involves returning blood to the brain by positioning the person on the ground, with legs slightly elevated or leaning forward and the head between the knees for at least 10–15 minutes, preferably in a cool and quiet place. For individuals who have problems with chronic fainting spells, therapy should focus on recognizing the triggers and learning techniques to keep from fainting. At the appearance of warning signs such as lightheadedness, nausea, or cold and clammy", "adolescence. Symptoms included extreme fatigue, nausea, a decline in physical activity ability and myalgia. Intracranial hypertension Individuals with elevated levels of cerebrospinal fluid can experience increased head pain, throbbing, pulsatile tinnitus, nausea and vomiting, faintness and weakness and even loss of consciousness after exercise or exertion.", "Migraine-associated vertigo Signs and symptoms Vertigo is a medically recognized term for the symptom of a vestibular system disturbance. It may include a feeling of rotation or illusory sensations of motion or both. The general term dizziness is used by nonmedical people for those symptoms but often refers to a feeling of light-headedness, giddiness, drowsiness, or faintness, all of which must be differentiated from true vertigo, since the latter symptoms might have other causes.\nMotion sickness occurs more frequently in migraine patients (30–50% more than in controls). Benign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood is an example of migraine-associated vertigo in", "walking. Recurrent episodes in those with vertigo are common and frequently impair the quality of life. Blurred vision, difficulty in speaking, a lowered level of consciousness, and hearing loss may also occur. The signs and symptoms of vertigo can present as a persistent (insidious) onset or an episodic (sudden) onset.\nPersistent onset vertigo is characterized by symptoms lasting for longer than one day and is caused by degenerative changes that affect balance as people age. Naturally, the nerve conduction slows with aging and a decreased vibratory sensation is common.\nAdditionally, there is a degeneration of the ampulla and otolith organs with", "(e.g., aminoglycosides) or physical trauma (e.g., skull fractures). Motion sickness is sometimes classified as a cause of peripheral vertigo.\nPeople with peripheral vertigo typically present with mild to moderate imbalance, nausea, vomiting, hearing loss, tinnitus, fullness, and pain in the ear. In addition, lesions of the internal auditory canal may be associated with facial weakness on the same side. Due to a rapid compensation process, acute vertigo as a result of a peripheral lesion tends to improve in a short period of time (days to weeks). Central Vertigo that arises from injury to the balance centers of the central nervous", "including gravity. There are two sections in the labyrinth that are helpful for accomplishing those tasks: the semicircular canals and the otolithic organs. Balance disorder A balance disorder is a condition that makes a person feel nausea, disorientation or dizziness, as if moving, spinning or falling even though steady. Balance disorder can be caused by medication, problems of inner ear or the brain. Hypnic jerk Hypnic jerk, also called hypnagogic jerk, is a normal reaction that can be caused by anxiety, caffeine, a dream, or discomfort of sleeping. A hypnic jerk is the feeling triggered by a sudden muscle twitch,", "turbinoplasty, etc.\nMany people with panic disorder or agoraphobia will experience HVS. However, most people with HVS do not have these disorders. Diagnosis Hyperventilation syndrome is a remarkably common cause of dizziness complaints. About 25% of patients who complain about dizziness are diagnosed with HVS.\nA diagnostic Nijmegen Questionnaire provides an accurate diagnosis of Hyperventilation. Treatment There is insufficient evidence for or against breathing exercises.\nWhile traditional intervention for an acute episode has been to have the patient breathe into a paper bag, causing rebreathing and restoration of CO₂ levels, this is not advised. The same benefits can be obtained more safely from", "hyperactivity (high pulse, blood pressure, and rate of breathing), and 35-60% of patients have a fever. Some patients experience seizures. Causes Delirium tremens is mainly caused by a long period of drinking being stopped abruptly. Withdrawal leads to a biochemical regulation cascade. It may also be triggered by head injury, infection, or illness in people with a history of heavy use of alcohol.\nAnother cause of delirium tremens is abrupt stopping of tranquilizer drugs of the barbiturate or benzodiazepine classes in a person with a relatively strong addiction to them. Because these tranquilizers' primary pharmacological and physiological effects stem from their", "deficiency is orthostatic hypotension. The symptoms associated with orthostatic hypotension are dizziness, blurred vision, or fainting upon standing. Therefore, DβH deficiency patients may have an inability to stand for a prolonged period of time. This phenomenon is especially pronounced when going from supine to upright positions, such as getting out of bed in the morning. It is also worsened by extreme climates due to loss of fluid through excessive sweating. The inability to maintain normal blood pressure makes it difficult for people with DβH deficiency to exercise (exercise intolerance). Males with DβH deficiency may experience retrograde ejaculation, a discharge of", "as epilepsy. This lead to speculation of involvement of more subtle shifts in neural circuitry and inhibitory neuro-chemical pathways.\nDerealization can possibly manifest as an indirect result of certain vestibular disorders such as labyrinthitis. This is thought to result from anxiety stemming from being dizzy.\nAn alternative explanation holds that a possible effect of vestibular dysfunction includes responses in the form of the modulation of noradrenergic and serotonergic activity due to a misattribution of vestibular symptoms to the presence of imminent physical danger resulting in the experience of anxiety or panic, which subsequently generate feelings of derealization. Likewise, derealization is a common", "makes it difficult for riders to catch their breath. Both of these issues can trigger claustrophobic responses in riders. Vertigo Vertigo is a type of dizziness where a person feels as if they or the objects around them are moving when they are not. Common causes of vertigo include looking down from a great height and persistent movement, hence it contributing to a phobia of riding rollercoasters. Emetophobia Emetophobia is the fear of vomiting. Individuals who suffer from any degree of motion sickness are more likely to become nauseous and vomit during or after riding a rollercoaster. If they also", "fainting. This breath-holding behavior usually stops by age 6. Developmental milestones, such as walking and speech, are usually delayed, although some affected individuals show no signs of developmental delay.\nAdditional signs and symptoms in school-age children include bed wetting, episodes of vomiting, reduced sensitivity to temperature changes and pain, poor balance, abnormal curvature of the spine (scoliosis), poor bone quality and increased risk of bone fractures, and kidney and heart problems. Affected individuals also have poor regulation of blood pressure. They may experience a sharp drop in blood pressure upon standing (orthostatic hypotension), which can cause dizziness, blurred vision, or fainting.", "or unusually fast breathing; fast or irregular heartbeat or pulse; fever (high); high or low blood pressure; loss of bladder control; muscle stiffness (severe); unusual increase in sweating; unusually pale skin; and unusual tiredness or weakness.\nDrowsiness is a usual side effect.", "Hypertension Signs and symptoms Hypertension is rarely accompanied by symptoms, and its identification is usually through screening, or when seeking healthcare for an unrelated problem. Some people with high blood pressure report headaches (particularly at the back of the head and in the morning), as well as lightheadedness, vertigo, tinnitus (buzzing or hissing in the ears), altered vision or fainting episodes. These symptoms, however, might be related to associated anxiety rather than the high blood pressure itself.\nOn physical examination, hypertension may be associated with the presence of changes in the optic fundus seen by ophthalmoscopy. The severity of the", "Exercise-induced nausea Exercise-induced nausea is a feeling of sickness or vomiting which can occur shortly after exercise has stopped as well as during exercise itself. It may be a symptom of either over-exertion during exercise, or from too abruptly ending an exercise session. People engaged in high-intensity exercise such as aerobics and bicycling have reported experiencing exercise-induced nausea. Cause A study of 20 volunteers conducted at Nagoya University in Japan associated a higher degree of exercise-induced nausea after eating.\nLack of hydration during exercise is a well known cause of headache and nausea. Exercising at a heavy rate causes", "65.8% and extreme vertigo by 89.8%. \nIt acts by interfering with the signal transmission between vestibular apparatus of the inner ear and the vomiting centre of the hypothalamus by limiting the activity of the vestibular hair cells which send signals about movement. The disparity of signal processing between inner ear motion receptors and the visual senses is abolished, so that the confusion of brain whether the individual is moving or standing is reduced. Vomiting in motion sickness could be a physiological compensatory mechanism of the brain to keep the individual from moving so that it can adjust to the signal", "Adrenergic storm Symptoms The behavioral symptoms are similar to those of an amphetamine, cocaine or caffeine overdose. Overstimulation of the central nervous system results in a state of hyperkinetic movement and unpredictable mental status including mania, rage and suicidal behavior.\nPhysical symptoms are more serious and include heart arrhythmias as well as outright heart attack or stroke in people who are at risk of coronary disease. Breathing is rapid and shallow while both pulse and blood pressure are dangerously elevated. Causes There are several known causes of adrenergic storms; in the United States, cocaine overdose is the leading cause. Any stimulant", "dizziness and rash. To judge from the drug's mechanism of action and from experiences with related drugs, hypertension (high blood pressure), tachycardia (fast heartbeat), hypokalemia (low blood levels of potassium), shaking, etc., might occur in some patients, but these effects have rarely, if at all, been observed in studies. Interactions Based on theoretical considerations, co-application of other beta-adrenoceptor agonists, potassium lowering drugs (e.g. corticosteroids, many diuretics, and theophylline), tricyclic antidepressants, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors could increase the likelihood of adverse effects to occur. Beta blockers, a group of drugs for the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) and various conditions", "that triggered the unconsciousness.\nUnconsciousness due to hypoglycemia is treated by raising the blood glucose with intravenous glucose or injected glucagon. Advanced diabetic ketoacidosis Diabetic ketoacidosis, if it progresses and worsens without treatment, can eventually cause unconsciousness, from a combination of a very high blood sugar level, dehydration and shock, and exhaustion. Coma only occurs at an advanced stage, usually after 36 hours or more of worsening vomiting and hyperventilation.\nIn the early to middle stages of ketoacidosis, patients are typically flushed and breathing rapidly and deeply, but visible dehydration, pale appearance from diminished perfusion, shallower breathing, and a fast heart rate", "hyperosmolar coma Nonketotic hyperosmolar coma usually develops more insidiously than diabetic ketoacidosis because the principal symptom is lethargy progressing to obtundation, rather than vomiting and an obvious illness. Extremely high blood sugar levels are accompanied by dehydration due to inadequate fluid intake. Coma occurs most often in patients who have type 2 or steroid diabetes and have an impaired ability to recognize thirst and drink. It is classically a nursing home condition but can occur in all ages.\nThe diagnosis is usually discovered when a chemistry screen performed because of obtundation reveals an extremely high blood sugar level (often above 1800 mg/dl", "enters the system, the hair cells can move more easily within the ear, which sends the signal to the brain and results in exaggerated and overcompensated movements of body. This can also result in vertigo, or \"the spins.\" Alcohol and postprandial triglycerides Alcohol taken with a meal increases and prolongs postprandial triglyceridemia. This is true despite the observation that the relationship between alcohol consumption and triglyceridemia is \"J-shaped,\" meaning that fasting triglycerides concentration is lower in people who drink 10–20 g/alcohol a day compared to people who either abstain from alcohol or who drink more per day. Alcohol and", "pressure. Signs and symptoms in sports Generally, symptoms for hematomas are confused speech, difficulty with balance or walking, headaches, lethargy or confusion, nausea or vomiting, numbness, seizures, slurred speech, visual disturbances, and weakness. For example, an athlete who experiences a subdural hematoma will experience loss of consciousness with little or no lucidity. Pupils are often dilated or unequal. Additionally, hemiparesis, seizure activity, and vomiting, may be apparent. An epidural hematoma typically results in serve a headache which is followed by a brief loss of consciousness and variable levels of lucidness. This may last for several hours while the" ]

[ "The asteroid that may have been responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs had a diameter of about ~~170~~ 10-15 km. The moon has a diameter of about 3,500 kilometers.\n\nI'm not a scientist so I won't pretend to tell you exactly what will happen, but I think that it goes without saying this would be a catastrophe unlike anything seen before.", "Nah, as long as you hid inside a fridge you'd probably be fine.", "Despite what some people think, the earth would not \"explode\". The crust of out plant is astonishingly thin, covering a fluid like mantle and outer core. \n\nA big asteroid hitting the earth would be like dropping a bowling ball into a small pool. The surface would splatter off at the point of impact, and massive fluid like shockwaves would reverberate all around the globe. This is of course, in tandem with the planet engulfing firestorm that would scorch the earths surface clean from the point of impact. A MOON sized object hitting the earth would be like dropping a bowling ball into a barrel of water. Gargantuan amounts of planetary material would be ejected out into space (possibly coelescing into another moon, in time) The earth would literally melt into a somewhat less circular shape as it absorbed most of the intruder into itself over thousands of years. Eventually, the crust would resolidify, although the chances of life reforming in any significant quantity before our sun goes dark is pretty low. \n\nWhat you would need to worry about, is the chances that such an impact could knock the earth out of it's current orbital path. We wouldn't go flying off outside the solar system or anything, but there's a good chance our orbiat could become drastically more elliptical, such that during half the year (however long or short that may be now), our planet would burn like the surface of mercury blasting off whatever remained of our atmoshpere, and the other half of the year we'd freeze.", "Not if you have an ocarina...and know a few giants.", "there'd be nothing left, ace. It'd most likely destroy the earth completely.", "If something the size of the moon hit the Earth everything would be very very bad. Thankfully no one would be sad because they would all go away.\n\nRemember the dinosaurs? The asteroid that scientists have figured out was probably what made them go extinct was about 6 miles across (IIRC). It made a crater we now call the Gulf of Mexico. The Moon is over 1000 miles across, which is a lot lot bigger. If something this size hit the Earth everything will turn into lava for awhile. In fact scientists are pretty sure that this has happened before and that this is why we have a Moon!\n\n/ELI5\n\nJust for reference if you go about 6 miles up you are above 95% of the atmosphere. The Earth's crust under the ocean is about 6 miles thick, and the continental crust is about 20 to 30 miles thick. Irregardless of speed, something 1000+ miles across hitting the planet = complete annihilation to the point where there would be no record of our existence other than the Voyagers and their like. Stuff on the moon/in orbit may/may not survive.", "[Details](_URL_0_)\n\nWith help from Wolfram Alpha for velocity and density of the moon. Location of observer is 16000 km away, approximately the distance from New York to Sydney.\n\nBasically the 2000 mph winds would kill everything on the surface. If the asteroid were going any faster than the moon's current orbital velocity, it would cause a lot more damage.\n\nEDIT: Looking again, I'm not sure their Earth density is accurate. They say 2500kg/m^3, but Wolfram-Alpha gives me 5500kg/m^3, which is more in line with my Google-fu. Maybe it refers to the density of sedimentary rock (the target type I chose).\n\nEDIT 2: Also I didn't have the diameter for the moon correct. I fixed the information and added a new link. Numbers are about the same though.", "Like you're 5 huh.....[BOOM](_URL_2_)\n\nOr if a hamster the size of the moon hit the earth....[also BOOM](_URL_2_)\n\nFIXED: Better link. Thanks CaptTard", "Not quite the size of the moon, but an illustrative simulation accompanied by music: _URL_3_", "bad things man, bad things. \n\nfirst, loud boom, everything dead from pressure wave. Then big fire, everything dead now get burnt da fuck up. Then big tsunami and earthquake, everything that got dead and burnt now get all jumbled up and mixed up in the dirt and buried. But bacteria in bottom of ocean maybe still live. Maybe in a few billion years intelligent life look at our fossils, which are mostly just a dark greasy layer in the dirt.", "It would be like if a full grown elephant fell out of an airplane and landed on your house.", "[Here's](_URL_4_) a pretty awesome and terrifying video illustrating a massive asteroid impacting earth." ]

[ "from Earth's surface.\nThe nominal orbit shows that 2014 LY₂₁ passed 0.001 AU (150,000 km; 93,000 mi) from the Moon on 4 June 2014. But the uncertainty region shows that the asteroid could have impacted the Moon or passed as far as 0.0044 AU (660,000 km; 410,000 mi). But it is very unlikely that the asteroid impacted the Moon.", "Ryugu.\nThe carbonaceous boulder that would have been captured by the mission (maximum 6 meter diameter, 20 tons) is too small to harm the Earth because it would burn up in the atmosphere. Redirecting the asteroid mass to a distant retrograde orbit around the Moon would ensure it could not hit Earth and also leave it in a stable orbit for future studies. History NASA Administrator Robert Frosch testified to Congress on \"asteroid retrieval to Earth\" in July 1980. However, he stated that it was infeasible at the time.\nThe ARU mission, excluding any human missions to an asteroid which it", "2004 FH Orbit and classification 2004 FH is an Aten asteroid. It passed 43,000 km from the Earth on 18 March 2004. For comparison, geostationary satellites orbit Earth at 35,790 kilometers. Despite its small size, it is still the fourth largest asteroid detected coming closer to the Earth than the Moon. \nHad this object hit Earth, it would probably have detonated high in the atmosphere. It might have produced a blast measured in hundreds of kilotons of TNT, but may not have produced any effect on the ground. It could also have been an Earth-grazing fireball if it had been", "However, the asteroid was denser than expected by scientists, and immediately after impact, it becomes apparent that something is very wrong. The moon has been pushed closer to the Earth by the impact.\nMiranda's life is shattered, as is the whole of society on Earth. Tsunamis and earthquakes ravage the coasts of many countries, causing millions of deaths. Chaos erupts and Miranda and her family are forced to go on a shopping spree before all the food runs out. Miranda's older brother Matt comes home from college to be with his family. Living inland, they are safe from tsunamis, but as", "attention because it was discovered only after the closest approach.\nIn March 1998, early orbit calculations for recently discovered asteroid (35396) 1997 XF11 showed a potential 2028 close approach 0.00031 AU (46,000 km) from the Earth, well within the orbit of the Moon, but with a large error margin allowing for a direct hit. Further data allowed a revision of the 2028 approach distance to 0.0064 AU (960,000 km), with no chance of collision. By that time, inaccurate reports of a potential impact had caused a media storm. Risk From the late 1990s, a typical frame of reference in searches for NEOs has been the", "2009 RR Description With an observation arc of only 4 days, the asteroid has a poorly determined orbit. It is already known that there is no risk of an Earth impact before 2098. The power of such an air burst would be somewhere between the Chelyabinsk meteor and the Tunguska event depending on the actual size of the asteroid.\nThe nominal orbit shows that on 16 September 2014 the asteroid could have passed just inside one lunar distance from Earth, but the orbital uncertainties show that it could have passed as much as 0.1 AU (15,000,000 km; 9,300,000 mi) from Earth. On 9 September", "Impact (miniseries) Plot During a meteor shower said to be the most spectacular in 10,000 years, an asteroid hidden by the meteor field strikes the Moon. Fragments of the asteroid and of the Moon itself penetrate Earth's atmosphere and make impact. The initial damage is minimal, though significant physical damage to the lunar surface can be seen from Earth. Experts believe that the Moon has stabilized into a slightly closer orbit. Then strange anomalies begin to manifest themselves on Earth, including cell phone disruptions, unusual static discharges and odd tidal behavior. The world's leading scientists, including Alex Kittner,", "2014 SC324 Description The preliminary orbit with a short observation arc of 2 days showed that the asteroid had a very small chance of passing 0.000125 AU (18,700 km; 11,600 mi) from the Moon or 0.0012 AU (180,000 km; 110,000 mi) from Earth on about 23 October 2014. But with an observation arc of 10 days, the nominal (best fit) orbit showed that on 24 October 2014 the asteroid would pass 0.0038 AU (570,000 km; 350,000 mi) (1.5 LD) from Earth and even further from the Moon. The asteroid peaked at apparent magnitude 13.5, placing it in the range of amateurs with roughly 0.25-meter (10 in) telescopes.\nIt was removed from", "collision course with Earth. DART will be the first spacecraft to intentionally target an asteroid known to have a minor-planet moon (243 Ida was visited by the Galileo spacecraft but its moon was a surprise). Didymos is the most easily reachable asteroid of its size from Earth, requiring a delta-v of only 5.1 km/s for a spacecraft to rendezvous, compared to 6.0 km/s to reach the Moon. DART will be launched in July 2021 for an impact in October 2022. ESA's Hera, if funded, would launch in October 2023 to survey the dynamic effects of the impact.", "2014 the full moon may have only be 15 degrees from the 20th magnitude asteroid, making it difficult to detect the asteroid. The asteroid was estimated to be brighter than magnitude 20 from 10 September until 16 September 2014. 2009 RR was not recovered during the 2014 approach and thus probably passed more than one lunar distance from Earth.", "web by the Minor Planet Center (MPC) suggesting an imminent collision with Earth on or about January 15 with a likelihood of 1:4. These projections came from very early observations, and turned out to be inaccurate (which is an ordinary occurrence in astronomy, as new observations refine the projected path of an object). In fact, the poster at the MPC had not realised that the data he had posted was essentially an impact prediction.\nThe asteroid passed Earth on 16 February 2004 at a distance of 0.08539 AU (12,774,000 km; 7,937,000 mi)(or 33 times the distance from Earth to the Moon), posing no threat.", "size, and impact velocity. In order to produce an impact crater with the dimensions of Umm al Binni lake, a Ni-Fe asteroid (density = 7860 kg/m^3, v = 15 km/s) would have been around 100 m in diameter while a comet (density = 500 kg/m^3, v = 25 km/s) would have been between 200 and 300 m in diameter. The resulting impact effects would have caused massive devastation to an area thousands of square kilometres in size, but would not have been sufficient on its own to have caused the wide-scale damage seen at distances exceeding ~100 kilometers from the impact and thus could", "same effect also prevents the asteroid from approaching much closer than about 38 times the distance of the moon. In effect, this small asteroid is caught in a little dance with Earth.\"As of now, it has by far the most stable quasi-satellite of Earth discovered, in terms of orbit. Physical characteristics The size of Kamoʻoalewa has not yet been firmly established, but it is likely about 40–100 m (130–330 ft). Based on an assumed standard albedo for stony S-type asteroids of 0.20 and an absolute magnitude of 24.3, it measures 41 meters (135 ft) in diameter.\nPhotometric observations in April 2017 revealed that Kamo‘oalewa", "of TNT and create a 2.1 kilometers (1.3 mi) impact crater. Asteroids of approximately 130 meters in diameter are expected to impact Earth once every 11000 years or so.\nOn 26–27 March 2014, additional observations were made which ruled out the chance of an impact in 2048.", "to impact the small asteroid's moon at its center. It is estimated that the impact of the 500 kg (1,100 lb) DART at 6 km/s (3.7 mi/s) will produce a velocity change on the order of 0.4 mm/s, which leads to a small change in trajectory of the asteroid system, but over time, it leads to a large shift of path. Overall, DART is expected to alter the speed of Didymos's orbit by about half a millimeter per second, resulting in an orbital period change of perhaps 10 minutes. Over a span of millions of kilometers, the cumulative trajectory change would turn a collision", "(88710) 2001 SL9 Near-Earth asteroid Although 2001 SL₉ is classified as a near-Earth object, it does not pose any threats. It has never, nor will it ever in the next century, come closer than 15,000,000 km (0.1 AU) from Earth or Venus. However, the asteroid would make a good target for a spacecraft flyby, as a flyby to 2001 SL₉ would only require a delta-v of 5.4 km/s. Moon 2001 SL₉ has one minor-planet moon, S/2001 (88710) 1. It was discovered from lightcurve observations made by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec and collaborators. This moon is approximately 200 m (660 ft) in diameter. Its semi-major axis", "distance from Earth twice in a row. At the time of recovery the asteroid was about 100 million times fainter than what can be seen with the naked eye and 500 times fainter than when it was discovered in 2012. As a result of the 2017 recovery observations, it was known that on 12 October 2017 at 5:42 UT, the asteroid would pass 0.0003352 AU (50,150 km; 31,160 mi) from Earth. Then at 19:19 UT, the asteroid would pass 0.001856 AU (277,700 km; 172,500 mi) from the Moon. 2012 TC₄ peaked at about apparent magnitude 12.9, and was too faint to be seen without a telescope.", "there were serious concerns the 325 metres (1,066 ft) wide asteroid 99942 Apophis posed a risk of impacting Earth in 2036. Preliminary, incomplete data by astronomers using ground-based sky surveys resulted in the calculation of a Level 4 risk on the Torino Scale impact hazard chart. In July 2005, B612 formally asked NASA to investigate the possibility that the asteroid's post-2029 orbit could be in orbital resonance with Earth, which would increase the likelihood of a future impact. The Foundation also asked NASA to investigate whether a transponder should be placed on the asteroid to enable more accurate tracking of how", "on 12 October 2017. Astronomers were certain that it would not pass closer than 6,800 km from the surface of Earth, ruling out any possibility that it could hit the Earth in 2017. 2017 Earth encounter On 12 October 2017 at 5:42 UT, the asteroid passed 0.00033524 AU (50,151 km; 31,163 mi) from Earth. Observations between July and October reduced the uncertainty region from several hundred thousand kilometers to about ±140 meters. The asteroid was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on 16 October 2017 using JPL solution #56. Prior to the encounter, it was rated −4.11 on the Palermo scale, with a 1", "crater-forming impact that could even cause extinction of humans and other life on Earth.\nThe potential of catastrophic impacts by near-Earth comets was recognised as soon as the first orbit calculations provided an understanding of their orbits: in 1694, Edmond Halley presented a theory that Noah's flood in the Bible was caused by a comet impact. Human perception of near-Earth asteroids as benign objects of fascination or killer objects with high risk to human society has ebbed and flowed during the short time that NEAs have been scientifically observed. Scientists have recognised the threat of impacts that create craters much bigger", "a 1 in 310,000 chance that the asteroid will impact Earth on 2023 January 18. It is estimated that an impact would produce an upper atmosphere air burst equivalent to 16 kt TNT, roughly equal to Nagasaki's Fat Man. The asteroid would appear as a bright fireball and fragment in the air burst into smaller pieces that would hit the ground at terminal velocity producing a meteorite strewn field. Impacts of objects this size are estimated to occur approximately once a year. Asteroid 2008 TC3 was an object of similar size that was discovered less than a day before its", "more balls of debris, the moonlets could merge over time into one large moon.\nIn 2018 researchers at Harvard and the UC Davis developed computer models demonstrating that one possible outcome of a planetary collision is that it creates a synestia, a mass of vaporized rock and metal which forms a biconcave disc extending beyond the lunar orbit. The synestia will eventually shrink and cool to accrete the satellite and reform the impacted planet.\nAnother possibility is that before the giant impact, Earth had one or more normal satellites that shared its composition. Following the impact, the Moon formed closer to Earth", "might have. So far, every asteroid with moons has turned out to be a rubble pile, a loose conglomeration of rock and metal that may be half empty space by volume. The investigated asteroids are as large as 280 km in diameter, and include 121 Hermione (268×186×183 km), and 87 Sylvia (384×262×232 km). Only half a dozen asteroids are larger than 87 Sylvia, though none of them have moons; however, some smaller asteroids are thought to be more massive, suggesting they may not have been disrupted, and indeed 511 Davida, the same size as Sylvia to within measurement error, is estimated to be", "a 1-day observation arc, 2010 GA₆ had a 1 in 6 million chance of impacting Earth in 2074. It was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on 8 April 2010. The asteroid has now a minimum orbital intersection distance with Earth of 599,000 km; 372,000 mi (0.004005 AU), which corresponds to 1.6 lunar distances, and is notably larger than the nominal distance of its 2010-flyby. 2010 flyby On 9 April 2010, 02:07 UT, the asteroid passed Earth at a nominal distance of 434,000 km; 270,000 mi (0.0029 AU) or 1.1 lunar distances. A stony asteroid 22 meters in diameter can be expected to create an air", "respectively.\nThis asteroid is about three to six times the diameter of the meteor that exploded in the skies above Chelyabinsk, Russia in February 2013, which damaged over 7,200 buildings and injured 1,500 people, mostly from flying glass. If an asteroid of this size were to enter Earth's atmosphere, a good portion of it would likely disintegrate due to friction with the air. The remnants could survive entry however and impact the surface, thus causing regional damage dependent on various factors such as composition, speed, entry angle, and location of impact. Rotation period As of 2018, no rotational lightcurve of 2018", "around the globe.\nThey concluded that the asteroid was about 9.97 kilometers in diameter which would cause an impact with about the same energy as 100 trillion tons of TNT. An impact of that magnitude would then create a large dust cloud that would block sunlight and inhibit photosynthesis for many years. The dust particles in the vapor-rich impact plume ejected from the crater and rose above the Earth's atmosphere, enveloped the Earth, and then descended through the atmosphere around the planet which blocked sunlight from reaching Earth's surface. Dust occluded sunlight for up to six months, halting or severely impairing", "48.5 by 43.5 meters. It is estimated to be caused by an impactor 3 to 5 meters long.\nOn March 19, 2013, an impact occurred on the Moon that was visible from Earth, when a boulder-sized 30 cm meteoroid slammed into the lunar surface at 90,000 km/h (56,000 mph) creating a 20-meter crater. NASA has actively monitored lunar impacts since 2005, tracking hundreds of candidate events. Extrasolar impacts Collisions between galaxies, or galaxy mergers, have been observed directly by space telescopes such as Hubble and Spitzer. However, collisions in planetary systems including stellar collisions, while long speculated, have only recently begun to be observed", "becomes larger. By recovering the asteroid well before closest approach you can avoid searching a larger region of the sky. Most asteroids rated 1 on the Torino Scale are later downgraded to 0 after more observations come in.\nRisk assessments were calculated based on a diameter of 130 meters. It was estimated that, if it were ever to impact Earth, it would enter the atmosphere at a speed of 19.2 km/s and would have a kinetic energy equivalent to 150 megatons of TNT. Assuming the target surface is sedimentary rock, the asteroid would impact the ground with the equivalent of 40 megatons", "at least the size of Earth's moon, was destroyed, and the larger, which was at least the size of Mercury, was severely damaged. Evidence of the collision was detected by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. In the south of the constellation, Epsilon Pavonis is a 3.95-magnitude white main sequence star of spectral type A0Va located around 105 light years distant from Earth. It appears to be surrounded by a narrow ring of dust at a distance of 107 AU. Deep-sky objects The deep-sky objects in Pavo include NGC 6752, the third-brightest globular cluster in the sky, after 47 Tucanae and Omega", "the same was suggested by Dutch paleontologist Jan Smit.\nIn March 2010, an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis, specifically the Chicxulub impact, as being the cause of the extinction. A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism. They had determined that a 10–15 km (6–9 mi) space rock hurtled into earth at Chicxulub. For comparison, the Martian moon Phobos is 11 km (7 mi) and Mount Everest is just under 9 km (5.6 mi). The collision would have released the same energy as 100,000,000 megatonnes of TNT (4.2×10²³ J)," ]

[ "Jesus christ, are you trying to make us feel old, OP? That's how ALL land line phone numbers used to work. If there was less than 10000 lines, they all belonged to the same exchange. You'd get 555-0000, next person got 555-0001, next person got 555-0002.\n\nYou kids and your cell phones and skype and hoola hoops and pacman video games and Zima...", "It's likely that when it was set up, the phone company had an exchange (central office, to use the American term) dedicated to that small area.\n\nIn order to get calls routed correctly to that, they'd configure it so that the exchange for that town had certain sets of numbers allocated to it - the number would be something like:\n\n1(aaa)bbb-nnnn\n\naaa being the area code for the larger area, possibly covering several local towns, and bbb being a sort of unofficial sub-area code, which serves to steer calls to that one exchange.", "The three numbers after the area code are called the exchange. Traditionally, each exchange has been associated with a geographical area. In a small town, everyone might have the same exchange. In the city an exchange represented a neighbourhood or at least some area of several square blocks. \n\nThe three numbers used to be represented by two letters and a number, that's why some phones have three small letters over each number. The two letters would be letters from a word that was descriptive of the exchange: For instance, CR 5-1234 would be pronounced \"CRescenthill 1234\", SO 3-4321 would be \"SOuthside 4321\". There was a famous movie called *BUtterfield 8*.\n\nPeople used to not move around so much; they would live in the same neighbourhood most of their lives and keep the same phone number.\nAs people became more mobile, they still wanted to keep the same phone number when they moved and the phone companies loosened the rules about an exchange being specific to a location. \n\nThe widespread use of mobile phones has created a sea-change in the way we think of telephone communication. It used to be that when you called a number you were calling a location, a house. Somebody answered and you'd say, \"May I speak to Bob, please?\" or \"Is Alice home?\" Now when you call, you're calling the person, not the house.", "That three numbers is called an exchange. If it's a small enough town, they probably only HAD one exchange assigned to that town for a very long time. My original home town only had two up until about 15 years ago.", "In any phone system, numbers were assigned in blocks of 10,000 numbers called \"exchanges\" -- that is, the first three digits are the same. So, in a large city, a phone office might have dozens of exchanges -- that is, many three-digit prefixes.\n\nBut what about a small town? I grew up in one. There were about three thousand telephone customers in town. So our local phone company had exactly one exchange for the town. Everybody's phone number had the same area code and exchange, with only the last four numbers being different. When the phone company applied for numbers for the town, they were assigned that exchange, and then the phone company gets to assign the numbers in that exchange (that, is the last four digits).\n\nTL;DR - in North America, phone companies are assigned the first six digits (area code + exchange) for a local area, and assign the last four themselves.", "Just as large communities have area codes, smaller communities had their own 3-digit code that signified their community. Now, if the first 3 numbers (555 from your example) remain the same, there are ~~715~~ 10,000 possible 4-digit numbers that can follow. Once those 4-digit numbers are used, they need to create a new 3-digit code.\n\nEDIT: Wrong calculation!", "This is very common in small towns, where I grew up it is still like this even for new residents. If you had a phone number you could look at it and be like \"Oh, that's from TownA\". It really isn't any different than an area code in practice.", "Back home we still don't have to use the 10-digit sequence, just the 7. Everyone's number is 243-nnnn. This same number is for 4 nearby communities." ]

[ "digits. \nFor example, the number 38 is between 2⁵=32 and 2⁶=64, so log₂(38) is between 5 and 6. This means that ancestor no.38 belongs to generation five, and was a great-great-great-grandparent of the reference person who is no.1 (generation zero). Multiple numbers for the same person An ancestor may have two or more numbers due to pedigree collapse. For example in the above Ahnentafel for Prince William, Queen Victoria is both no.79 and no.81. She is no.79 because she was the great-great-grandmother of William's grandfather Prince Philip, and she is also no.81 because she was the great-great-grandmother of William's grandmother", "in the city and sometimes the numbers get intertwined with each other. In the rural parts, some houses have no number at all and some have their owner's details as the number instead. In some cases, using the number 13 is skipped replacing it with equivalents such as: 12+1 or 14-1 Northern and Western Europe In Europe the most common house numbering scheme, in this article referred to as the \"European\" scheme, is to number each plot on one side of the road with ascending odd numbers, from 1, and those on the other with ascending even numbers, from 2", "children There were 20 single parents with a child or children. There were 4 households that were made up of unrelated people and 18 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 56 single family homes (or 46.3% of the total) out of a total of 121 inhabited buildings. There were 29 multi-family buildings (24.0%), along with 22 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (18.2%) and 14 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (11.6%). Of the single family homes 19 were built before 1919,", "percent of the heads of households are older individuals. The State of Indiana defines a NORC as a community in which 50 percent of housing units have heads of household who are 60 years old or older, and/or at least 2,500 heads of household who are 60 years old or older. By contrast, New York City requires that a community must have at least 45 percent of housing units with heads of household 60 years old or older with a minimum count of at least 250 seniors, or that there be at least 500 older adults who are 60 years", "old. 31 people or 27.4% are between 30 and 39, 15 people or 13.3% are between 40 and 49, and 11 people or 9.7% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 9 people or 8.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 6 people or 5.3% are between 70 and 79, there are 3 people or 2.7% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 2 people or 1.8% who are 90 and older.\nAs of 2000, there were 30 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 41 married", "households made up of just one person and there were 18 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 1,066 married couples without children, 1,353 married couples with children There were 244 single parents with a child or children. There were 82 households that were made up of unrelated people and 88 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 363 single family homes (or 44.4% of the total) out of a total of 818 inhabited buildings. There were 298 multi-family buildings (36.4%), along with", "49, and 834 people or 13.4% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 648 people or 10.4% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 383 people or 6.1% are between 70 and 79, there are 180 people or 2.9% who are between 80 and 89,and there are 29 people or 0.5% who are 90 and older.\nAs of 2000, there were 358 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 1,283 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 623 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. ", "with children There were 92 single parents with a child or children. There were 15 households that were made up of unrelated people and 25 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 584 single-family homes (or 63.9% of the total) out of a total of 914 inhabited buildings. There were 212 multi-family buildings (23.2%), along with 94 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (10.3%) and 24 other-use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (2.6%). Of the single-family homes 18 were built before 1919, while 142", "old. 125 people or 14.8% are between 30 and 39, 167 people or 19.8% are between 40 and 49, and 115 people or 13.6% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 77 people or 9.1% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 20 people or 2.4% are between 70 and 79, there are 18 people or 2.1% who are between 80 and 89.\nAs of 2000, there were 346 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 348 married individuals, 18 widows or widowers and 31 individuals", "with children There were 89 single parents with a child or children. There were 14 households that were made up of unrelated people and 25 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 465 single family homes (or 62.2% of the total) out of a total of 748 inhabited buildings. There were 201 multi-family buildings (26.9%), along with 49 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (6.6%) and 33 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (4.4%). Of the single family homes 15 were built before", "living together, and nine are non-families. Nine households are made up of individuals, and two have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.56 and the average family size was 2.29.\nIn the city, the population was spread out with one person under the age of 18, one from 18 to 24, two from 25 to 44, twelve from 45 to 64, and eight who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 58 years. Ten citizens are females and fifteen were males; one of the males was under", "There were 4 single parents with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people and 3 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 44 single family homes (or 53.7% of the total) out of a total of 82 inhabited buildings. There were 17 multi-family buildings (20.7%), along with 16 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (19.5%) and 5 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (6.1%). Of the single family homes 18 were built before 1919, while", "years old. 35 people or 11.6% are between 30 and 39, 48 people or 15.9% are between 40 and 49, and 37 people or 12.3% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 39 people or 13.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 28 people or 9.3% are between 70 and 79, there are 13 people or 4.3% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 3 people or 1.0% who are 90 and older.\nAs of 2000, there were 105 people who were single and never married in the municipality. ", "in the United States and the third highest in New Jersey—behind Edison (17.75%) and Plainsboro Township (16.97%)—of all places with 1,000 or more residents identifying their ancestry.\nThere were 16,500 households out of which 34.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.6% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.3% were non-families. 19.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.29.\nIn the", "only one person and 5 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 49 households that answered this question, 22.4% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 18 married couples without children, 17 married couples with children There was one single parent with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people. \nIn 2000 there were 27 single family homes (or 57.4% of the total) out of a total of 47 inhabited buildings. There were 5", "with children There were 13 single parents with a child or children. There were 4 households that were made up of unrelated people and 5 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 154 single family homes (or 67.5% of the total) out of a total of 228 inhabited buildings. There were 30 multi-family buildings (13.2%), along with 35 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (15.4%) and 9 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (3.9%). Of the single family homes 22 were built before", "old. 464 people or 13.6% are between 30 and 39, 542 people or 15.8% are between 40 and 49, and 409 people or 12.0% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 421 people or 12.3% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 359 people or 10.5% are between 70 and 79, there are 226 people or 6.6% who are over 80.\nAs of 2000, there were 1,519 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.2 persons per household. In 2000 there were 265 single family homes (or 45.5% of the", "were 3 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 54 married couples without children, 39 married couples with children There were 8 single parents with a child or children. There was 1 household that was made up of unrelated people and 4 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing. \nIn 2000 there were 50 single family homes (or 47.6% of the total) out of a total of 105 inhabited buildings. There were 12 multi-family buildings (11.4%), along with 32 multi-purpose buildings", "18 single parents with a child or children. There were 2 households that were made up unrelated people and 11 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing. \nIn 2000 there were 313 single family homes (or 81.3% of the total) out of a total of 385 inhabited buildings. There were 26 multi-family buildings (6.8%), along with 38 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (9.9%) and 8 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (2.1%). Of the single family homes 30 were built before 1919, while", "person and there were 3 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 21 married couples without children, 14 married couples with children There were 2 single parents with a child or children. There were 3 households that were made up of unrelated people.\nIn 2000 there were 119 single family homes (or 73.0% of the total) out of a total of 163 inhabited buildings. There were 36 multi-family buildings (22.1%), along with 5 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (3.1%) and 3 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some", "buildings that are listed were constructed within the 17th century, with the exception of Parsonage Farmhouse, which was built circa 16th century. Modern day Rochford population ranged from 0 – 94 years of age, (2011 census) with ages evenly spread throughout the range, causing roughly equal numbers of both older and younger people. 11 people were aged 51 in 2011, making that age the most common within the population, as it is nearly twice as many any other age. The census supports the idea that the population of Rochford is older and the area is home to families and older", "old. 24 people or 13.3% are between 30 and 39, 34 people or 18.9% are between 40 and 49, and 18 people or 10.0% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 15 people or 8.3% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 17 people or 9.4% are between 70 and 79, there are 10 people or 5.6% who are between 80 and 89.\nAs of 2000, there were 68 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 74 married individuals, 7 widows or widowers and 7 individuals who", "with children There were 12 single parents with a child or children. There were 6 households that were made up of unrelated people and 4 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 84 single family homes (or 60.0% of the total) out of a total of 140 inhabited buildings. There were 24 multi-family buildings (17.1%), along with 24 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (17.1%) and 8 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (5.7%). Of the single family homes 16 were built before", "et al. concluded that people disproportionately live in towns whose names contain numbers that match the numbers in their birthday. They looked at people who were born on 2 February, 3 March, 4 April, etc. up to 8 August, and at people who lived in towns with numbers in them, such as Two Rivers, Three Oaks, Four Corners, etc. But in his critical analysis of this study Simonsohn argued that its reliability is questionable, as it found only a small number of residents with matching numbers. Simonsohn tried to replicate the finding in different ways but without success. He found", "who are 80 and 89, and there are 1,275 people or 0.9% who are 90 and older.\nAs of 2000, there were 88,420 people who were single and never married in the district. There were 85,473 married individuals, 11,797 widows or widowers and 14,807 individuals who are divorced.\nThere were 43,415 households that consist of only one person and 3,821 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 97,876 households that answered this question, 44.4% were households made up of just one person and there were 476 adults who lived with their parents. Of the", "five or more people. Out of a total of 2,239 households that answered this question, 29.2% were households made up of just one person and 17 were adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 694 married couples without children, 708 married couples with children There were 114 single parents with a child or children. There were 22 households that were made up unrelated people and 31 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 904 single family homes (or 65.4% of", "up of just one person and 19 were adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 232 married couples without children, 378 married couples with children There were 63 single parents with a child or children. There were 27 households that were made up unrelated people and 2 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 318 single family homes (or 58.9% of the total) out of a total of 540 inhabited buildings. There were 167 multi-family buildings (30.9%), along with 28 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly", "old) make up 62.6% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 19%.\nAs of 2000, there were 225 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 317 married individuals, 22 widows or widowers and 19 individuals who are divorced.\nAs of 2000, there were 42 households that consist of only one person and 17 households with five or more people. In 2000, a total of 206 apartments (93.2% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 14 apartments (6.3%) were seasonally occupied and one apartment was empty.\nThe historical population is given in the following chart: Heritage", "person and 25 were adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 1,245 married couples without children, 1,296 married couples with children. There were 266 single parents with a child or children. There were 59 households that were made up unrelated people and 69 households that were made some sort of institution or another collective housing.\nIn 2000 there were 1,291 single-family homes (or 68.3% of the total) out of a total of 1,891 inhabited buildings. There were 360 multi-family buildings (19.0%), along with 155 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (8.2%) and", "79, there are 1,486 people or 3.8% who are 80 and 89, and there are 274 people or 0.7% who are 90 and older.\nAs of 2000, there were 14,446 people who were single and never married in the district. There were 16,669 married individuals, 2,153 widows or widowers and 1,980 individuals who are divorced.\nThere were 5,070 households that consist of only one person and 866 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 14,785 households that answered this question, 34.3% were households made up of just one person and there were 85 adults who" ]

[ "They \"set\" the date, they don't know it precisely. \n\nAnd they set that date based on a combination of studied observation when they can (how long an apple will last) a set of conditions (\"keep refrigerated\" or \"consume immediately on opening\"), and known properties of the food and its packaging, and then add a safety margin to it.\n\nThe known properties can include how long a piece of cut meat remains safe before too many bacteria contact it and start growing, or how long before the vegetable starts to get brown and crinkly and so won't sell, or how pristine a plastic wrapper can expect to last if exposed to different temperatures and degrading light sources on a store shelf, or how many preservative chemicals are contained within the product, or when it starts to smell bad, or how long before freezer-burn sets in. \n\nAll of that adds up to a time when it's very likely the product will no longer be AS SAFE (which is not the same as 'safe') to consume, as well as \"as tasty\" and \"as visually appealing\" and \"as mixed uniformly and not all congealed\". Then they stick a time buffer on there so it expires or is 'best before' a bit before that.\n\nFinally, that Best Before date has to pass the inspection of whatever food control agencies are out there. Your business will be shut down, for example, if you sell rotten meat.", "It is an estimate based on what the food is and when it was made. So things like milk and bread have quite short dates, canned and dry food much longer. Generally it is quite conservative, because the food companies do not want to get sued by someone who got ill from eating their food. If it was in date they might be liable, if it is out of date they aren't.\n\nBecause it is quite conservative, it is more likely that not that food that's a few days out of date is fine. But you need to be aware that it might not be. Some foods like dried pasta, honey and vinegar have essentially no real expiration date if stored properly, but companies have to put one on anyway. Other food like meat and milk you need to be much more careful with, though with milk it is pretty obvious from the smell.\n\nOne nice example is eggs. They will often be fine a week or two after the expiration date, and there's a very easy way to check an old egg. Just put the egg in a bowl or glass of water. If it stays at the bottom it is fine, and if it floats it is bad and should be thrown away.", "For goods that have a long shelf life, one way to estimate the lifetime is with the [Arrhenius Equation.](_URL_0_) For something fairly stable at room temperature, like potato chips, they could store bags at 60 C, 70 C, and 80 C for a few months. Every week they would take some of the chips out and measure how much crunch or flavor the chips have lost. Then they can use the Arrhenius equation to predict how long it will take to break down at room temperature.\n\nNote that this only works for thermal instability. If something is prone to go bad by getting moldy, like cheese, this wouldn't predict for that.", "In maths and physics, there is a thing they use to predict when things will decay, it's called differential equations. Basically just an formula with variables where you input the rate of decay observed during a given period of time and extend it till the substance reaches total decay.", "_URL_1_\n\n99% Invisible has an episode on expiration dates. It's worth a listen." ]

[ "and Drug Administration (FDA) administers do not preclude the sale of food that is past the expiration date indicated on the label. FDA does not require food firms to place \"expired by\", \"use by\" or \"best before\" dates on food products. This information is entirely at the discretion of the manufacturer.\nMost expiration dates are used as guidelines based on normal and expected handling and exposure to temperature. Use prior to the expiration date does not guarantee the safety of a food or drug, and a product is not necessarily dangerous or ineffective after the expiration date. According to the United", "day/month/year format. Technical expertise should be hired for regular end of shelf life safety and quality testing. Shelf life trials should be conducted using the same ingredients, equipment, procedures and manufacturing environment as will be used during the actual production. Regulation in the US Sale of expired food products, per se, is lightly regulated in the US. Some states restrict or forbid the sale of expired products, require expiration dates on all perishable products, or both, while other states do not. However, sale of contaminated food is generally illegal, and may result in product liability litigation if consumption", "or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years.\n\"Sell by date\" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an \"expiration date\". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and", "Expiration date Best before Best before or best by dates appear on a wide range of frozen, dried, tinned and other foods. These dates are only advisory and refer to the quality of the product, in contrast with use by dates, which indicate that the product may no longer be safe to consume after the specified date. Food kept after the best before date will not necessarily be harmful, but may begin to lose its optimum flavour and texture. Eggs are a special case, since they may contain salmonella which multiplies over time; they should therefore be eaten before the", "million foodborne illnesses, leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.\nAccording to former UK minister Hilary Benn, the use by date and sell by dates are old technologies that are outdated and should be replaced by other solutions or disposed of altogether. The UK government's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs revised guidance in 2011 to exclude the use of sell by dates. The guidance was prepared in consultation with the food industry, consumer groups, regulators, and Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP). It aims to reduce the annual £12bn of wasted supermarket food. Regulations in Canada The Canadian Food", "of a date stamped on the package of a food product to help determine how long to display the product for sale. This benefits the consumer by ensuring that the product is of best quality when sold. An open date does not supersede a use-by date, if shown, which should still be followed. United States The Food and Drug Administration in the United States notes that \"[a] principle of U.S. food law is that foods in U.S. commerce must be wholesome and fit for consumption\". However, the agency also states:\nWith the exception of infant formula, the laws that the Food", "on packaged perishable foods. The concept of expiration date is related but legally distinct in some jurisdictions. Background Shelf life is the recommended maximum time for which products or fresh (harvested) produce can be stored, during which the defined quality of a specified proportion of the goods remains acceptable under expected (or specified) conditions of distribution, storage and display.\nAccording to the USDA, \"canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, or temperatures above 90 °F (32.2° C)\". If the cans look okay, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted,", "UK minister Hilary Benn announced plans to end the use of Use by date as he sees them as a major cause of food waste. There are plans to replace the use-by-date by new technologies such as Time-temperature-indicators", "Inspection Agency produces a Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising which sets out a \"Durable Life Date\". The authority for producing the guide comes from the Food and Drugs Act. The guide sets out what items must be labelled and the format of the date. The month and day must be included and the year if it is felt necessary and must be in the format year/month/day. However, there is no requirement that the year be in four digits. Regulations in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, prepackaged food which from the microbiological point of view is highly perishable", "First expired, first out Perishable drugs: charity and waste management Perishable goods (like foods and drugs) lose all their use value after the expiration date and can't be bought nor sold as their commercial price and value falls to zero. As the drug or food expiration date comes forth, any perishable good loses its value day-by-day.\nBoth drugs and foods are equally necessary for the law enforcement of the universal right to life, and, if not reused, they contribute to an expensive waste management form, namely the food waste or the drug waste.\nGlobal Trade Item Number barcode (GTIN, the former", "and may be injurious to health if spoiled. It is also important to follow storage instructions carefully for these foods (for example, if they specify that the product must be refrigerated).\nBathroom products and toiletries usually state a time in months from the date the product is opened, by which they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., \"12M\" means use the product within 12 months of opening). Similarly, some food products say \"eat within X days of opening\". Open dating Open dating is the use", "The printed expiration date will always be sooner than the true expiration date, because the drug should always be effective and safe before the labeled expiration date if kept properly. Disposal The United States' Center for Drug Evaluation and Research officially recommends that drugs past their expiration date be disposed. It has been argued that this practice is wasteful, since consumers and medical facilities are encouraged to purchase fresh medication to replace their expired products, also resulting in additional profits for pharmaceutical firms. Consumer use as normal Some consumers can face the difficult position of being unable to afford their", "The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017 the Food and Drug Administration released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies. Food sources Food composition databases such as those maintained by the U.S. Department of Agriculture do not contain information on the chromium content of foods. A wide variety of animal-sourced and vegetable-sourced foods contain chromium. Content per serving is influenced by the chromium content of the soil in which the plants are grown and by feedstuffs fed", "to 2.4 μg. A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020, for large companies and January 1, 2021, for small companies. Manufacturers of single-ingredient sugars such as honey and maple syrup and certain cranberry products have until July 1, 2021, to make the changes. H2-receptor antagonists and proton-pump inhibitors Gastric acid is needed to release vitamin B₁₂ from protein", "dried fruit and a variety of nuts. Nuts and dried fruit can last a long time based on their expiration date. The USDA's page on expiration dates is available online.\nNot all food needs to be dehydrated or dried. When a hiker plans to carry a couple liters of water, that is 4.4 pounds of water weight that can be carried in fresh fruits and vegetables for the first day. The same is true for other foods based on their water-weight. Depending on which ones are chosen, this can eliminate or reduce the need for cooking, and the reconstitution time. One", "a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For molybdenum labeling purposes 100% of the Daily Value was 75 μg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 45 μg. A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. The original deadline to be in compliance was July 28, 2018, but on September 29, 2017 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a proposed rule that extended the deadline to January 1, 2020 for large companies and January 1, 2021 for small companies. Food sources Average daily intake varies between", "has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. This is important, as consumers enjoy fresher goods, and furthermore some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all", "products should also not be packaged more than 90 days prior to their delivery, unless specified in the order. Ocean Spray and Fruit d'Or cranberry juice products have a frozen shelf life of 24 months and 36 months, respectively. Labeling Cranberry juice container labels have the following information printed: product name and code, nutrition facts table, lot/drum number, date of packaging, brix, acidity, net weight, manufacturer name, manufacturer address and country of origin. According to Canada's composition claims, a \"no preservatives\" claim can be added to cranberry juice products if it only contains naturally-occurring constituents that provide a preservative function", "with the common expiry date. Products that spoil quickly, such as minced meat, have to be given a Verbrauchsdatum and are barred from sale upon expiry. Other products are given Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum, which is set by the individual producers of said product and do not bar the product from being sold past the date determined. Products with an expired MHD may be sold if the seller is satisfied that the goods are in perfect condition. Accordingly, it follows that the customer is not entitled to compensation if he unintentionally acquires a product with an expired shelf life, provided that the product", "and is therefore likely after a short period to constitute an immediate danger to human health, are required to use the 'Use by' label instead of the 'Best before' label. Examples include pasteurised fresh milk, packed egg and ham sandwiches, etc. Dates are usually presented in the DD MM YY (or YYYY) format. Regulations in the European Union In the EU food quality dates are governed by Regulation (EU) 1169/2011, \"On the Provision of Food Information to Consumers\". Regulations in Germany In Germany, one differentiates between the \"Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum\" (MHD), roughly minimum shelf-life and \"Verbrauchsdatum\", which is more in line", "on the label. If formula is stored too long, it may lose its nutritional value.\nThe United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which regulates fresh poultry and meats, only requires labeling of the date when poultry is packed. However, many manufacturers also voluntarily add sell-by or use-by dates.\nThe DoD Shelf-Life Program operates under the DoD Regulation 4140.1-R, DoD Material Management Regulation, ()\n A. There are items in the Department of Defense (DoD) and the Federal Supply System that require special handling due to certain deteriorative characteristics. These items are to be properly", "of the food results in injury.\nAfter losing an expensive lawsuit, one pharmacy chain – CVS – implemented a system that causes its registers to recognize expired products and avert their sale.\nVoluntary industry guidelines announced in 2017 from the Grocery Manufacturers Association and the Food Marketing Institute recommend using only \"best if used by\" or \"use by\", to avoid confusion. US federal government guidelines The Food and Drug Administration, which regulates packaged foods and drugs, only requires a use-by, or expiration, date on infant formula and some baby foods, because formula must contain a certain quantity of each nutrient as described", "article, Safeway, as parent company of Dominick's, released the following statement to the media: “Dominick’s customers rightly expect they will find only high-quality, fresh products at all of our stores. Our organization is committed to meeting those expectations. While expiration dates on food products are largely based on quality, not food safety, that does not diminish the fact that we are displeased with the out-of-date products found at our stores. This is not indicative of how we do business. A high-level and highest-priority team has been assembled to immediately address these issues.”\nReports of shoppers witnessing Dominick's employees in the aisles", "to be an effective way to reduce food waste. A British campaign called “Love Food, Hate Waste” has raised awareness about preventative measures to address food waste for consumers. Through advertisements, information on food storage and preparation and in-store education, the UK observed a 21% decrease in avoidable household food waste over the course of 5 years. Another potential solution is for \"smart packaging\" which would indicate when food is spoiled more precisely than expiration dates currently do, for example with temperature-sensitive ink, plastic that changes color when exposed to oxygen, or gels that change color with time.\nAn initiative", "is roughly that of the food. This generally allows 3 to 8 hours for absorption. If the drug is delivered through a mucous membrane in the mouth, the residence time is short because saliva washes it away. Strategies to increase this residence time include bioadhesive polymers, gums, lozenges and dry powders. Queuing theory Beyond fluid dynamics and chemistry, the definition(s) of residence time can be applied to any flow network, where the flows of generic \"resources\" is modeled (e.g.: people, cars, money, products). Most notably, the over-mentioned definition of residence time is extended to stationary random processes by averaging on", "best before date, which is, in the USA, a maximum of 45 days after the eggs are packed.\nSometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the best before date in a clearly visible location. In this case, wording like best before see bottom or best before see lid might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated. Use by Generally, foods that have a use by date written on the packaging must not be eaten after the specified date. This is because such foods usually go bad quickly", "market, which accounts for most of the consumer spending. Products that are suitable for eating alone are being released, and products with moderate amounts of food are available for as many as two to three servings. Furthermore, the latest products are being released in terms of the quality and quantity of the products.\nFor example, Orion Confectionery is focusing on the resizing strategy of the food and beverage industry, which is adjusting the individual shape of existing hit products to \"bite size\" or introducing a new quantity of food that an individual can eat. After 35 years, Orion Confectionery has released", "“wife’s food basket” and they are estimated to have constituted 16% of the overall calories of the basket. Dates Dates were eaten fresh or dried, but were used mostly boiled into thick, long-lasting syrup called “date honey” (dvash temarim) for use as a sweetener. This syrup was prepared by soaking the dates in water for some time until they disintegrated and then boiling the resulting liquid down into thick syrup. The honey in the Biblical reference of “a land flowing with milk and honey” is date honey.\nFresh, ripe dates were available from the mid- to late-summer. Some were sun-dried and", "around a parameter (concentration of a chemical compound, a microbiological index, or moisture content).\nFor some foods, health issues are important in determining shelf life. Bacterial contaminants are ubiquitous, and foods left unused too long will often be contaminated by substantial amounts of bacterial colonies and become dangerous to eat, leading to food poisoning. However, shelf life alone is not an accurate indicator of how long the food can safely be stored. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly. However, improper storage of milk may result in bacterial contamination", "extensive experience and track records in other multinationals of the food industry.\nThe company celebrates its 75th anniversary in 2018 with a transformation in full swing to adapt its business to the changing market and consumer trends and boost its sustainable growth." ]

[ "Let's start by assuming that we have the nukes to fracture the asteroid. It may be a long shot, but nukes release a *lot* of energy and asteroids aren't necessarily as solid as a typical rock on earth.\n\nThe big thing is that the Earth is still being hit. When you break an asteroid into two pieces, the energy of the original asteroid just gets split between the two, so all of that energy is still headed towards Earth. This is equally true of breaking it into 2 pieces and breaking it into a million pieces. You're not going to reduce an asteroid to sand-sized pieces, but even if you did all of that sand is going to hit the Earth. This could be bad in and of itself as all of that energy gets transferred to the atmosphere in the form of heat, although that is probably not an apocalyptic event in and of itself.\n\nHowever, the bit thing to realize is that the asteroid isn't going to be split into a billion pieces the size of pebbles/sand. There are going to be *lots* of pieces that are still large enough to make it to the ground. By breaking the asteroid up you are just spreading the destruction over a wider area of the planet's surface. This would be like replacing a cannon ball with grapeshot--it's still highly destructive.\n\nUltimately nuking an asteroid would probably have *some* positive effect, but if all of the pieces are still hitting the Earth then it's not really worth it. By contrast, if we find an apocalyptic asteroid with the Earth in its sites we can send a sapcecraft to it to alter its orbit ever so slightly so that it doesn't actually hit the Earth. If we detect the object early enough then the change to its orbit would not have to be that much.", "Nuking an asteroid would be like taping an M80 to a boulder.\n\nSome postgraduate students from Leicester University did the math on the asteroid used in Armageddon (awful movie) it would take 800,000,000,000,000 terajoules of energy to blow up that chunk of rock. The largest nuke mankind ever set off only put out 418,000 terajoules of force. To nuke a large asteroid to the point of blowing it up you'd need 1.9 BILLION of the worlds biggest nukes.\n\n_URL_0_", "Nuking things in space will not have such effect as nukes in atmosphere. There were a thread on some sub around that explained that. Long story short - there will be no shock wave and not so much destruction for an asteroid. Lots of particles and radiation - yes, but not so much physical destruction.", "Amount of force you can apply to an asteroid that is big enough to be a problem is the issue.\n\nThe biggest nuke won't blow up any asteroid that's considered a problem. Anything over a mile wide would simply not be destroyed by any nuke we could send. It will damage it, blow out one side or two... but the asteroid is still going to be on it's way mostly intact, with a couple of riders maybe coming along for the trip in.\n\nIt won't even break up into smaller pieces. It doesn't work like in the movies.\n\nSo the whole 'smaller for friction elimination' won't work because you didn't make it happen in the first place.\n\nThis is why they come up with the rocket pushing or mass diversion or solar sail attachment theories on how to steer the asteroid into a different orbit and miss the Earth.\n\nBut IF you could blow up the asteroid into a bunch of bowling ball sized things? Yes, the Earth would easily survive, provided there was enough spacing between the balls and they didn't clump back together.", "If we sent a nuke(or just something big enough to have a large enough force) and at it to blow up close enough to the projectile(and early enough in it's detection) that the blast will steer it off course, missing earth entirely" ]

[ "cost of some specific states' security. In Schweickart's opinion, choosing the way the asteroid should be \"dragged\" would be a tough diplomatic decision.\nAnalysis of the uncertainty involved in nuclear deflection shows that the ability to protect the planet does not imply the ability to target the planet. A nuclear explosion that changes an asteroid's velocity by 10 meters/second (plus or minus 20%) would be adequate to push it out of an Earth-impacting orbit. However, if the uncertainty of the velocity change was more than a few percent, there would be no chance of directing the asteroid to a particular target.", "a distant asteroid, there may be less risky ways to divert the asteroid. Another promising asteroid mitigation strategy is to land a crew on the asteroid well ahead of its impact date and to begin diverting some its mass into space to slowly alter its trajectory. This is a form of rocket propulsion by virtue of Newton's third law with the asteroid's mass as the propellant. Whether exploding nuclear weapons or diversion of mass is used, a sizable human crew may need to be sent into space for many months if not years to accomplish this mission.", "course with the asteroid, knocking it off course.\nWhen the asteroid is still far from the Earth, a means of deflecting the asteroid is to directly alter its momentum by colliding a spacecraft with the asteroid.\nA NASA analysis of deflection alternatives, conducted in 2007, stated:\nNon-nuclear kinetic impactors are the most mature approach and could be used in some deflection/mitigation scenarios, especially for NEOs that consist of a single small, solid body.\nThe European Space Agency (ESA) is studying the preliminary design of two space missions for ~2020, named AIDA (formerly Don Quijote), and if flown, they would be the first intentional asteroid", "worse by increasing the amount of asteroid fragments that do end up hitting the Earth. Robert Zubrin writes:\nIf bombs are to be used as asteroid deflectors, they cannot just be launched willy-nilly. No, before any bombs are detonated, the asteroid will have to be thoroughly explored, its geology assessed, and subsurface bomb placements carefully determined and precisely located on the basis of such knowledge. A human crew, consisting of surveyors, geologists, miners, drillers, and demolition experts, will be needed on the scene to do the job right.\n \nIf such a crew is to be summoned to", "asteroid impact avoidance strategies against any seriously threatening near earth asteroids. Six such warheads, configured for the maximum 1.2 Mt yield, would be deployed by maneuvering space vehicles to \"knock\" an asteroid off course, should it pose a risk to the Earth.", "hazard, placing particular emphasis on the need to characterize asteroids before any deflection attempt. In a paper with Carl Sagan, Ostro noted that while the asteroid impact hazard is a long-term risk to any civilization, the risk associated with maintaining an active deflection program is higher, because it is just as easy to deflect an asteroid to impact Earth as to prevent it from doing so. Ostro advocated for continued funding of the Arecibo Planetary Radar, on both hazard and scientific grounds. Work on other objects Ostro worked on radar observations of the icy satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, particularly", "and his colleagues stated that \"we have the solution, using our baseline concept, to be able to mitigate the asteroid-impact threat, with any range of warning.\" For example, according to their computer models, with a warning time of 30 days, a 300-metre-wide (1,000 ft) asteroid would be neutralized by using a single HAIV, with less than 0.1% of the destroyed object's mass potentially striking Earth, which by comparison would be more than acceptable.\nAs of 2015, Wie has collaborated with the Danish Emergency Asteroid Defence Project (EADP), which ultimately intends to crowdsource sufficient funds to design, build, and store a non-nuclear HAIV", "not 100 per cent certain when.\" Also in 2018, physicist Stephen Hawking, in his final book Brief Answers to the Big Questions, considered an asteroid collision to be the biggest threat to the planet. In June 2018, the US National Science and Technology Council warned that America is unprepared for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the \"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\" to better prepare. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation to launch a mission to intercept an asteroid. The", "many near-Earth asteroids are probably only \"rubble piles\" so that attempts to mitigate possible future impacts by such asteroids using exploding nuclear devices might not be successful.\nNoah Brosch organized a campaign to observe the Leonid meteor shower in 1999 that included ground teams in Israel equipped with intensified video cameras and airborne observations from two NASA aircraft that deployed to Ben Gurion airport in Israel in order to observe meteors from a high altitude together with the ground teams and with a powerful phased-array radar in Israel. A description of the campaign and some of the results were published in", "Council study on asteroid threats, plus others. The difficulty of quickly intercepting an imminent asteroid threat to Earth was made apparent during the testimony:\nREP. STEWART: ... are we technologically capable of launching something that could intercept [an asteroid with 2 years of advance warning]? ... \nDR. A'HEARN: No. If we had spacecraft plans on the books already, that would take a year ... I mean a typical small mission ... takes four years from approval to start to launch ...\n— Rep. Chris Stewart (R–UT) and Dr. Michael F. A'Hearn, April 10, 2013, United States Congress\nAs a result of a set", "Foundation and other organizations have publicly noted, of the different types of natural catastrophes that can occur on our planet, asteroid strikes are the only one that the world now has the technical capability to prevent.\nB612 is one of several organizations to propose detailed dynamic surveys of NEOs and preventative measures such as asteroid deflection. Other groups include Chinese researchers, NASA in the United States, NEOShield in Europe, as well as the international Spaceguard Foundation. In December 2009 Roscosmos Russian Federal Space Agency director Anatoly Perminov proposed a deflection mission to the 325 metres (1,066 ft) wide asteroid 99942 Apophis,", "to move a large asteroid into an arbitrary orbit does not yet exist; altering an asteroid's orbit around the Sun would require a large delta-v to be imparted to an object with a mass several orders of magnitude greater than existing spacecraft.\nOnce an asteroid is on course to encounter a planet with an atmosphere, it is in principle possible to tweak its orbit so that it intercepts the planet's atmosphere, using aerobraking to slow the asteroid at periapsis by dumping some of its kinetic energy into the atmosphere – this technique has however never been used by spacecraft performing rendezvous", "to halt its spin or rotation, by using the tractor method these considerations are irrelevant. Advantages A number of considerations arise concerning means for avoiding a devastating collision with an asteroidal object, should one be discovered on a trajectory that were determined to lead to Earth impact at some future date. One of the main challenges is how to transmit the impulse required (possibly quite large), to an asteroid of unknown mass, composition, and mechanical strength, without shattering it into fragments, some of which might be themselves dangerous to Earth if left in a collision orbit.\nThe gravity tractor solves", "for an asteroid impact event, and has developed and released the \"National Near-Earth Object Preparedness Strategy Action Plan\" to better prepare. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Impacts and the Earth Major impact events have significantly shaped Earth's history, having been implicated in the formation of the Earth–Moon system, the evolutionary history of life, the origin of water on Earth, and several mass extinctions. Impact structures are the result of impact events on solid objects and,", "the United States, dedicated to protecting the Earth from asteroid strikes. It is led mainly by scientists, former astronauts and engineers from the Institute for Advanced Study, Southwest Research Institute, Stanford University, NASA and the space industry.\nAs a non-governmental organization it has conducted two lines of related research to help detect NEOs that could one day strike the Earth, and find the technological means to divert their path to avoid such collisions. The foundation's current goal is to design and build a privately financed asteroid-finding space telescope, Sentinel, to be launched in 2017–2018. The Sentinel's infrared telescope, once parked in", "100m to 1 km across), prediction is based on cataloging the asteroid, years to centuries before it could impact. This technique is possible as they can be seen from a long distance due to their large size. Their orbits therefore can be measured and any future impacts predicted long before they are on their final approach to Earth. This long period of warning is important as an impact from a 1 km object would cause worldwide damage and a long lead time would be needed to deflect it away from Earth. As of 2018, the inventory is nearly complete for the", "can be easily found in asteroids. Instead of resupplying on Earth, mining and fuel stations need to be established on asteroids to facilitate better space travel. Optical mining is the term NASA uses to describe extracting materials from asteroids. NASA believes by using propellant derived from asteroids for exploration to the moon, Mars, and beyond will save $100 billion. If funding and technology come sooner than estimated, asteroid mining might be possible within a decade.\nAll these planets and other bodies offer a virtually endless supply of resources providing limitless growth potential. Harnessing these resources can lead to much economic development.", "expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Improving impact prediction In addition to the already funded telescopes mentioned above, two separate approaches have been suggested by NASA to improve impact prediction. Both approaches focus on the first step in impact prediction (discovering near-Earth asteroids) as this is the largest weakness in the current system. The first approach uses more powerful ground-based telescopes similar to the LSST. Being ground-based, such telescopes will still only observe part of the sky", "attraction towards the asteroid by the use of, for example, an ion thruster engine, the net effect is that the asteroid is accelerated, or moved, towards the spacecraft and thus slowly deflected from the orbital path that will lead it to a collision with Earth.\nWhile slow, this method has the advantage of working irrespective of an asteroid's composition. It would even be effective on a comet, loose rubble pile, or an object spinning at a high rate. However, a gravity tractor would likely have to spend several years stationed beside and tugging on the body to be effective.", "Sagan instead suggested that deflection technology be developed only in an actual emergency situation.\nAll low-energy delivery deflection technologies have inherent fine control and steering capability, making it possible to add just the right amount of energy to steer an asteroid originally destined for a mere close approach toward a specific Earth target.\nAccording to Rusty Schweickart, the gravitational tractor method is controversial because, during the process of changing an asteroid's trajectory, the point on the Earth where it could most likely hit would be slowly shifted across different countries. Thus, the threat for the entire planet would be minimized at the", "pulled towards each other, the spacecraft can counter the force towards the asteroid by, for example, an ion thruster, so the net effect would be that the asteroid is accelerated towards the spacecraft and thus slightly deflected from its orbit. While slow, this method has the advantage of working irrespective of the asteroid's composition or spin rate; rubble pile asteroids would be difficult to deflect by means of nuclear detonations, while a pushing device would be hard or inefficient to mount on a fast-rotating asteroid. A gravity tractor would likely have to spend several years beside the asteroid to be", "obstacles. Nuclear explosives were seen as \"too risky and unpredictable\" for several reasons, warranting the view that gently altering an asteroid's trajectory was the safest approach—but also a method requiring years of advance warning to successfully accomplish. B612 Project and Foundation The October 2001 asteroid deflection workshop participants created the \"B612 Project\" to further their research. Schweickart, along with Drs. Hut, Lu and Chapman, then formed the B612 Foundation on October 7, 2002, with its first goal being to \"significantly alter the orbit of an asteroid in a controlled manner\". Schweickart became an early public face of the foundation", "planet\" is vulnerable to meteors and a spaceguard system is needed to protect the planet from similar objects in the future. Dmitry Rogozin, the deputy prime minister, proposed that there should be an international program that would alert countries to \"objects of an extraterrestrial origin\", also called potentially hazardous objects.\nColonel General Nikolay Bogdanov, commander of the Central Military District, created task forces that were directed to the probable impact areas to search for fragments of the asteroid and to monitor the situation. Meteorites (fragments) measuring 1 to 5 cm (0.39 to 1.97 in) were found 1 km (0.62 mi) from Chebarkul in the Chelyabinsk", "better prepare. According to expert testimony in the United States Congress in 2013, NASA would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched. Cosmic threats A number of astronomical threats have been identified. Massive objects, e.g. a star, large planet or black hole, could be catastrophic if a close encounter occurred in the Solar System. In April 2008, it was announced that two simulations of long-term planetary movement, one at the Paris Observatory and the other at the University of California, Santa Cruz, indicate a 1% chance that Mercury's orbit could", "planet, because solar orbits within Neptune's orbit have speeds much greater than planets' escape velocities. Put another way, the asteroid's kinetic energy when it encounters the planet is too great for it to be brought into a bounded orbit by the planet's gravity; its kinetic energy is greater than its absolute potential energy with respect to the planet, meaning that the planet's gravity does not constrain its motion. However, an asteroid's trajectory can be perturbed by a third body (e.g. a satellite, or another planet) in a way that reduces its kinetic energy in the planet's reference frame.", "the asteroid and with the non-gravitational forces acting on it between the two encounters. Thus, “a miss is as good as a mile” does not apply to a keyhole of several hundred meters width. However, changing the path of an asteroid by a mile can be done with a relatively small impulse if the first encounter is still years away. Deflecting the asteroid after the fly-by would need a much stronger impulse.\nFor a rapidly rotating planet such as the Earth, calculation of trajectories passing close to it, less than a dozen radii, should include the oblateness of the planet—its gravitational", "spacecraft as planetary insurance. For threatening asteroids too large and/or too close to Earth impact to effectively be deflected by the non-nuclear HAIV approach, nuclear explosive devices (with 5% of the explosive yield than those used for the stand-off strategy) are intended to be swapped in, under international oversight, when conditions arise that necessitate it. Comet deflection possibility Following the 1994 Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet impacts with Jupiter, Edward Teller proposed, to a collective of U.S. and Russian ex-Cold War weapons designers in a 1995 planetary defense workshop meeting at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), that they collaborate to design a", "an orbit similar to that of Venus, will help identify threatening NEOs by cataloging 90% of those with diameters larger than 140 metres (460 ft), as well as surveying smaller Solar System objects.\nData gathered by Sentinel will help identify asteroids and other NEOs that pose a risk of collision with Earth, by being forwarded to scientific data-sharing networks, including NASA and academic institutions such as the Minor Planet Center. The foundation also proposes asteroid deflection of potentially dangerous NEOs by the use of gravity tractors to divert their trajectories away from Earth, a concept co-invented by the organization's CEO, physicist and", "shifted across different countries. It means that the threat for the entire planet would be minimized at the cost of some specific states' security. In Schweickart's opinion, choosing the way the asteroid should be \"dragged\" would be a tough diplomatic decision.", "velocity, or \"nudging\", the object off course by the reaction, following Newton's third law, with ejecta going one way and the object being propelled in the other. Depending on the energy of the explosive device, the resulting rocket exhaust effect, created by the high velocity of the asteroid's vaporized mass ejecta, coupled with the object's small reduction in mass, would produce enough of a change in the object's orbit to make it miss the Earth.\nA Hypervelocity Asteroid Mitigation Mission for Emergency Response (HAMMER) has been proposed. Stand-off approach If the object is very large but is still a loosely-held-together rubble" ]

[ "Because it's their name, not their nationality. If I live in New York, and my name is Bob France, you wouldn't call me French." ]

[ "Canada goose Distribution and habitat This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a wide range of habitats. The Great Lakes region maintains a very large population of Canada geese. Canada geese occur year-round in the southern part of their breeding range, including most of the eastern seaboard and the Pacific coast. Between California and South Carolina in the southern United States and northern Mexico, Canada geese are primarily present as migrants from further north during the winter.\nBy the early 20th century, overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th", "Giant Canada goose Description The giant Canada goose is often mistaken for the Moffitt's Canada goose. However, giant geese have both a lower call and a larger bill to body size ratio. Another good identifier includes the black on the neck, which starts much farther up the neck than any other subspecies. The giant goose's white cheek patch is very large, reaching the lower bill. Unlike other variants, the underbelly is very pale. A less reliable identifier is the white forehead and eyebrows, which don't always occur and Moffitt's geese less commonly have. Taxonomy The giant Canada goose is occasionally", "West of England Goose West of England geese are a breed of autosexing domestic goose. Description West of England geese are a rare or heritage breed of medium-sized geese. They were originally found across the south of England in particular in Devon and Cornwall. They are auto-sexing meaning that one can identify females by their grey markings on head and back immediately after hatching.\nWest of England geese have blue eyes, an orange bill, a dual-lobed paunch and a calm temperament. They weigh between 6 and 9 kg. The gander is white and sometimes shows some traces of grey. The female", "Canada geese in New Zealand Canada geese (Branta canadensis) were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They became problematic because of the damage caused to pastures and crops. History Canada geese were introduced as a game bird into New Zealand in 1905. They were protected under the Wildlife Act of 1953 and the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand who culled excessive bird numbers. The number of birds increased and by 1996 they had reached an estimated population of 40,000 in the South Island. In 2011 the government removed the protection status allowing", "Cackling goose Description The black head and neck with white \"chinstrap\" distinguish this goose from all other geese except the larger Canada goose (Branta canadensis) and the similarly sized barnacle goose (B. leucopsis). There are up to 5 subspecies of cackling goose, of varying sizes and plumage details. The female looks virtually identical but is slightly lighter and has a different voice. Some are hard to distinguish from the Canada goose, with which the cackling goose was long assumed to form one species, the cackling goose and the smaller Canada goose subspecies being called the lesser Canada goose. The smallest", "Domestic goose Domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus or Anser cygnoides domesticus) are domesticated grey geese (either greylag geese or swan geese) that are kept by humans as poultry for their meat, eggs, and down feathers since ancient times. Origins and characteristics In Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, the original domesticated geese are derived from the greylag goose (Anser anser). In eastern Asia, the original domesticated geese are derived from the swan goose (Anser cygnoides); these are commonly known as Chinese geese. Both have been widely introduced in more recent times, and modern flocks in both areas (and elsewhere, such", "areas of North America and around the Bering Strait. The black geese are in the genus Branta and occur in the Palearctic ecozone: they are called \"black\" due to the coloring of their legs, bills, and parts of their plumage, which are black or dark grey. The family Anatidae includes ducks and swans. Unless domestic, geese are generally migratory, traveling lengthy distances in between their summer habitats in the north and their winter habitats in the south. In China, geese have been domesticated for thousands of years: these have been primarily been bred from the wild species Anser cygnoides, and", "\"Winchester geese\" was the nickname for the prostitutes of Southern London, licensed by the Bishop of Winchester in the area around his London palace.\nThis etymology does not explain why many other languages use the same bird as in English. \"Goose skin\" is used in German (Gänsehaut), Swedish (gåshud), Danish and Norwegian (gåsehud), Icelandic (gæsahúð), Greek (χήνειο δέρμα), Italian (pelle d'oca), Russian (гусиная кожа), Ukrainian (гусяча шкіра), Polish (gęsia skórka), Czech (husí kůže), Slovak (husia koža), Latvian (zosāda) and Hungarian (libabőr).\nIn other languages, the \"goose\" may be replaced by other kinds of poultry. For instance, \"hen\" is used in Spanish (piel", "to H5N1. Relationship with humans In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human-altered areas, it has become one of the most common waterfowl species in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in high fecal coliforms at beaches. An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by", "Dusky Canada goose Description The dusky Canada goose is the darkest of the subspecies of the Canada goose. They have a warm brown breast and body, contrasting the buff breast and gray body of other subspecies. Dusky Canada geese represent one of the smallest populations of Canada goose in North America. Taxonomy The dusky Canada goose is occasionally merged with the Vancouver Canada goose. Dusky geese, along with the giant Canada goose, are the most closely related birds to the Hawaiian goose, or nene. Based on the genetic analysis, they settled in Hawaii around 500,000 years ago. Behavior Dusky Canada", "1.4 kg (3.1 lb) Cackling geese (B. h. minima) are much smaller than any Canada goose, but the subspecies B. h. hutchinsii, at up to 3 kg (6.6 lb), grows to the same size as some Canada geese. The distinctness of the extinct population of the Komandorski and Kuril Islands B. h. asiatica is controversial. The barnacle goose differs in having a black breast and grey, rather than brownish, body plumage. Range This species is native to North America. It breeds in northern Canada and Alaska in a variety of tundra habitats. However, the nest is usually located in an elevated area near water.", "geese, they may form groups of a number of goslings and a few adults, called crèches.\nThe offspring enter the fledgling stage any time from 6 to 9 weeks of age. They do not leave their parents until after the spring migration, when they return to their birthplace. Migration Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the beginning of November. The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops and go through the", "Northern Canada, such as the polar fox, caribou herds, the moose, the wolverine, and muskoxen herds. Other prominent Canadian mammals are the Canada lynx, and the North American beaver, which is a major symbol of Canada.\nIn addition to these native mammals, many Eurasian mammals were introduced (either intentionally or accidentally) by European colonists. Among them are domestic mammals, such as the horse, pig, sheep, dog, cat, and cattle, and wild mammals, such as the brown rat and the house mouse. Birds Canada's avifauna comprises 462 species, members of seventeen orders of bird. The two most diverse orders are", "October. In ten days of migrating ten thousand geese will fly over Alberta. The predators of this species are dogs, raccoons, fox, owls and weasels. Males make a honk or bark to communicate and females communicate with a higher-pitch honk or bark. The length of the Canada goose is 55 to 122 cm and the width can be up to 178 cm. This animal has a white U-shaped patch on its rump and has white by its eye. Their body is dark brown and they have solid black heads with long necks. This animal eats grass, roots, leaves, crops, grain, sedges and", "may issue a permit which can be used from March 11 through August 31 to destroy nests, conduct a goose roundup or shoot geese. Eurasia Canada geese have reached Northern Europe naturally, as has been proved by ringing recoveries. The birds include those of the subspecies B. c. parvipes, and possibly others. These geese are also found naturally on the Kamchatka Peninsula in eastern Siberia, and eastern China.\nCanada geese have also been introduced in Europe, and had established populations in Great Britain in the middle of the eighteenth century, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Scandinavia, and Finland. Most European", "University, described them to Atlantic magazine as \"so yummy...good, lean, rich meat. I find they are similar to a good cut of beef.\" The British Trust for Ornithology, however, has described them as \"reputedly amongst the most inedible of birds.\" The US goose harvest for 2013–14 reported over 1.3 million geese taken.\nCanada geese are rarely farmed, and sale of wild Canada goose meat is rare due to regulation, and slaughterhouses' lack of experience with wild birds. Geese culled near New York airports have been donated to food banks in Pennsylvania. As of 2011, the sale of wild Canada goose meat was", "as Australia and North America) may consist of either species or hybrids between them. Chinese geese may be readily distinguished from European geese by the large knob at the base of the bill, though hybrids may exhibit every degree of variation between the two species.\nThe domestication, as Charles Darwin remarks (The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication i. 287), is of very ancient date; archaeological evidence for domesticated geese in Egypt more than 4,000 years ago. They have been selected for larger size, with domesticated breeds weighing up to 10 kilograms (22 lb), compared to the maximum of 3.5 kilograms", "eggs of Canada geese are fully protected by law, except when their removal has been specifically licensed, and shooting is generally permitted only during the defined open season.\nGeese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then bite or attack with their wings. Aircraft strikes Canada geese have been implicated in a number of bird strikes by aircraft. Their large size and tendency to fly in flocks may exacerbate their impact. In the", "Small cackling goose Description Ridgway’s geese are the smallest of the white cheeked geese and the second smallest goose in the genus Branta, following the red-breasted goose. It is only slightly larger than a mallard and has a culmen (bill) length of 32 mm.\nThe small cackling goose’s calls are described as high pitched yelps. In flight, it can be identified by its fast wingbeat, in contrast to Canada geese and the larger subspecies of cackling geese. Distribution Small cackling geese are known to summer in western Alaska, and winter in the Willamette Valley. It has also been known to occur", "geese of the genus Anser, but is more lightly built and agile than its domestic relative. It has a rotund, bulky body, a thick and long neck, and a large head and bill. It has pink legs and feet, and an orange or pink bill with a white or brown nail (hard horny material at tip of upper mandible). It is 74 to 91 centimetres (29 to 36 in) long with a wing length of 41.2 to 48 centimetres (16.2 to 18.9 in). It has a tail 6.2 to 6.9 centimetres (2.4 to 2.7 in), a bill of 6.4 to 6.9 centimetres (2.5", "geese are often more wary than some of the other subspecies, flying low and inspecting a potential area to land before descending. Their wings molt from around early July to early August. Often, molting individuals will wait in sub-alpine lakes for their feathers to grow back. The dusky Canada goose mainly winters in much of the Willamette Valley and southern Washington and breeds in the southeast Alaskan Copper River Delta and Middleton Island. Breeding Breeding populations occur on Middleton Island and the Copper River Delta. An earthquake in 1964 lifted the delta by around 4 feet (1.2 meters), damaging usable", "Czech goose The Czech goose (Czech: Česká husa) is a landrace of domestic goose originating in the Czech lands.\nThe plumage is white only. The legs and beak are orange. The neck is short and bulky. It exists in 2 forms: with and without a crest on the head.\nGanders generally weigh 5.5-6.6 kg, and females 3.5-5.6 kg. It lays around 10-20 eggs, which weigh 120 g.", "harlequin, common, hooded and red-breasted merganser (often avoided because of its reputation as a poor-eating bird with a strong flavor). Also hunted are black duck, wood duck, blue wing teal, green wing teal, bufflehead, shoveler, widgeon, and goldeneye. Ocean ducks include oldsquaw (long tailed duck), eider duck, and scoter.\nSwans are hunted in only a few states in the United States, and in the UK (where they are historically considered a royal prerogative), but are hunted along with other wildfowl in many other countries.\nIn the Australian states of Tasmaina, Victoria, South Australia and the Northern Territory, species hunted under permit include", "swans, Canada geese, herring gulls, and lesser black-backed gulls.", "the bill, then tearing it with a jerk of the head. The Canada goose also eats beans and grains such as wheat, rice, and corn when they are available. In the water, it feeds from aquatic plants by sliding its bill at the bottom of the body of water. It also feeds on aquatic plant-like algae, such as seaweeds. In urban areas, it is also known to pick food out of garbage bins. They are also sometimes hand-fed a variety of grains and other foods by humans in parks. Reproduction During the second year of their lives, Canada geese find", "Magpie goose Description Magpie geese are unmistakable birds with their black and white plumage and yellowish legs. The feet are only partially webbed, and the magpie goose feeds on vegetable matter in the water, as well as on land. Males are larger than females. Unlike true geese, their moult is gradual, so no flightless period results. Their voice is a loud honking. Systematics and evolution This species is placed in the order Anseriformes, having the characteristic bill structure, but is considered to be distinct from the other species in this taxon. The related and extant families, Anhimidae (screamers) and Anatidae", "not permitted in the UK; some landowners have lobbied for this ban to be withdrawn to allow them income from sale of game meat. Population In 2000, the North American population for the geese was estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million birds. A 20-year study from 1983 to 2003 in Wichita, Kansas, found the size of the winter Canada goose population within the city limits increase from 1,600 to over 18,000 birds.", "Scania goose The Scania Goose (Swedish: Skånegås) is a breed of domestic geese originating in Scania in Sweden. Origin The Scania goose is a landrace around the towns of Vomb and Hunneberga in Scania, in the south of Sweden. The breed was standardised in the 1920s. In 2011 there were 172 registered animals in Sweden. Description The Scania goose is a large breed similar to the Pomeranian goose, derived ultimately from the greylag goose. The breed is hardy enough to spend the whole year out of doors in southern Sweden. The plumage is white with brown-grey head, neck, back, thighs", "the population was managed by Fish and Game New Zealand, which culled excessive bird numbers. In 2011, the government removed the protection status, allowing anyone to kill the birds. Finland The Canada goose was first brought to Finland as a game animal in the 1960s. The Canada goose is well adapted to living in Finland and is even causing some problems, particularly on the golf courses and pastures in the country. The problem, though, at the moment, is merely cosmetic. Behaviour Like most geese, the Canada goose is naturally migratory with the wintering range being most of the United States.", "American Buff goose The American Buff goose is a breed of domestic goose native to the United States. It was first recognized by the American Poultry Association in 1947. The breed is named for its single color variety, which is an apricot or fawn hue rather than literally buff. They are medium-weight birds, with ganders averaging 18 pounds (8.2 kg) and geese 16.\nLike most other domestic geese, it was developed from the greylag goose of Europe and Asia. Whether it was bred independently from a mutation with grey geese or from buff imported stock from Europe is unclear. It is a" ]

[ "Training. Specifically, what is known as \"stress inoculation.\" \n\nThis is why new recruits in the military have to complete tasks while being yelled at and generally messed with by their instructors- a crude imitation of the stress of combat. It's why high quality police training involves responding to crises amidst all sorts of artificial stressors like simulated ammunition and panicked victims. It's why professional boxers get hit again and again and again long before stepping into the ring. \n\nIf you are routinely exposed to a certain kind of stress, you can become desensitized to it. Mental armor, so to speak. You can be trained to *act* when faced with stress rather than freezing up.", "Unless you've prepared for a \"fight or flight\" situation, I don't know if there's a way to prevent a freeze response.\n\nSpeaking from personal experience, I once had a freeze response when I was walking to my car late one night and another car sped around the corner and started to come right at me like it was about to run me over. I froze for a moment before running to get out of the way. I think it was because my mind hadn't prepared itself for a situation like that. I was totally at ease, then, suddenly, I was in danger. I almost couldn't believe it was happening. If I had put myself more in the mindset that something bad could happen as I walked to my car, then I may have reacted more quickly.\n\nNeurological pathways in your brain are strengthened by repetition so preparing yourself through simulation (or even visualization) can strengthen pathways that lead to your body's fight or flight response. I think that the freeze response is caused by your brain not being prepared enough to react. Even if you haven't mentally prepared for an exact scenario, the strengthened pathways can still adapt quickly if a situation is similar to one you're familiar with. For instance, if your mental/physical response has prepared you for responding to people next to you getting in a fight on the bus, you might also be prepared for someone trying to snatch your necklace on the street. They're different situations, but they may use the same neurological pathways to get to your ultimate response.\n\nIf you've rarely had to plead your case in an argument/debate then you probably won't win many of them. Neurological pathways can be strengthened through repetition when it comes to your memory recall in times of stress which can help when in a discussion or when you're in a rap battle like Eminem in the movie 8 Mile. He froze because he wasn't prepared for the stress. By the film's climax, Eminem's character was prepared but the guy he rap battled at the end froze because he wasn't prepared for the stress of being so embarrassed like that. He'd only experienced what it was like to go into a situation knowing what he was going to say—not having to improvise based on new stimulus." ]

[ "his pilots of VMF-122 began what they called \"Operation Freeze\". In these missions, a single F4U Corsair flew at 30,000 to 33,000 feet under the guise of practicing high-altitude operations, which also had the side benefits of drawing ineffective Japanese anti-aircraft artillery fire (thereby wasting their ammunition stores), and creating ten gallons of chocolate ice cream. The field-expedient dessert was made from a concoction of canned milk and cocoa powder stored in an underwing tank, which froze during flight at the high altitude. According to the book Corsair: The F4U in World War II and Korea, Bailey called the unit", "CAV Ice Protection, is a fluid-based ice protection system used to help aircraft safely exit in-flight icing conditions. The system uses a glycol-based fluid to cover the critical surfaces of an aircraft and prevent the risk of any ice forming on the leading edges of the wings. The system can also break the ice that has accumulated (chemically). Developed by Tecalemit-Kilfrost-Sheepbridge Stokes (TKS), the system was primarily used during World War II by the British. During World War II, it was used for the safety and security of Royal Air Force (RAF) bombers in icing conditions.\nIce Protection with the TKS", "the 500th Air Expeditionary Group and activated in 2003 to conduct Operation Deep Freeze activities under Pacific Air Forces, before being replaced by the 13th Air Expeditionary Group. During deployments to support Deep Freeze, the group had controlled ski-equipped Lockheed LC-130 Hercules aircraft of the 139th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron and McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III aircraft of the 304th Expeditionary Airlift Squadron.", "no regulating electronics; they cannot overheat and require no overheat protection. Aircraft On the ground, when there are freezing conditions and precipitation, de-icing an aircraft is commonly practiced. Frozen contaminants interfere with the aerodynamic properties of the vehicle. Furthermore, dislodged ice can damage the engines. \nDe-icing fluids typically consist of a glycol-water solution containing a dye and agents to protect the metal surface. A range of glycols are employed. Thickeners are also used to help the deicing agent adhere to the airplane body. Ethylene glycol (EG) fluids are still in use for aircraft de-icing in some", "rejected that the aircraft did not have a sufficiently potent ice protection system, stating that the Heron's were equipped with a better system than comparable aircraft. It was of the opinion that no contemporary ice protections systems would have been capable of de-icing the aircraft in the conditions. They found no faults with the pilot's actions. It also recommended that airlines equip aircraft with additional first-aid and survival equipment.\nThe commission found that the aircraft was subject to so much icing that even if it had steered clear of Hummelfjell it would still have been forced to land or crash within", "air access to both polar regions.\nIn March 1993, the U.S. Navy hosted a two-day workshop with representatives of the National Science Foundation, Air National Guard, and other interested parties to explore logistics support options for the operation. A draft concept of operations had been prepared by the Air Directorate of the National Guard Bureau in 1993. In February 1996, a commitment was made to transfer the Operation Deep Freeze mission and all LC-130H aircraft operating within the U.S. Department of Defense to the Air National Guard. In September 1996, senior officers from the 109th Airlift Wing briefed the National Guard", "uniform clearing operation in which assault forces fought hardest to overcome the effects of weather. Ahead of the advance, the PVA/KPA concentrated on evacuating the salient, leaving behind only scattered forces to fight occasional but strong delaying actions.\nRidgway kept a careful watch over the operation, reconnoitering much of the zone of advance from the air and questioning Corps' commanders closely during the first three days of the operation on the problems weather had created. Although Moore and Almond were experiencing difficulty in supplying the operation, neither advocated abandoning or postponing the advance. Frequent airdrops kept the supply problem from becoming", "mission in October 2005. In August 2013, it was announced however, that the United States Congress enacted a freeze on U.S. Air Force structure changes, including aircraft transfers. These moves were reviewed and in April 2014 the last of the F-22s were sent to Tyndall. The squadron was inactivated a month later, on 2 May.", "approach and not an emotional one like when children in a kindergarten start fighting and no-one can stop them.\"\nA plan proposed by both China and Russia calls for a joint freeze (freeze-for-freeze) – of North's missile tests, and U.S. and South Korean military exercises; the next step would be starting talks. The joint initiative of Russia and China envisages the involved parties' commitment to \"four nos\": concerning regime change, regime collapse, accelerated reunification, and military deployment north of the thirty-eighth parallel.\nOn September 6, Donald Trump, after a telephone conversation with China's Xi Jinping, said that the United States would not tolerate", "4-101st Aviation Regiment redeployed from Afghanistan where they supported OEF in the fight against the Taliban. Operation Anaconda ...we determined that the most dangerous and critical part of the operation was getting the force on the ground. We knew we could kill the enemy if they showed themselves, so we thought the greater risk was crashing a helicopter in the unfamiliar and harsh terrain at 9,000 feet of altitude.\n— Lieutenant Colonel Jim Larson, 187th Infantry (Rakkasans) Executive Officer\nChinook and Blackhawk aircraft from 159th Aviation Brigade provided direct lift support for Operation Anaconda. U.S. Army intelligence had located a large number of", "in Bosnia, the actual impact of Deny Flight on the course of the conflict was more muted. None of the air strikes in Deny Flight were on the scale of those in Deliberate Force, and they did not significantly change the balance of power. Notably, however, Deny Flight was successful in that it \"neutralised the Serbs' advantage in fixed-wing air-power\". Deny Flight also paved the way for Operation Deliberate Force. According to Robert E. Hunter, then the US Ambassador to NATO, Deny Flight was crucial to the process of building \"consensus support for increasingly robust use of", "aircraft directly caused by the ice load will usually result in the pilot having to fly at a greater angle of attack of the airfoil to make up for the loss of lift needed to maintain an assigned altitude, or chosen rate of descent/ascent, notwithstanding power changes that are available and the airspeed desired. If the greater angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack, an aerodynamic stall will occur, which can occur at any airspeed and at any flight attitude, an oft-overlooked fact (even by pilots). In summary, depending on whether the icing event occurs on the wing", "informally keeping tabs on Navy LC-130 operations supporting the National Science Foundation in Antarctica. Because of its aging aircraft fleet and extensive depot maintenance period, the United States Navy asked if the 109th could provide limited emergency search and rescue (SAR) capability for two years to support Operation Deep Freeze, which the Air Guard accepted. At that time, it had no thought of taking over the mission. The 109th believed it to be an exercise in futility for its aircraft to deploy to the Antarctic to merely wait for emergency SAR missions, so it asked if the Navy could help", "to descend rapidly enough to reach the runway threshold. This is more than twice the glidepath angle for an ILS approach and would have required a high descent rate of 2,000 to 3,000 feet per minute. Investigators also determined that ice had likely built up on the plane's wings during the flight, creating a higher risk of a stall at low speeds. According to radar data, Flight 2415 had slowed to 110 knots as it attempted to descend. The combination of an excessively steep descent, low speed, and aircraft icing likely resulted in loss of control", "Operation Skyshield Operation Sky Shield was a series of three large-scale military exercises conducted in the United States in 1960, 1961, and 1962 by the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) to test defenses against a Soviet air attack. The tests were intended to ensure that any attacks over the Canada–US border or coastlines would be detected and subsequently stopped. The results of the tests were classified until 1997 over fears that they could be used by the Soviet Union to engage more effectively the US in the event of World War III. The", "the scenario being used, with embedded events included to elicit specific situational awareness responses in the users. Day and night scenarios included the soldiers using their current equipment and then scenarios using new technology. The same scenario was then rerun with different opposing forces and obstacles.  The percentage of correct questions for each freeze frame was computed for the two conditions.", "this region, the formation of ice is now a minimal concern.\nLarge aircraft do not require FSII as they are usually equipped with electric fuel line heaters or fuel/ oil intercoolers that keep the fuel at an appropriate temperature to prevent icing. However, if the fuel heaters are inoperable, the aircraft may be still be declared fit to fly, if FSII is added to the fuel. Storage and dispensing It is extremely important to store FSII properly. Drums containing FSII must be kept clean and dry, since the additive is hygroscopic and can absorb water directly from moisture in the air.", "fighters from an air force base, and guided the jets by GCI to intercept the target, to find out what the problem was or, if necessary, shoot the aircraft down. (Throughout the Cold War and afterwards Canadian air defences were only called upon to shoot down an aircraft once—CF-18s engaged a runaway MANTRA science balloon, 28 August 1998. Although travelling at an altitude of 120,000 to 125,000 feet, tens of thousands of feet above the world's air traffic, the errant balloon would pose a threat of mid-air collision once it began to descend. Therefore, the order was", "to know. Even though the system was developed for use in procedures not applied by SAS, a sufficiently careful study of the manuals should have led to SAS noting the system and training its pilots in its function.\n\nThe conclusion of the official accident report stated:\n\"The accident was caused by SAS's instructions and routines being inadequate to ensure that clear ice was removed from the wings of the aircraft prior to takeoff. Hence the aircraft took off with clear ice on the wings. In connection to lift-off, the clear ice disengaged and was ingested by the engines. The ice caused damage", "airpower over Bosnia\", which eventually culminated in Operation Deliberate Force.\nWhile the material impact of Deny Flight was minimal, it did have a significant political impact. From the very beginning, according to Michael Beale, \"the operation's implied objective was to demonstrate UN and NATO determination to stabilize the situation in Bosnia so that a peaceful settlement could be achieved\". Given the many violations of Deny Flight by helicopters, and the frequent failure of coordination between NATO and the UN, it is uncertain whether Deny Flight accomplished this mission. Nonetheless, NATO's limited air strikes under Deny Flight \"demonstrated its determination", "separation between aircraft, showing the top side of the defending fighter. This puts the attacker in the defender's rear view, and the common defense is to tighten the turn. \"Cold side\" lag occurs when there is little nose-to-tail separation, leaving the belly of the defending fighter in view. This puts the attacker in the defender's blind spot, and the common defense is to reverse the turn. Unless the defender is markedly more maneuverable, and lateral separation is just right, lag pursuit can not be maintained for long, causing the AOT to decrease until a suitable firing solution is presented. Out-of-plane", "planning for a third mission: coercive air strikes as advocated by the United States. NATO first prepared to use Deny Flight to carry out air strikes in August 1993 as part of a plan to end the Siege of Sarajevo. After diplomatic intervention, the plan was not executed, but a precedent was established for the possible use of air strikes. Thus, in February 1994, after the Sarajevo Marketplace Bombing, NATO issued an ultimatum to the Serbs to withdraw all heavy weapons from an exclusion zone around Sarajevo or face bombing. The Bosnian Serbs complied with NATO demands and no", "in icy conditions was the addition of a brake-parachute. Service To supplement the Hunter's interception capabilities, Switzerland purchased a surface-to-air missile (SAM) defence system from the United Kingdom, closely based on the Bristol Bloodhound II. High-altitude air defence was maintained by these SAM batteries and Dassault Mirage III fighters, while medium-to-lower altitudes were patrolled by the Hunters.\nIn case of unservicable airstrips, Swiss Air Force Jets would take off from adjacent highways, using them as improvised runways. In 1991, during a major training exercise involving eight Hunter Mk.58s and eight F-5s, up to 4 kilometers of guard rails had to be", "aircraft to Electronic Warfare (EW) and the Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD). The humiliating failure in April 1980 of the Operation Eagle Claw rescue mission in Iran resulted directly in an increased USAF emphasis on participation in the doctrine, equipment, personnel, and planning of Joint Special Operations.\nThe USAF provided attack, airlift, and combat support capability for operations in Grenada in 1983 (Operation Urgent Fury), Libya in 1986 (Operation El Dorado Canyon), and Panama in 1989 (Operation Just Cause). Lessons learned in these operations were applied to its force structure and doctrine, and became the basis for successful air operations", "air. Many modern civil fixed wing transport aircraft, for example the Boeing 737, use anti-ice systems on the leading edge of wings, engine inlets and air data probes using warm air. This is bled from engines and is ducted into a cavity beneath the surface to be anti-iced. The warm air heats the surface up to a few degrees above freezing, preventing ice from forming. The system may operate autonomously, switching on and off as the aircraft enters and leaves icing conditions.\nGround deicing technologies are also developing, and a newer technology is infrared deicing. This is the transmission of energy", "altitude where the margin between level flight AoA and stall AoA is reduced. The high AoA capability of the aircraft provides a buffer for the pilot that makes stalling the airplane (which occurs when critical AoA is exceeded) more difficult. However, military aircraft usually do not obtain such high alpha in combat, as it robs the aircraft of speed very quickly due to induced drag, and in extreme cases, increased frontal area and parasitic drag. Not only do such maneuvers slow the aircraft down, but they cause significant structural stress at high speed. Modern flight control systems tend to limit", "entry.\nHowever, against determined, well-armed opponents who fight in concert to defend an area and keep it under their control, slow stop-and-go movement can cause the deaths of many attackers and hostages. That leads to dynamic entry used in military operations or hostage rescues. It is the popular image of CQC: a flood of gunmen who burst in without warning and attempt to seize the area. Dynamic entry tactics must be rapid and aggressive, ideally a continuous flow using overwhelming force that does not stop until the threat is eliminated.\nIn the vast majority of hostage rescue and other dynamic CQC operations,", "was conducted at Brooks City-Base, Texas until the planned course closure on 30 September 2009. The Air Force conducts Arctic Survival Training – Cool School at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, and Parachuting and Non-Parachuting Water Survival Training at Fairchild AFB, Washington. The parachute water survival training—which was once located in Florida—ceased operations there in August 2015.\nSERE training was also conducted at the US Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs from the late 1960s until 1995, enabling those USAF officers commissioned through USAFA to exempt from USAF SERE training at Fairchild AFB following undergraduate pilot or navigator training. In contrast,", "United States and Canada assured citizens that its defenses were \"99 percent effective.\" However, when the results were partly declassified in 1997 it showed how unsuccessful the defense would be against a Soviet air attack. No more than one-fourth of bombers in Sky Shield would have been intercepted according to the reports written after the operations.\nIn these exercises, all air traffic from the Arctic Circle to Mexico was grounded, sometimes for up to twelve hours. The estimated cost of these shut downs was millions of dollars.\nThe operations involved 6,000 sorties flown by aircraft of the United States Air Force, British Royal", "Bat 21 led the US military to find a new approach to high-threat search and rescue. They recognized that if a SAR mission was predestined to fail, it should not be attempted and other options such as special operations, diversionary tactics and other creative approaches tailored to the situation had to be considered. Recognizing the need for an aircraft that could deliver better close air support, the US Air Force introduced the A-7 Corsair, originally a carrier-based Navy light attack aircraft, to replace the Air Force's A-1 Skyraiders, an aircraft that also was originally a carrier-based naval attack bomber.\nAs a" ]

[ "[Here's a good article that goes over the positive outcome for Toronto](_URL_0_)\n\ntl;dr: While Ford's campaign was based on \"stopping the gravy train\", he never found one. Gravy leaked out of small cracks in municipal government. Ford saved $100,000 here and there by combining depts, etc.\n\nDidn't see it mentioned in the article, but ~$12mil saved by privatizing garbage collection.\n\nStarted MUCH needed repairs on the elevated Gardiner Expressway (only highway that serves the direct downtown area).\n\nNothing came out of it thanks to council and provincial government, but Ford was adamant about adding and expanding subway lines." ]

[ "Ford Nation (book) Synopsis The book documents the career of Toronto mayor Rob Ford and his councillor brother Doug from their perspective. Development of the book began prior to Rob Ford's death in March 2016. Publication The book was released on 22 November 2016.", "December 2016, the City of Toronto's integrity commissioner concluded that Ford broke the city's code of conduct when he was a councillor finding that Ford improperly used his influence in municipal matters pertaining to two companies that were clients of his family's company. Integrity Commissioner Valerie Jepson ruled that: \"Councillor Ford took no steps to establish clear lines of separation between his responsibilities as a member of Council and his duties as a principal of Deco.\"\nSince Ford was no longer a councillor by the time the ruling was issued, the commissioner did not recommend any sanctions for Ford. Cancelled 2018", "was in fact familiar to Ford: as a boy he had travelled with his father to the site to grind grain. In 1919, Ford made his second purchase on the Rouge: an old gristmill in Northville, Michigan. The site was again familiar to Ford: he had spent his honeymoon in Northville. Ford planned on building more sites, and so forged an agreement with the Wayne County Road Commission, where the Commission would build hydro dams along the Rouge for Ford's use, in return for receiving the land (and eventually the mills) that Ford had purchased. Ford eventually built six", "Edward G. Kingsford Edward George Kingsford (March 1, 1862 – July 19, 1943) was an American timber cruiser, real estate developer, and automotive executive, who became the authorized representative for the Ford Motor Company and developed the Ford factory in what would later become Kingsford, Michigan; the town is named for Kingsford.\nKingsford was born on March 1, 1862 in Woodstock, Ontario. He was invited by Henry Ford in 1919 to a camping trip in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan along with Thomas Edison, Harvey Firestone and John Burroughs. Ford wanted to produce timber for his operations; a Ford Model T used", "Rob Ford Early life Ford was born in Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada, in 1969, the youngest of four children (Doug, Kathy, Randy and Rob) of Ruth Diane (née Campbell) and Douglas Bruce Ford His paternal grandparents were English immigrants. His father, along with Ted Herriott, was co-founder of Deco Labels and Tags, which makes pressure-sensitive labels for plastic-wrapped grocery products at an estimated CA$100 million in annual sales, and was a Progressive Conservative Member of the Ontario Legislature from 1995 to 1999.\nFord attended Scarlett Heights Collegiate in Etobicoke. He dreamed of becoming a professional football player, and his father paid for", "construction of highways in Melbourne.\nThe scheme involved borrowing four times as much money as the initial capital from a Hong Kong bank. A$42 million was invested in the scheme, mainly by private individuals. Most of the investors were Jewish businessmen from Melbourne. Green promised a 15% per annum return on investment, as well as allowing investors to legally write off some of the investment as a tax deduction.\nGreen created fraudulent documents that appeared to show equipment purchases, but the fund never actually purchased any equipment and CityLink did not lease any equipment from it. A considerable quantity of money disappeared", "has known.\"\nRepublican Michigan Gov. John Engler called the former Democratic mayor \"a man of his word who was willing to work with anyone, regardless of party or politics, to help Detroit – the city he loved and fought for all his life.\" Corruption Young's political ally, William L. Hart, served for 15 years as Detroit Police Chief before being indicted and convicted for stealing $1.3 million from police undercover funds. Hart was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment and ordered to pay back the money. Deputy Chief of Police Kenneth Weiner, also a close associate of Young, was charged", "William Holmes Howland Biography Prior to William Holmes Howland becoming Toronto's 25th mayor, he was a businessman who was elected president of the Board of Trade in 1874-1875. He was involved in many causes like the Toronto General Hospital, the Toronto Bible Training School, the Christian Missionary Union, the Mimico Industrial School for Boys and he was interested in improving the living conditions of the slum areas of the city.\nHe turned to municipal politics to try to help the city with problems like drunkenness, slum conditions, filthy streets and to clean up the foul water supply.\nIn 1884 the Ontario legislature", "Detroit Automobile Company Foundation The company was founded with a paid-up capital of $15,000 ($455,490 in 2019). Henry Ford managed the manufacturing plant at 1343 Cass Avenue and Amsterdam in Detroit; initially with no pay until he left his job at the Detroit Edison Company, after which he was given a monthly salary of $150 ($4,555 in 2019). He refused to put a car into production until he had perfected it to his satisfaction, infuriating investors who quickly began to lose confidence in Ford's ability to bring a product to market. The company's primary objective was to make a profit", " One of his first projects was simply paving the streets—only four streets were paved, and The Detroit Journal described the rest as \"150 miles of rotting, rutted, lumpy, dilapidated paving.\" In hot weather some stretches oozed pitch and resin and occasionally caught fire from discarded cigar butts. Warning repeatedly against the dangers of government by the corporations, he launched nationally visible crusades against Detroit's streetcar, gas, electric, and telephone companies. He successfully forced rate reductions that won him widespread popularity. He won public approval for a citizen-owned electric light plant, and became a national spokesman for municipal", "Daniel Dale Biography Dale was born to Ronald Dale and Jennifer Dale, a Jewish family. His siblings are Andrew, Brittany and Ryan. He was raised in Thornhill, Ontario. He earned a B.B.A. from York University's Schulich School of Business. After graduating, he worked for the Toronto Star as their Toronto City Hall reporter and bureau chief covering the administration of Mayor Rob Ford.\nIn 2013, then Toronto Mayor Rob Ford made disparaging remarks about Dale as part of \"meddling media\", and accused Dale of taking pictures on Ford's property. Ford later retracted the accusations, \"there was absolutely no", "that level at Ford; he was a Vice President when he retired in 1983. Alongside his responsibilities while holding positions in labor relations, he was instrumental in setting up Ford's Minority Dealer Training Program and helped see that Ford hired 10,000 workers from within the city of Detroit, where he chose to live. He was involved in his community, working with the New Detroit Committee after the 1967 Detroit riot, and served on the National Selective Service Appeal Board in 1969, at the height of the Vietnam war.", "Rob Ford conflict of interest trial The Rob Ford conflict of interest trial was a civil action by Paul Magder versus Toronto Mayor Rob Ford, held in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The action began in March 2012 and finally concluded in June 2013, including a trial in September 2012 and an appeal in January 2013. Under Ontario law, politicians are required to disclose conflicts of interest and excuse themselves from votes at municipal government councils. Magder alleged that Ford had broken the Ontario law by voting at Toronto City Council on a motion of paying back money that Ford had raised", "Monument in Grant Park—with a photographer present and a policeman there to arrest him. He paid the policeman $10 for the arrest. In 1904, he began working for the company in Syracuse. He quickly rose in the sales and promotion areas and made a name for himself. In 1910, he moved back to Chicago to join a speculative business of a friend of his who wished to manufacture an automobile self-starter. The business did not succeed and McDonald lost his investment.\nIn 1911, he was in partnership in Detroit selling used cars, and by the end of 1912 had", "that Ford sold hashish at James Gardens for several years in the 1980s, based on interviews with anonymous sources. Ford, who had never been charged with an offence, denied the allegations and accused the newspaper of unfairly targeting his brother, then-Mayor Rob Ford. The newspaper defended its report and its use of anonymous sources at an Ontario Press Council hearing, which dismissed complaints against the newspaper and found that its coverage was \"fair and ethical\". Ford said at the time that he planned to sue the newspaper for libel. When asked in a 2018 interview why he had not sued,", "Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village (a National Historic Landmark), the Michigan chapter of the Nature Conservancy, and several boards associated with his alma mater the University of Michigan. He was also first chair of the Michigan Economic Development Corporation in 1999 under Republican Governor John Engler and was also the chair of Ann Arbor SPARK. 2010 Snyder competed with Oakland County Sheriff Mike Bouchard, state Senator Tom George, United States Congressman Peter Hoekstra, and Michigan Attorney General Mike Cox as candidates for the Republican gubernatorial nomination. Bill Ford Jr., Chairman of the Ford Motor Company, endorsed Snyder for the", "he was the foremost representative of organized labour in city politics. His main campaign was for public ownership of utilities. He was central to the creation of the Toronto Transit Commission, bringing the previously privately owned streetcars under city control. He was a close friend of Adam Beck, and worked with him to bring publicly run electricity to the province. He was also a Catholic, and long the only Catholic member of the Board of Control. He was able to win significant support from Protestants over his career, a rare event in the sectarian politics of the staunchly Protestant city.\nHe", "residence. Following the resignation of Richard Nixon, Ford spent his first ten days as President in the house before moving to the White House.\nIn March 1959 Lieutenant Colonel William Henry Whalen, the \"highest-ranking American ever recruited as a mole by the Russian Intelligence Service,\" provided Colonel Sergei A. Edemski three classified Army manuals in exchange for $3,500 at a shopping center parking lot within the city. Agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation later arrested Whalen on July 12, 1966 at his home in the city. In 1961 the Woodrow Wilson Bridge opened.\nIn 1965 the city integrated schools. In 1971", "to an end, Ford approached Malcomson to bankroll a new automotive company. Malcomson, although overextended with his other investments, was able to raise $3000 With this capital, Malcomson and Ford agreed to form a company, Ford & Malcomson, to develop a new automobile. Details of the partnership were written down and signed by each man, and witnessed by C. Harold Wills. With Malcomson's backing, Ford designed the Model A, an inexpensive car designed to be sold for $750. In 1903, the firm moved to a new building on Mack Avenue, and soon Ford and Malcomson (\"doing business as", "moved to Detroit, where he was active in the city and managed Cass's property holdings. He was one of the founders of the State Savings Bank, one of the original promoters of the Elmwood Cemetery, and was a member of the Board of Education.\nHe organized and promoted the first plank road company in Michigan, and was involved in a number of other ventures that promoted communication between Detroit and the interior of the state. In 1849-1850 he was an alderman of the city, and served as mayor in 1855 and was one of the original commissioners on the", "G. M. Ford Biography Ford's father died when he was young and as such he was brought up solely by his mother, who worked as a secretary. Ford attended Nathaniel Hawthorne College in New Hampshire (closed 1988) and ended up with a master's degree in 18th-century literature from Adelphi University in New York. Ford worked as a teacher of creative writing before becoming an author. Career Ford's first book, Who in Hell is Wanda Fuca? was published in 1995. As well as being Ford's début novel, this book was also the first in a series of seven books based on", "Harrison Ford Early life Ford was born at the Swedish Covenant Hospital in Chicago, Illinois to Christopher Ford (born John William Ford), an advertising executive and former actor, and Dorothy (née Nidelman), a former radio actress. A younger brother, Terence, was born in 1945. His father was Catholic and his mother was Jewish. Ford's paternal grandparents, John Fitzgerald Ford and Florence Veronica Niehaus, were of Irish and German descent, respectively. Ford's maternal grandparents, Harry Nidelman and Anna Lifschutz, were Jewish emigrants from Minsk, Belarus (at that time a part of the Russian Empire). When asked in which religion he and", "Henry P. Ford Early life Henry Parker Ford was born in Hudson, New York in 1837. He first worked as an accountant, experiencing much success in the trade. His skills in finance served him well in the expanding commercial center of Pittsburgh and led to his association in many industries in the city. He founded Emerson, Ford and Company, a manufacturing concern whose specialty was saw blades. In 1881 he was elected to city council.", "James Simpson.\nAmong his accomplishments are helping to create the Toronto Transit Commission, building the Coliseum at the Canadian National Exhibition and overseeing early development of the city's waterfront. He was considered a candidate of the workers and was supported by the left-leaning Toronto Daily Star and opposed by the more conservative Toronto Telegram during his time in politics. On city council he was one of the main proponents of an eight-hour work week and giving women the vote.\nHe served for many years on the city's police commission. Professor Michiel Horn of York University attributes the Commission's decision to ban", "Paul Sherf.\nSherf first worked for Ford Motor Company as a summer employee during his college years, working at the 1933 Century of Progress World's Fair in Chicago. He continued his employment with Ford during the off-seasons of his professional hockey career. Following his retirement from professional hockey he returned to Ford to work full-time. During his early years with Ford, he attended Wayne State University in Detroit where he earned a Master of Business Administration degree. Sherf finished his career with Ford as a senior executive in the Manufacturing Division.\nSherf served as national President of the University of Michigan M", "Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children. He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986. Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former President's advance obituary, an article that would", "his brother were raised, Ford jokingly responded, \"Democrat,\" \"to be liberals of every stripe\". In a television interview shown in August 2000, when asked about what influence his Irish Catholic and Russian Jewish ancestry may have had on his life as a person and as an artist, Ford humorously stated, \"As a man I've always felt Irish, as an actor I've always felt Jewish.\"\nFord was active in the Boy Scouts of America, and achieved its second-highest rank, Life Scout. He worked at Napowan Adventure Base Scout camp as a counselor for the Reptile Study merit badge. Because of this, he", "to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children.\nHe continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986. Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former President's advance obituary, an article that would", "Steven Ford Early life Ford was born in East Grand Rapids, Michigan, the third child and youngest son of former President Gerald Ford and former First Lady Betty Ford. Ford graduated from T. C. Williams High School in Alexandria, Virginia, on June 14, 1974, at which his father, then Vice President, gave the commencement address. Ford attended Utah State University, studying range management; while his older brother Jack studied forestry there. Ford also attended California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, where equine studies was his major field of study. Career Ford was cast in the film Grease (1978) as", "manufacture and sell Ford products in Canada.\nAdditionally, he obtained the right to sell Ford products in the then existing British Empire, exclusive of the British Isles. This farsightedness on the part of McGregor has resulted in Ford of Canada having wholly owned subsidiaries in South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. Ford Canada Production of Ford automobiles in Canada started in the Wagon Works on October 10, 1904.\nThe 1904 Ford Model C was the first car built at the plant.\nIn addition to building the business, he actively developed people. A young man, Wallace R. Campbell, whom he hired as" ]

[ "1. \\ > 1 billion user accounts, so probably some double-digit percentage of the worlds population\n\n2. no sorting or gating, random people from any community can trip across any other video, and some will. \n\n3. Fans. Youtube culture encourages the type of rabid fan building that . . . okay, look, many of the heavier users on youtube are teenagers. Youtube brags that among teenagers, youtube celebrities are better known than other celebrities. There are many sensible teens. There are many sensible teens who like things that I don't like. There are also many teens who embody the worst of, say, justin bieber fans. \n\n4. Let's combine these three points and imagine the youtube comments as the community basis for flamewars that resemble 'psx vs. n64' or 'ps2 vs. xbox', but the sides are obscure, sometimes wholly imagined by only one side, you can't always discern what point someone is making on an unrelated video from their comment if you aren't part of the sub-community, and youtube comments are the base point for these flamewars because the celebrities are wholly on youtube. You ever see those collapsed comments which begin with something like: \"I like the vocals at 2:17\" [[see 17 collapsed comments]] \"Shitting idiot, Prussia was its own country back then and can't be blamed for that!\"? Okay, that's a real example that was an argument between (I'm ashamed to have searched this up), a hetelia fan and a fan of some youtube channel that uses DnD minis to represent european countries to make racist punchlines. \n\n5. People who aren't into that . . . stuff . . . stop commenting. People who are into that start commenting more. \n\n6. This means there is almost always a confrontational tone/argument expectation in youtube comment sections. Which means some of the more agreeable folks who are left still commenting, are also given into interpreting other comments in the worst possible light. \"Of course it's cavitation!\" \"Well, it's more likely a heat pump operating through sound waves passing through the centre, which is why it needs a certain frequency differential to produce heat past unity. Cavitation wouldn't explain the heat production beyond 100%, and I bet the core of that freezes after too long\" \"You're an idiot, there's no need for any of your fancy heat pump BS, look up cavitation!\" (Real comments on a rotary water heating engine. . . albeit toned down)\n\n\n\nAnd then . . . what's left? A whole bunch of people arguing with each other across the breath of youtube, where 99% of everyone doesn't know what the hell they're on about, and the rest of everyone else commenting is doing so with the expectation of horrible comments & arguments to follow. \n\nWe are left, in short, with the worst fraction of a billion user accounts. And the bottom 1% of that is pretty deep." ]

[ "with the occasional burst of wit shining through.\nIn September 2008, The Daily Telegraph commented that YouTube was \"notorious\" for \"some of the most confrontational and ill-formed comment exchanges on the internet\", and reported on YouTube Comment Snob, \"a new piece of software that blocks rude and illiterate posts\". The Huffington Post noted in April 2012 that finding comments on YouTube that appear \"offensive, stupid and crass\" to the \"vast majority\" of the people is hardly difficult.\nOn November 6, 2013, Google implemented a new comment system that requires all YouTube users to use a Google+ account to comment on videos, thereby", "is a habit that carried over to YouTubing - those who have had negative comments about his videos would be \"unsubbed\" from his channel. He once described how he does this in a vlog, saying he blocks the viewer and then unblocks them to give them the freedom to watch or subscribe once again, at the risk of losing face. This seems to be the result of a joke Huynh plays - his goal is not merely to entertain an audience, but also to entertain himself and to play with the social construct within the medium in such a way", "to reply to pre-Google+ integrated comments. YouTube said that their new commenting system featured improved tools for moderation, and comments would no longer be shown chronologically, but would be featured according to \"relevance\" and popularity, determined by the commenters' community engagement, reputation, and up-votes for a particular comment.\nThe decision led hundreds of thousands of users to criticize the change. Some YouTube commenters and content creators complained that the Google+ requirement that users use their real name created online privacy and security concerns. YouTube co-founder Jawed Karim voiced his disapproval in one of a few comments subsequent to the change", "including the temporary addition of the following text, \"I can't comment here anymore, since I don't want a google+ account\" to the description of the first ever video on the site. Thousands of commenters on YouTube pasted text art tanks and stick figures called \"Bob\" to protest the new commenting system and Google+. Supporters of the changes said it was a positive step at cleaning up the \"virtual cesspool\" of homophobic, racist, sexist and offensive comments found on YouTube. However, this actually increased the spam, and in fixing the issue, Google took the opportunity to strike back against those posting", "mocking the strange and cliched practices of advertisers, a practical joke by an ultrasound technician, and, more recently, the high prices in mini-bars. Occasionally, she will make parodies of other YouTube videos. Of these, her take on \"How to Fake a Six-pack\" is wildly popular and is the most viewed Communitychannel video to date. More serious responses range from racism and depression to national identity and natural disasters. Her comments on the February 2009 Victorian bushfires, now commonly referred to as Black Saturday, are one such noteworthy example.\nTran usually ends her videos with a segment referred to as \"Porno Music/Comment", "making the comment system Google+-orientated. The corporation stated that the change is necessary to personalize comment sections for viewers, eliciting an overwhelmingly negative public response—YouTube co-founder Jawed Karim also expressed disdain by writing on his channel: \"why the fuck do I need a Google+ account to comment on a video?\". The official YouTube announcement received over 62,000 \"thumbs down\" votes and only just over 4,000 \"thumbs up\" votes, while an online petition demanding Google+'s removal gained more than 230,000 signatures in just over two months. Writing in the Newsday blog Silicon Island, Chase Melvin noted: \"Google+ is nowhere near as", "Reply girl A reply girl was a type of female YouTube user who uploaded video responses to popular YouTube videos, at a time when such responses were displayed prominently by the site.\nIn 2012, YouTube gave significant weight to video responses when suggesting further viewing for any given video, putting them \"almost automatically\" at the top of the list. Users known as \"reply girls\" realised that by responding to popular videos, such as those featured on the YouTube home page, their own content could receive a significant audience. By selecting a suggestive thumbnail for the response, often filmed in a push-up", "the topic and post their own comments in a linear fashion, one after the other. Most forums are public, allowing anybody to sign up at any time. A few are private, gated communities where new members must pay a small fee to join.\nForums can contain many different categories in a hierarchy, typically organized according to topics and subtopics. Other features include the ability to post images or files or to quote another user's post with special formatting in one's own post. Forums often grow in popularity until they can boast several thousand members posting replies to tens of thousands of", "language, sexual content, and \"controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to war, political conflicts, natural disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown\", unless the content is \"usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain\".\nIn August 2016, YouTube introduced a new system to notify users of violations of the \"advertiser-friendly content\" rules, and allow them to appeal. Following its introduction, many prominent YouTube users began to accuse the site of engaging in de facto censorship, arbitrarily disabling monetization on videos discussing various topics such as skin care, politics, and LGBT", "Humor University System Each forum is more likely an internet board, with forum>post>comments hierarchy. On each forum, The top image of the post is displayed with the title so you can click on it. If the post doesn't have an image, a title is only shown. Every posts and comment can get Likes (추천) or Dislikes (반대). While the usual comments are colorless, more 'likes' to comments makes it redder (from 5 likes without any dislikes) and thicker. Each forum has 'daily best', 'weekly best', and some forum has 'monthly best' consisting posts with most 'likes'. Top five of best", "by deliberately opening it. This limits discussion under that comment, since new comments under it will not be seen automatically. Commenting The ability to comment on seeds and articles allows for extra discussions regarding the content. While debates are welcome, useless, insulting, and self-promoting comments are not. If a comment receives enough reports, that comment will be collapsed and its contents can only be shown by choosing to expand it. The Newsvine comment system also allows for semi-threaded comments, easing the confusion of comment direction. Users can edit but not delete their own comments. Writers are", "praised Web 2.0 for enabling \"community and collaboration on a scale never seen before\", and added that YouTube \"harnesses the stupidity of crowds as well as its wisdom. Some of the comments on YouTube make you weep for the future of humanity just for the spelling alone, never mind the obscenity and the naked hatred\". The Guardian in 2009 described users' comments on YouTube as:\nJuvenile, aggressive, misspelled, sexist, homophobic, swinging from raging at the contents of a video to providing a pointlessly detailed description followed by a LOL, YouTube comments are a hotbed of infantile debate and unashamed ignorance – ", "form of content on the channel is the \"h3h3 reaction video\" series. More involved than traditional reaction videos, these consist of clips of a source video intermixed with commentary and absurd sketches, a style which has been described as a cross between the works of comedy duo Tim & Eric and the television series Mystery Science Theater 3000.\nThe channel has gained a reputation for criticizing certain Internet trends and personalities as well as the policies of YouTube itself. Often the pair will comment on or participate in online controversies, for instance with SoFloAntonio and prank videos. Many of these controversies", "so vast, but there are 400 hours of content are uploaded every minute. It's simply too big. People have been raising these issues for years, just visit any parenting forum and they’ve been talking about the fake Peppa Pig videos.\"\nIn November 2017, YouTube announced that it would take further steps to review and filter videos reported by users as containing inappropriate content, including more stringent use of its filtering and age-restriction system to prevent such videos from appearing on the app and YouTube proper. In an update to the YouTube Kids app that month, a more prominent disclaimer was added", "shorts, was featured on the site's home page. The video and its sequels feature Benson interviewing strangers as a pretext for hitting them with his microphone to see \"what people will put up with just because they want to be on TV, or even just YouTube.\" Since then, he has become a popular YouTube comedian, number 47 on the list of most subscribed comedians on YouTube. His most popular video as of early 2009 was episode 1 of the Gorgeous Tiny Chicken Machine Show, which was selected to be featured on YouTube shortly after being posted February 25, 2007, and", "can enjoy the show. Such references, for example, come from movies, television, music, literature, science, and history. The animators also regularly add jokes or sight gags into the show's background via humorous or incongruous bits of text in signs, newspapers, billboards, and elsewhere. The audience may often not notice the visual jokes in a single viewing. Some are so fleeting that they become apparent only by pausing a video recording of the show or viewing it in slow motion. Kristin Thompson argues that The Simpsons uses a \"flurry of cultural references, intentionally inconsistent characterization, and considerable self-reflexivity about television conventions", "videos include a running gag in which the man gives a thumbs-up (or sometimes the Finger gun or the middle finger) in front of the camera while pointing the camera at the mess created, usually before the scene ends.\nOn 24 March 2018, HowToBasic released what appeared to be a face reveal video. However, the video turned out to be a parody and a compilation of popular YouTubers claiming themselves to be the creator of the channel, ultimately continuing the legitimate creator's anonymity. Over 80 individuals had a cameo in the video, including Michael Stevens of Vsauce, Markiplier, Casey Neistat, jacksfilms,", "such outlet, ninemsn's \"The Fix\", refused to cover Redfoo in protest of the video. Redfoo responded to criticisms by blaming female bloggers for starting the controversy about the video, saying on Australian radio that \"The women have gone crazy on me.” He also defended the video as satirical and said he was only trying to make a fun party song.", "comments were the focus of a Slate article by Michael Agger, who remarked that uploading the video was like \"dipping a bunny into acid,\" further adding that the \"Laughing Baby has become an internet monument, and posting a remark is like tagging your name on the Statue of Liberty.\" Impact The Laughing Baby video became a worldwide phenomenon and the tenth most viewed YouTube video of all time. Its success is attributed to \"cuteness\" and its \"adorable nature\". The video appeared on the front pages of web portals such as msn.com, and has been the theme of several ringtones, which", "and prank phone calls, heightening its surreal quality.\nThe satirical edge was equally significant, both the references within news programmes to the fact that they are reporting the news and repeating the show's title as well as such aspects as newsspeak, media-manipulation, exploitation of tragedies, patronising mistreatment of the general public, lack of fact-checking—personified by Marber's Peter O'Hanraha-hanrahan—and the general assumption that the programme itself is infallible (\"On the Hour – Towards a New Eden\"). Also satirised were party political broadcasts, chummy yet vacuous radio DJs (in the form of Morris's Wayne Carr), religious broadcasting, glossy magazines, 'fun' local events, local radio,", "abusive or offensive comments. Every comment is initially given a score of −1 to +2, with a default score of +1 for registered users, 0 for anonymous users (Anonymous Coward), +2 for users with high \"karma\", or −1 for users with low \"karma\". As moderators read comments attached to articles, they click to moderate the comment, either up (+1) or down (−1). Moderators may choose to attach a particular descriptor to the comments as well, such as \"normal\", \"offtopic\", \"flamebait\", \"troll\", \"redundant\", \"insightful\", \"interesting\", \"informative\", \"funny\", \"overrated\", or \"underrated\", with each corresponding to a −1 or +1 rating. So a", "true and stated, \"I think it's funny. That’s the reason why I like shit in films and shit: 'cause shit is funny.\" When the video was unearthed by Buzzfeed in 2019, John said, \"at the time, I thought this sort of thing was funny, but really it was stupid and tasteless, and I regret having ever done it.\" John has been criticized for using DMCA takedown notices to hide the video. As of 2019, the Harlem Shake poop video is not readily available, but numerous reaction videos to it remain on YouTube.", "\"video weblog dialog\"). The diavlog format is most popular for political, world events, or other types of conversational video blog discussions in which two (or more) people are actively participating in a real-time, give-and-take discussion of ideas.\nThe term \"diavlog\" was first adopted and put into wide use by Bloggingheads.tv contributors, (initially by Robert Wright and Mickey Kaus), though its original coinage is subject to debate. The term is widely used both by people on air, as well as commentors, refer to a specific conversation.\nAlthough initially coined on the Bloggingheads site, the term has come to be used in other parts", "channel, as well as on its Twitter and Facebook feeds. At the same time, a date is announced for a panel debate on the respective issue. Interested users are then requested to submit their video contributions to the topic, which are all featured on the website and on YouTube.\nThe panel sessions are split into thematic segments, each representing a specific question. All debates are video-filmed and made available after the event on DubaiDebates.com and YouTube. During the panel session, selected videos uploaded by outside contributors are shown. A Twitter hashtag is defined, allowing live discussions about the panel to be", "(such as those related to wine in their testing), and the Recommended page eventually using search history to surface such videos. YouTube defended the criticism, stating that it was developed in consultation with other advocacy groups, and that the company was open to feedback over the app's operation. A larger YouTube controversy referred to as \"Elsagate\" has also been associated with the app, referring to channels which post videos featuring characters from popular franchises (especially, among others, Frozen, Paw Patrol, Peppa Pig, and Spider-Man), but with disturbing, sexually suggestive, violent, or otherwise inappropriate themes and content.\nYouTube global head of family", "of satire in news shows thus believe that the showcasing of an overly and openly frustrated host will induce or perpetuate \"cynicism in viewers\".", "column countering the criticisms. He argued that critics were being selective in what they observed: of the seven women in the video, three were minorities; they ignored descriptors like \"nice eyes that lit up when she spoke\" instead focusing only comments that mentioned youth or weight; and they took comments out of context. He states that the \"Sketches idea is so altruistic in its intent that it’s technically counter to [Dove's] own sales mission ... it tells women] they don’t need as much Dove as they think.\" He concludes \"If you want to hammer a brand, hammer the", "season, Evgenia Samara or Christina Moustaka would be presenting funny videos found online or created by fans of the show, after the end of \"Top of the week\".\nStarting with the 7th season, in which only one episode was airing per week, sketches have been incorporated into the format of the show. Besides the hosts, Kostas, the floor manager, and Stathis, a cameraman, make usual appearances in those sketches. Kostas (referred to as Kostakis) and Stathis (referred to as Pasoktsis) have been a part of some of the show's inside jokes for a while.\nAn invaluable and much loved member of the", "commentator\", portrayed by his real-life namesake. The character incorporates aspects of Colbert's real life, but is primarily a parody of cable news pundits, particularly Bill O'Reilly of Fox News' The O'Reilly Factor, whom he refers to as \"Papa Bear\". To this end, the character even incorporates O'Reilly's mannerisms, described as his \"pen-wielding, hand-stabbing gestures.\" O'Reilly's use of \"talking points\" — illustrated onscreen graphics reflecting the host's opinions — are parodied on The Colbert Report with the segment \"The Word\". He initially incorporated long-winded, verbose metaphors to parody CNN correspondent Aaron Brown. In addition, the character was also heavily inspired", "in a form that was not rude. M is just sitting in front of the cameras and talking to anonymous people about the things they put in their ads. It's witty and funny, but never goes too far and never reveals the identity of a person on the other side.\nOn March 31, 2015, he started hosting his second TV show, written with Voja Žanetić, Lekoviti Show (\"The Medicine Show\"), which consisted of 12 episodes and which aired on TV B92. It is also available on YouTube. At the time of airing, it had problems reaching enough audience, mainly because TV" ]

[ "A cellar is usually colder then the outside as it is kept dark and surrounded by cold dirt. Humidity is based on not only the amount of water in the air but also the temperature of the air. So when air gets down into the basement and gets cooled down its humidity increases. All life needs water to thrive. Basements with a lot of humidity will have a lot more humidity so it is easier for mold to get the water it needs.", "Mold and mildew thrive in locations which are dark, moist, and cool. Basements are often a perfect environment for mold and mildew because they don't see a ton of sunlight, are usually cooler than other parts of the house, and are usually moist environments especially when they are unfinished.", "The best habitats for mold and mildew are cold, dark, and humid. In a basement, away from the light of the sun, it is all three (no light, no warmth, the cold increases the *relative* humidity). That makes basements a good place for them to grow." ]

[ "species is unknown, some examples of commonly found indoor molds are Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Alternaria and Penicillium. Reaction to molds differ between individuals and can range from mild symptoms such as eye irritation, cough to severe life-threatening asthmatic or allergic reactions. People with history of chronic lung disease, asthma, allergy, other breathing problems or those that are immunocompromised could be more sensitive to molds and may develop fungal pneumonia.\nThe most effective approach to control mold growth after a natural disaster is to control moisture level. Some ways to prevent mold growth after a natural disaster include opening all doors and windows,", "Home safety Mold Molds are microscopic organisms that thrive in damp environments. They can be found on tiles and fabric, in bathrooms and kitchens, nearly any damp, warm place. Molds are usually not a problem indoors, unless mold spores land on a wet or damp spot and begin growing. Allergic reactions to molds are common. Allergic responses include high fever-type symptoms, such as sneezing, runny nose, and red eyes.", "effect associated with dampness and mold is Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), which is defined by manifestations of symptomatic illness as a result of poor indoor air quality and pollutant exposures . Signs of potentially illness-causing buildings include condensation on the windows, high humidity in the bathrooms, a moldy odor, or water leakage.\nWhile there is a proven correlation between mold exposure and the development of upper and lower respiratory syndromes, there are still fewer incidences of negative health effect than one might expect. Barbeau and colleagues suggested that studies do not show a greater impact from mold exposure for a", "who live in basements have been noted, for example mold, radon, and risk of injury/death due to fire. It has been suggested that a basement suite is the last type of dwelling a tenant should look for because of the risk of mold. However, due to demand for affordable housing, basement suites are often the only available housing for some low-income families and individuals, for example in Calgary, Alberta.\nAirborne spores can cause mold to grow in damp and unventilated areas, such as basements. Presence of mold can lead to \"respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, allergic rhinitis and asthma\", as well", "are carried by air currents. When spores land on a moist surface suitable for life, they begin to grow. Mold is normally found indoors at levels which do not affect most healthy individuals.\nBecause common building materials are capable of sustaining mold growth and mold spores are ubiquitous, mold growth in an indoor environment is typically related to water or moisture and may be caused by incomplete drying of flooring materials (such as concrete). Flooding, leaky roofs, building-maintenance or indoor-plumbing problems can lead to interior mold growth. Water vapor commonly condenses on surfaces cooler than the moisture-laden air, enabling mold to", "and people living or working in areas with mold increase their chances of adverse health effects. Molds growing in buildings can be divided into three groups — primary, secondary, and tertiary colonizers. Each group is categorized by the ability to grow at a certain water activity requirement. It has become difficult to identify mycotoxin production by indoor molds for many variables, such as (i) they may be masked as derivatives (ii) they are poorly documented and (iii) the fact that they are likely to produce different metabolites on building materials. Some of the mycotoxins in the indoor environment are produced", "that produce mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, and not to all molds in general.\nMold in the home can usually be found in damp, dark or steamy areas, e.g. bathrooms, kitchens, cluttered storage areas, recently flooded areas, basement areas, plumbing spaces, areas with poor ventilation and outdoors in humid environments. Symptoms caused by mold allergy are: watery, itchy eyes; a chronic cough; headaches or migraines; difficulty breathing; rashes; tiredness; sinus problems; nasal blockage and frequent sneezing.\nMolds can also pose a hazard to human and animal health when they are consumed following the growth of certain mold species in stored food. Some", "are produced by the fungal body and are not at significant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to indoor air quality, comes from the allergenic properties of the spore cell wall. More serious than most allergenic properties is the ability of mold to trigger episodes in persons that already have asthma, a serious respiratory disease. Carbon monoxide One of the most acutely toxic indoor air contaminants is carbon monoxide (CO), a colourless and odourless gas that is a by-product of incomplete combustion. Common sources of carbon monoxide are tobacco smoke, space heaters", "months (when humidity is high inside the house, and moisture is trapped), and occur in drafty homes more frequently in the colder months (when warm air escapes from the living area and condenses). If a house is artificially humidified during the winter, this can create conditions favorable to mold. Moving air may prevent mold from growing, since it has the same desiccating effect as low humidity. Mold grow best in warm temperatures, 77 to 86 °F (25 to 30 °C), although growth may occur between 32 and 95 °F (0 and 35 °C).\nRemoving one of the three requirements for mold reduces (or eliminates) new", "Mold health issues Mold health issues are potentially harmful effects of molds (US usage; British English \"moulds\").\nMolds are ubiquitous in the biosphere, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. The vast majority of molds are not hazardous to humans, and reaction to molds can vary between individuals with relatively minor allergic reactions being the most common. Nonetheless, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported in its June 2006 report, 'Mold Prevention Strategies and Possible Health Effects in the Aftermath of Hurricanes and Major Floods,' that \"excessive exposure to mold-contaminated materials can", "growing on food or other surfaces.\nFew molds can begin growing at temperatures of 4 °C (39 °F) or below, so food is typically refrigerated at this temperature. When conditions do not enable growth to take place, molds may remain alive in a dormant state depending on the species, within a large range of temperatures. The many different mold species vary enormously in their tolerance to temperature and humidity extremes. Certain molds can survive harsh conditions such as the snow-covered soils of Antarctica, refrigeration, highly acidic solvents, anti-bacterial soap and even petroleum products such as jet fuel.\nXerophilic molds are able to grow in", "ubiquitous, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust; however, when mold spores are present in large quantities, they can present a health hazard to humans, potentially causing allergic reactions and respiratory problems.\nSome molds also produce mycotoxins that can pose serious health risks to humans and animals. Some studies claim that exposure to high levels of mycotoxins can lead to neurological problems and in some cases, death. Prolonged exposure, e.g. daily home exposure, may be particularly harmful. Research on the health impacts of mold has not been conclusive. The term \"toxic mold\" refers to molds", "and/or eliminated may be necessary. Thus, the concept of mold growth, assessment, and remediation is essential in prevention of mold health issues.\nA common issue with mold hazards in the household is the placement of furniture, and the lack of ventilation which this causes to certain parts of the wall. The simplest method of avoiding mold in a home so affected is to move the furniture in question.\nAdverse respiratory health effects are associated with occupancy in buildings with moisture and mold damage.\nMolds may excrete liquids or low-volatility gases, but the concentrations are so low that frequently they cannot be detected even", "paper facing on drywall and organic matter such as soap, fabrics, and dust containing skin cells. If a house has mold, the moisture may originate in the basement or crawl space, a leaking roof or a leak in plumbing pipes. Insufficient ventilation may accelerate moisture buildup. Visible mold colonies may form where ventilation is poorest and on perimeter walls (because they are nearest the dew point).\nIf there are mold problems in a house only during certain times of the year, the house is probably too airtight or too drafty. Mold problems occur in airtight homes more frequently in the warmer", "are thousands of known species of molds, which have diverse life-styles including saprotrophs, mesophiles, psychrophiles and thermophiles and a very few opportunistic pathogens of humans. They all require moisture for growth and some live in aquatic environments. Like all fungi, molds derive energy not through photosynthesis but from the organic matter on which they live, utilising heterotrophy. Typically, molds secrete hydrolytic enzymes, mainly from the hyphal tips. These enzymes degrade complex biopolymers such as starch, cellulose and lignin into simpler substances which can be absorbed by the hyphae. In this way molds play a major role in causing decomposition of", "levels between 2 pCi/L and 4 pCi/L. Molds and other allergens These biological chemicals can arise from a host of means, but there are two common classes: (a) moisture induced growth of mold colonies and (b) natural substances released into the air such as animal dander and plant pollen. Mold is always associated with moisture, and its growth can be inhibited by keeping humidity levels below 50%. Moisture buildup inside buildings may arise from water penetrating compromised areas of the building envelope or skin, from plumbing leaks, from condensation due to improper ventilation, or from ground moisture penetrating a building", "Stachybotrys chartarum Growth, reproduction, and habitat S. chartarum is a slow-growing mold that does not compete well with other molds. It is only rarely found in nature, and seldom encounters the kind of large-scale living environment occasionally produced by human habitation (i.e., large amounts of cellulose, large temperature fluctuations, low nitrogen, no other molds, no sunlight, and ample constant humidity). The spores are only released into the ambient air when the mold is mechanically disturbed, particularly when wet. It is considered an uncommon contaminant of most indoor air.\nNot all strains of S. chartarum produce mycotoxins, and under certain conditions some", "(causing moisture and condensation).\nSpores need three things to grow into mold: nutrients - cellulose (the cell wall of green plants) is a common food for indoor spores; moisture - to begin the decaying process caused by mold; and time - mold growth begins from 24 hours to 10 days after the provision of growing conditions.\nMold colonies can grow inside buildings, and the chief hazard is the inhalation of mycotoxins. After a flood or major leak, mycotoxin levels are higher even after a building has dried out.\nFood sources for mold in buildings include cellulose-based materials such as wood, cardboard and the", "flourish. This moisture vapor passes through walls and ceilings, typically condensing during the winter in climates with a long heating season. Floors over crawl spaces and basements, without vapor barriers or with dirt floors, are mold-prone. The \"doormat test\" detects moisture from concrete slabs without a sub-slab vapor barrier. Some materials, such as polished concrete, do not support mold growth.\nSignificant mold growth requires moisture and food sources and a substrate capable of sustaining growth. Common building materials, such as plywood, drywall, furring strips, carpets, and carpet padding provide food for mold. In carpet, invisible dust and cellulose are food sources.", "even after death of the fungi. They can adhere to dust particles and can spread through the air attached to these dust particles or spores. There must be very specific temperature and humidity conditions in order for fungi to produce mycotoxins. Symptoms Symptoms of mold exposure may include nasal and sinus congestion; runny nose, eye irritation; itchy, red, watery eyes, respiratory problems, such as wheezing and difficulty breathing, chest tightness, cough, throat irritation, skin irritation (such as a rash), headache, and persistent sneezing. Immune-compromised people and people with chronic lung illnesses, such as obstructive lung disease, may get serious infections", "in the divisions Zygomycota and Ascomycota. In the past, most molds were classified within the Deuteromycota.\nMolds cause biodegradation of natural materials, which can be unwanted when it becomes food spoilage or damage to property. They also play important roles in biotechnology and food science in the production of various foods, beverages, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals and enzymes. Some diseases of animals and humans can be caused by certain molds: disease may result from allergic sensitivity to mold spores, from growth of pathogenic molds within the body, or from the effects of ingested or inhaled toxic compounds (mycotoxins) produced by molds. Biology There", "areas, such as the buds, leaves, and flowers. Parts of the plant may shrivel and die after exposure to the mold, particularly the flowers. Typically the fungus will only infect plants through an open wound or when the plant is under stress, but it has also been known to infect plants in humid conditions. If the humidity is low the mold may be contained to discrete spots on the plant, but the mold has been known to spread rapidly in highly humid conditions. Grey mold can infect a plant at any time of the year and is not seasonally dependent.", "Mold A mold (US) or mould (UK / NZ / AU / ZA / IN / CA / IE) is a fungus that grows in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae. In contrast, fungi that can adopt a single-celled growth habit are called yeasts.\nMolds are a large and taxonomically diverse number of fungal species in which the growth of hyphae results in discoloration and a fuzzy appearance, especially on food. The network of these tubular branching hyphae, called a mycelium, is considered a single organism. The hyphae are generally transparent, so the mycelium appears like very fine, fluffy white", "Dimorphic fungus Dimorphic fungi are fungi that can exist in the form of both mold and yeast. This is usually brought about by change in temperature and the fungi are also described as thermally dimorphic fungi. An example is Penicillium marneffei, a human pathogen that grows as a mold at room temperature, and as a yeast at human body temperature.", "identify and quantify fungal species. The Environmental Relative Moldiness Index (ERMI) is a numerical that can be used in epidemiological studies to assess mold burdens of houses in the United States. The ERMI consists of a list of 36 fungal species commonly associated with damp houses that can be measured using qPCR. Like swab and surface sampling, bulk and dust sampling can give detailed information about the mold source, but cannot accurately determine the level of exposure to the source. Remediation The first step in solving an indoor mold problem is to remove the moisture source; new mold will begin", "Sooty mold Sooty mold is a collective term for different Ascomycete fungi, which includes many genera, commonly Cladosporium and Alternaria. It grows on plants and their fruit, but also environmental objects, like fences, garden furniture, stones, even cars. The mold benefits from either a sugary exudate produced by the plant or fruit, or if the plant is infested by honeydew-secreting insects or sap suckers. \nSooty mold itself does little if any harm to the plant. Treatment is indicated when the mold is combined with insect infestation. Description Sooty mold is a collective, self-descriptive term for a number of different fungi;", "selecting materials that minimize mold growth. Food contamination Fungal infestation can spoil stored cereals, seeds, fruits, nuts, cocoa beans, and raw sugar. Infestation causes discoloration, loss of germinability, heating, mustiness, and decay. The consequences are less worth of products and combustion. For example, coffee produced from moldy coffee beans lack aroma and flavor. Seeds and nuts are extracted to produce vegetable oils. However,A. penicillioides can increase free fatty acid content in the oil and produce bad taste. The fungus growing on raw sugar can also invert sugar, which reduces sucrose and increases invert content.\nIn 1955, Clyde Martin Christensen", "organic material, enabling the recycling of nutrients throughout ecosystems. Many molds also synthesise mycotoxins and siderophores which, together with lytic enzymes, inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms. Molds can also grow on stored food for animals and humans, making the food unpalatable or toxic and are thus a major source of food losses and illness. Many strategies for food preservation (salting, pickling, jams, bottling, freezing, drying) are to prevent or slow mold growth as well as growth of other microbes.\nMolds reproduce by producing large numbers of small spores, which may contain a single nucleus or be multinucleate. Mold spores", "threads over the surface. Cross-walls (septa) may delimit connected compartments along the hyphae, each containing one or multiple, genetically identical nuclei. The dusty texture of many molds is caused by profuse production of asexual spores (conidia) formed by differentiation at the ends of hyphae. The mode of formation and shape of these spores is traditionally used to classify molds. Many of these spores are colored, making the fungus much more obvious to the human eye at this stage in its life-cycle.\nMolds are considered to be microbes and do not form a specific taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping, but can be found", "produced by the invading mold.\nDermatophytes are the parasitic fungi that cause skin infections such as athlete's foot and tinea cruris. Most dermataphyte fungi take the form of a mold, as opposed to a yeast, with appearance (when cultured) that is similar to other molds.\nOpportunistic infection by molds such as Penicillium marneffei and Aspergillus fumigatus is a common cause of illness and death among immunocompromised people, including people with AIDS or asthma. Mold-induced hypersensitivity The most common form of hypersensitivity is caused by the direct exposure to inhaled mold spores that can be dead or alive or hyphal fragments which can" ]

[ "Just to clarify a little more...\n\n\"Flu\" does not just mean illness. It is specifically illness caused by *Influenza* viruses. In fact 'flu' is short for 'influenza'. The term \"bacterial flu\" is misleading because it means a bacterial infection occurring because your immune system has been weakened by the flu virus. So you can't have bacterial flu without having \"actual\" influenza caused by the influenza virus. So your answer is in your question. You can only have what is confusingly described as \"bacterial flu\" if you have viral flu.\n\nIf you're using the word \"flu\" to describe any illness with similar symptoms then yes, you can definitely have as many infections as you would care to pick up. It will eventually kill you. Immune disorders (like AIDS) are such a problem because you end up with every disease and infection out there and it becomes impossible to stop the sufferer getting sick and dying from any and all kinds of infections." ]

[ "\"two or more people get the same illness from the same pet or other animal\". In 2012, the various strains or serotypes of the Salmonella bacteria, related to the outbreaks in the United States, infected over 1800 people and killed seven. In Europe, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) reported 91,034 cases of Salmonella infection with 65,317 cases related to the 2012 outbreaks. Of those 65,317 cases, there were 61 deaths.\nSalmonella bacteria can be found in almost any product or animal that has been exposed to fecal matter. These exposures can occur from crops grown from", "by human viruses. When pigs become simultaneously infected with more than one virus, the viruses can swap genes, producing new variants which can pass to humans and sometimes spread amongst them. \"Unlike the situation with birds and humans, we have a situation with pigs and humans where there's a two-way street of exchange of viruses. With pigs it's very much a two-way street\". Transmission Spread of the H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza. Sometimes people", "the likelihood that two or more diseases come together in a population. For example, if gene splicing unites two pathogenic agents and the resulting novel organism infects a population. One study suggests the possibility of iatriogenic syndemics. During a randomized, double-blind clinical trial testing the efficacy of the prototype HIV vaccine called V520 there appeared to be an increased risk for HIV infection among the vaccinated participants. Notably, participants immune to the common cold virus adenovirus type 5 had a higher risk of HIV infection. The vaccine was created using a replication-defective version of Ad5 as a carrier, or", "transmission include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is born already infected with the virus. Another, more rare, example is the varicella zoster virus, which, although causing relatively mild infections in children and adults, can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby.\nHorizontal transmission is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations. Transmission can occur when: body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity, e.g., HIV; blood is exchanged by contaminated transfusion or needle sharing, e.g., hepatitis C; exchange of saliva by mouth, e.g., Epstein–Barr virus; contaminated food or water is ingested, e.g., norovirus; aerosols containing", "their doctor immediately if they suspect they may have flu. HIV/AIDS Individuals who acquire the human immune deficiency virus (HIV) are very prone to a variety of infections. HIV has a tremendous capacity to destroy the body's immune system and this makes one prone to not only viral infections but also bacterial, fungal, and protozoa disorders. People with HIV are at an increased risk of serious flu-related complications. Many reports have shown that individuals with HIV can develop serious pneumonias which need hospitalization and aggressive antibiotic therapy. Moreover, people with HIV have a longer flu season and are at a", "the body. A virus can affect any part of the body causing a wide range of illnesses such as the flu, the common cold, and sexually transmitted diseases. The flu is an airborne virus that travels through tiny droplets and is formally known as Influenza. Parasites travel through the air and attack the human respiratory system. People that are initially infected with this virus pass infection on by normal day to day activity such as talking and sneezing. When a person comes in contact with the virus, unlike the common cold, the flu virus affects people almost immediately.", "pathogen's ability to pass from parent to child depends significantly on the hosts' ability to reproduce, pathogens' transmissibility tends to be inversely related with their virulence. In other words, as pathogens become more harmful to, and thus decrease the reproduction rate of, their host organism, they are less likely to be passed on to the hosts' offspring, since they will have fewer offspring.\nAlthough HIV is sometimes transmitted through perinatal transmission, its virulence can be accounted for because its primary mode of transmission is not vertical. Moreover, medicine has further decreased the frequency of vertical transmission of HIV. The incidence of", "Co-option (biology) Flu virus Because of its medical importance, the Influenza A virus has been characterized to a large extent, and is mentioned here as an example of co-option. Its genome encodes only for 11 proteins, and it needs to use host-cell genes and proteins to carry out its lytic cycle. In 2010, a study was realized to determine which host-cell factors are necessary for the entry and replication of Influenza A virus. Using siRNA techniques, the effect of the disruption of more than 19,000 human genes on influenza life cycle was studied. That allowed identifying 295 host-cell genes needed", "law suggesting that only a few diseases connect to a large number of diseases, whereas most diseases have few links to others. \nSuch network also shows a clustering tendency by disease classes.\nIn a symptom-based disease network, disease are also clustered according to their categories. Moreover, diseases sharing the same symptom are more likely to share the same genes and protein interactions.", "Orthomyxoviridae Types There are four genera of influenza virus, each containing only a single species, or type. Influenza A and C infect a variety of species, while influenza B almost exclusively infects humans, and influenza D infects cattle and pigs. Influenza B Influenza B virus is almost exclusively a human pathogen, and is less common than influenza A. The only other animal known to be susceptible to influenza B infection is the seal. This type of influenza mutates at a rate 2–3 times lower than type A and consequently is less genetically diverse, with only one influenza B serotype. As", "viruses can change virus strains from being inefficient at infecting human cells to being as efficient in causing human infections as more common human influenza virus types. This doesn't mean that one amino acid substitution can cause a pandemic, but it does mean that one amino acid substitution can cause an avian flu virus that is not pathogenic in humans to become pathogenic in humans.\nInfluenza A virus subtype H3N2 is endemic in pigs in China, and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. The dominant strain of annual flu virus in", "HIV-1 and HIV-2.\nStudies have shown that a lack of neutralizing antibodies against HIV-1 infection predisposes patients to superinfection. Additionally, the tendency of HIV-1 virions to recombine when two subtypes infect a single cell increases its susceptibility to HIV superinfection. Further evidence of superinfection stems from the fact that nearly 10% of HIV-1 infections are associated with a transmittable recombinant strain. HIV-1 virions are divided into nine subtypes, all of which are characterized by different rates of disease progression, viral load and sensitivity to assays used in detection. When a single cell is infected by two HIV-1 subtypes, they recombine, forming", "x 10⁻⁵ per nucleotide base per cycle of replication and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase.\nThis complex scenario leads to the generation of many variants of HIV in a single infected patient in the course of one day. This variability is compounded when a single cell is simultaneously infected by two or more different strains of HIV. When simultaneous infection occurs, the genome of progeny virions may be composed of RNA strands from two different strains. This hybrid virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication. As this happens, the reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the", "For example, if prevalence is 1% (1 infected person out of 100 potential partners), risk is far lower than if prevalence is 50% (half of all potential partners are infected).\nInfectivity describes the likelihood that the disease will be transmitted during a single sexual encounter. Different STDs have different\nlevels of infectivity. Gonorrhea is estimated to have a 47% chance of transmission in a single encounter, while HIV is estimated at having a very low infectivity of about 1%. This implies that it is considerably more difficult to spark an epidemic of HIV than it is for other STDs, and that it", "geographically dependent. All three groups (avian, swine, and human) show chronological differences. The human influenza virus is retained in humans only, meaning it does not spread to other species. Some lineages and sublineages of the virus emerge and may be more prevalent in certain locations. For instance, many human influenza outbreaks begin in Southeast Asia. Phylogenetic analysis Phylogenetic analysis can help determine past viruses and their patterns as well as determining a common ancestor of the virus. Past studies reveal that an avian virus spread to pigs and then to humans approximately 100 years ago. This resulted in human lineages", "to another, which in turn transfers to humans. Examples include HIV-AIDS, SARS, ebola, swine flu, rabies, and avian influenza. Bacterial pathogens can also be associated with CST.\nThe exact mechanism that facilitates transfer is unknown, however, it is believed that viruses with a rapid mutation rate are able to overcome host-specific immunological defenses. This can occur between species that have high contact rates. It can also occur between species with low contact rates but usually through an intermediary species. Bats, for example, are mammals and can directly transfer rabies to humans through bite and also through aerosolization of bat saliva and", "example, a \"flu strain\" is a certain biological form of the influenza or \"flu\" virus. These flu strains are characterized by their differing isoforms of surface proteins. New viral strains can be created due to mutation or swapping of genetic components when two or more viruses infect the same cell in nature. These phenomena are known respectively as antigenic drift and antigenic shift. Microbial strains can also be differentiated by their genetic makeup using metagenomic methods to maximize resolution within species. This has become a valuable tool to analyze the microbiome. Strain engineering Scientists have modified flu virus strains pandemic", "strains with the highest fitness every time the virus is spread to a new host. Also, recombination, the joining of two different viral variants, and reassortment, the swapping of viral gene segments among viruses in the same cell, play a role in resistance, especially in influenza.\nAntiviral resistance has been reported in antivirals for herpes, HIV, hepatitis B and C, and influenza, but antiviral resistance is a possibility for all viruses. Mechanisms of antiviral resistance vary between virus types.\nDetection of antiviral resistance\nNational and international surveillance is performed by the CDC to determine effectiveness of the current FDA-approved antiviral flu drugs. Public", "many other infections, it is more common in children who are relatively well nourished. Other risk factors for severe disease include female sex, high body mass index, and viral load. While each serotype can cause the full spectrum of disease, virus strain is a risk factor. Infection with one serotype is thought to produce lifelong immunity to that type, but only short-term protection against the other three. The risk of severe disease from secondary infection increases if someone previously exposed to serotype DENV-1 contracts serotype DENV-2 or DENV-3, or if someone previously exposed to DENV-3 acquires DENV-2. Dengue can be", "can be raised. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on antibody responses to HA and NA. These different types of HA and NA form the basis of the H and N distinctions in, for example, H5N1. There are 18 H and 11 N subtypes known, but only H 1, 2 and 3, and N 1 and 2 are commonly found in humans. Replication Viruses can replicate only in living cells. Influenza infection and replication is a multi-step process: First, the virus has to bind to and enter the cell, then deliver its genome to a site where it", "cases include three small family clusters in Shanghai and one cluster between a neighboring girl and boy in Beijing, raising at least the possibility of human-to-human transmission. WHO points out that one cluster did not have two of the cases lab confirmed and further points out, as a matter of baseline information, that some viruses are able to cause limited human-to-human transmission under conditions of close contact but are not transmissible enough to cause large community outbreaks. Swine flu In pigs swine influenza produces fever, lethargy, sneezing, coughing, difficulty breathing and decreased appetite. In some cases the infection can cause", "of HIV does not necessarily mean HIV infection, the latter could still occur at an even lower rate.\nThe transmission of hepatitis C via transfusion currently stands at a rate of about 1 in 2 million units. As with HIV, this low rate has been attributed to the ability to screen for both antibodies as well as viral RNA nucleic acid testing in donor blood.\nOther rare transmissible infections include hepatitis B, syphilis, Chagas disease, cytomegalovirus infections (in immunocompromised recipients), HTLV, and Babesia. Inefficacy Transfusion inefficacy or insufficient efficacy of a given unit(s) of blood product, while not itself a \"complication\" per", "as an increase in viral load or a decrease in CD4 cell count. The potential of superinfection to cause rapid disease progression depends on viral and host factors.\nCases of superinfection are yet to be identified in sufficient numbers to conduct detailed studies on the effect of superinfection on the host immune response. Causes HIV superinfection is distinct from HIV dual infection, where an individual is simultaneously infected with multiple distinct viral strains. HIV superinfection involves an individual with HIV being infected by a new, phylogenetically distinct HIV strain. Early reports of HIV superinfection were observed in cases of co-infection with", "these variants were transmitted across the studied individuals.\nShe has also noted that children, pregnant women, and people with obesity tend to have longer flu infections. Another collaborative study by Elodie Ghedin with Sara Lustigman of New York Blood Center, and Thomas Unnasch of The University of South Florida measured levels of RNA molecules in both B. malayi and Wolbachia throughout the lifecycles of male and female worms.", "“transcriptionally permissive” areas. In viruses Different virus families have different levels of ability to alter their genomes and trick the immune system into not recognizing. Some viruses have relatively unchanging genomes like paramyxoviruses while others like influenza have rapidly changing genomes that inhibit our ability to create long lasting vaccines against the disease. Viruses in general have much faster rate of mutation of their genomes than human or bacterial cells. In general viruses with shorter genomes have faster rates of mutation than longer genomes since they have a faster rate of replication. It was classically thought that viruses with an", "immunity to the new strain, and if the population of susceptible individuals is high enough to maintain the chain of infection, pandemics occur. The genetic changes usually happen when different strains of the virus co-infect animals, particularly birds and swine. Although many viruses of vertebrates are restricted to one species, influenza virus is an exception. The last pandemic of the 19th century occurred in 1899 and resulted in the deaths of 250,000 people in Europe. The virus, which originated in Russia or Asia, was the first to be rapidly spread by people on trains and steamships.\nA new strain of the", "Influenza Influenzavirus B This genus has one species, influenza B virus. Influenza B almost exclusively infects humans and is less common than influenza A. The only other animals known to be susceptible to influenza B infection are the seal and the ferret. This type of influenza mutates at a rate 2–3 times slower than type A and consequently is less genetically diverse, with only one influenza B serotype. As a result of this lack of antigenic diversity, a degree of immunity to influenza B is usually acquired at an early age. However, influenza B mutates enough that lasting immunity is", "symptoms, but these viruses can be associated with severe disease when they are transferred to a new species. Humans can even pass and also get an HSV-1 infection from other primate species. However, because of evolutionary differences between primate species, only some species can pass HSV-1 in an interspecies interaction. Also, though HSV-1 transmission from humans to other species primates can occur, there is no known sustained transmission chains that have resulted from constant transmission. A study found that Nbs1 is the most diverged in DNA sequence in the MRN complex between different primate species and that there is a", "experiment was around five to seven, which is not much deviated from the original six degree of separation. Epidemiology Epidemiology is closely related to social network. Contagious diseases can spread through connection networks such as work space, transportation, intimate body contacts and water system (see Figure 7 and 9). Though it only exists virtually, a computer viruses spread across internet networks are not much different from their physical counterparts. Therefore, understanding each of these network patterns can no doubt aid us in more precise prediction of the outcomes of epidemics and preparing better disease prevention protocols.\nThe simplest model of infection", "Influenza prevention Novel H1N1 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the \"main route of transmission of the pandemic influenza virus seems to be similar to seasonal influenza, via droplets that are expelled by speaking, sneezing or coughing.\" One of WHO's recommendations is to \"keep your distance from people who show symptoms of influenza-like illness, such as coughing and sneezing (trying to maintain a distance of about 1 metre if possible).\" Other WHO recommendations are listed below.\nThe American Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agrees that the \"spread of novel H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same" ]

[ "Partly Cloudy means blue skies with some clouds\n\n\nPartly Sunny means a cloudy sky with some occasional sun", "I actually found the answer thanks to NOAA, here it is:\n\nPartly Cloudy:\nBetween 3/8 and 5/8 of the sky is covered by clouds.\n\nPartly Sunny:\nBetween 3/8 and 5/8 of the sky is covered by clouds. The term \"Partly Sunny\" is used only during daylight hours." ]

[ "night, high thin cirrostratus clouds can lead to halos around the moon, which indicate the approach of a warm front and its associated rain. Morning fog portends fair conditions and can be associated with a marine layer, an indication of a stable atmosphere. Rainy conditions are preceded by wind or clouds which prevent fog formation. The approach of a line of thunderstorms could indicate the approach of a cold front. Cloud-free skies are indicative of fair weather for the near future. The use of sky cover in weather prediction has led to various weather lore over the centuries. Tropical cyclones", "Conversely, winter temperatures tend to be cooler inland by a couple of degrees. Daylight The relatively high latitude of 49° 15′ 0″ N (similar to Paris, France, at 48° 85′ 66″) means sunsets as early as 4:15 pm and sunrises as late as 8:10 am. From November to February, at the sunshine measuring station at the airport in Richmond, on average more than 70% of the already short daytime is completely cloudy. The percentage of cloudiness is higher in Vancouver and especially the North Shore because upslope winds going up the mountainsides lead to the development of clouds.\nSummers, in contrast,", "cloudy days are common, being more frequent in the days of winter. The relative humidity is quite high, ranging between 75% and 80%. The intervening days are rare, and temperature differences rather abrupt.", "usually refers to darker skies. In some cases, it can be impossible to see distinct borders of clouds or the sky may be covered by a single type of cloud, such as stratus and the whole sky will be a dull white.\nPeriods of overcast weather can range from a few hours to several days. Overcast weather can also affect people suffering from seasonal affective disorder. \nThe same weather, when observed from above, might be referred to as (an) undercast.", "variability in this region is due to clouds. Since there is no sunlight, the thermal radiation emitted by the atmosphere is one of this region's main sources of energy in winter. A cloudy sky can emit much more energy toward the surface than a clear sky, so when it is cloudy in winter, this region tends to be warm, and when it is clear, this region cools quickly. Canadian Archipelago In winter, the Canadian Archipelago experiences temperatures similar to those in the Arctic Basin, but in the summer months of June to August, the presence of so much land in", "small part of the sky, which appears to be a dome, also known as the sky bowl, flatter during the day than at night. In some cases, such as in discussing the weather, the sky refers to only the lower, more dense portions of the atmosphere.\nDuring daylight, the sky appears to be blue because air scatters more blue sunlight than red. At night, the sky appears to be a mostly dark surface or region spangled with stars. During the day, the Sun, and sometimes the Moon, can be seen in the sky unless obscured by clouds. In the night sky", "between mid-morning and early afternoon, depending on the strength of the marine layer, and gives way to sunny skies. On a strong June Gloom day, the clouds and fog may extend inland to the valleys and Inland Empire and may persist into the mid-afternoon or evening.\nA combination of atmospheric and oceanic conditions must be just right in order for June Gloom to form, and these conditions usually align only around May and June of each year. These include the marine layer effect common to the West Coast of the United States, an atmospheric inversion caused by subsidence of high-pressure air", "above 80 °F (27 °C). During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer.", "May. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify during summer months, there is often little or no cloud cover during the summer.", "brings clear skies. During the day, since no clouds are present to reflect sunlight, there is more incoming shortwave solar radiation and temperatures rise. At night, the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation (i.e. heat energy from the surface) is not absorbed, giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons. When surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under a high-pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to widespread haze. If the low-level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.\nStrong but", "A simple example of this is one's being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.\nStriking cloud colorations can be seen at any altitude, with the color of a cloud usually being the same as the incident light. During daytime when the sun is relatively high in the sky, tropospheric clouds generally appear bright white on top with varying shades of grey underneath. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. Red,", "their north-south orientation, receive less sunshine than lowland areas because the mountains on either side of the valley obscure the sun in the early morning and late evening. This is noticeable in winter where there are only a few hours of sunshine. The mountains of Wales, northern England and Scotland can be especially cloudy with extensive mist and fog. Near the coast, sea fog may develop in the spring and early summer. Radiation fog may develop over inland areas of Great Britain and can persist for hours or even days in the winter and can pose a major hazard for", "station, situated in nearby Woodford Aerodrome in Cheshire, near to Bramhall but on a cloudy night are almost equal. Daytime highs are pretty similar, and predominately almost exacting to 'Woodford', though fluctuations due to localised weather patterns can produce variations.\nAgain, on a cloudy day the temperatures can be slightly cooler than Woodford. Though, dependent on the prevailing weather patterns and the wind direction can be either lower by around 1 degree C and occasionally (more noticeably on a warm sunny day)and in the absence of early morning mist/fogs(common in Woodford and Reddish Vale) can be up to 2 degrees C", "horizon (heights of between −6° and −12°), after which comes the astronomical twilight, defined as the period from −12° to −18°. When the sun drops more than 18° below the horizon, the sky generally attains its minimum brightness.\nSeveral sources can be identified as the source of the intrinsic brightness of the sky, namely airglow, indirect scattering of sunlight, scattering of starlight, and artificial light pollution. During the night The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with skygazing and astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the", "Overcast Overcast or overcast weather, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization, is the meteorological condition of clouds obscuring at least 95% of the sky. However, the total cloud cover must not be entirely due to obscuring phenomena near the surface, such as fog.\nOvercast, written as \"OVC\" in the METAR observation, is reported when the cloud cover is observed to equal eight oktas (eighths). An overcast sky may be explicitly identified as thin (mostly transparent), but otherwise is considered opaque, which always constitutes a ceiling in aviation meteorology.\nSometimes clouds can be different colors such as black or white, but overcast", "adds to the count of airborne particulates.\nThe sky can turn a multitude of colors such as red, orange, pink and yellow (especially near sunset or sunrise) and black at night. Scattering effects also partially polarize light from the sky, most pronounced at an angle 90° from the sun.\nSky luminance distribution models have been recommended by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) for the design of daylighting schemes. Recent developments relate to “all sky models” for modelling sky luminance under weather conditions ranging from clear sky to overcast. Cloud coloration The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth,", "phenomenon is now known as Polar Mesospheric Clouds.\nThe general seasonal characteristics of polar mesospheric clouds are well established from the five years of continuous SME data. Over that period, data for four cloud ‘seasons’ in the north, and five ‘seasons’ in the south were recorded. In both hemispheres, the season begins about one month before summer solstice and ends about two months afterwards. Since there are no biases due to such factors as changing number of hours of visibility, weather conditions, etc. this is a ‘true’ behaviour. It is believed to be a result of the fact that summertime mesopause", "warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. North of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year, and continuous daylight during the opposite time of year. This is called polar night and midnight sun, respectively. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth's axial tilt) results in the seasons. Future Mathematicians and astronomers (such", "the depression. Related weather A cold front would be seen as spikes and a warm front as semi-circles in a traditional weather map. An occluded front, is a combination of those two signs. They are indicated on a weather map either by a purple line with alternating semicircles and triangles pointing in direction of travel, or by red semicircles and blue triangles pointing in the same direction. On the other hand, trowal are indicated by junction of blue and red lines like the junction of cold and warm fronts aloft.\nA wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded", "as when it's darker than the corresponding kind of twilight. The descriptions below are based on relatively clear skies, so the sky will be darker in the presence of dense clouds. Civil polar night The civil polar night period produces only a faint glow of light visible at midday. It happens when there is no civil twilight and only nautical twilight occurs at the solar culmination. Civil twilight happens when the Sun is between 0 and 6° below the horizon, and civil night when it is lower than that. Therefore, the civil polar night is limited to latitudes above 72° 34',", "\"May Gray\" and \"June Gloom\" In contrast with the sunny summer, late spring in southern California is often overcast. This period, known to the locals as \"May Gray\" and \"June Gloom\", dims the coastal skies of sunny southern California. During this time, the coastal clouds may remain all day, but often give way to some hazy afternoon sunshine. The number of gloomy days during this period vary from year to year. Years with warmer ocean temperatures, influenced by the broader El Niño weather pattern, may result in fewer gray days in June, whereas the cooler ocean temperatures associated with a", "some clouds have a net warming effect because they trap more heat than they reflect, while others have a net cooling effect because their increased albedo reflects more radiation than they trap heat. So while the Earth's albedo is measurably increasing, the uncertainty over the amount of heat trapped means the overall effect on global temperature remains unclear. Retroreflection Features on Earth, the Moon, and some other bodies have, to some extent, retroreflective properties. Light striking them is backscattered, or diffusely reflected preferentially back in the direction from which it has come rather than in other directions. If the light", "on data taken from the United States using these methods, cirrus cloud cover was found to vary diurnally and seasonally. The researchers found that in the summer, at noon, the cover is the lowest, with an average of 23% of the United States' land area covered by cirrus. Around midnight, the cloud cover increases to around 28%. In winter, the cirrus cloud cover did not vary appreciably from day to night. These percentages include clear days and nights, as well as days and nights with other cloud types, as lack of cirrus cloud cover. When these clouds are present, the", "the United Kingdom sees frequent cloudy skies due to its high latitude and oceanic controlled climate. The lowest sunshine hours are found in northern parts of the country and the highest in the southern parts and southern coast of England. The counties of Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex and Kent are the sunniest areas, which have annual average totals of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year. Northern, western and mountainous areas are generally the cloudiest areas of the UK, with some mountainous areas receiving fewer than 1,000 hours of sunshine a year.\nValley areas such as the South Wales Valleys, due to", "inversion, during these periods, thus seeing no sun for weeks.\nA weather phenomenon known as the föhn (with an identical effect to the chinook wind) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind, bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps. This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south. Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect.\nThe driest", "sunset.\nIn ordinary atmospheric conditions, the setting or rising Sun appears to be about half a degree above its geometric position. But sometimes, very unusual atmospheric circumstances can make it to be visible when it is really between two and five degrees below the horizon. This is called the Novaya Zemlya effect, because it was first observed in Novaya Zemlya, where the Sun was seen when, according to astronomical calculations, it should have been two degrees below the horizon.\nHowever, due to changes in air pressure, relative humidity, and other quantities, the exact effects of atmospheric refraction on sunrise and sunset time", "that it is influenced by predominantly westerly winds with depressions and their associated fronts, bringing with them unsettled and windy weather, particularly in winter. Between depressions there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fair weather. In winter anticyclones bring cold dry weather. In summer the anticyclones tend to bring dry settled conditions which can lead to drought. For its latitude this area is mild in winter and cooler in summer due to the influence of the Gulf Stream in the northern Atlantic Ocean. Air temperature varies on a daily and seasonal basis. The temperature is usually lower", "time, being characterized by a long stretch of cloudless or partly cloudy days in the first half of winter or a long stretch of cloudy and drizzly conditions in the latter half of winter. Cold weather occurs more frequently in the north than in the south due to cold fronts penetrate the north more frequently.\nIn summer, the general wind pattern are southwesterly winds in the southern parts of Vietnam and southeasterly winds in northern Vietnam. The predominantly air blocks in Vietnam are the equatorial and tropical blocks that originate from high pressure systems in the Southern Hemisphere, and a maritime", "in the evening to the West before its stars set below the horizon. From the southern hemisphere it appears upside down and lower in the sky during the summer months.\nThe Winter Triangle surrounds most of the faint constellation Monoceros, although its brightest stars are of fourth magnitude and hardly noticeable to the naked eye. The triangle includes two first magnitude stars, while Sirius is even brighter. The other bright stars of the winter sky lie around the triangle: Orion including Rigel; Aldebaran in Taurus; Castor and Pollux in Gemini; and Capella in Auriga.", "Windy Peak (Washington) Climate Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel northeast toward the Cascade Mountains. As fronts approach the North Cascades, they are forced upward by the peaks of the Cascade Range, causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades (Orographic lift). As a result, the west side of the North Cascades experiences higher precipitation than the east side, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. During winter months, weather is usually cloudy, but, due to high pressure systems over the Pacific Ocean that intensify" ]

[ "**TL;DR**: *We have intelligence and spare time and a desire to accomplish something and to leave something behind or give something to other people. Being creative uses the first to fill the second and fulfill those desires.*\n\nIn terms of flair, this isn't so much about culture as it is biology.\n\nThe first reason is that we're a thinking animal that isn't driven solely by instinct. We have thought processes that very very routinely move us out of the realms of \"automatically do X when the environment is like Y\", which cause a caterpillar to munch when placed on a leaf or a deer to run when it hears a loud noise.\n\nThen there's our lifespan and living standards. We do not sleep or have to search for food and shelter and comfort and mating every single second of every single day. We have \"down time\" and the intelligence to both use that \"down time\", and want to use that \"down time\" somehow or we'll get bored.\n\nFinally that intelligence causes many of us to seek creative satisfaction, and to serve some purpose. We want something called 'fulfillment' out of life. It can be a public form of fulfillment for some where they're recognized by others for what they do, a feeling of pride for having helped others feel better by doing an excellent stand-up comedy or rap song or dance routine that spreads joy, or an entirely internal drive which causes someone to feel very satisfied when they have accomplished something creative like completing a work of sculpture. \n\nAll three things - time, ability enabled by intelligence, and the need for some form of personal fulfillment, lead to creative expression. And the level varies greatly from person to person, dictating how central that need is to the way they live their life." ]

[ "It can be seen in tribes' adaptation of natural objects to make tools, and in the uniquely human pursuits of art and music.\nThe creative impulse explains the constant change in fashion, technology and food in modern society. People use creative endeavors like art and literature to distinguish themselves within their social group. \nThey also use their creativity to make money and persuade others of the value of their ideas. Religion and Spirituality Another important aspect of human behavior is religion and spirituality. According to a Pew Research Center report, 54% of adults around the world state that religion is very", "more like humans than like unanimated objects. Altogether these general ideas imply that in creating a law to govern culture we must not go after analogies in real estate but after those in human-to-human relations. \"Culture Beyond Arts\" Here ideas of the previous chapters expand on culture in general as it presented by creativity in different human activities but arts. The conversation starts with the question \"when do people create?\" Students use different cases in order to investigate the topic. They start with the question \"can you be creative on a test if not prepared?\" Another idea was to compare", "opposed to \"productive\" or \"constructive\" imagination. Things imagined are said to be seen in the \"mind's eye\". Among the many practical functions of imagination are the ability to project possible futures (or histories), to \"see\" things from another's perspective, and to change the way something is perceived, including to make decisions to respond to, or enact, what is imagined.\nConsciousness in mammals (this includes humans) is an aspect of the mind generally thought to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, sentience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment. It is a subject of much research in philosophy", "thinking has tended to avoid proposing precise mechanisms. Literature This term is used to describe the tendency to attribute human characteristics to entities that are other than human. Example; \"My dog's separation anxiety\", etc.", "is a mental act that allows humans to make sense of things in the world, and to represent and interpret them in ways that are significant, or which accord with their needs, attachments, goals, commitments, plans, ends, desires, etc. Thinking involves the symbolic or semiotic mediation of ideas or data, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reasoning, and making decisions. Words that refer to similar concepts and processes include deliberation, cognition, ideation, discourse and imagination.\nThinking is sometimes described as a \"higher\" cognitive function and the analysis of thinking processes is a part of cognitive psychology. It is", "feeling, that makes this possible, and it is the principle of empathy by which we should live our lives.\n— Adam Lee, Ebon Musings, \"A decalogue for the modern world\" Existentialism When we say that man chooses for himself, we do mean that every one of us must choose himself; but by that we also mean that in choosing for himself he chooses for all men. For in effect, of all the actions a man may take in order to create himself as he wills to be, there is not one which is not creative, at the same time, of an image", "in the many activities that promote mutual human survival and psychological well-being, by means of emotional connections with other people, with society. The psychic value of a human consists in being able to conceive (think) of the ends of their actions as purposeful ideas, which are distinct from the actions required to realize a given idea. That is, humans are able to objectify their intentions by means of an idea of themselves as \"the subject\" and an idea of the thing that they produce, \"the object\". Conversely, unlike a human being an animal does not objectify itself as \"the subject\"", "and the capacity for spiritual / moral reflection and growth. We may say that humans differ from all other creatures because of the self-reflective, rational nature of their thought processes - their capacity for abstract, symbolic as well as concrete deliberation and decision-making. This capacity gives the human a centeredness and completeness which allows the possibility for self-actualization and participation in a sacred reality (cf. Acts 17:28). However, despite the fact that according to this concept the human is created in God's image, the Creator granted the first true humans a freedom to reject a relationship with the Creator that", "with imagination, for whom sense perceptions can persist, come closest to having something like reasoning and nous, and even uses the word \"logos\" in one place to describe the distinctions which animals can perceive in such cases. Reason, imagination, mimesis, and memory Reason and imagination rely on similar mental processes. Imagination is not only found in humans. Aristotle, for example, stated that phantasia (imagination: that which can hold images or phantasmata) and phronein (a type of thinking that can judge and understand in some sense) also exist in some animals. According to him, both are related to the primary perceptive", "a pastiche. The things we hold highest in our human experience (love, memory, dreams, and a predisposition for religious thought) result from a particular agglomeration of ad hoc solutions that have been piled on through millions of years of evolution history. It's not that we have fundamentally human thoughts and feelings despite the kludgy design of the brain as molded by the twists and turns of evolutionary history. Rather, we have them precisely because of that history. \nThe research psychologist Gary Marcus's book Kluge: The Haphazard Construction of the Human Mind compares evolutionary kluges with engineering ones like manifold vacuum-powered", "ability of animals, which gathers the perceptions of different senses and defines the order of the things that are perceived without distinguishing universals, and without deliberation or logos. But this is not yet reason, because human imagination is different.\nThe recent modern writings of Terrence Deacon and Merlin Donald, writing about the origin of language, also connect reason connected to not only language, but also mimesis. More specifically they describe the ability to create language as part of an internal modeling of reality specific to humankind. Other results are consciousness, and imagination or fantasy. In contrast, modern proponents of a genetic", "Any action done by humans is classified as human thought because the action was done due to predisposed thought. He further believes that thoughts are the only concept that truly exist since reality is defined through the act of thinking. This idea was derived from Gentile's paper, \"The Theory of Mind As Pure Act\".\nSince thoughts are actions, any conjectured idea can be enacted. This idea not only affects the individual's life, but everyone around them, which in turn affects the state since the people are the state. Therefore, thoughts of each person are subsumed within the state. The state is", "Intentions are nothing more than imagined actions, internalizings of the external. All action is therefore imitation of action; it is poetic...\nDonald like Plato (and Aristotle, especially in On Memory and Recollection), emphasizes the peculiarity in humans of voluntary initiation of a search through one's mental world. The ancient Greek anamnēsis, normally translated as \"recollection\" was opposed to mneme or memory. Memory, shared with some animals, requires a consciousness not only of what happened in the past, but also that something happened in the past, which is in other words a kind of eikasia \"...but nothing except man is able to", "or aware of being angry & aware of other emotions. He terms this second nature as knowledge by identity.\nHe finds that at present as the result of evolution the mind has accustomed itself to depend upon certain physiological functioning and their reactions as its normal means of entering into relations with the outer material world. As a result, when we seek to know about the external world the dominant habit is through arriving at truths about things via what our senses convey to us. However, knowledge by identity, which we currently only give the awareness of human beings'", "mind only by its immersion in social relationships together with \"other brains linked by language and culture.\" (p. 331) Human meaning derives not from nature but from the language-linked social network of which we are part.\" (p. 334) If we did succeed in creating a machine capable of participating in a human society like a human being, it would be human (334–35).\nIn the final chapter of Man, Beast and Zombie, Malik laments what he sees as an increasing reluctance to view individual people as autonomous, rational, and competent agents, and a tendency to view them as damaged, weak, incapable, and possessing", "is no understanding written or spoken, is an act of transcendence. Thinking symbolically becomes a form of consciousness that goes far beyond individuals. It's a meditation of the past and future, a reflection of the world within and beyond. Communicating through abstract ideas is at the foundation of creativity and symbolic thought, including art, music, the written word, mathematics, and science. \nWinquist noted that in René Descartes' third Meditation, Descartes wrote that God transcended \"subjective dominance.\" The very thought of God's attributes created doubt about the innate ability of human nature to comprehend the existence", "resulting in humans being aware of their existence or aware of being angry & aware of other emotions. He terms this second nature as knowledge by identity.\nHe finds that at present as the result of evolution the mind has accustomed itself to depend upon certain physiological functioning and their reactions as its normal means of entering into relations with the outer material world. As a result, when we seek to know about the external world the dominant habit is through arriving at truths about things via what our senses convey to us. However, knowledge by identity, which we", "ideas. At the same time that it sees from above, it sees farther ; at every moment of time, it embraces all known reality ; that is why it alone can furnish the mind with the moulds which are applicable to the totality of things and which make it possible to think of them. It does not create these moulds artificially ; it finds them within itself ; it does nothing but become conscious of them.(445)\nDurkheim means that the symbolization of the collective consciousness is done through the totemic animal. It is through this 'flag' that Australian Aboriginals become conscious of themselves within a", "think and see ourselves. Although it was originally intended to serve as a tool to help us to write and communicate with others, it has more recently transformed into a means of providing us with virtual worlds which we can step into and interact with other people. The book discusses how our everyday interactions with computers affect our minds and the way we think about ourselves.\nTurkle also discusses the way our human identity is changing due to the fading boundary between humans and computers, and how people now have trouble distinguishing between humans and machines. It used to", "as human beings symbolically construct ideology, they create complex naming patterns to make sense of and interpret experience. They symbolically constitute templates or worldviews that give meaning to daily experience. They create these complex naming patterns (e.g., a good education will lead to a better life) by abstracting, or paying attention to some aspects of experience (foregrounding) and directing attention away from other aspects (backgrounding). Attention interventions occur when human beings attempt to account for anomalies in their complex naming patterns by communicatively shifting attention. Brown concludes that these rhetorical shifts in attention drive social system change.\nIn the Attention and", "creating shared social identity and help create and maintain human bonding. Dissanayake, Joseph Carroll (Literary Darwinism 2004), and Denis Dutton (The Art Instinct, 2009) all argue that the arts help organize the human mind by giving emotionally and aesthetically modulated models of reality. By participating in the simulated life of other people one gains a greater understanding of the motivations of oneself and other people. The idea that the arts function as means of psychological organization subsumes the ideas that the arts provide adaptively relevant information, enable us to consider alternative behavioral scenarios, enhance pattern recognition, and serve as means", "to think teleologically and ascribe meaning and significance to their surroundings, a trait which may lead people to believe in a creator-deity. This may have developed as a side effect of human social intelligence, the ability to discern what other people are thinking.\nStories of encounters with supernatural beings are especially likely to be retold, passed on, and embellished due to their descriptions of standard ontological categories (person, artifact, animal, plant, natural object) with counterintuitive properties (humans that are invisible, houses that remember what happened in them, etc.). As belief in deities spread, humans may have attributed anthropomorphic thought processes to", "special. All language, they argued, is permeated with metaphor, whose use in fact constitutes distinctively human — that is, distinctively abstract — thought. To conceptualise things which cannot be directly perceived — intangibles such as time, life, reason, mind, society or justice — we have no choice but to set out from more concrete and directly perceptible phenomena such as motion, location, distance, size and so forth. In all cultures across the world, according to Lakoff and Johnson, people resort to such familiar metaphors as ideas are locations, thinking is moving and mind is body. For example, we might express the idea of \"arriving", "the human body (especially in the development of the human brain), and changes in social actions occurred, humans went beyond trying to simply form bonds and relationships of empathy with others. As their culture and society became more complex, they began using practices and various symbols to make sense of the natural and spiritual world around them. Instead of simply trying to find belongingness and empathy from the relationships with others, humans created and evolved God and spirits in order to fulfil that need and exploration. King argued that \"an earthly need for belonging led to human religious imagination and", "succeed with 'somethings', he could not act. In this example, Charlie provides us with a simplified illustration of the self-concept as a summary formulation of one's status ('nothing' existing in a world made up of 'somethings' and 'nothings'); and illustrates how what is fundamental about self-concepts is not that they are informational summaries of myriad facts about oneself, but that they place one somewhere in the scheme of things.\" On love and barriers to love \"It is vitally important that psychotherapists bring a strong understanding of the nature of love to their work with the many clients who are struggling,", "mind is fundamental to the way we think, it’s wired into our brains. And over the millennia we humans have learned ways to improve upon this. The first improvement is language. [...] So language is a way of allowing one person to learn from many different people. But you know, we’ve also learned to turn that concept around to use language as a way of allowing one person to teach many people. [...] the principle remains the same. And in fact, this is the genesis of art. 'Cause art really is just a way of communicating ideas.\n[...] The interactive conversation", "disincentives, and the like). So the most effective way of changing individual behavior is to intervene in social and cultural and familial systems at every scale. Promoting and bolstering diversity and whistle blowing within all these systems is vital to combating the tendencies to Groupthink that human nature makes us all too prone to. For we are social and contextual beings—our brains have evolved that way. Nevertheless, as Spinoza anticipated, an arduous path of the education of desire can lead to independence of mind from the tyranny of the immediate local world for those who undertake it. We can learn", "the human ability to use language, which makes it possible to conceive of the negation of something, and also allows the conceptualization of something which can be other than what it is; and in the bioanthropological behavior of humans as social animals, which allows people to know how to follow rules without needing a rule to tell how to follow a rule, then a rule to tell how to follow that rule, and so on to infinity. These capabilities permit people to create social institutions and to dissolve or change them.", "Nature and intellect relationship\nPaul argues that human intellect is superior to nature. Therefore, humans must have the ability to manipulate nature as they see fit. Sculptures and painters, for example, use nature (marble for statue, paint etc) to create various forms of art. They take natural materials and manipulate them in such a way (chiseling a statue, combining colors/drawing shapes, patterns, and figures) to create artistic works. They are able to in a controllable manner alter and improve nature. This thought is also reflected in the act of writing. “[T]he hand does not write", "book, Existential Anthropology, he explores the notion of control, stating that humans anthropomorphize inanimate objects around them in order to enter into an interpersonal relationship with them. In this way humans are able to feel as if they have control over situations that they cannot control because rather than treating the object as an object, they treat it as if it is a rational being capable of understanding their feelings and language. Good examples are prayer to gods to alleviate drought or to help a sick person or cursing at a computer that has ceased to function." ]

[ "Going outside firstly removes the trigger and stimulus that's causing the stress - and so they can get out of an emotionally charged situation. Fresh air may also be a change in temperature, so they have a different physical response too, and that may help them breathe deeper, giving the stress hormones a chance to disperse", "Deep breathing increases the supply of oxygen to your brain and stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, which promotes a state of calmness. \nWhen stressed, the opposite happens and we tense up clench muscles, and breathe quickly/shallow this is the FIGHT OR FLIGHT response.\n\nIntentional deep breathing, especially when we are not in immediate physical danger, brings us back to calm.\n\nSTRESS use to be to save our lives (and for many it still does) but a LOT of 1st worlders have self induced stress that isn't actually threatening.", "While we grew up frolicking through fields, swinging at the park and cruising along on our bikes, as adults, many of us spend most of our time indoors. But all of those hours spent outside were actually good for more than using up our unlimited, childhood energy. As it turns out, science shows that some fresh air really will do you good.\n\nFresh air saves lives.\n trees\nJust like you learned in elementary school, trees use photosynthesis to turn carbon dioxide into the oxygen we need to breathe. In just one year, the presence of trees saved 850 lives and prevented 670,000 cases of acute respiratory symptoms, according to new research published in the journal Environmental Pollution. Trees remove pollution from the air, making it healthier for us to take into our lungs. According to the research, the fresh air created by trees is especially beneficial to those living in urban areas, where the air is more heavily polluted.\n\nAir pollution can create some major health problems. Highly polluted air has been shown to cause a burning effect in eyes, noses and throats. Polluted air also makes it harder for those with asthma to breathe. Some toxic chemicals that can live in the air — like benzene and vinyl chloride — are highly toxic. They can even cause cancer, birth defects, long term injury to the lungs, as well as brain and nerve damage. Breathing fresh air that plants produce lowers the chances of coming into contact with these scary pollutants.\n\nIt can boost your immune system.\nIt may be time to step outside if you find yourself cooped up with tons of other people at your office, or even in your own home. Such close quarters exposes you to all sorts of germs. Plus, even a simple walk outside can raise your immune system. “Exercise leads to an increase in natural killer cells, neutrophils and monocytes, which ultimately increases immune function,” Ather Ali, ND, MPH, assistant director of Complementary/Alternative Medicine Research at the Yale-Griffin Prevention Research Center tells _URL_0_.\n\nThe smells in fresh air bust stress and increase happiness.\n smiling forest\nScience shows that you really should stop and smell the roses, as the smell of them promotes relaxation. Other flowers, like lavender and jasmine can also lower anxiety and up your mood. Research shows that the scent of pine trees decreases stress and increases relaxation. Even walking through a park or your own backyard can help you feel calmer and happier when you catch a whiff of freshly cut grass. And while rain may put a damper on your outdoor plans, we love nothing more than the scent of a downpour, according to Smithsonian magazine. The smell reminds us of the color green and may be linked with the growth of both the plants and animals that we need to eat, which could explain why it smells so good to us.\n\nFresh oxygen energizes.\nBack away from the energy drink. Research shows that spending time in fresh air, surrounded by nature, increases energy in 90 percent of people. “Nature is fuel for the soul, “ Richard Ryan, researcher and professor of psychology at the University of Rochester, tells the University of Rochester. “Often when we feel depleted we reach for a cup of coffee, but research suggests a better way to get energized is to connect with nature.”", "The vast majority of our biological history was spent roaming around outside and our bodies are more sensitive to the chemicals/particulates floating in the air than we give them credit ie. seasonal allergies, the smell of blood, + endorphin stimulators. Sitting inside rooms that are chock full of bodily aromatics probably puts us into an elevated state of stress that is easily reduced by grabbing a bit of relatively fresh outside city air.", "Research suggests that nicotine may alter the brain in areas that inhibit negative emotions such as anger." ]

[ "enough space so that peoples’ hearts and minds feel big enough to live with their discomfort, their fear, their anger or their despair, or their physical or mental anguish. But you can also breathe out for those who have no food and drink, you can breathe out food and drink. For those who are homeless, you can breathe out/send them shelter. For those who are suffering in any way, you can send out safety, comfort. \nSo in the in-breath you breathe in with the wish to take away the suffering, and breathe out with the wish to send", "and emergency. During an emergency, children, pregnant women, the elderly and the ailing may be asked to stay indoors. Those who are healthy enough to continue with their lives outside are advised to cover their mouths and noses with scarves or handkerchiefs—but not facemasks, because according to government spokesperson Carlos Rojas \"people don't want images that further dramatize the situation.\" Also Peru is using \"super tree' technology, created by Tierra Nuestra to try and fight the air pollution in the major cities. The super tree acts like 1200 real trees, purifying the air. It sucks the outside air, and under", "occurs sooner than it would otherwise. Alertness and mental capacity also may be affected, resulting in heat stroke or hyperthermia. Human comfort Humans are sensitive to humid air because the human body uses evaporative cooling as the primary mechanism to regulate temperature. Under humid conditions, the rate at which perspiration evaporates on the skin is lower than it would be under arid conditions. Because humans perceive the rate of heat transfer from the body rather than temperature itself, we feel warmer when the relative humidity is high than when it is low.\nSome people experience difficulty breathing in humid environments. Some", "lungs), concentrating flow in a heart–brain circuit and allowing the animal to conserve oxygen.\nIn humans, the diving reflex is not induced when limbs are introduced to cold water. Mild bradycardia is caused by subjects holding their breath without submerging the face in water. When breathing with the face submerged, the diving response increases proportionally to decreasing water temperature. However, the greatest bradycardia effect is induced when the subject is holding his breath with his face wetted. Apnea with nostril and facial cooling are triggers of this reflex.\nThe diving response in animals, such as the dolphin, varies considerably depending on", "to music when running errands alone or turning on the television when at home, even if it is just for background noise. Using noise to interrupt the silence of isolated situations can often be a great help for people suffering from autophobia.\nHowever, it is important to remember that just because a person may feel alone at times does not mean that they have autophobia. Most people feel alone and secluded at times; this is not an unusual phenomenon. Only when the fear of being alone begins to interrupt how a person lives their daily life does the idea of being", "ancient Yoga meditative tradition is used: \"I feel the air flowing in and out of my nose.\" Immediately, as often explained by spiritual teacher Alan Watts in his numerous books, the words have the psychological power to turn your attention toward the actual breathing experience - which in turn awakens your awareness to sensory experience in the present moment.\nElicitor statements using this general 'focus phrase technology' for mental refocusing can be used to redirect attention toward a more positive mood (\"I let go of my worries, and feel peaceful inside\"), toward more creative states of mind (\"I am open to", "they are used to increase the subglottal pressure by actively exhaling air.\nDuring speech, the respiratory cycle is modified to accommodate both linguistic and biological needs. Exhalation, usually about 60 percent of the respiratory cycle at rest, is increased to about 90 percent of the respiratory cycle. Because metabolic needs are relatively stable, the total volume of air moved in most cases of speech remains about the same as quiet tidal breathing. Increases in speech intensity of 18 dB (a loud conversation) has relatively little impact on the volume of air moved. Because their respiratory systems are not as developed as adults,", "up the breathing spaces of the body. His techniques employ a mix of mindfulness and awareness practices, movements, postures, touch, and sound, with a stated emphasis on learning how to exhale fully and effortlessly. He writes in his articles and books that when the exhalation is full and natural, the inhalation usually takes place spontaneously in the most appropriate way for the demands of the moment.\nLewis claims that most people are unaware of their breathing until they have some kind of major problem. This lack of breathing awareness, he believes, is a manifestation of a larger issue: a general lack", "for the clear water they enclose. When the weather is bad (e.g., typhoon), there comes the boredom. They have no choice but to stay inside their small quarters on stilts. However, they are not totally bitter when the weather is bad since it is also their source of clean water. The roof of their quarters is made such that it can catch raindrops and stock them in a huge container. The soldiers said that, unlike food which can be provided by their fishing and a vegetable garden beside their barracks, fresh water is their number one concern. When they run", "of anaesthesia has not been shown to reduce anxiety in children. It is suggested that parents who wish to attend should not be actively discouraged, and parents who prefer not to be present should not be actively encouraged to attend. Airway management Anaesthetized patients lose protective airway reflexes (such as coughing), airway patency, and sometimes a regular breathing pattern due to the effects of anaesthetics, opioids, or muscle relaxants.\nTo maintain an open airway and regulate breathing, some form of breathing tube is inserted after the patient is unconscious.\nTo enable mechanical ventilation, an endotracheal tube is often used, although there are", "if \"many\" American cities were vulnerable to a disaster smog event, Roberts replied, \"Yes. I have been worried that we would wake up some morning to an unusual meteorological situation that prevented the air from circulating and that we might find thousands of people dead as the result of the air they were forced to breathe in that smog situation.\"\nThe mayor's office established a 10-member task force headed by Norman Cousins (known as the editor of the weekly magazine Saturday Review) to study the problem of air pollution. The task force published a 102-page report in May 1966, finding that", "an inability to sleep and fatigue, and feeling irritated, depressed, or anxious; they may be constantly distracted by the sense that they are not getting enough air.\nA study, found that 77% of patients with empty nose syndrome have hyperventilation syndrome. Cause The cause may be changes to the nasal mucous membrane and to the nerve endings in the mucosa resulting from chronic changes to the temperature and humidity of the air flowing inside the nose, caused in turn by removal or reduction of the turbinates. Direct damage to the nerves may be a result of surgical intervention; however, as", "Control of ventilation Control of ventilatory pattern Ventilation is normally unconscious and automatic, but can be overridden by conscious alternative patterns. Thus the emotions can cause yawning, laughing, sighing (etc.), social communication causes speech, song and whistling, while entirely voluntary overrides are used to blow out candles, and breath holding (to swim, for instance, underwater). Hyperventilation may be entirely voluntary or in response to emotional agitation or anxiety, when it can cause the distressing hyperventilation syndrome. The voluntary control can also influence other functions such as the heart rate as in yoga practices and meditation.\nThe ventilatory pattern is also temporarily", "serious and I do not believe it is driven by an ephemeral feeling of sympathy.\nFurthermore, I have seen people without transport means walk in the evening rain without complaints at all when a sudden and drastic change of the military strategy dictated that these civilians relocate to a far away place at short notice at night. \nTo sum up, despite consistent heavy burden of labor service and lack of goods all the time since the Imperial Navy and Army proceeded to establish the front line in Okinawa, (despite some bad rumors of a few parties) the local citizens devoted themselves", "pre-existing conditions (including asthma, and COPD), pregnant women, young children, and the elderly to take extra care because they will have a harder time breathing the smokier air. Henderson has suggested precautions such as spending time in clean air shelters, such as community centers, shopping malls, and libraries, or investing in an air cleaner for your house. Awards and recognition Named a Leader in Fire Science for her notable work on health impacts and mortality rates as related to smoke exposure, as related to forest fires.", "yoga such as pranayama, and the Buteyko method as a treatment for asthma and other conditions.\nIn music, some wind instrument players use a technique called circular breathing. Singers also rely on breath control.\nCommon cultural expressions related to breathing include: \"to catch my breath\", \"took my breath away\", \"inspiration\", \"to expire\", \"get my breath back\". Breathing and mood Certain breathing patterns have a tendency to occur with certain moods. Due to this relationship, practitioners of various disciplines consider that they can encourage the occurrence of a particular mood by adopting the breathing pattern that it most commonly occurs in conjunction", "(5 mph) in water; typically resurfacing to breathe every three to five minutes. The young have to breathe every two to three minutes. The process of surfacing and breathing is subconscious: a hippo sleeping underwater will rise and breathe without waking up. A hippo closes its nostrils when it submerges into the water. As with fish and turtles on a coral reef, hippos occasionally visit cleaning stations and signal, by opening their mouths wide, their readiness for being cleaned of parasites by certain species of fishes. This is an example of mutualism, in which the hippo benefits from the cleaning while", "rest is often interpreted as a sign of respiratory distress. Muscles of exhalation During quiet breathing, there is little or no muscle contraction involved in exhalation; this process is simply driven by the elastic recoil of the thoracic wall. When forceful exhalation is required, or when the elasticity of the lungs is reduced (as in emphysema), active exhalation can be achieved by contraction of the abdominal wall muscles (rectus abdominis, transverse abdominis, external oblique muscle and internal oblique muscle). These press the abdominal organs cranially (upward) into the diaphragm, reducing the volume of the thoracic cavity.\nThe internal intercostal muscles have", "and frustration down, there are a few ways in which we can maintain the stress that has taken over. Taking time to sit in silence can help clear our minds and not think about things that would stress us out more. Taking a short walk to gain more perspective in life and enjoy the nature of outdoors. Being able to appreciate the small things we may take for granted every day. Offering help to others and be more sympathetic can change our emotions to positive feelings. Reducing caffeine intake so that our body can fully rest during the night and", "Health when air conditions in the city are poor enough to be harmful to a resident's health. The alerts are given in order to encourage residents to take precautions in order to protect their health, usually by limiting the amount of time spent outdoors in locations of heavy smog.\nA study led by the University of Toronto found remarkable improvements in regional air pollution in the city since 2000. For comparison, there were 53 smog days in 2005, and in 2014 and 2015 there were no recorded smog days. Concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides, two precursor components", "(lungs, lower trachea). Breathing is no longer done through the nose (nasal airflow), which causes a loss/decrease of the sense of smell, leading to a decrease in the sense of taste. The Nasal Airflow Inducing Manoeuvre (NAIM), also known as the \"Polite Yawning\" manoeuvre, was created in 2000 and is widely accepted and used by speech-language pathologists in the Netherlands, while also becoming more widely used in Europe. This technique consists of increasing the space in the oral cavity while keeping the lips closed, simulating a yawn with a closed mouth by lowering the jaw, tongue and floor of the", "noses can cause them to develop breathing problems, making it difficult for them to regulate their body temperature in overly hot or cold weather. Their long backs, relative to their legs, make them vulnerable to back injuries. Care should be taken when picking them up to give adequate support to the back: one hand under the chest, the other under the abdomen. Short legs give some Pekingese difficulty with stairs; older dogs may not be able to go up or down stairs alone.\nIn an effort to address the breathing difficulties caused by the breed's flat face, the Kennel Club (UK)", "or using facilities at rest stops. Problems Piles of polyethene bags gather on roofs and attract flies. Some of them burst open upon impact and/or clog drainage systems. If they land on fractured water pipes, a drop in water pressure can cause the contents to be sucked into the water system. People can also be hit by the bags as they are blindly tossed. In the rainy season, drainage contaminated with excrement can enter residences; some children even swim in it. Such close contact leads to fears of diseases such as diarrhoea, skin disorders, typhoid fever and malaria.\nThe practice of", "breathe quite shallowly\" can use the different breathing and movement exercises to relax their body and breathing. Students with a hearing impairment can use the Orff Approach by feeling the vibrations that are created by different instruments. Since music is mostly resilient, students who have had injuries that have mentally impaired them can use the Approach as a form of therapy. Even elderly individuals who often become weak with old age can use the Orff Approach to help with memory, dexterity, and agility.", "will be upside-down, disoriented, often in the dark and in a rapidly sinking helicopter. Immersion in cold water evokes a \"gasp\" response in humans, which limits their breath-holding ability to as little as 15 seconds. The HABD, properly used, provides troops with an invaluable tool to help ward off panic and buys them precious extra time to escape.\nThe Helicopter Emergency Egress Device (HEED) was introduced to the USAF by MSgt Andre' K. Leamons after losing a helicopter and crew off Kadena Japan in the late 1980s. Sergeant Leamons was the Life Support Superintendent for Air Rescue Service and introduced", "the maternal grandmother. For the first three months, caregivers avoid taking the newborn outside after late afternoon because it is a \"cold \" environment. The air is dangerous at this time and can cause the infant to become sick and agitated, with darker bowel movements as another symptom. If baby must be outside, the caregiver covers their body and head well. At one month, the caregiver can begin bathing the infant in cold water to build up their resistance. Caregivers massage the limbs and buttocks of the newborn after bathing. They pull and push on the most exterior parts of", "compounds that threatened his health. Those who remained inside had little protection from the noxious gases that passed freely through cooling and heating systems.\nAn estimated 80 persons died. Thousands of men and women already suffering from respiratory diseases lived out the four days in fear and pain.\nFinally, the winds came, freeing the mass of air from the weather-trap that had held it so dangerously. The immediate crisis was ended. New Yorkers began to breathe \"ordinary\" air again.\n\"Ordinary\" air in New York, as in most large cities, is filled with tons of pollutants: carbon monoxide from gasoline, diesel and jet engines,", "... fear becomes exhilaration [and the] only sounds are the wind and a dull roar floating back from the mufflers\" and T. E. Lawrence wrote of the \"lustfulness of moving swiftly\" and the \"pleasure of speeding on the road\". A sensation he compared to feeling \"the earth moulding herself under me ... coming alive ... and heaving and tossing on each side like a sea.\" Benefits when commuting While people choose to ride motorcycles for various reasons, those reasons are increasingly practical, with riders opting for a powered two-wheeler as a cost-efficient alternative to infrequent and expensive public transport systems,", "with the muscles of breathing via motor nerves, of which the phrenic nerves, which innervate the diaphragm, are probably the most important.\nAutomatic breathing can be overridden to a limited extent by simple choice, or to facilitate swimming, speech, singing or other vocal training. It is impossible to suppress the urge to breathe to the point of hypoxia but training can increase the ability to breath-hold; for example, in February 2016, a Spanish, professional freediver broke the world record for holding the breath underwater at just over 24 minutes.\nOther automatic breathing control reflexes also exist. Submersion, particularly of the face, in", "shelter in place is over, residents should go outside and open all doors and windows to ventilate the shelter. Similar processes should be followed in cars, workplaces, or schools. Carbon dioxide concerns Sheltering in place is generally only used for a short period of time, typically a few, around 3, hours, this number is based upon assuming the occupant's breathing-produced carbon dioxide is the only consumer of oxygen in the airtight room, in which case, carbon dioxide levels would not begin to reach dangerous values until 3+ hours had passed, in all likely, 4-person family home, scenarios, before room ventilation" ]

[ "The processor in your computer works based on instructions. Instructions like \"add these two numbers\", \"move this number to somewhere else in the computer's memory\", \"erase this section of memory\". \n\nWhen someone writes a computer program in a programming language, the compiler turns their code into a series of instructions for the processor. To make this easier there are standardized \"instruction sets\" that computer makers use that are the same across many processors. The most common instruction set in computers is called x86. This set is based off the instruction set for an Intel processor in the 1970s called the Intel 8086. Since then the standard has been updated many times to add new instructions as processors got more powerful. \n\nBecause this instruction set is so old, it any processor that uses it is only able to use 4GB of memory in your computer. The numbers it can use as addresses in the computers memory can only go up to 2^32, which is 4,294,967,296 (aka 4 gigabytes, giga means billion.) that is to say, x86 processors have 32 bit wide address space.\n\nX86-64 (sometimes just called x64) is an addition to x86 that lets it address memory in a space 2^64 bits wide, allowing up to 256 terabytes (256 thousand gigabytes) of memory space.\n\n\nBasically, programs in Program Files are put together (compiled) for versions of Windows that support x86-64 processors, while programs in the Program Files (X86) folder are built for x86 (32 bit) versions of Windows. 64 bit versions of Windows should have no trouble running x86 programs." ]

[ "some platforms the format is usually indicated by its filename extension, specifying the rules for how the bytes must be organized and interpreted meaningfully. For example, the bytes of a plain text file (.txt in Windows) are associated with either ASCII or UTF-8 characters, while the bytes of image, video, and audio files are interpreted otherwise. Most file types also allocate a few bytes for metadata, which allows a file to carry some basic information about itself.\nSome file systems can store arbitrary (not interpreted by the file system) file-specific data outside of the file format, but linked to the file,", "tell that hidden content exists. Binary compatibility Two files that are binary compatible will have the same sequence of zeros and ones in the data portion of the file. The file header, however, may be different.\nThe term is used most commonly to state that data files produced by one application are exactly the same as data files produced by another application. For example, some software companies produce applications for Windows and the Macintosh that are binary compatible, which means that a file produced in a Windows environment is interchangeable with a file produced on a Macintosh. This avoids many of", "and other objects only as a stream of bytes, and have little or no information about the data stored in the files. Such file systems also provide only a single way of organizing the files, namely via directories and file names.\nBecause a file system has no knowledge about the data it stores, applications tend to use their own, often proprietary, file formats. This hampers sharing of data between multiple applications. It becomes difficult to create an application which processes information from multiple file types, because the programmers have to understand the structure and semantics of all the files. Using", "operating systems have only one \"fork\". By contrast, MFS and HFS give files two different \"forks\". The data fork contains the same sort of information as a file in other file systems, such as the text of a document or the bitmaps of an image file. The resource fork contains other structured data such as menu definitions, graphics, sounds, or code segments that would be incorporated into a program's file format on other systems. An executable file might consist only of resources (including code segments) with an empty data fork, while a data file might have only a data fork", "the program's comparison rules as its most powerful feature. The customizable rules control which differences between two files should be flagged as such. A set of predefined rules are included for the comparison of common file types, such as C++ source code, XML, and HTML files.", "such as NTFS, XFS, ext2, ext3, some versions of UFS, and HFS+, using extended file attributes. Some file systems provide for user defined attributes such as the author of the document, the character encoding of a document or the size of an image.\nSome file systems allow for different data collections to be associated with one file name. These separate collections may be referred to as streams or forks. Apple has long used a forked file system on the Macintosh, and Microsoft supports streams in NTFS. Some file systems maintain multiple past revisions of a file under a single file name;", "Binary file Structure Binary files are usually thought of as being a sequence of bytes, which means the binary digits (bits) are grouped in eights. Binary files typically contain bytes that are intended to be interpreted as something other than text characters. Compiled computer programs are typical examples; indeed, compiled applications are sometimes referred to, particularly by programmers, as binaries. But binary files can also mean that they contain images, sounds, compressed versions of other files, etc.—in short, any type of file content whatsoever.\nSome binary files contain headers, blocks of metadata used by a computer program to interpret the data", "visible to both 32-bit and 64-bit applications. The directory that stores the 32 bit files is called Program Files (x86) to differentiate between the two, while the 64 bit maintains the traditional Program Files name without any additional qualifier. Application compatibility 32-bit applications that include only 32-bit kernel-mode device drivers, or that plug into the process space of components that are implemented purely as 64-bit processes (e.g. Windows Explorer) cannot be executed on a 64-bit platform.\n32-bit service applications are supported. The SysWOW64 folder located in the Windows folder on the OS drive contains several applications to support 32-bit applications", "a sequence of bytes, and the C++ string class follows the same principle. Although source code can (since C++11) request an encoding for a literal, the compiler does not attempt to validate that the chosen encoding of the source literal is \"correct\" for the bytes being put into it, and the runtime does not enforce character encoding. Programmers who are used to other languages such as Java, Python or C# which try to enforce character encodings often consider this to be a defect of the language.\nThe example program below illustrates the phenomenon. \n#include <iostream>#include <string>int main() {\n // all", "compiler might use the extension FOR for source input file (for Fortran code), OBJ for the object output and LST for the listing. Although there are some common extensions, they are arbitrary and a different application might use REL and RPT. On filesystems that do not segregate the extension, files will often have a longer extension such as html. Encoding interoperability There is no general encoding standard for filenames.\nBecause file names have to be exchanged between software environments (think network file transfer, file system storage, backup and file synchronization software, configuration management, data compression and archiving, etc.), it is very", "the format has to be converted from filesystem to filesystem. While this is also true to an extent with filename extensions—for instance, for compatibility with MS-DOS's three character limit—most forms of storage have a roughly equivalent definition of a file's data and name, but may have varying or no representation of further metadata.\nNote that zip files or archive files solve the problem of handling metadata. A utility program collects multiple files together along with metadata about each file and the folders/directories they came from all within one new file (e.g. a zip file with extension .zip). The new file is", "Unix file types The standard Unix file types are regular, directory, symbolic link, FIFO special, block special, character special, and socket as defined by POSIX. Different OS-specific implementations allow more types than what POSIX requires (e.g. Solaris doors). A file's type can be identified by the ls -l command, which displays the type in the first character of the file system permissions field.\nFor regular files, Unix does not impose or provide any internal file structure; therefore, their structure and interpretation is entirely dependent on the software using them. However, the file command can be used to determine what type of", "either 2 bytes (using a 2-byte encoding such as UTF-16) or 4 bytes (usually UTF-32), but Standard C does not specify the width for wchar_t, leaving the choice to the implementor. Microsoft Windows generally uses UTF-16, thus the above string would be 26 bytes long for a Microsoft compiler; the Unix world prefers UTF-32, thus compilers such as GCC would generate a 52-byte string. A 2-byte wide wchar_t suffers the same limitation as char, in that certain characters (those outside the BMP) cannot be represented in a single wchar_t; but must be represented using surrogate pair\nThe original C standard specified", "system to open the file in particular applications.\nBeginning with System 1, Macintosh operating systems have attached type codes and creator codes as part of the file metadata. These four-character codes were designed to specify both the application that created the file (the creator code) and the specific type of the file (the type code) so that other applications could easily open and process the file data. However, while type and creator codes extended the flexibility of the system — a particular type of file was not restricted to opening in a particular application — they suffered many of the same", "two files of the same type, or even two different parts of the same file at the same time. Features such as Live Preview and Quick Edit work in both views. Multiple file format support Brackets supports codes from multiple file types from C++, C, VBScript to Java, JavaScript, HTML, Python, Perl and Ruby. The complete list comprises more than 38 file types. This gives the user flexibility to work on various files of a project simultaneously.\nBrackets supports a feature called \"PSD lens\" that helps to smoothly extract each of pictures, logos and design styles from PSD file without opening", "Though the practice is uncommon, a program's source code can be written in different programming languages. For example, a program written primarily in the C programming language, might have portions written in assembly language for optimization purposes. It is also possible for some components of a piece of software to be written and compiled separately, in an arbitrary programming language, and later integrated into the software using a technique called library linking. In some languages, such as Java, this can be done at run time (each class is compiled into a separate file that is linked by the interpreter at", "drive. This is necessary because each system has its own set of files and operating instructions. Also, when a completely separate operating system is used partitions may need to be formatted to a different format. For example, if you intend to install Windows and Linux, the Windows partition will be most likely formatted in the NTFS format and Linux Partition will most likely be formatted in the ext4 file format as Windows can't run off of ext4 and Linux can't run on NTFS. However, for example if a user intends to dual boot two versions of Windows (i.e. Windows 7", "archive manager.\nThere are several functionally equivalent but incompatible archive file formats, including ZIP, RAR, 7z and many others. Some programs can manage (create, extract, or modify) only one type of archive whilst many others can handle multiple formats. There is additionally a distinction between the file format and compression algorithm used. A single file format, such as 7z, can support multiple different compression algorithms including LZMA, LZMA2, PPMd and BZip2. For a decompression utility to correctly expand an archive of either the self-extracting or standard variety, it must be able to operate on both the file format and algorithm used.", "is mostly intended for the human user. \nIt is more common, especially in binary files, for the file itself to contain internal metadata describing its contents.\nThis model generally requires the full filename to be provided in commands, whereas the metadata approach often allows the extension to be omitted.\nThe VFAT, NTFS, and ReFS file systems for Windows also do not separate the extension metadata from the rest of the file name, and allow multiple extensions.\nWith the advent of graphical user interfaces, the issue of file management and interface behavior arose. Microsoft Windows allowed multiple applications to be associated with a given", "image which has been truncated while the program was running), or because a just-created memory-mapped file cannot be physically allocated, because the disk is full. Non-present segment (x86) On x86 exists an older memory management\nmechanism known as segmentation.\nIf the application loads segment register with the selector\nof non-present segment (which under POSIX-compliant OSes\ncan only be done with an assembly language), the exception\nis generated. Some OSes used that for swapping, but under\nLinux this generates SIGBUS. Example This is an example of unaligned memory access, written in the C programming language with AT&T assembly syntax.\n#include <stdlib.h>int main(int argc, char **argv) \n{\n ", "multiples of blocks, which gives the size of disk areas to be allocated as the file expands.\nThe file type indicates if the file is character data, or source code written in particular languages, binary data, or code files.\nFiles are protected by the usual security access mechanisms such as public or private, or a file may have a guard file where the owner can specify complex security rules.\nAnother security mechanism is that code files can only be created by trusted compilers. Malicious programmers cannot create a program and call it a compiler – a program could only be converted to be", "can be coded and decoded with many different algorithms, a container format may be used to provide a single file format to the user. Single coding formats In addition to pure container formats, which specify only the wrapper but not the coding, a number of file formats specify both a storage layer and the coding, as part of modular design and forward compatibility.\nExamples include JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF) for containing JPEG data, and Portable Network Graphics (PNG).\nIn principle, coding can be changed while the storage layer is retained; for example, Multiple-image Network Graphics (MNG) uses the PNG container format", "that are common among a number of formats, such as CMAP, which holds color palette in ILBM, ANIM and DR2D files (pictures, animations and vector pictures). There are chunks that have a common name but hold different data such as BODY, which could store an image in an ILBM file and sound in an 8SVX file. And finally, there are chunks unique to their file type. Some programs that create IFF files add chunks to them with their internal data; these same files can later be read by other programs without any disruption (because their parsers could skip uninteresting chunks),", "the programmer to specify whether a file is expected to be text or binary, but the libraries can and do ignore that parameter, as the end-of-line sequence in Unix-like systems is just the C/C++ end-of-line character. Viewing A hex editor or viewer may be used to view file data as a sequence of hexadecimal (or decimal, binary or ASCII character) values for corresponding bytes of a binary file.\nIf a binary file is opened in a text editor, each group of eight bits will typically be translated as a single character, and the user will see a (probably unintelligible) display of", "supported.\nFor software that is distributed as a binary executable, such as software written in C or C++, the programmer must build the software for each different operating system and computer architecture, i.e. must use a toolset that translates—transcompiles—a single codebase into multiple binary executables. For example, Firefox, an open-source web browser, is available on Windows, macOS (both PowerPC and x86 through what Apple Inc. calls a Universal binary), Linux, and *BSD on multiple computer architectures. The four platforms (in this case, Windows, macOS, Linux, and *BSD) are separate executable distributions, although they come from the same source code.\nThe use", "section for the operating system in use. It is basically two different programs with the same functionality in a single file, preceded by code selecting the one to use.\nUnder CP/M 3, if the first byte of a COM file is C9h, there is a 256-byte header; since C9h corresponds to the 8080 instruction RET, this means that the COM file will immediately terminate if run on an earlier version of CP/M that does not support this extension. (Because the instruction sets of the 8085 and Z80 are supersets of the 8080 instruction set, this works on all three processors.) C9h is", "Windows programs are installed onto their own folders under folder location \"C:\\Program Files\", while 32-bit (x86-32) Windows programs are installed onto their own folders under folder location \"C:\\Program Files (x86)\". Service packs The RTM version of Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is based on Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 codebase. Because Windows XP Professional x64 Edition comes from a different codebase than 32-bit Windows XP, its service packs are also developed separately. For the same reason, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP x64 Edition, released on March 13, 2007, is not the same as Service Pack 2 for 32-bit", "file can be portable across all architectures.\nOn x86 systems, there are several different HAL files on the installation media. The Windows installation procedure determines which ones are appropriate for the current platform and copies it to the hard drive, renaming it to Hal.dll if necessary. Among the criteria for this selection are: the presence of an ACPI-compatible BIOS, the presence of an APIC, and whether or not multiple processors are present and enabled. (The multiple cores of a multi-core CPU, and even the \"logical processors\" implemented by a hyperthreading CPU, all count as \"processors\" for this purpose.) On x86-64 and", "of PC systems such as CP/M and derivative systems such as MS-DOS, the extension is a separate namespace from the filename. Under Microsoft's DOS and Windows, extensions such as EXE, COM or BAT indicate that a file is a program executable. In OS/360 and successors, the part of the dataset name following the last period is treated as an extension by some software, e.g., TSO EDIT, but it has no special significance to the operating system itself; the same applies to Unix files in MVS.\nFilesystems for UNIX-like operating systems do not separate the extension metadata from the rest of the", "These two bytes are used for other purposes on the FAT32 filesystem, and hence OS/2 extended attributes cannot be stored on this filesystem.\nParts of OS/2 version 2.0 and later such as the Workplace Shell uses several standardized extended attributes (also called EAs) for purposes like identifying the filetype, comments, computer icons and keywords about the file.\nPrograms written in the interpreted language Rexx store an already parsed version of the code as an extended attribute, to allow faster execution. Solaris Solaris version 9 and later allows files to have \"extended attributes\", which are actually forks; the maximum size of an \"extended" ]

[ "If they were proved, in a court of law, beyond a reasonable doubt, to have knowingly and falsely accused someone, they do get sent to prison.", "There is a difference between a false accusation, an accused raper being found not-guilty, and being criminally liable. It is possible that someone gave false witness that they reasonably thought was true. Alternatively, there may have simply not been enough evidence to prove it was rape, but it also does not mean the person was lying (ex.: person claims rape because they had sex when heavily intoxicated, however, the other person was also extremely drunk and had nothing to do with the other person's state. It may still legally be considered rape, but who raped who and establishing criminal intent could be difficult). Finally there is the case where one party intentionally lies to try and get the other in trouble (or get attention, or some other reason). In this case it would be criminal liable and the accuser could get criminally prosecuted.", "It's because the courts don't want to tewwify the pwetty wittle scared girlies with the idea that their actions could have consequences for them.\n\n Admittedly, courtrooms are terrifying and rape is traumatic, but it *is* still a huge flaw in the system that women (not rape victims, but *women*) are coddled this much." ]

[ "again prosecuted for rape in 2016 almost 40 years after his acquittal for the rape of Greta Rideout. However, those charges stemmed from two different charges of rape in 2013. One by a woman who had hired John Rideout to do handyman work and another by his cohabitating girlfriend at the time. He was convicted of the rapes in 2017 and sentenced to two 100-month sentences.\nSome criticisms of the court's involvement in this matter included that it was an inefficient use of judicial resources, and that the public scrutiny of the Rideouts' private life may have prevented the Rideouts from", "woman accusing her of adultery, the Zina Ordinance made it very difficult for a woman to obtain bail pending trial. Worse, in actual practice, the vast majority of accused women were found guilty by the trial court only to be acquitted on appeal to the Federal Shariat Court. By then they had spent many years in jail, were ostracized by their families, and had become social outcasts.\n \nA woman alleging rape was required to provide four adult male eyewitnesses of good standing (tazkiyah-al-shuhood) to \"the act of penetration\". Failure to find such proof of the rape may place her", "she had been raped while walking home with groceries through Prospect Park, in Brooklyn. Unnamed police sources told McAlary that she made up the story, because she wanted to promote a rally about violence against lesbians. McAlary's police sources said there were inconsistencies in her story, and a lack of physical evidence. The police department later discovered DNA evidence, but no arrests were made at the time. \nMcAlary accepted the original police account of events, and wrote three columns about it, including one headlined, \"Rape hoax the real crime.\" The woman sued McAlary for libel, but the case was dismissed", "are currently serving ten years in prison. Another British woman was charged with public intoxication and extramarital sex (with her fiancé, not the accused) after she reported being raped; in one final case, an 18-year-old Emirati woman withdrew her complaint of gang rape inside a car by 6 men when faced with a flogging and jail term.\"U.A.E. Woman Withdraws Gang-Rape Claim to Avoid Lashes, Prison Sentence\". The woman served one year in jail for having consensual sex outside marriage with one of the men on a separate occasion.\nIn July 2013, a Norwegian woman, Marte Dalelv, reported rape to the police", "Nora Wall Nora Wall (formerly Sister Dominic) (born 1948) is a former Irish sister of the Sisters of Mercy who was wrongfully convicted of rape in June 1999, and served four days of a life sentence in July 1999, before her conviction was quashed. She was officially declared the victim of a miscarriage of justice in December 2005. The wrongful conviction was based on false allegations by two women in their 20s, Regina Walsh (born 8 January 1978) and Patricia Phelan (born 1973). Walsh had a psychiatric history and Phelan had a history of making false allegations of rape prior", "had been raped 29 times by at least seven guards. The second woman said that a male guard had observed her gynecological exam and subsequently sexually harassed her. When she complained, she was placed in isolation, denied educational opportunities, and given reduced visiting hours. The punishment was later determined to have been improper. The attorney who filed the suits stated that she had heard comparable stories from a number of women the previous ten years. The IDOC responded by installing 200 video cameras throughout the prison and by posting the names and contact information of prison officials to whom the", "Most of the rapes took place in secluded areas where she went to collect firewood (her chore); she could not tell her mother that she did not want to go, for fear of being beaten.\nThe woman said that at first, she had tried to object to the rapes. After a while, however, she had come to realize that there was nothing she could do about it: Young would simply carry on what he was doing. She concluded it was easier to consent. The woman said she had been too ashamed to tell anyone, even her schoolteacher, who was from New", "not reported. Women who chose not to tell or chose to tell only people who were close to her were often deemed liars or exaggerators when others found out about the rape. Because no legal action was attempted, onlookers often believed that the rape was \"not a big deal\" or \"must not have happened.\" Without some kind of validation from a person in authority, rape, according to college students in the study, was believed to not be as prominent or affect as many women as was the reality.\nAlthough there is a wide range of research on the consequences of sexual", "was dismissed previously by a female judge who heard all the evidence and he was acquitted by a jury that had 9 out 12 jurors who were female. Further, the accuser also stated to officers that she had not been raped the night of the alleged assault, admitted to kissing cleaves, was on camera fixing her hair and make up before entering the hotel with him, and asked him for football tickets shortly after the night of the alleged sexual assault.", "a charge of rape. In 1978, Greta Rideout brought a charge of rape against her husband under the 1977 law. The alleged assault according to Greta Rideout occurred October 10, 1978, at their apartment in North Salem. Having been arguing recently and facing threats of violence from John, she had refused to have sex with him and attempted to leave the house. He then brought her back to the apartment and forced himself on her. When she tried to report this to the police, she was told according to Oregon law she had to wait two days to make a rape charge.", "Victoria Derbyshire (TV programme) Controversies An episode of the Victoria Derbyshire show broadcast on 22 May 2015 featured an interview with Lisa Longstaff from the organisation Women Against Rape. During the broadcast, Longstaff made reference to the case of Eleanor de Freitas, a woman who had falsely alleged she had been raped and committed suicide while on trial for perverting the course of justice as a result of her false allegation. Longstaff twice wrongly referred to the victim of de Freitas' false allegations as a \"rapist\", with this smear unchallenged by interviewee Joanna Gosling. The BBC later issued an apology", "case of a bad man joining with a bad police officer to slander a women as a rapist.\" He is also noted for his opposition to legal reforms that made it a crime for husbands to rape their wives in 2007. He said that \"Many wives in this country still have to depend on their husbands. They might be upset by their husbands but if asked whether they want to divorce or put their husband in jail, they would say 'no'. The man might take revenge on his wife after being released from jail.\"", "Stuart Olding Rape and sexual assault case On 25 July 2017, Olding and fellow Ulster Rugby player Paddy Jackson were accused of rape. Two other men faced charges of intent to pervert the course of justice and exposure with all four men charged together. The case, which was scheduled to last for five weeks, was heard before Judge Patricia Smyth. Initially a jury of nine men and three women were sworn in, subsequently reduced to eleven as one male jury member was discharged on the grounds of ill-health. The trial started in January 2018, with prosecution and defence concluding their", "selfish reasons to make false accusations both of rape and of insult upon the slightest provocation for ulterior purposes. These women are shown, by the great weight of the evidence, on this very day before leaving Chattanooga, to have falsely accused two negroes of insulting them, and of almost precipitating a fight between one of the white boys they were in company with and these two negroes. This tendency on the part of the women shows that they are predisposed to make false accusations upon any occasion whereby their selfish ends may be gained.\nThe Court will not pursue the evidence", "7, but before this could take place, Linda again accused him of rape, claiming he had taped and tied her up, threatened that she was about to \"meet her maker\", abducted her by car, cut her clothing off, and raped her. According to William she invited sexual intercourse at her mother's home where she was staying, then began demanding money she believed he had. After some confusion, according to \"several witnesses\", Linda's mother insisted charges were pressed. Initial conviction County prosecutor Robert Weiss was responsible for prosecuting the case. He also reinstated the August case that had been dropped, and", "for information leading to his acquittal.\nOn 14 October, following two hours of deliberation, the jury of seven women and five men returned a verdict of not guilty. Naming of complainant on the internet North Wales Police investigated claims that the woman had been named and subjected to abuse on Twitter after the trial. Former Lord Chancellor, Lord Falconer of Thoroton, Holly Dustin, the director of End Violence Against Women, and Secretary of State for the Home Department Theresa May warned of the risks posed by discussing court cases on social media websites, and reiterated the need to protect the anonymity", "crime committed against her because of her sexual orientation.\nAccording to local gay-rights organization Triangle, the practice of \"corrective rape\" is widespread in South Africa, whereby men rape lesbians purportedly to \"cure\" them of their sexual orientation.\nThe trial of four suspected attackers began on 11 February 2009 in Delmas, Mpumalanga. One of the four alleged attackers pled guilty to rape and murder and was sentenced to 32 years' imprisonment. In September 2009, another was convicted of murder, rape, and robbery, and sentenced to life plus 35 years, but the remaining two accused were acquitted. Honours A miniature bridge was erected in", "Angus Diggle Angus Diggle (born 1956) is a disgraced British former solicitor, educated at Bolton School, Shrewsbury and Bristol University, who was convicted of attempted rape in a case that was widely reported at the time. Notoriety Diggle first came to public notice when he was sentenced to three years in prison for the attempted rape of a woman after a Highland Ball at the Grosvenor House Hotel in Park Lane, Mayfair, London in 1993. He was found by the woman's friends wearing only his spectacles, frilly cuffs and a luminous condom, and reportedly told the police: \"I spent", "them instead with a much lighter sexual abuse offense.  Despite a woman being violated multiple times by multiple men in a group, one judge had a different narrative upon which he built his own truth. In stating the men should be released as innocent, the judge said that he saw a woman who had sex with five men as doing nothing more than engaging in \"sexual acts in an atmosphere of revelry and rejoicing.\" The judicial ruling on the case was published on 26 April 2018.\nSeveral marches took place in Madrid to condemn the judiciary's handling of the case. They", "thousands of women were raped. Many cases similar to these have not gone to trial. Of the complaints about violence against women that were registered in 2010 by the Judicial Department, only one percent of them resulted in sentencing.\nLaw enforcement often fails to investigate in a timely manner, and blames the victims of the case. Many women abandon their cases because the stress and hardship put onto them. Without proper trials, investigations, and sentencing, the violence towards women will progressively increase.\nWomen are often murdered or subjected to violence by family members such as fathers, brothers, stepfathers and husbands, but when", "her up and beating her to death; he did not like her consorting with Pakis (Pakistanis) who have been grooming and paying her. They will be charged with rape, sex with a child and sexual assault. There is DNA evidence, and she is under-age. Banks says Something's sure to stick, so her case ends in finality. It is similar to the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal.", "discovering that he was physically female, had beaten and raped him about a week previously. Brandon had reported the rape to the police, but the Richardson County sheriff had failed to take steps to protect him; in particular, he had not arrested the two alleged rapists. Learning that the rape had been reported, the two tracked Brandon to a farmhouse near Humboldt, where they killed him and two others. Brandon's mother subsequently sued the sheriff and the county for negligence, wrongful death, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Briefs were filed in the case by thirty-four civil-rights groups, including the", "absurdity of asking rape victims similar questions.\nIn 2017, she was counsel for several of the accusers in the metoo campaign.\nIn 2017 she was counself for a gang rape victim who had been raped by two 19-year-old and one 20-year-old men. All received prison sentences and while the public prosecutor had demanded two of the men be deported to their home countries, the district court ruled not to deport them. The neglection to deport was appealed by Massi Fritz.\nIn 2017, she was counsel for the plaintiff in a noted case of gang rape involving about a dozen men of in the", "the claims made publicly by other women against Defendant' and 'the implication that Ms. Dickinson's rape disclosure is a lie and that therefore she is a liar'\", she wrote. As courts impose coverage in a \"mixed\" action, Cosby prevailed here as well but this ruling does not apply to the Massachusetts case, where AIG and Cosby are still fighting to determine who is liable. AIG plans to appeal this ruling.\nA Massachusetts federal judge, Mark G. Mastroianni, denied Cosby's bid to dismiss or pause the AIG suit on December 14, 2015. This judge, also responsible for the Green et al. defamation", "three women graphically detailing sexual fantasies and promising that \"I'm going to fuck you even if even if I have to rape you\". The courts originally ruled that the letters were not culpable threats, because they constituted \"adoring fantasies\", and because, as they saw it, \"rape does not necessarily involve serious bodily harm or even bodily harm.\" This was overturned by the Supreme Court, citing that \"Rape is an act of violence, not just a sexual act. It is a crime that is likely to have serious psychological consequences and may, as well, have serious physical effects.\" Elonis v.", "Julius Ruffin and Arthur Lee Whitfield Both Arthur Lee Whitfield and Julius Ruffin are men accused of rape in Virginia who were convicted and subsequently exonerated. Arthur Lee Whitfield On August 14, 1981, Arthur Lee Whitfield was accused of the rape of a woman in Norfolk, Virginia. Twenty five years ago, the woman identified Whitfield as her attacker, describing him as a tall, muscular black, light skinned with hazel eyes (Washington). This description was also used to identify an attacker from another rape that occurred earlier that night. Whitfield was tried and convicted for these two rapes", "and Wales over a 17-month period between January 2011 and May 2012. It showed that in 35 cases authorities prosecuted a person for making a false allegation, while they brought 5,651 prosecutions for rape. Keir Starmer, the head of the CPS, said that the \"mere fact that someone did not pursue a complaint or retracted it, is not of itself evidence that it was false\" and that it is a \"misplaced belief\" that false accusations of rape are commonplace. He added that the report also showed that a significant number of false allegations of rape (and domestic violence) \"involved young,", "the alleged rape to the local police. However, the men testified in court that the sex was consensual and no evidence could be provided that rape occurred. Gali and the accused men were arrested and all were sentenced to imprisonment for a period of 12 months for having an extra-matrimonial sexual relationship. She was released from prison after eight months on March 2009. Lawsuit against the Starwood Hotels and Resorts Worldwide Gali has sued her employers at the Starwood hotel for breaching its workplace obligations by failing to have a system in place to protect their workers against assault. The", "Radio Times Weldon claimed that rape \"isn't the worst thing that can happen to a woman if you're safe, alive and unmarked after the event.\" She was roundly condemned by feminists for this assertion.\nIn 2001 Weldon's novel The Bulgari Connection became notorious for its product placement, naming the jewellers not only in the title but another 33 times, while 12 times at least was appointed in the £18,000 contract.\nWeldon has defended the so-called 'Snowflake Generation' saying: \"“We should stop being beastly to the snowflakes...Today’s young grow up into a violent, angry, unstable environment, all too likely to end up jobless,", "testified that McAllister forced her to perform oral sex on him and later raped her when she was 16 years old. The woman recounted that she \"continually denied his advances, but he pulled her by the arm and eventually threw her over his shoulder and carried her into a bedroom.\" Unexpectedly, the charges against McAllister were dismissed on the second day of the trial at the request of the prosecuting state's attorney, Diane Wheeler. Wheeler stated that \"new information\" had created an \"ethical dilemma\" requiring the case to be dropped. The accuser's lawyer explained that her client had lied under" ]

[ "A tremendous number of browsers came with it auto-homepaged in the earlier days of the internet. It was the preferred way of accessing search functionality when the web really started taking off, and it had excellent branding.\n\nAnd that stuck, and stuck hard. A whole lot of older users have it as their home page, so every time they browse the web they start there because that's what they did ten or fifteen years ago." ]

[ "It was the second most visited website on the internet as of February 1996, but it quickly dropped below rival search engines and directories such as Yahoo!, Infoseek, Lycos, and Excite by 1997.", "of May 28, 2013, Yahoo!'s videos attract 45 million unique visitors a month, while Hulu has 24 million visitors—the combination of the two audiences can place Yahoo! in the second-most popular position after Google and its subsidiary YouTube.\nData collated by comScore during July 2013 revealed that more people in the U.S. visited Yahoo! websites during the month in comparison to Google websites—the occasion was the first time that Yahoo! outperformed Google since 2011. The data did not incorporate visit statistics for the Yahoo!-owned Tumblr website or mobile phone usage.\nOn September 22, 2016, Yahoo disclosed a data breach in which hackers", "to any kind of user interaction or participation. Before this, their Alexa ranking had already been in a steady decline, but this major change of removing all comments and discussions brought about a steeper decline during March/April in their page ranking, as can be seen on the Alexa rankings. Many users stopped visiting the website and they have dropped (as of September 2018) to 3414th most visited website in USA, losing a significant amount of their popularity since being ranked #248 in 2008.\nThe website is owned by TMFT Enterprises, LLC.\nOn November 6, 2018, parent company Defy Media announced that it", "services like Excite, Lycos and America Online. By 1998, Yahoo was the most popular starting point for web users, and the human-edited Yahoo Directory the most popular search engine, receiving 95 million page views per day which was triple the number compared to rival Excite. It also made many high-profile acquisitions. Yahoo began offering free e-mail from October 1997 after the acquisition of RocketMail, which was then renamed to Yahoo! Mail. In 1998, Yahoo! decided to replace AltaVista as the crawler-based search engine underlying the Directory with Inktomi. Yahoo's two biggest acquisitions were made in 1999 – that of Geocities", "of options that consist of different circumstances were put forward by the company. As of May 28, 2013, Yahoo!'s videos attract 45 million unique visitors a month, while Hulu has 24 million visitors—the combination of the two audiences can place Yahoo! in the second-most popular position after Google and its subsidiary YouTube.\nOn August 2, 2013 Yahoo Inc announced the acquisition of social web browser concern RockMelt. With the acquisition, RockMelt team, including the concern's CEO Eric Vishria and CTO Tim Howes will be the part of Yahoo team. As a result, all the RockMelt apps and existing web services will", "views. Its global Alexa rank rose to under 70,000 during the summer 2017 peak before stabilising down between 100,000 and 140,000 over the next three quarters. By comparison The Canary had a global Alexa rank which peaked at under 20,000 and did not rise above about 80,000 in the same period whilst Novara never achieved below 200,000.", "Yahoo! News Yahoo! Celebrity Yahoo! Celebrity (as omg!) debuted on June 12, 2007, with little fanfare, with the original press release being published on Yahoo!'s corporate blog. Upon launch, MediaWeek reported that Yahoo is hoping to skew more toward a female demographic with omg!, and that Unilever, Pepsi, and Axiata (Celcom & XL) will be the sole official sponsors of the website. Due to heavy publicity on Yahoo's front page and with its partnerships, readership took off, with four million readers logging on to omg! in the first 19 days alone. As of autumn 2007, omg! registered over eight million", "Alexa Internet's list of \"Movers and Shakers\" behind the websites for Britney Spears and Photo District News. On 6 October, Tew reported the site received 65,000 unique visitors; it received 1465 Diggs, becoming one of the most Dugg links that week. Eleven days later, the number had increased to 100,000 unique visitors. On 26 October, two months after the Million Dollar Homepage was launched, more than 500,900 pixels had been sold to 1,400 customers. By New Year's Eve, Tew reported that the site was receiving hits from 25,000 unique visitors every hour and had an Alexa Rank of 127, and", "43.1% of the top 1 million websites were hosted in the United States, compared to the 31.3% hosted in all of Europe. The company also publishes Royal Pingdom, a blog on a variety of Internet-related topics. Royal Pingdom is frequently cited in academic publications and by media organizations as a source of statistics on a variety of websites. Reception In its September 2017 review of the service, PC Magazine praised the software as \"fast and comprehensive\", pointing out that \"the only downside is that all this goodness is wrapped in a difficult interface that requires a steep learning curve to", "is typically one of the Top-five page-view-generating sites across the Yahoo network.\nYahoo! Groups functionality remained static between 2000 and 2005. In 2001 Yahoo! deleted adult groups from its search directory, making it very difficult to locate Yahoo! groups with adult content. A Yahoo! user who wishes to find a group with adult content must therefore either know the exact name of the group, or attempt to find it by using a search engine or one of several online adult group directories. This has created what some view as an \"underground\" atmosphere for Yahoo! adult groups. While it is unclear whether", "Yahoo! as the \"most authoritative source on search\".\nHe also staged the Search Engine Strategies conference six times each year, attracting 1,500 to 6,000 attendees each time. On 29 August 2006, Sullivan announced he would be leaving Search Engine Watch on 30 November 2006. He later came to an agreement with Jupitermedia to continue participating in SES through 2007. Search Engine Land Search Engine Land is a news website that covers search engine marketing and search engine optimization. One of the well-known blogs which shares information about keyword research, trends in search marketing (SEM), paid search advertising (PPC) and search engine", "popular web hosting service founded in 1994. At one point it was the third most-browsed site on the World Wide Web. Yahoo! later purchased GeoCities in 1999. Ten years later Yahoo! closed Geocities, deleting millions of web pages in the process.\nIn September 2009, a month before it was closed, GeoCities received 10,477,049 unique visitors. Yahoo! Groups remodel 2010 In August 2010 Yahoo! Groups started rolling out a major software change. This change was denounced by a vast majority of users.\nOn September 29, 2010, Jim Stoneham, Vice President of Yahoo!'s Communities products, announced that based on members feedback, Yahoo! Groups would", "that around three-quarters of the material comes from outside the U.S. The site has eight hundred million unique users a month.\nStarting from 2010 and continuing to the present, Alexa ranked YouTube as the third most visited website on the Internet after Google and Facebook.\nIn late 2011 and early 2012, YouTube launched over 100 \"premium\" or \"original\" channels. It was reported the initiative cost $100 million. Two years later, in November 2013, it was documented that the landing page of the original channels became a 404 error page. Despite this, original channels such as SourceFed and Crash Course were able to", "Yahoo! Founding In January 1994, Yang and Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University, when they created a website named \"Jerry and David's guide to the World Wide Web\". The site was a directory of other websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a searchable index of pages. In March 1994, \"Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web\" was renamed \"Yahoo!\". The human-edited Yahoo! Directory, provided for users to surf through the Internet, became their first product and the company's original purpose. The \"yahoo.com\" domain was created on January 18, 1995.\nThe word \"yahoo\" is a", "2008 according to a Compete.com study and is ranked 105th most accessed site in the world according to Alexa.", "So the Yahoo! Calendar was visited once again. Yahoo! was popular from the last decade of the 20th century. Yahoo! always came with downloadable and compatible software that helped to keep the office computer, the Yahoo! calendar and the handheld online diary working in tandem. Yahoo enables synchronization with Lotus Organizer, Outlook, ACT, Outlook Express and Palm.\nBut there was one hitch. The Yahoo! software had to be downloaded to the office PC if a user wanted to use it from their office. But downloading software from the Internet is discouraged and proscribed by many companies. Which meant that users could", "recruited by Yahoo! in 1996, the company was less than a year old and had yet to go public. At the time, Lycos, Infoseek and Excite were considered established and more popular internet search engines while Yahoo! was better described as an internet directory. Nazem was brought to Yahoo! to build the engineering organization, take over site operation, and complete the executive team in preparation for the company’s public debut. \nUnder Nazem, Yahoo! became an internet giant. Nazem led several initiatives that helped Yahoo! grow rapidly and distinguish itself from competitors including a very scalable infrastructure composed of farms of", "websites that changed the world\".\nBy 1997 it was the fifth most popular site on the internet, with over one million users. The company went public in 1998, nearly doubling its initial share price in its first day of trading; Bohnett used the increased funding to add various features including a search engine, numerous tools and templates which made page creation easy and which completely bypassed any need for HTML coding, and social tools which made it easy to interact. GeoCities also hosted business sites, sites for world news, and shopping sites. By December 1998 it was the third most visited", "advice to users. Yahoo launched the website in May 2006. On March 11, 2010, Yahoo closed down the service and redirected users to Yahoo's technology news section. Other discontinued services include Farechase, My Web, Audio Search, Pets, Live, Kickstart, Briefcase, and Yahoo for Teachers.\nHotjobs was acquired by and merged with Monster.com.\nYahoo Koprol was an Indonesian geo-tagging website that allowed users to share information about locations without the use of a GPS device. Koprol was acquired by Yahoo a year following its inception and, in 2011, 1.5 million people were utilizing the website, with users also based in Singapore, the Philippines", "Altaba 1994–2017: Yahoo! Inc. Altaba was founded in January 1994 by Jerry Yang and David Filo, who were Electrical Engineering graduate students when they created a website named \"Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web\". The Guide was a directory of other websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a searchable index of pages. In April 1994, Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web was renamed \"Yahoo!\". The word \"YAHOO\" is a backronym for \"Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle\" or \"Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle.\" The yahoo.com domain was created on January 18, 1995.\nYahoo! grew", "was lost but many of those sites and pages were mirrored at the Internet Archive, OOcities.com, and other such databases.\nYahoo Go, a Java-based phone application with access to most of Yahoo services, was closed on January 12, 2010.\nYahoo 360° was a blogging/social networking beta service launched in March 2005 by Yahoo and closed on July 13, 2009. Yahoo Mash beta was another social service closed after one year of operation prior to leaving beta status.\nYahoo Photos was shut down on September 20, 2007, in favor of integration with Flickr. Yahoo Tech was a website that provided product information and setup", "content, including products such as My Web, Yahoo Personals, Yahoo 360°, Delicious, Flickr, and Yahoo Buzz. Yahoo closed Yahoo Buzz, MyBlogLog, and numerous other products on April 21, 2011.\nYahoo Photos was closed on September 20, 2007, in favor of Flickr. On October 16, 2007, Yahoo announced that it would discontinue Yahoo 360°, including bug repairs; the company explained that in 2008 it would instead establish a \"universal profile\" similar to the Yahoo Mash experimental system. Content Yahoo partners with numerous content providers in products such as Yahoo Sports, Yahoo Finance, Yahoo Music, Yahoo Movies, Yahoo Weather, Yahoo News, Yahoo! Answers", "the area to email him if they wanted to join him for a beer. Traffic and users As of June 2009, the site received approximately three to four million unique visitors per month, and garnered 60 million page views and 75 million outbound links. This put it in the top 100 of English language websites. Fark's Alexa rating was 2,310, with the average user spending 5.8 minutes per day on the site and 5,337 sites linking in. 67.2% of users originate from the United States. The site receives approximately 2,000 story submissions per day from users, and approximately 50 of", "started, there were only 50 participants attending a weekend at Google's London offices. This number rose to roughly a thousand young people participating across the country, and at the foreign centres. YRS also managed to increase takeup of the event by young female coders from 2% at their first event in 2009, to 30% in 2014.", "season, which premiered via Yahoo! Screen on March 17, 2015. Within a month of Community's season six premiere, Yahoo! had premiered full first seasons of two new original series, Sin City Saints and Other Space, but available only in the United States. Also in 2014 Yahoo! expanded it's licensing agreement with Vevo to allow Vevo's content (Music Video's, concerts etc) to appear on the platform. Community ultimately would not be as profitable for the company as it hoped with The AV Club blaming the aquisition for the platform's eventual demise. \nIn June 2015, Yahoo! Screen won the worldwide", "Yahoo! Answers Team Vietnam blog. Special guests Several celebrities and notables have appeared on Yahoo! Answers to ask questions. These users have an \"official\" badge below their avatar and on their profile page. During the 2008 U.S. Presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Barack Obama, and Mitt Romney posted questions on Yahoo! Answers, in addition to YouTube. In an awareness campaign, \"UNICEF Up Close 2007\", nine UNICEF ambassadors asked questions. The launch of Answers on Yahoo! India included a question from A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, the President of India at that time. Other guests have included international leaders (Queen", "455,000 shares of Yahoo! stock, valued at about $49 million, and renamed it Yahoo! Store.\nViaweb's example has been influential in Silicon Valley's entrepreneurial culture, largely due to Graham's widely read essays and his subsequent career as a successful venture capitalist.", "Yahoo! purchased photo sharing service Flickr. That same month, the company launched its blogging and social networking service Yahoo! 360°. In June 2005, Yahoo! acquired blo.gs, a service based on RSS feed aggregation. Yahoo! then bought online social event calendar Upcoming.org, in October 2005. Yahoo! acquired social bookmark site del.icio.us in December 2005 and then playlist sharing community webjay in January 2009. Yahoo! (2006–2008) Yahoo! Next is an incubation ground for future Yahoo! technologies currently in their beta testing phase, similar to Google Labs. It contains forums for Yahoo! users to give feedback to assist in the development of these", "auction site boasts an overwhelming number of users. In the past, Yahoo! Auctions was abbreviated as Yafuoku. Now Yahoo! Auctions is now known as Yahoo! Auctions, but now Yafuoku! Is the official name. eBay appeared into Japan in 2001, but did not compete with Yahoo! Japan which was ahead of it. Yahoo! Shopping A store website like Rakuten. Yahoo! Travel Sales site for travel products. Yahoo! Roko A new service created in June 2011 by integrating Yahoo! Map, Yahoo! Gourmet, Yahoo! Route Information, and more. It is a service that combines map information and regional information, and Yahoo! calls it", "websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today's most popular services.\nIn January 1994, Yahoo! was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo, then students at Stanford University. Yahoo! Directory, launched in January 1994, became the first popular Web directory. Yahoo! Search, later launched in 1995, became the first popular search engine on the World Wide Web. Yahoo! became the quintessential example of a first mover on the Web. Web commerce also began emerging in 1995 with the founding of" ]

[ "They're automated computer programs. Whoever writes them runs them. Anyone can write a bot and read Reddit posts and reply. Automoderator is a special bot that's written by Reddit staff" ]

[ "bots is against the terms of service of many platforms, especially Twitter and Instagram. However, a certain degree of automation is of course intended by making social media APIs available. Many users, especially businesses still automate their Instagram activity in order to gain real followers rather than buying fake ones. This is commonly done through third-party social automation companies.\nThe topic of a legal regulation of social bots is currently discussed in many countries, however due the difficulties to recognize social bots and to separate them from \"eligible\" automation via social media APIs, it is currently unclear how that can be", "Bot herder Bot herders are hackers who use automated techniques to scan specific network ranges and find vulnerable systems, such as machines without current security patches, on which to install their bot program. The infected machine then has become one of many zombies in a botnet and responds to commands given by the bot herder, usually via an Internet Relay Chat channel.\nOne of the new bot herders includes the controller of Conficker.\nA bot herder usually uses a pseudonym to keep themselves anonymous, and may use proxy servers, shell accounts and bouncers to conceal their IP address thus maintaining anonymity.", "information specific users like, without taking into account the authenticity of an article. Bots mass-produce and spread articles, regardless of the credibility of the sources, allowing them to play an essential role in the mass spread of fake news, as bots are capable of creating fake accounts and personalities on the web that are then gaining followers, recognition, and authority. Additionally, almost 30% of the spam and content spread on the Internet originates from these software bots.\nIn the 21st century, the capacity to mislead was enhanced by the widespread use of social media. For example, one 21st century website that", "most of these bots are programmed with searching filter capabilities that target key words and phrases that reflect in favor and against political agendas and retweet them. While the attention of bots is programmed to spread unverified information throughout the social media platform, it is a challenge that programmers face in the wake of a hostile political climate. Binary functions are designated to the programs and using an Application Program interface embedded in the social media website executes the functions tasked. The Bot Effect is what Ferrera reports as when the socialization of bots and human users creates a vulnerability", "Internet bot IM and IRC Some bots communicate with other users of Internet-based services, via instant messaging (IM), Internet Relay Chat (IRC), or another web interface such as Facebook Bots and Twitterbots. These chatterbots may allow people to ask questions in plain English and then formulate a proper response. These bots can often handle many tasks, including reporting weather, zip-code information, sports scores, converting currency or other units, etc. Others are used for entertainment, such as SmarterChild on AOL Instant Messenger and MSN Messenger.\nAn additional role of IRC bots may be to lurk in the background of a conversation channel,", "unfollowing on social media platforms. A new industry of bot providers has been created. Social bots and chatbots have created an analytical crisis in the marketing industry as they make it difficult to differentiate between human interactions and automated bot interactions. Some bots are negatively affecting their marketing data causing a \"digital cannibalism\" in social media marketing. Additionally, some bots violate the terms of use on many social mediums such as Instagram, which can result in profiles being taken down and banned.\n\"Cyborgs\", a combination of a human and a bot, are used to spread fake news or create a marketing", "users. This suggests that although the bot learnt effectively from experience, adequate protection was not put in place to prevent misuse.\nIf a text-sending algorithm can pass itself off as a human instead of a chatbot, its message would be more credible. Therefore, human-seeming chatbots with well-crafted online identities could start scattering fake news that seem plausible, for instance making false claims during a presidential election. With enough chatbots, it might be even possible to achieve artificial social proof. Chatbots and jobs Chatbots are increasingly present in businesses and often are used to automate tasks that do not require skill-based talents.", "Web Bot Web Bot is an internet bot computer program whose developers claim is able to predict future events by tracking keywords entered on the internet. It was developed in 1997, originally to predict stock market trends. The creator of the Web Bot Project, Clif High, along with his associate George Ure, keep the technology and algorithms largely secret and sell the predictions via the website. Methodology Internet bots monitor news articles, blogs, forums, and other forms of Internet chatter. Words in the lexicon are assigned numeric values for emotional quantifiers such as duration, impact, immediacy, intensity, and others. The", "of information and thought on social media websites.\nReports of political interferences in recent elections, including the 2016 US and 2017 UK general elections, have set the notion of botting being more prevalent because of the ethics that is challenged between the bot’s design and the bot’s designer. According to Emilio Ferrara, a computer scientist from the University of Southern California reporting on Communications of the ACM, the lack of resources available to implement fact-checking and information verification results in the large volumes of false reports and claims made on these bots in social media platforms. In the case of Twitter,", "machines.\nWhile botnets are often named after the malware that created them, multiple botnets typically use the same malware but are operated by different entities. Phishing Botnets can be used for many electronic scams. These botnets can be used to distribute malware such as viruses to take control of a regular users computer/software By taking control of someone's personal computer they have unlimited access to their personal information, including passwords and login information to accounts. This is called phishing. Phishing is the acquiring of login information to the \"victim's\" accounts with a link the \"victim\" clicks on that is sent through", "simulated traffic as fake because the visitor behavior appears exactly the same as that of an actual legitimate visitor. \nFake likes generating from click farms are essentially different from those arising from bots where computer programs are written by software experts. To deal with such issues, companies such as Facebook are trying to create algorithms that seek to wipe out accounts with unusual activity (e.g. liking too many pages in a short period of time). Logistics Click farms are usually located in developing countries, such as China, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Egypt, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Bangladesh. The business", "commenting on certain phrases uttered by the participants (based on pattern matching). This is sometimes used as a help service for new users, or for censorship of profanity. Social bots Social networking bots are sets of algorithms that take on the duties of repetitive sets of instructions in order to establish a service or connection among social networking users. Various designs of networking bots vary from chat bots, algorithms designed to converse with a human user, to social bots, algorithms designed to mimic human behaviors to converse with behavioral patterns similar to that of a human user. The history of", "\"follower\" and/or gathering followers itself. In this very limited respect, social bots can be said to have passed the Turing test.\nIf the expectation is that behind every social media profile there should be a human, social bots always use fake accounts. This is not different from other social media API uses.\nSocial bots appear to have played a significant role in the 2016 United States presidential election and their history appears to go back at least to the United States midterm elections, 2010. It is estimated that 9-15% of active Twitter accounts may be social bots and that 15% of the", "joined The Technology Coalition, an anti-sexual exploitation group including Facebook, Google, Twitter and LinkedIn. Bots Kik added promoted chats in 2014, which used bots to converse with users about promoted brands through keywords activating responses. The feature allows companies to communicate with more potential clients than would be possible manually. Promoted messages reach target audiences by gender, country and device. In April 2016, Kik added a bot store to its app, which allows users to order food or products through an automated chat. Third party companies release bots which will access the company's offerings. The bot shop added a web", "chat bots that can automate repetitive communication tasks. Typically, resume screening involves a recruiter or other HR professional scanning through a database of resumes. Job search The job market has seen a notable change due to artificial intelligence implementation. It has simplified the process for both recruiters and job seekers (i.e., Google for Jobs and applying online). According to Raj Mukherjee from Indeed.com, 65% of people launch a job search again within 91 days of being hired. AI-powered engine streamlines the complexity of job hunting by operating information on job skills, salaries, and user tendencies, matching people to the most", "\"buzz\". Cyborgs can be bot-assisted humans or human-assisted bots. An example is a human who registers an account for which they set automated programs to post, for instance, tweets, during their absence.<, From time to time, the human participates to tweet and interact with friends. \nCyborgs make it easier to spread fake news, as it blends automated activity with human input. When the automated accounts are publicly identified, the human part of the cyborg is able to take over and could protest that the account has been used manually all along. Such accounts try to pose as real people; in", "to the leaking of personal information and polarizing influences outside the ethics of the bot’s code. According to Guillory Kramer in his study, he observes the behavior of emotionally volatile users and the impact the bots have on the users, altering the perception of reality. Helpful bots Companies and customers can benefit from internet bots. Internet bots are allowing customers to communicate with companies without having to communicate with a person. KLM Royal Dutch Airlines has produced a chatbot that allows customers to receive boarding passes, check in reminders, and other information that is needed for a flight. Companies have", "can contribute in various ways throughout social media. When certain posts become popular, they start to get retweeted over and over again, becoming viral. Hashtags can be used in tweets, and can also be used to take count of how many people have used that hashtag. Bots Social media can enable companies to get in the form of greater market share and increased audiences. Internet bots have been developed which facilitate social media marketing. Bots are automated programs that run over the Internet. Chatbots and social bots are programmed to mimic natural human interactions such as liking, commenting, following, and", "all bots\nDisallow: / # keep them out\nIt is also possible to list multiple robots with their own rules. The actual robot string is defined by the crawler. A few robot operators, such as Google, support several user-agent strings that allow the operator to deny access to a subset of their services by using specific user-agent strings.\nExample demonstrating multiple user-agents:\nUser-agent: googlebot # all Google services\nDisallow: /private/ # disallow this directory\n\nUser-agent: googlebot-news # only the news service\nDisallow: / ", "Social bot A social bot (also: socialbot or socbot) is an agent that communicates more or less autonomously on social media, often with the task of influencing the course of discussion and/or the opinions of its readers. It is related to chatbots but mostly only uses rather simple interactions or no reactivity at all. The messages (e.g. tweets) it distributes are mostly either very simple, or prefabricated (by humans), and it often operates in groups and various configurations of partial human control (hybrid). It usually targets advocating certain ideas, supporting campaigns, or aggregating other sources either by acting as a", "its software version and list of known bots. If one of the bots' version is lower than the other, they will initiate a file transfer to update. This way, each bot grows its list of infected machines and updates itself by periodically communicating to all known bots. Core components A botnet's originator (known as a \"bot herder\" or \"bot master\") controls the botnet remotely. This is known as the command-and-control (C&C). The program for the operation which must communicate via a covert channel to the client on the victim's machine (zombie computer). Control protocols IRC is a historically favored means", "called EXAs, the player must accomplish each given task by writing computer code to cleverly manipulate the data stored on the network's systems. The EXAs' instruction set features a few simple opcodes for movement, data processing, network messaging, and interfacing with files and registers. Due to their limited memory capacity, these tasks often require several agents working together in a highly coordinated fashion. EXA units also have the ability to replicate themselves inside the network. Typical missions include retrieving data from secured storage systems, hacking into company databases, and causing an automated teller machine to dispense free cash. Some puzzles", "existing servers. This allows the bot herder (the person controlling the botnet) to perform all control from a remote location, which obfuscates their traffic. Many recent botnets now rely on existing peer-to-peer networks to communicate. These P2P bot programs perform the same actions as the client-server model, but they do not require a central server to communicate. Client-server model The first botnets on the internet used a client-server model to accomplish their tasks. Typically, these botnets operate through Internet Relay Chat networks, domains, or websites. Infected clients access a predetermined location and await incoming commands from the server. The bot", "fairly simple botnet. The bots connect directly to the command and control server, and receive instructions about the emails they should send. After they are done with their task, the bots report back to the spammer exact statistics on the number of emails that were delivered, and on which and how many errors were reported. Operations The Cutwail botnet is known as \"0bulk Psyche Evolution\" in the underground market. Spammers can rent an instance of the botnet for a fee, and use it to send their own spam campaigns. The services offered by the botnet were advertised on the Russian", "whereas malicious bots can make unpopular people seem popular, push irrelevant products on users and spread misinformation, spam and/or slander.\nIn addition to content-generating bots, users can purchase followers, favorites, retweets and comments on various websites that cater to expanding a user's image through accumulation of followers. With more followers, users' profiles gain more attention, thus increasing their popularity. Generating Web traffic is a valuable commodity for both individuals and businesses because it indicates notability. With Twitterbots, users are able to create the illusion of \"buzz\" on their site by obtaining followers from services such as Swenzy and underground suppliers who", "C&C server. Others In some cases, a botnet may be temporarily created by volunteer hacktivists, such as with implementations of the Low Orbit Ion Cannon as used by 4chan members during Project Chanology in 2010.\nChina's Great Cannon of China allows the modification of legitimate web browsing traffic at internet backbones into China to create a large ephemeral botnet to attack large targets such as GitHub in 2015. Market The botnet controller community features a constant and continuous struggle over who has the most bots, the highest overall bandwidth, and the most \"high-quality\" infected machines, like university, corporate, and even government", "bots (robots), which are programs that emulate human behavior to perform actions (repetitive or not) that enable advantages to be achieved. Modification of runtime game data Cheating can easily be achieved by modifying the game's data while it is running. These methods of cheating are often less reliable than cheat codes included in a game by its creators. This is due to the fact that certain programming styles or quirks of internal game logic, different release versions of a game, or even using the same game at different times or on different hardware, may result in different memory usage and", "or broken law.\nThe process of entering a website and extracting data in an automated fashion is also often called \"crawling\". Search engines like Google, Bing or Yahoo are getting almost all their data from automated crawling bots. Detection When search engine defense thinks an access might be automated the search engine can react differently.\nThe first layer of defense is a captcha page where the user is prompted to verify he is a real person and not a bot or tool. Solving the captcha will create a cookie that permits access to the search engine again for a while. After about", "using the Robots Exclusion Standard (robots.txt file).\nAs with many other HTTP request headers, the information in the \"User-Agent\" string contributes to the information that the client sends to the server, since the string can vary considerably from user to user. Format for automated agents (bots) Automated web crawling tools can use a simplified form, where an important field is contact information in case of problems. By convention the word \"bot\" is included in the name of the agent. For example:\nGooglebot/2.1 (+http://www.google.com/bot.html)\nAutomated agents are expected to follow rules in a special file called \"robots.txt\". User agent spoofing The popularity of", "generation algorithms being used to create new DNS names for controller servers.\nSome botnets use free DNS hosting services such as DynDns.org, No-IP.com, and Afraid.org to point a subdomain towards an IRC server that harbors the bots. While these free DNS services do not themselves host attacks, they provide reference points (often hard-coded into the botnet executable). Removing such services can cripple an entire botnet. Others Calling back to large social media sites such as GitHub, Twitter, Reddit, Instagram, the XMPP open source instant message protocol and Tor hidden services are popular ways of avoiding egress filtering to communicate with a" ]

[ "It's a commonly used phrase to mean \"this company is so big and does so much business that if it were to fail and go under, it would have massive negative effects on the economy as a whole.\"\n\nFor example: We have a lot of banks in the US, but we have some *really really big* ones, too. When those banks started to fail, they were big enough that they caused massive, very bad effects to the economy of the *entire country* and frankly even extending out to foreign countries as well. \n\nSince those companies are *too big to fail,* the government needed to step in and help them to not fail in order to prevent another Great Depression." ]

[ "Out-of-box failure An out-of-box failure (OBF or OOBF) refers to the perceived failure of a product that occurs immediately upon first usage. In relations to computing, an out-of-box failure can refer to the immediate failure mode when installing or performing initial configuration on a piece of computer hardware or software. Causes for out-of-box failures include poor quality control, wrong configuration of the product, and bugs/glitches if the failure is software related. It can be highly detrimental to the value of the brand, retailer, or OEM, especially when customer expectations for the product are high.", "failures are the inefficient allocation of goods and services, that can occur in a free market economy. These failures often arise in the pursuit of goals of self-interest that lead to inefficient market outcomes such as Veblen's theory of conspicuous consumption.", "\"too big to fail\" policy for the largest or most complex financial companies eventually posed an untenable risk to the economy. The Institute has also worked closely with other experts in financial policy, including Professor Charles W. Calomiris at Columbia Business School. Calomiris has written critically of the Dodd-Frank financial regulations passed in response to the 2007-2008 financial crisis, arguing that the law doubles down on \"too big to fail\" and does not prevent the government from subsidizing mortgage risk, which fueled the crisis.\nIn 2011, Edward Glaeser released Triumph of the City, in which he makes an urgent case for", "world. The death of the jet-age promises.\"\nHammer: \"It's about the beauty of failure. It's about that failure happens to all of us...Every character is not only flawed, but sucks at what they do, and is beautiful at it and Jackson and I suck at what we do, and we try to be beautiful at it, and failure is how you get by...It shows that failure's funny, and it's beautiful and it's life, and it's okay, and it's all we can write because we are big...failures. (laughter)\" \nIn 2013, Publick and Hammer discussed moving away from the theme and embracing the", "Too Big to Fail (film) Plot summary Too Big to Fail chronicles the 2008 financial meltdown, focusing on the actions of U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson (William Hurt) and Ben Bernanke (Paul Giamatti), Chairman of the Federal Reserve System, to contain the problems during the period of August 2008 to October 13, 2008. The film starts with clips of news reports about the mortgage industry crisis and the forced sale of the troubled Bear Stearns to JPMorgan Chase, with Fed guarantees.\nWith Bear Stearns out of the picture, short sellers have turned their attention on Lehman Brothers. In need of capital,", "“soft” failures, since they do not manifest themselves all the time and disappear in an unpredictable manner. In contrast, “hard” failures are permanent failures that occur over a period of time (or are sometimes instantaneous). They have a specific failure site (location of failure), mode (how the failure manifests itself), and mechanism, and there is no unpredictable recovery for the failed system. Since intermittent faults are not easily repeatable, it is more difficult to conduct a failure analysis for them, understand their root causes, or isolate their failure site than it is for permanent failures.\nIntermittent failures can be a cause", "Too connected to fail The \"too connected to fail\" (TCTF) concept refers to a financial institution which is so connected to other institutions that its failure would probably lead to a huge turnover in the whole system. Contrary to the \"too big to fail\" theory, this approach takes into consideration the highly connected network feature of the financial system rather than the absolute size of one particular institution. Relevance of TCTF: systemic risk The 2007/2008 financial crisis highlighted that a small turmoil can cause a big fallback in the financial system – mainly because financial institutions form a highly interconnected", "A breakout might not lead to the end of the preceding market behaviour, and what starts as a pull-back can develop into a breakout failure, i.e. the market could return into its old pattern.\nBrooks observes that a breakout is likely to fail on quiet range days on the very next bar, when the breakout bar is unusually big.\n\"Five tick failed breakouts\" are a phenomenon that is a great example of price action trading. Five tick failed breakouts are characteristic of the stock index futures markets. Many speculators trade for a profit of just four ticks, a trade which requires the", "or something. We just needed to make it happen. We weren't going to let grunge stop us. And if it did, we'd just go back to the underground. I liked it there anyway!\" Commenting on the fact that Overkill never became part of the \"Big Four\", Ellsworth stated, \"When it comes to being selected and not selected, that's a simple accounting issue. When you talk numbers, numbers make the world go around, numbers put food on your table, and numbers put the 'Big Four' in arenas. And they sell enough records to do that. For me, it's not a concern.", "that particular word or phrase serves as the solution to the Super Big Problem. Once the solution is reached, the Super Readers sing a song to end the episode. Live show On March 1, 2012, a planned live show based on Super Why, entitled Super Why! Live: You've Got the Power, was announced.", "shock, a large corporate bankruptcy, or an abrupt change in a political situation) are usually not mathematically well-behaved.\nHistorical examples include the Black Monday (1987), Dot-com bubble, Late-2000s financial crisis, and the unpegging of some currencies.\nFat tails in market return distributions also have some behavioral origins (investor excessive optimism or pessimism leading to large market moves) and are therefore studied in behavioral finance.\nIn marketing, the familiar 80-20 rule frequently found (e.g. \"20% of customers account for 80% of the revenue\") is a manifestation of a fat tail distribution underlying the data.\nThe \"fat tails\" are also observed in commodity markets or", "studio for poor marketing.\nI couldn't seem to get anything across to them. I felt like I was talking into a void. When you've had a few successes you can say the stupidest things in the world and people will think it's clever. When you've had a few flops, you can say something perfectly reasonable and they look at you as if they had no idea what you are talking about.\nAs for Richter;\nAfter it became clear the picture was a failure, the most amazing thing happened: I got more job offers than ever before in my life. People seemed so mad", "Overproduction Explanation Overproduction is the accumulation of unsalable inventories in the hands of businesses. Overproduction is a relative measure, referring to the excess of production over consumption. The tendency for an overproduction of commodities to lead to economic collapse is specific to the capitalist economy. In previous economic formations, an abundance of production created general prosperity. However, in the capitalist economy, commodities are produced for monetary profit. This so-called profit motive, the core of the capitalist economy, creates a dynamic whereby an abundance of commodities has negative consequences. In essence, an abundance of commodities disrupts the conditions for the creation", "economics\"). Greater fool theory Greater fool theory states that bubbles are driven by the behavior of perennially optimistic market participants (the fools) who buy overvalued assets in anticipation of selling it to other speculators (the greater fools) at a much higher price. According to this explanation, the bubbles continue as long as the fools can find greater fools to pay up for the overvalued asset. The bubbles will end only when the greater fool becomes the greatest fool who pays the top price for the overvalued asset and can no longer find another buyer to pay for it at a", "Failure Magazine Failure Magazine is an online magazine which features stories about failure. The magazine was established in 2000 by Jason Zasky and his cousin. It is headquartered in New York City. The magazine turned its first profit in 2005. The magazine features a column called, \"This day in failure\".", "fail\" (also known as \"too big to jail\"), massive taxpayer-provided corporate bailouts, socialism/communism for the very rich and brutal, vicious, Darwinian capitalism for everyone else, and—they claim—seemingly endless global news stories about corporate corruption (Martha Stewart and Enron, among other examples). Anti-corporate-activists express the view that large corporations answer only to large shareholders, giving human rights issues, social justice issues, environmental issues and other issues of high significance to the bottom 99% of the global human population virtually no consideration. American political philosopher Jodi Dean says that contemporary economic and financial calamities have dispelled the notion that capitalism is a", "put to the test.\nEach episode contained a \"Challenge\" in which the Pumphrey brothers compete to either do or not do the episode's \"Big Break\". The big break was what Chad considers to be the most difficult thing for a human to break. The only time the winner of the challenge got to do something other than the big break was in \"Trashing Hotel California\" when the winner got to throw the television out the window. The first Episode of Season 2 saw a different format, where the loser had to do the \"Big Break\". (Even though Paul lost", "World's Funniest Reception Brain Lowry of Variety said World's Funniest Fails \"tries to concoct a game element around the clips that never really makes sense\", but \"if the goal was to develop a series that exhibits even a shred of originality or ingenuity, as 'Fails of the Week' go, hey, it looks like we already have a winner!\"", "failure-to-deliver takes place. Sometimes deliberate fails-to-deliver are used to profit from falling stocks (see Bear market), so that the stock can later be purchased at a lower price, then delivered, e.g. in the week of March 10, 2008, just before the failure of Bear Stearns, the fails-to-deliver increased by 10,800 percent.\nAccording to CNN in the US markets, fails-to-deliver had reached $200 billion a day in September 2011, but no similar data has been available for Europe.\nA study of fails to deliver, published in the Journal of Financial Economics in 2014, found no evidence that FTDs \"caused price distortions or the", "when the party is warming up. Breaking up financial institutions that are \"too big to fail\" Regulators and central bankers have argued that certain systemically important institutions not be allowed to fail, due to concerns regarding widespread disruption of credit markets. Arguments for breaking-up large financial institutions Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Simon Johnson have argued that institutions that are \"too big to fail\" should be broken up, perhaps by splitting them into smaller regional institutions. Dr. Stiglitz argued that big banks are more prone to taking excessive risks due to the availability of support by the federal government should their", "Super Bowl indicator The Super Bowl Indicator is a superstition that says that the stock market's performance in a given year can be predicted based on the outcome of the Super Bowl of that year. It was \"discovered\" by Leonard Koppett in the '70s when he realized that it had never been wrong, until that point. This pseudo-macroeconomic concept states that if a team from the American Football Conference (AFC) wins, then it will be a bear market (or down market), but if a team from the National Football Conference (NFC) or a team that was in the NFL", "to date, but also some of their greatest failures.\"", "Economic collapse Cases There are few well documented cases of economic collapse. One of the best documented cases of collapse or near collapse is the Great Depression, the causes of which are still being debated.\n\"To understand the Great Depression is the Holy Grail of macroeconomics.\" —Ben Bernanke (1995)\nBernanke's comment addresses the difficulty of identifying specific causes when many factors may each have contributed to various extents.\nPast economic collapses have had political as well as financial causes. Persistent trade deficits, wars, revolutions, famines, depletion of important resources, and government-induced hyperinflation have been listed as causes.\nIn some cases blockades and embargoes caused", "is a situation wherein the allocation of production or use of goods and services by the free market is not efficient. Market failures can be viewed as scenarios where individuals' pursuit of pure self-interest leads to results that can be improved upon from the societal point of view. The first known use of the term by economists was in 1958, but the concept has been traced back to the Victorian philosopher Henry Sidgwick.\nMarket imperfection can be defined as anything that interferes with trade. This includes two dimensions of imperfections. First, imperfections cause a rational market participant to deviate from holding", "a market failure, a government failure is not a failure to bring a particular or favored solution into existence but is rather a problem which prevents an efficient outcome. The problem to be solved need not be a market failure; governments may act to create inefficiencies even when an efficient market solution is possible.\nGovernment failure (by definition) does not occur when government action creates winners and losers, making some people better off and others worse off than they would be without governmental regulation. It occurs only when governmental action creates an inefficient outcome, where efficiency would otherwise exist. A", "Inquiry Commission (FCIC) concluded the \"failures\" of the Big Three rating agencies were \"essential cogs in the wheel of financial destruction\" and \"key enablers of the financial meltdown\".\nEconomist Joseph Stiglitz called them \"one of the key culprits\" of the financial crisis. Others called their ratings \"catastrophically misleading\", (the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commissioner), their performance \"horrendous\" (The Economist magazine). There are indications that some involved in rating subprime-related securities knew at the time that the rating process was faulty.\nThe position of the three agencies \"between the issuers and the investors of securities\" \"transformed\" them into \"key\" players in the housing", "The Broken Giant Plot A young minister in a small town who gives sanctuary at his church to a girl who mysteriously arrives, out of breath and apparently running from something or somebody.", "a unique interpretation which he calls “connecting the dots”.\nSmith periodically stops Ruppert to question his assumptions and provide a note of skepticism. Critical reception After its premiere at the Toronto Film Festival, Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly called Collapse “one of the few true buzz films of the festival” and wrote that “you may want to dispute [Ruppert], but more than that you’ll want to hear him, because what he says — right or wrong, prophecy or paranoia — takes up residence in your mind.”\nDaily Variety wrote that Collapse was “unnervingly persuasive much of the time, and merely riveting when", "with the latter being correlated to other factors more so than over-consumption. Within the topic of overconsumption, many other ideas should be considered to find the true cause of it. Some important events that coincide are poverty, population and the development of an area. Overconsumption can also lead to a decline in the economy and financial instability.\nIn the long term, these effects can lead to increased conflict over dwindling resources and in the worst case a Malthusian catastrophe. Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute, has said: \"It would take 1.5 Earths to sustain our present level of consumption. ", "things have to stop being easy. They have to start getting hard. If the show does that, what's merely good right now should leap into the level of greatness.\"" ]

[ "Biased prejudiced people are feeling empowered since the last general election. So they are coming out in a mass rally. Some of them are quite willing to use violence.\n\nThis is reminiscent of the Brown Shirts in Germany before \nWWII. \n\nThe Psychology of this behavior requires a book. Books have been written about this. [Here is a list of 16 good books](_URL_0_) I especially liked the one about Henrietta Lacks.\n\nBut these books do not really describe the mind set of the protestors. \n\nBeyond Hate: White Power and Popular Culture (The Cultural Politics of Media and Popular Culture) may be one book which does. I have not read it.\n\nMany people in these groups feel disenfranchised. They actually yearn to return to the days not long past when being white automatically meant being selected for a job or admission to college." ]

[ "Occupy Charlottesville Occupy Charlottesville was a social movement in Charlottesville, Virginia, United States, that began on October 15, 2011, in solidarity with Occupy Wall Street and the rest of the Occupy movement. The downtown Lee Park encampment was taken down on November 30, 2011, when 18 members of the movement were arrested and charged with trespassing. The group failed to establish a campsite after the eviction, although they continued to hold their 'General Assemblies' and participate in targeted actions for several months thereafter. The group's protests target social and economic injustice both locally and nationally.\nAlthough the group's website is still", "movement in Charlottesville, Virginia that began on October 15, 2011, in solidarity with Occupy Wall Street and the rest of the Occupy movement. The downtown Lee Park encampment was taken down on November 30, 2011 when 18 members of the movement were arrested and charged with trespassing. Although the group has not yet established a second campsite, they continue to meet for their General Assemblies in addition to targeted actions. The group's protests target social and economic injustice both locally and nationally. The Occupy Wall Street movement began on September 17, 2011 as a protest against economic and social injustice.", "in a lawsuit filed by the Georgetown University Law Center's Institute for Constitutional Advocacy and Protection on behalf of the City of Charlottesville and several Charlottesville businesses and neighborhood associations. The suit alleges \"that the presence of private armies significantly heightens the possibility of violence; that the rally organizers solicited private militias to attend the rally, held group-wide planning calls and circulated an instructional document called General Orders.\" The militia groups said they did not condone violence and instead intended to uphold the right to assemble, but that Charlottesville was \"so overwhelming that the only thing we could do was", "Charlottesville historic monument controversy The Charlottesville historic monument controversy is the public discussion on how the community of Charlottesville should respond to protesters who complain that various local monuments are racist. The controversy began before 2016 when protest groups in Charlottesville asked the city council for the local removal of Confederate monuments and memorials. Other monuments became part of the controversy, including those of Thomas Jefferson due to his promotion of slavery and those of Lewis and Clark for their advocacy of white colonists over Native Americans. In 2016 when the Charlottesville city council responded by voting to make changes", "Charlotte engages in nonviolent protests. On Friday, December 30, four men were charged with careless use of fire after they set two American flags on fire in front of the old City Hall. They claimed to be a part of the Occupy Charlotte organization, however an Occupy Charlotte member said, \"There was no decision made by the group here to all get together and burn American Flags. It was a unilateral decision made by four individuals acting on their own.\"", "occurred in Charlottesville on August 11 and 12, and barring use of private militias at such events. Plaintiffs in the 96-page federal suit were described as \"University of Virginia undergraduates, law students and staff, persons of faith, ministers, parents, doctors, and businesspersons – white, brown and black; Christian and Jewish; young and old\". The City of Charlottesville, along with several businesses and neighborhood associations, were plaintiffs in the 81-page state suit.\nThe lawsuits claimed the August rally in Charlottesville was planned for weeks, with its organizers making extensive use of social media – coordinating everything from telling individuals to buy tiki", "Charlottesville protesting the city's plan to remove the statue. The approximately 50 Klansmen were met by several hundred counter-protesters. The police used tear gas to disperse the crowd, and made 23 arrests.\nOn August 12, 2017, during the Unite the Right rally, clashes broke out between supporters of the statue, who marched under Confederate, American, and Revolutionary flags and shouted slogans including \"Jews will not replace us\", and counter-protesters. During the rally, counter-protester Heather Heyer was killed and 19 injured by a car ramming attack.\nOn April 25, 2019 Judge Richard E. Moore of Charlottesville Circuit Court ruled that local authorities in", "activists began what was planned as a peaceful march on the Executive Mansion. The protest march swelled dramatically when the protesters were joined en route by more than 10,000 \"back street boys,\" causing the march to quickly degenerate into a disorderly mob of riot and destruction.\nWidespread looting of retail stores and rice warehouses ensued with damage to private property estimated to have exceeded $40 million. The government called in troops to reinforce police units in the capital, who were overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of the rioters. In 12 hours of violence in the city's streets, at least 40 civilians", "online, there have not been any 'Occupy' events in Charlottesville since February 2012. Background The Occupy Wall Street movement began on September 17, 2011, as a protest against economic and social injustice. Soon thereafter, autonomous satellite protests sprung up across the world, most of them in the United States. In the weeks leading up to the October 15 occupation in Charlottesville, protesters first met at Random Row books on October 5 and again on October 12, for the first Official General Assembly. Among other topics, \"they discussed and developed a set of shared values for community members, including social and", "Occupy Salem History Beginning on October 10, protesters began camping out at Willson Park in Salem, and also set up tents in a parking lot adjacent to the capitol building. The encampment included a kitchen area and a first aid station. On the same day, hundreds of protesters rallied at the state Capitol. Former Salem Mayor Mike Swaim was one of the participants in this rally. On October 12, 2011 protesters were warned not to camp at a Salem park, the violation of which would result in arrests. Protesters moved their belongings and themselves out of the park, and returned", "October lead up to Occupy Charlottesville's first action, which was a march from McGuffey Park (a few blocks away from the group's eventual campsite) to protest at a luncheon for the University of Virginia's corporate sponsors, hosted by UVa President Teresa A. Sullivan. Later that night, the campsite was established in Lee Park. This physical presence lasted until the Charlottesville Police Department broke the encampment on November 30, 2011. The group remains active and continues to organize actions, as well as joining long-existing groups in actions of their own. Charlottesville City Officials granted the group a three-day overnight permit on", "Charlotte, but renounce any affiliation with the group. Beliefs Occupy Charlotte is a movement composed of smaller groups fighting against similar \"injustices\". While these groups maintain similar motives and beliefs, they fight against different specific establishments. Charlotte, being the banking mecca that it is, compels many of these groups to target banking groups such as Wells Fargo through their protests. The beliefs held by Occupy Charlotte are the same as those held by Occupy Wall Street. Their protests fight against the high unemployment rate, financial inequality, financial greed, governmental and financial corruption, and other such topics. Actions and protests Occupy", "leading out of Selma and onto the state highway. Many acts like this one involved killings, and many more involved economic and health problems.\nOn March 7, 1965, armed police attacked the unarmed peaceful civil rights demonstrators attempting to march to the state capital of Montgomery in an incident that became known as Bloody Sunday. Because of the design of the bridge, the protesters were unable to see the police officers on the east side of the bridge until after they had reached the top of the bridge. The protesters first saw the police while at the center of the bridge,", "a group of protesters took over a vacant building that once served as the headquarters of the Traveler's Aid Society, a non-profit organization that provided services to the local homeless population. Police soon arrived to break up the protesters gathered outside of the building. Some protesters fled while others set a barricade on fire. Just after midnight, police ordered the crowd to disperse for unlawful assembly. Soon, one officer on Broadway was struck on his face shield by a bottle, disorienting him. Within a minute, officers launched flash-bang grenades and tear-gas canisters, beginning a series of late-night clashes between", "or riots attack.\nOn 30 March, The Director of Public Prosecutions issued a statement saying that complaints were filed by some citizens about acts of rioting, vandalism and breach of public order, destruction of public and private properties, obstructing business transactions and hindering easy movement of people on the streets. Based on these complaints, he gave orders to arrest and clear all the protesters from the Globe Roundabout. The Omani army then stormed the Globe Roundabout clearing blockades and arresting a number of the protesters.\nOn 1 April, following Friday prayers, hundreds of protesters took to streets demanding the release of people", "fire was heard.\nProtesters insisted that they did not fire at police officers, but threw objects and insulted the men. Evidence that police were being fired upon at the time of the incident was inconclusive, and no evidence was presented in court, as a result of investigations, that protesters were armed or had fired on officers. Aftermath At a press conference the following day, Governor Robert E. McNair said the event was \"...one of the saddest days in the history of South Carolina\". McNair blamed the deaths on Black Power outside agitators and said the incident took place off campus, contrary", "moved to Beth Israel Hospital in Newark, New Jersey, and were granted their request.\nAt least five police officers were struck by stones, according to one officer. Some residents went to City Hall and shouted angry protests. After midnight false alarms caused fire engines to race around a six-block area along Belmont Avenue. Looters smashed windows of a few stores and threw merchandise onto sidewalks. According to police, liquor stores were the main target of looters. As the rumors were dispelled, things calmed. Riots On July 12, a march was organized to protest about Smith's beatings and police brutality in the", "to evict the protesters on November 30, 2011. After the 11:00 curfew came into effect, over 20 police officers moved in. Occupy supporters packed the sidewalk, City Council member Kristin Szakos among them. Eighteen arrests were made and sixteen of those arrested were taken to the Albemarle-Charlottesville Regional Jail while the other two were issued summons. One protester, Veronica Fitzhugh, was given an indecent exposure charge for running naked through the streets (in front of many children present) in addition to trespassing.\nProtesters yelled obscenities at the police as they were removed from Lee Park.\nThe next night, occupiers met at the", "an alternative location was not determined. City government opted to evict the protesters on November 30, 2011. After the 11:00 curfew came into effect, over 20 police officers moved in. Occupy supporters packed the sidewalk, City Council member Kristin Szakos among them. Eighteen arrests were made, sixteen of the arrestees were taken to the Albemarle-Charlottesville Regional Jail while the other two were issued summons. One protester, Veronica Fitzhugh, was given an indecent exposure charge in addition to trespassing. The next night, occupiers met at the city's \"Free Speech Wall\", which had notices posted on it that camping would not be", "delivered to the Emanuel AME Church itself.\nArtist Carrie Mae Weems has created a theater piece in response to the murders, called Grace Notes.\nCivil rights advocates said the Charleston attack not only fit the dictionary definition of terrorism but reflected a history of attempts by the Ku Klux Klan and other white supremacist groups to terrorize African-Americans. Alleged retaliation According to the State of Tennessee, a 2017 church shooting that killed 1 and wounded 7 was a retaliation for the Charleston church shooting. The suspect, who is black, reportedly said that he wanted to \"kill 10 white people\" and referenced Roof", "Courthouse due to security concerns given the continued protests in the city. On July 8, while protesting on Route 30 in North Versailles, four protestors were hit by a car that drove through the march. One person was arrested and one person was taken to the hospital. The protests continue and the goal of the protestors is to bring visibility and awareness to the shooting. On July 26, Pittsburgh city officials issued new protest policy due to continued disruption of the city's roadways and bridges. This policy does not prohibit protests, but does prohibit unpermitted protestors from blocking traffic or", "against Sharia\" protest in front of the downtown Federal Building in Syracuse, New York. The event was met by a larger group of counter-protesters. The Light Foot Militia group stated \"they did not support either side, but were there to make sure all sides were able to excise their First Amendment rights.\" \nIn July 2017, the group was in attendance at an anti-Muslim rally against Islamberg, a Muslim community near Hancock, New York.\nIn August 2017, members of the NYLFM, along with militiamen from several other states, were present during the \"Unite the Right rally,\" a far-right gathering in Charlottesville, Virginia.", "incidents that occurred on April 27, demonstrators gathered peacefully, though one individual was arrested and pepper spray was used when some protesters became disorderly. At 3:00 p.m., Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake took back comments calling rioters \"thugs\", saying that occasionally, \"my little anger interpreter gets the best of me.\" Baltimore religious leaders announced that 14 churches throughout the city were open to give food to children that relied on schools to provide daily meals.\nAt 8:30 p.m., the CEO of Baltimore City Public Schools, Gregory Thornton, announced that Baltimore City Public School classes and after-school events would occur on April 29. Just before 9:00 p.m.,", "Occupy Charlottesville was dissatisfied with the verdict. He said ...\nThe Supreme Court has been clear that politics should play no role in determining who gets the right to speak and not to speak on the streets of our city. Allegations of police brutality Two members of Occupy Charlottesville, Bailee Hampton and Shelly Stern, filed brutality complaints against the Charlottesville Police Department based on claims of police misconduct during their November 30 arrests. A police brutality probe was conducted by the CPD but they declined to release the results. Dave Norris, who was mayor when Occupy Charlottesville was evicted, said the", "13 According to Tom Barrett, the first riot was \"driven\" by the protesters' social media messages encouraging to congregate in the area.\nBetween 8:00 and 9:00 p.m., hours after the shooting, a group of around 100 black protesters gathered near the scene at North Sherman and Auer to hold a protest, and confronted a line of 20–30 officers. Some of the protesters used social media to encourage others to participate in the demonstration. At some point, the protest turned violent. The Revolutionary Communist Party confirmed that some of its members were among the protesters and that they traveled to Milwaukee to \"support", "one of the reasons why there are so few details about this movement. The local newspapers who wrote about the march did not seem to report much on violence in their first day accounts, and in The Tuscaloosa News, it was claimed that the protesters threw bottles and rocks at the police officers, which injured some of them. On the second day, the newspapers seemed to report more on violent accounts, although still not very thoroughly, and seemed to be very partial to the police and officials involved. One article explained that marches and anti-segregation protests could only be permitted", "state of emergency and the Virginia State Police declared the assembly unlawful. At around 1:45 p.m., a white supremacist rammed his car into a crowd of counter-protesters near the rally site and fled the scene, killing one person and injuring 19. Attorney General Jeff Sessions described the car attack as domestic terrorism. The driver, James Alex Fields Jr., was charged with first-degree murder and other crimes in state court as well as an additional 30 offenses in federal court, including violations of federal hate crime laws.\nIn the aftermath of the violence, U.S. President Donald Trump's controversial remarks referring to \"very fine", "Rioting Although the rallies were generally peaceful, some vehicles were burned and shops were vandalized in the evening of demonstrations. On 1 March, clashes took place between the police and groups of young people throwing stones at them.\n41 arrests were recorded on 23 February and 45 on 1 March including five men caught trying to haul away a safe. The police reported that \"the majority of the people arrested were under the influence of psychotropic or hallucinogenic substances\". Media coverage Until 1 March 2019, public television, radio, and press totally ignored the demonstrations, while private television channels linked to power", "the cops were intentionally aiming for heads or groins.\"\nProtests continued into the night. In addition to continued peaceful protests and acts of civil disobedience, some protesters vandalized storefronts and advertisements and built bonfires. Police continued to respond with tear gas, in several cases firing at areas beneath the mountain where no protests were taking place, as well as with direct assaults on protester positions.\nProtests concluded on Sunday, April 22.", "West 162d Street off St. Nicholas Avenue, littered with garbage, shattered bottles, vegetables, crates, slats of wood and even car parts.\" At the time of the demonstrations, police were unable to say \"whether Mr. Garcia had pulled the gun on Officer O'Keefe or in some other way menaced the officer.\"\nIn the end six days of demonstrations took place, during which protesters \"tossed trash cans, bottles and rocks, broke windows, looted and overturned and burned police cars,\" leading to \"139 arrests, one death and 90 injuries, including those suffered by 74 police officers,\" according to a subsequent report by the" ]

[ "Practice listening to yourself and *actually* hearing your own voice. Singing in a small, acoustically live room (like a bathroom) can help. I recommend purchasing some pvc pipe and making a small phone shape so that you can sing into one end and have it projected directly into your ear.\n\nI can almost certainly assure you it is not a biological problem." ]

[ "same pitch as the other notes in the sequence or a completely different pitch altogether. Monica was asked to respond \"yes\" if she detected a pitch change on the fourth tone or respond \"no\" if she could not detect a pitch change. Results show that Monica could barely detect a pitch change as large as two semitones (whole tone), or half steps. While this pitch-processing deficit is extremely severe, it does not seem to include speech intonation. This is because pitch variations in speech are very coarse compared with those used in music. In conclusion, Monica's learning disability arises", "a pitch level that is either too high or too low creates vocal pathology.\nAccording to vocal pedagogue Margaret Greene, \"The need for choosing the correct natural range of the voice is of great importance in singing since the outer ends of the singing range need very careful production and should not be overworked, even in trained voices.\"\nSinging at either extreme of the range may be damaging, but the possibility of damage seems to be much more prevalent in too high a classification. A number of medical authorities have indicated that singing at too high a pitch level may contribute to", "a group in order to get the clearest one, or to choose the one with a speed that is appropriate for different settings.\nFor people who are hard of hearing in the upper range of the hearing spectrum, for example, selecting a voice that uses a lower pitch will deliver deeper sounds.\nAnother use for voice fonts is in electronic music. A commonly available set of synthetic voices from Macintosh computers can be used to enhance the mood of certain music pieces that need a voice but where the composer feels that providing a human voice is not in their interests. Here,", "a high pitched voice in an initial presentation (such as the perpetrator's voice in a crime), individuals are likely to choose an even higher-pitched voice in the test phase (audio line-up). Similarly, upon hearing a low-pitched voice, they are likely to remember the voice as being even lower in pitch when voices are presented in an audio line-up. Comparable cognitive functions seem to operate when individuals attempt to remember faces; ambiguity surrounding the ethnicity or gender of faces is likely to result in the individual's recall of faces to be exaggerated with regards to ethnic and gender-related features. Researchers call", "high and low pitch is still unclear. There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in vertical space when the sound frequency is increased or reduced.\nIn most cases, the pitch of complex sounds such as speech and musical notes corresponds very nearly to the repetition rate of periodic or nearly-periodic sounds, or to the reciprocal of the time interval between repeating similar events in the sound waveform.\nThe pitch of complex tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. When", "There may be a sensation of soreness or pain in the neck, lateral to the larynx, which generally occurs because of the increased effort needed to produce the voice. Acoustic signs Major acoustic signs of vocal fold nodules involve changes in the frequency and the intensity of the voice. The fundamental frequency, an acoustic measure of voice pitch, may be normal. However, the range of pitches the individual is capable of producing may be reduced, and it may be especially difficult to produce pitches in the higher range. The intensity of the voice, an acoustic measure of amplitude or loudness,", "Symptoms Objective evaluation or measurement of vocal loading is very difficult due to the tight coupling of the experienced psychological and physiological stress. However, there are some typical symptoms that can be objectively measured. Firstly, the pitch range of the voice will decrease. Pitch range indicates the possible pitches that can be spoken. When a voice is loaded, the upper pitch limit will decrease and the lower pitch limit will rise. Similarly, the volume range will decrease.\nSecondly, an increase in the hoarseness and strain of a voice can often be heard. Unfortunately, both properties are difficult to measure objectively,", "determine the pitch of sounds. A larger opening of the glottis produces a low pitch tone and a smaller opening of the glottis produces a high pitch tone. The contraction and relaxation of the vocal cords also impacts the pitch of sound. The length and the force of the vocal cords impacts the vibrations of the vocal cords. The longer and relaxed the vocal cord are, the slower they vibrate and in turn produces a lower pitch sound. Larynx The larynx (voice box) is located in the throat . The larynx produces an open airway when breathing and a mechanism", "pitch, because its sound contains higher frequencies. In other words, it is possible and often easy to roughly discern the relative pitches of two sounds of indefinite pitch, but sounds of indefinite pitch do not neatly correspond to any specific pitch.\nA special type of pitch often occurs in free nature when sound reaches the ear of an observer directly from the source, and also after reflecting off a sound-reflecting surface. This phenomenon is called repetition pitch, because the addition of a true repetition of the original sound to itself is the basic prerequisite. Scales The relative pitches of individual notes", "can be used as a reference point. For many singers, however, good pitching seems to be a purely intuitive activity, a skill they possess but cannot explain. One experienced pitcher told Cobb \"it's kind of like learning to fix an automobile--you just got to have a knack for it.\" The value of skilled pitchers Errors in pitching tend to produce quite noticeable results. An excessively high pitch will lead the singers to struggle, producing a loud but thin, unsonorous sound. An excessively low pitch will lead to a rendition lacking in energy. These undesirable outcomes, together with the relative rarity", "called discrete downdrift, when downstep occurs all tones shift downward, so that their relative difference in pitch remains constant; in the other, called tone terracing, the pitch of the low tone remains at the lower end of the speaker's vocal range, while the other tones shift downward, so that their difference in pitch narrows.\nPitch reset is required in the first instance because the tones approach the lower end of the speaker's comfort range, and in the second because the tonal distinctions of the language start being lost.", "Messa di voce Messa di voce [ˈmessa di ˈvoːtʃe] (Italian, \"placing of voice\") is a singing technique that requires sustaining a single pitch while gradually making the voice louder (crescendo) and then softer (diminuendo). It is considered to be a particularly advanced test of singing ability.\nMessa di voce should not be confused with mezza voce (Italian, \"half voice\") which means to sing at half strength. Technique The messa di voce is universally considered a very advanced vocal technique. To be properly executed, the only feature of the note being sung that should change is the volume – not the pitch,", "the listener asked if there was a difference in their pitches. The JND becomes smaller if the two tones are played simultaneously as the listener is then able to discern beat frequencies. The total number of perceptible pitch steps in the range of human hearing is about 1,400; the total number of notes in the equal-tempered scale, from 16 to 16,000 Hz, is 120. In speech perception JND analysis is frequently occurring in both music and speech, the two being related and overlapping in the analysis of speech prosody (i.e. speech melody). While several studies have shown that JND for tones", "describing vocal sound lies in the vocal vocabulary itself. There are many schools of thought within vocal pedagogy and different schools have adopted different terms, sometimes from other artistic disciplines. This has led to the use of a plethora of descriptive terms applied to the voice which are not always understood to mean the same thing. Some terms sometimes used to describe a quality of a voice's sound are: warm, white, dark, light, round, reedy, spread, focused, covered, swallowed, forward, ringing, hooty, bleaty, plummy, mellow, pear-shaped, and so forth. Body alignment The singing process functions best when certain physical conditions", "they later receive musical training. Many native speakers of a tone language, even those with little musical training, are observed to sing a given song consistently with regard to pitch. Among music students of East Asian ethnic heritage, those who speak a tone language very fluently have a much higher prevalence of absolute pitch than those who do not speak a tone language.\nIt is possible that African level-tone languages—such as Yoruba, with three pitch levels, and Mambila, with four—may be better suited to study the role of absolute pitch in speech than the pitch and contour tone languages of East", "the vast majority of both are done in this register. As pitch rises in this register, the vocal folds are lengthened, tension increases, and their edges become thinner. A well-trained singer or speaker can phonate two octaves or more in the modal register with consistent production, beauty of tone, dynamic variety, and vocal freedom. This is possible only if the singer or speaker avoids static laryngeal adjustments and allows the progression from the bottom to the top of the register to be a carefully graduated continuum of readjustments. Falsetto register The falsetto register lies above the modal voice register and", "a scale from low to high. Since pitch is such a close proxy for frequency, it is almost entirely determined by how quickly the sound wave is making the air vibrate and has almost nothing to do with the intensity, or amplitude, of the wave. That is, \"high\" pitch means very rapid oscillation, and \"low\" pitch corresponds to slower oscillation. Despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages. At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that involve up/down. The exact etymological history of the musical sense of", "and dark quality to the vocal sound. This quality is not entirely innate to the voice, but is developed through classical vocal training. So although a singer in another genre might have a range equivalent to a contralto, they would not have a similar sound.\n“These differences in voice qualities are reflections on variation in the muscular, aerodynamic, and acoustical conditions in the larynx and in the vocal tract. The subglottal pressure, the driving force in phonation, needs to be adapted in accordance with the laryngeal conditions.” In other words, the very act of singing consistently within one technique or another", "has so many frequencies, from a subharmonic of her tonic to a thin raspiness, and she wants to hear all of that.\" Badu used a Shure SM57 dynamic microphone, finding it to have enough bottom for her voice type, and cut vocal takes while situated between two speakers in the studio's control room with the monitor mix playing. She explained this setting to be more comfortable, noting the ability to hear herself sing and hold the microphone when moving around. Badu preferred to sing in one take rather than edit different takes together: \"When I do vocals, I am singing", "be directly measured. However, this does not necessarily mean that most people won't agree on which notes are higher and lower.\nThe oscillations of sound waves can often be characterized in terms of frequency. Pitches are usually associated with, and thus quantified as, frequencies (in cycles per second, or hertz), by comparing the sounds being assessed against sounds with pure tones (ones with periodic, sinusoidal waveforms). Complex and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method.\nAccording to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the auditory attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on", "and based on that develops a pitch range of their speaking voice, which determines the orientation of the pitch class with respect to the height; when a given tone is in this range, it is taken as the highest position along the circle and depending on the second tone, the person perceives the pattern as ascending or descending. Deutsch found that for people from California, the tone in the highest position of the pitch-class circle is around C# and D whereas for people from southern England it is around G. According to those results, Deutsch hypothesized that the orientation of", "that do not judge pitch, a phoneme detector picks up individual vowels and consonants of the spoken lyrics, songs that contain unclean vocals (growled or screamed vocals) are also judged in this way. Some sections without vocals will display circle notes, allowing for the microphone to be used as a tambourine and cowbell by tapping it or making vocal cues. Overdrive for singers can be deployed by making a brief sound through the microphone during sections of songs, denoted by yellow artwork in the background of the vocals interface. Keyboard A keyboard instrument was introduced with Rock Band 3. Using", "to drive the air through a small gap between or behind the teeth into the mouth. The sound so produced makes a high rough sound. This then is articulated to make speech. The speech sounds made in this way are difficult to hear and have a raised pitch. The technique can also be used to sing, and is usually acquired as a taught or self-learned skill and used for entertainment.", "the greatest common divisor of the frequencies present.\nPitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level (loudness, volume) of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases. For instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder. These results were obtained in the pioneering works by S.Stevens and W.Snow . Later investigations, i.e. by A.Cohen, had shown that in most", "familiar melodies, but that she has no problems in recognizing the voices of well-known speakers. Thus, it appears that Monica's deficit seems limited to music. A later study showed that not only do amusics experience difficulty in discriminating variations in pitch, but they also exhibit deficits in perceiving patterns in pitch.\nThis finding led to another test that was designed to assess the presence of a deficiency in pitch perception. In this test, Monica heard a sequence of five piano tones of constant pitch followed by a comparison sequence of five piano tones in which the fourth tone could be the", "common use of pitch correctors is to fix wrong intonation (tuning) of notes sung by vocalists in popular music sound recordings. The use of pitch correction speeds up the recording process, because singers do not need to keep singing a song or vocal line and re-recording it until the pitches are correct. The pitch correction software can correct any pitch errors in the singing without the need for overdubbing or re-recording.\nWhile pitch correction is most associated with fixing vocal intonation errors, it can also be used to fix intonation in recorded instrumental parts such as violin, cello or trumpet. Vocal", "have to have an amplified voice to carry over it, if you want to hear the words at all. But for instance there's a moment in “No Good Deed” where she belts a big note and then there's a place where it suddenly gets pianissimo — she has to hit the note very loud and hold it, and then get very soft — and that's absolutely like something one would write in classical singing or an opera aria. Or the moment where she does “Nessa, Dr. Dillamond,” and then sort of shouts out “Fiyero” while the orchestra is sawing away", "the sound produced is complicated by the vibrations carried to the ear through the Eustachean (auditory) tube and the bony structures of the head and neck. In other words, most singers hear something different in their ears/head than what a person listening to them hears. As a result, voice teachers often focus less on how it \"sounds\" and more on how it \"feels\". Vibratory sensations resulting from the closely related processes of phonation and resonation, and kinesthetic ones arising from muscle tension, movement, body position, and weight serve as a guide to the singer on correct vocal production.\nAnother problem in", "were related to their memories and expectations. Absolute pitch Deutsch's research also focuses on absolute pitch (or perfect pitch), which is the ability to name or produce a musical note without the aid of a reference note. This ability is very rare in the United States, but Deutsch discovered that it is far more prevalent among speakers of tone language, such as Mandarin or Vietnamese. Deutsch proposed that, if given the opportunity, infants can acquire absolute pitch as a feature of their language, and this ability carries over into music. This proposal has inspired a substantial body of work", "improvisation, electronic sound production, etc. Pitch Pitch is the lowness or highness of a tone, for example the difference between middle C and a higher C. The frequency of the sound waves producing a pitch can be measured precisely, but the perception of pitch is more complex because single notes from natural sources are usually a complex mix of many frequencies. Accordingly, theorists often describe pitch as a subjective sensation.\nSpecific frequencies are often assigned letter names. Today most orchestras assign Concert A (the A above middle C on the piano) to the frequency of 440 Hz. This assignment is somewhat arbitrary;" ]

[ "Chobani made a grape yogurt, but I don't think it sold very well. Grape and yogurt doesn't really mix in a way that is large scale marketable to consumers. Yogurt can be kind of sour, mixing that with grape is not a flavor many people can get behind.", "Probably the same reason they don't make grape ice cream; too difficult to make and it doesn't taste good" ]

[ "for beverages or yogurts. Juice from the ripe berries is astringent, sweet (with high sugar content), sour (low pH), and contains vitamin C. In addition to juice, the fruit can be baked into soft breads. In the U.S., Aronia berries are also marketed for their antioxidant properties.", "were women. Products Red Mango uses all-natural, nonfat & lowfat kosher frozen yogurt fortified with probiotics. They were the first frozen yogurt store to be certified by the National Yogurt Association with the Live & Active Cultures seal, indicating the use of real yogurt. As of July 2008, the company's lineup of frozen yogurt flavors consisted of Original, Pomegranate, Madagascar Vanilla, and a rotating variety of seasonal or specialty flavors. These include Green Tea, Mango, Banana, Nutty Potion, and Peanut Butter.\nRed Mango’s frozen yogurt is topped with fruits (such as blueberries, mango, pineapple, and strawberries) and/or “fun and crunchy” items", "made, like Italian grappa, by distilling the grape residue, primarily the skins and pulp (hollejo) plus the stems (escobajos) and seeds, left over from winemaking after pressing the grapes. It is used to make several other flavored liquors, such as the murtado or enmurtillado (using sun dried murtilla, an orange-reddish wild rose fruit), the enguindado (soaking sun-dried morello cherries) and licor de oro (flavored with saffron and lemon peel). Dried mint, peeled walnuts, almonds, and other aromatic herbs are also used to flavor the aguardiente. It is mainly consumed by itself, or as a base to make cola de mono", "are, therefore, sometimes used as an additive to yogurt and other (dairy) products. Fructooligosaccharides are used specially in combination with high-intensity artificial sweeteners, whose sweetness profile and aftertaste it improves. Food sources FOS is extracted from the blue Agave plant as well as fruits and vegetables such as bananas, onions, chicory root, garlic, asparagus, jícama, and leeks. Some grains and cereals, such as wheat and barley, also contain FOS. The Jerusalem artichoke and its relative yacón together with the Blue Agave plant have been found to have the highest concentrations of FOS of cultured plants. Health benefits FOS has", "Pyrus pyrifolia Culture Due to their relatively high price and the large size of the fruit of cultivars, the pears tend to be served to guests, given as gifts, or eaten together in a family setting.\nIn cooking, ground pears are used in vinegar- or soy sauce-based sauces as a sweetener, instead of sugar. They are also used when marinating meat, especially beef.\nIn Australia, these pears were first introduced into commercial production beginning in 1980.\nIn Japan, fruit is harvested in Chiba, Ibaraki, Tottori, Fukushima, Tochigi, Nagano, Niigata, Saitama and other prefectures, except Okinawa. Nashi (梨) may be used as a late", "as either whole fruit or syrup. Other, rarer fruit lambic flavorings include apple (pomme), banana (banane), pineapple (ananas), apricot (abricot), plum (prune), cloudberry (plaquebière), lemon (citron), and blueberry (myrtille). Fruit lambics are usually bottled with secondary fermentation. Although fruit lambics are among the most famous Belgian fruit beers, the use of names such as kriek, framboise or frambozen, cassis, etc. does not necessarily imply that the beer is made from lambic. The fruit beers produced by the Liefmans Brewery, for example, use an oud bruin, rather than a lambic as a base.\nMany of the non-traditional fruit beers derived from lambic", "BYU's mentoring program and research, while Ogden receives the rest. Fizzix was available in six flavors, but appears to have been discontinued.\nIn 2005, frubes Smoothie, a drinkable yogurt for children was released. The product currently comes in four flavors: Strawberry Splash, Paradise Punch, Mango Blast, and Wild Berry. Internationally Outside of the U.S., Go-GURT is sold as \"Yoplait Tubes\" in Canada, as \"Frubes\" in the United Kingdom, in Japan as \"グルト\" (\"Yo-Guruto\"), and in Australia as \"Yoplait Go-GURT or simply \"Go-GURT\". The name is a play on words, as it evokes the sound of gulping a liquid and incorporates part", "with Pear This variant uses pear instead of dried persimmon. In the past, people ate boiled pears (another name of Cinnamon Punch with Pear, in Korean, is Insug) because most high quality pears are so stiff to eat. In order to make it easier to eat pears, they made them into a kind of cinnamon punch. Cinnamon Punch with Pumpkin This variant adds pumpkin to the original. It is usually enjoyed in Gangwon-do. Ingredients Ginger, whole cinnamon, brown sugar, white sugar, dried persimmon (gotgam), walnut, pine nut Efficacies Ginger and cinnamon, the main ingredients of Korean cinnamon punch, are spicy", "previously-frozen juice vesicles. The cloud resulting from the vesicles have sugar solids containing vitamin C. This cloud from vesicles is a popular alternative to brominated vegetable oil or glycerol ester of wood rosin, which are other clouding agents. The citrus in the vesicles is more often used for cloud especially for shipping products overseas.\nIn Japan, many yogurts and beverages include added enlarged citrus juice vesicles. These vesicles combined with enzymes are removed from fruit. This results from the heat of the enzymes. When eaten, teeth break the vesicles and provide a fresh squirt of citrus juice to the beverage or", "preferably those that contain pectin. Citrus fruits are especially desirable because of their flavor and pectin content.\" Preparation Quince cheese is prepared with quince fruits. The fruit is first cooked in water, and the strained pulp is then cooked with sugar. It turns red after a long cooking time, and becomes a relatively firm quince jelly, dense enough to hold its shape. The taste is sweet but slightly astringent, and it is similar in consistency, flavor and use to guava cheese or guava paste.\nQuince cheese is sold in squares or blocks, then cut into thin slices and spread over toasted", "fruits, tamarind, or aamla berries. An Indian lemonade called nimbu pani is made with fresh squeezed lemon or lime juice with additional flavorings like ginger, mint, saffron, kewra or even crushed black pepper.\nVetiver sherbet (khus syrup) can be made by adding khus essence to sugar and water. The khus essence itself is made from the roots of vetiver grass. Vetiver sherbet can be used as a flavoring for milkshakes, lassi and other yogurt drinks, ice cream, Shirley Temples and other mixed beverages. It can also be used as a general purpose dessert topping.\nThe most common sharbat flavor is probably rose.", "Mediterranean basils. The most notable is the holy basil or tulsi, a revered home-grown plant in Nepal.\nLemon basil has a strong lemony smell and flavor very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi, served raw together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, when broken up, are a zesty salad condiment. Etymology The name \"basil\" comes from Latin, basilius, and Greek βασιλικόν φυτόν (basilikón phutón), \"royal/kingly plant\", possibly because the plant was believed", "yogurt made from goat's milk, called jameed, is poured on top of the lamb and rice to give it its distinct flavor and taste. The dish is garnished with cooked pine nuts and almonds.\nLevantine cuisine is also famous for its wide range of cheeses, including Shanklish, Halloum, and Arisheh. Kishk is also a famous Syrian soup, alongside many soups made of lentils. Lebanese food also has a wide range of dips including Hummous, Baba Ghannouj, and Labneh, and also caters many raw meat dishes. Syrian food could be either extremely vegetarian or a meat lover's paradise. Lemon, oregano, za'atar, paprika,", "Cucumbers and basil are often added.\nOther ingredients—lettuce, olives, mozzarella, white wine, capers, anchovies, celery, carrots, red wine, tuna, parsley, boiled eggs, mint, bell peppers, lemon juice, and garlic—are sometimes used, but Florentine traditionalists disapprove of them.", "or peach nectar can be substituted, especially if peaches are out of season and the flavor would be very bland. Other fruits or even flavoured liqueurs (peach schnapps, for example) are sometimes substituted for the peach purée.\nThe Cipriani family produces Bellini Base for the signature cocktail of the Harry's Bar restaurants.\nOther sparkling wines are commonly used in place of Prosecco, though richly flavored French champagne does not pair well with the light, fruity flavor of the Bellini. For a non-alcoholic version, sparkling juice or seltzer is used in place of the wine. Similar cocktails The Cuban Adalor cocktail is a", "called skyr, or naturally sweet yogurt.", "bears medium to large fruit that have a thick and bumpy rind. The fruits are seedy, and while they look similar to a citron, they taste like a lemon. Origin The ponderosa lemon originated in roughly 1887, and is believed to come from a chance seedling grown in Hagerstown, Maryland. It was later named and introduced to the nursery trade in 1900. Though often referred to as a cross between the lemon and citron, a recent genomic analysis showed it to solely contain pomelo (Citrus maxima) and citron (Citrus medica) DNA, perhaps being an F2 hybrid. Thus they cannot", "varies by country. Most Activia yogurts contain real fruit. Brazil In Brazil, both yogurt and yogurt-drinks are available. In addition to the usual worldwide fruit flavors, honey with carrot is also available. The \"light\" line is marketed as \"0%\" fat. Europe In Bulgaria, Croatia, and Romania the products include semi-solid yogurts (plain, cereal, strawberry, peach and prune) and yogurt drinks (plain, cereal, strawberry-kiwi and cherry-vanilla).\nIn Finland the Activia brand includes fruit and natural yogurt as well as yogurt drinks. Lactose free forms of the yogurt are also sold.\nIn France, semi-solid yogurt and yogurt with fruit layers are available. Unique flavors", "These include the custard-apple (A. reticulata), soursop (A. muricata), sweetsop or sugar-apple (A. squamosa), and the cherimoya (A. cherimola). Both soursop and sweetsop now are widely grown for their fruits in the Old World as well.\nSome members of the magnoliids have served as important food additives. Oil of sassafras was formerly used as a key flavoring in both root beer and in sarsaparilla. The primary ingredient responsible for the oil's flavor is safrole, but it is no longer used in either the United States or Canada. Both nations banned the use of safrole as a food", "Bordeaux, Burgundy, Loire Valley and Alentejo, Portugal\nThe grape was widely popular in the United States during the years of Prohibition. Grape growers in California's Central Valley found that its pulp was so fleshy and juicy that fermentable juice could be retrieved even after the third pressing. In contrast, wines made from grapes like Chardonnay and Merlot typically only include the juice from the free run (before pressing) and first or second pressing. The grape's thick skin also meant that it could survive the long railway transportation from California to New York City's Pennsylvania Station which had auction rooms where the", "yogurt that is a few days old and has become sour due to age. Indeed, one of the purposes for making chaas at home is to usefully finish off old yogurt that is lying in the fridge for long. Such chaas has a tangy, slightly sour taste which is considered delicious. A pinch of salt is usually added to it for further enhancement of taste, and other seasonings can be added also, as described below.\nA third variation of chaas is obtained by adding actual buttermilk (water left over after churning butter) into the chaas. This gives a slightly sour-bitter taste", "for stuffing poultry and game, and in soups and stews.\nEmulsifying garlic with olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco. Tzatziki, yogurt mixed with garlic and salt, is a common sauce in Eastern Mediterranean cuisines. Storage Domestically, garlic is stored warm [above 18 °C (64 °F)] and dry to keep it dormant (to inhibit sprouting). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands called plaits or grappes. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the refrigerator. Commercially, garlic is stored at 0 °C (32 °F),", "grape originated in ancient Greece and was brought over by some of the first settlers of the Italian peninsula, recent DNA-based research has shown it to be genetically identical to a Croatian varietal.\nPrimitivo di Manduria DOC is made from 100% Primitivo grapes (unlike other Primitivo wines, like Gioia del Colle Primitivo, which are blends). This wine is also characterized by an unusually high alcohol by volume percentage - around 14%. Wines made from Primitivo have notes of plum and spice, like Zinfandel, but because of different growing soils and climate, the fruit character is less jammy, the structure", "in yogurt, mint, saffron and paprika to sturgeon in a spicy cilantro marinade; five different side sauces accompanied all the kabobs. Goldstein also advised the restaurant team about Russian culture and investigated bakeries around New York City to find one that could produce the dense, dark sourdough bread needed for a Russian meal. Disputes occasionally arose between Goldstein and the restaurant’s owner, Warner LeRoy, regarding authenticity. For instance, LeRoy was hesitant to list sour cream on the menu because of America's then anti-fat campaign. They compromised by calling sour cream by its Russian name, smetana, which––according to Goldstein––\"somehow sounded less", "and onions. Other vegetables commonly used in the making of sinigang include okra, taro corms (gabi), white radish (labanós), water spinach (kangkóng), yardlong beans (sitaw) and eggplant (talóng). Most Filipinos like to cook sinigang with green long peppers in order to enhance the taste and add a little spice to the dish. Another variation includes adding locally made miso. Similar dishes Sinampalukang manók or sinampalukan is technically not a variation of sinigang, as the chicken has to be sautéed in ginger first instead of all the ingredients being placed simultaneously into the pot and brought to a boil. Sinampalukan is", "grape itself is not particularly sweet but many of the commercial Lambrusco versions are sweetened by either partial fermentation or with the addition of rectified concentrated grape must. When not fermented sweet, the Lambrusco grape is capable of producing an excellent dry wine with strawberry notes and a slight bitter finish.\nBy the end of the 20th century, ampelographers had identified over 60 varieties of Lambrusco scattered throughout Italy, including in Piedmont, Sicily and the Veneto. The most widely planted variety is Lambrusco Salamino. Italian wine Today, there are various levels of dryness / sweetness, including secco (bone dry / dry),", "Light in Pasteurized and Ultra Pasteurized, Special (ex. Extra Light, W/out Lactose, No Cholesterol), Alpura Fruit (in ultra-pasteurized and to-go), Dry milk, flavors (such as chocolate, vanilla and strawberry), Alpura Kids, and formula milk. Cream 2000, and Reduced Fat.\nYogurt is: Probiotic in Strawberry or Peach, With Fruits (strawberry, peach, apple, mango, forest fruit, pineapple coconut, and blackberry), Natural, Creamy, Vivendi (beauty, purifying, digestion, defenses), With Cereal (strawberry, peach, apple-peach, forest fruit)\nThe Drinkable Yogurt is of most of the same flavors as regular yogurt in Regular, Probiotic, and Vivendi.\nDessert cups are Fruit w/ Cream (strawberry, peach, mango).\nAlpura's ultrapasteurized milk package is", "prepared with tomato paste, fresh tomatoes, cucumbers, parsley, olive oil, and other salad ingredients to personal taste. Pomegranate molasses, which is sour and sweet, is commonly used instead of lemon juice to add tartness. A variety of mezes and main dishes are prepared. \nIn Cyprus, it is known as \"πουρκούρι\" and is used to make \"κούπες\" (also known as bulgur köftesi in Cypriot Turkish), a variety of kibbeh. Its crust is usually made of bulgur wheat, flour, oil, salt and egg, then filled with ground meat (beef and/or pork), onions, parsley and spices. There is also vegetarian \"κούπες\" which substitutes", "similar to but differentiated from paksiw (which uses vinegar). Other variations of the dish derive their sourness from native ingredients. These souring agents include unripe mangoes, butterfly tree leaves (alibangbang), citruses (including the native calamansi and biasong), santol, bilimbi (kamias or iba), gooseberry tree fruits (karmay), binukaw fruits (also batuan), and libas fruits, among others. Guava, introduced to the Philippines via the Manila galleons is also used. Seasoning powder or bouillon cubes with a tamarind base are commercial alternatives to using natural fruits.\nSinigang typically use meat or seafood (e.g., fish, pork, beef, shrimp, or chicken) stewed with tamarind, tomatoes, garlic,", "contains significant quantities of unfermentable sugar alcohols, particularly sorbitol. The presence of sorbitol can give perry a residual sweetness, in addition to a mild laxative effect.\nPear juices contain rather low levels of amino acids, sources of nitrogen such as aspargine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid.\nAfter initial fermentation, many perries go through malolactic fermentation. On average, compared to apples, pears have higher levels of titrable acidity, most of it being citric acid. In environments with high levels of malic acid, such as grape must in winemaking, malolactic fermentation bacteria convert malic acid to lactic acid, reducing the perception of acidity and" ]

[ "IPO = Initial Public Offering\n\nCould also be called \"Taking a company public\" \n\nELI5 version - You own a company. It is not small, but not as large as you want it to be. You could borrow money from a bank in order to grow your business, but for a bunch of reasons banks are not always willing or able to loan you large sums of money. Instead, you offer to sell ownership of your company to the general public - in the form of shares - in exchange for their money.\n\nIn effect, your company is now partially owned by private individuals and investors, and you have more money to invest in further business development.\n\nThere are huge legal implications of this. Every country has security laws which must be followed when you take a company public. This is mostly to prevent abuse of the public through various scams and insider trading." ]

[ "IPO were also credited as a cause for this decision.", "issue, they agreed that valuations and funding for future startup IPOs could take a hit. Online travel company Kayak.com delayed its IPO roadshow in the wake of Facebook's troubles. Analyst Trip Chowdhry suggested an even broader conclusion with regards to IPOs, arguing \"that hype doesn't sell anymore, short of fundamentals.\" CBS News compared the situation to the dot-com bubble, warning that \"You'd think we all would have learned our lesson\" from that period of overvaluation.\nWhile expected to provide significant benefits to Nasdaq, the IPO resulted in a strained relationship between Facebook and the exchange. Facebook has considered moving its listing", "argue about the role of Xerox is not entirely accurate. He said that Jobs was invited by PARC to view their technology in exchange for the ability to buy pre-IPO Apple stock. Wozniak also said (in response to a question about that scene from a fan (via email) that, \"Apple worked with Xerox openly to bring their developments to a mass audience. That's what Steve portrayed Apple as being good at. Xerox got a lot of Apple stock for it too, it was an agreement. Microsoft just took it from Xerox or Apple or whomever. It took them a long", "December 2009 to March 2014. The Securities and Exchange Board of India, the organisation which regulates activity in the Indian stock market, placed some restrictions based on a complaint about the formulation of the IPO. The complaint also resulted in a public interest litigation being filed against the company. However, the Supreme Court of India passed a ruling that the IPO would go ahead even if any order is passed by any Indian court against the venture.\nThe IPO opened on 15 January 2008 and attracted $27.5 billion of bids on the first day, equivalent to 10.5 times the stock on", "IPC Systems History IPC was founded as Interconnect Planning Corporation, a consulting company, in 1973. Its voice communication system was created after Republic National Bank approached IPC founder Stephan Nichols with a request to improve the bank's trading hardware\nIn 2001, IPC Systems was purchased by Goldman Sachs.\nIPC was the first to use Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) on the trading floor; this reduced communication costs. The company introduced the first VoIP-based turret in 2001 and its second generation VoIP based turret, the IQ/MAX, in 2006.\nGoldman Sachs sold the company to Silver Lake Partners in 2006 for $800 million. In 2014,", "(this amount prevented both companies from having to disclose the exact amount in the event of a SCO IPO). When Microsoft eventually lost interest in OS/2 as well, the company based its further high-end strategy on Windows NT.\nIn 1987, SCO ported XENIX to the 386 processor, a 32-bit chip, after securing knowledge from Microsoft insiders that Microsoft was no longer developing XENIX. XENIX System V release 2.3.1 introduced support for i386, SCSI and TCP/IP. SCO's XENIX System V/386 was the first 32-bit operating system available on the market for the x86 CPU Architecture.\nMicrosoft continued to use XENIX internally, submitting a", "as Permodalan Nasional or the Armed Forces pension fund. These shares were initially heavily discounted, as IPO prices were often significantly lower than prices after the listing had taken place. However, this advantage has disappeared in recent years. Nevertheless, this regulation has been criticised, especially as the 30% target continues to apply after the IPO has occurred; if the Bumiputra investors divest their shares, the company must issue new shares to maintain the proportion of Bumiputra shares above 30%. Reimplementation Officially the term of the NEP ended in 1990. However, much of it remained in effect through other governmental policies;", "largest global tech IPOs, including: Netscape, Cisco, Compaq, Broadcast.com, Broadcom Corp, VeriSign, Inc., Cogent, Inc., Dolby Laboratories, Priceline, Salesforce, Brocade, Google and Groupon. In 2004, the firm led the Google IPO, the largest Internet IPO in U.S. history. In the same year Morgan Stanley acquired the Canary Wharf Group.\nIn 2003 NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital named the Morgan Stanley Children's Hospital in recognition of the firm's sponsorship of the hospital, which largely funded its construction through philanthropy. started under CEO Philip J. Purcell and completed under John Mack. Employees at the firm have been involved with the hospital since the 1990s and personally", "IPOP History IPOP started as a research project at the University of Florida in 2006. In its first-generation design and implementation, IPOP was built atop structured P2P links managed by the C# Brunet library. In its first design, IPOP relied on Brunet’s structured P2P overlay network for peer-to-peer messaging, notifications, NAT traversal, and IP tunneling. The Brunet-based IPOP is still available as open-source code; however, IPOP’s architecture and implementation have evolved.\nStarting September 2013, the project has been funded by the National Science Foundation under the SI2 (Software Infrastructure for Sustained Innovation) program to enable it as open-source “scientific software element”", "IPO will come true. If you owned shares of that IPO when the predicted event occurs, you were awarded 100 POP$ per share. When you sold owned shares of an IPO, you were given the amount of POP$ that the IPO you sold was worth for each share you owned. The next two types of trading were shorting and covering. When you short a stock of an IPO, you are investing in the fact that the IPO will fail. If you own shorted shares of the IPO when the prediction fails, you no longer must pay back your original price.", "iptables are the simplification of the Linux kernel ABI, reduction of code duplication, improved error reporting, and more efficient execution, storage and incremental changes of filtering rules. Traditionally used iptables(8), ip6tables(8), arptables(8) and ebtables(8) (for IPv4, IPv6, ARP and Ethernet bridging, respectively) are intended to be replaced with nft(8) as a single unified implementation, providing firewall configuration on top of the in-kernel virtual machine.\nnftables also offers an improved userspace API that allows atomic replacements of one or more firewall rules within a single Netlink transaction. That speeds up firewall configuration changes for setups having large rulesets; it can", "IP exchange IP exchange or (IPX) is a telecommunications interconnection model for the exchange of IP based traffic between customers of separate mobile and fixed operators as well as other types of service provider (such as ISP), via IP based Network-to-Network Interface. IPX is developed by the GSM Association.\nIPX is not intended to replace or compete with the Internet but it does offer an alternative option for service providers. The intent of IPX is to provide interoperability of IP-based services between all service provider types within a commercial framework that enables all parties in the value chain to receive a", "IPsoft Inc. History The company was founded in NYC in 1998 by Chetan Dube, a former professor at New York University at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. His research was focused on deterministic finite-state computing engines. Within a few years of its founding, IPsoft established a presence in India providing remote IT infrastructure managed services and shortly thereafter opened its first European outpost in London. As growth continued to accelerate, new offices followed. First in California then Amsterdam and beyond. In 2009 alone, IPsoft opened its Frankfurt, Austin, Chicago and Stockholm offices and expanded its New York and Bangalore", "attempted to explain the acquisition history of the No One Lives Forever IP in a public video. This history includes the 2003 acquisition of NOLF publisher Fox Interactive by Vivendi Universal Games (who also owned Sierra Entertainment), as well as the 2008 merger between Vivendi Universal Games (VUG, which had since been renamed Vivendi Games) and video game publisher Activision, forming the Activision Blizzard holding company. After the merger, Activision decided to sell off some IPs and retain others. In order to find out the legal details behind NOLF, Amrich asked his colleagues, saying that \"[t]he person that I normally", "Deering (Xerox), Dino Farinacci (Cisco), Paul Francis (NTT), Eric Fleischmann (Boeing), Mark Knopper (Ameritech), Greg Minshall (Novell), Rob Ullmann (Lotus), and Lixia Zhang (Xerox).\nThe Internet Engineering Task Force adopted the IPng model on 25 July 1994, with the formation of several IPng working groups. By 1996, a series of RFCs was released defining Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), starting with RFC 1883. (Version 5 was used by the experimental Internet Stream Protocol.) RFC standardization The first RFC to standardize IPv6 was the RFC 1883 in 1995, which became obsoleted by RFC 2460 in 1998. In July 2017 this RFC was obsoleted by RFC 8200,", "Ipso facto Ipso facto is a Latin phrase, directly translated as \"by the fact itself\", which means that a specific phenomenon is a direct consequence, a resultant effect, of the action in question, instead of being \nbrought about by a previous action. It is a term of art used in philosophy, law, and science. A common English idiom with a similar meaning is \"in and of itself\". Compare also \"by itself\" and \"per se\".\nAside from its technical uses, it occurs frequently in literature, particularly in scholarly addenda: e.g., \"Faustus had signed his life away, and was, ipso facto,", "company's stocks prior to the IPO. Companies that are going public are required to disclose all transactions in their stocks for a period of three years prior to the IPO. The pre-IPO studies are the leading alternative to the restricted stock stocks in quantifying the marketability discount.\nThe pre-IPO studies are sometimes criticized because the sample size is relatively small, the pre-IPO transactions may not be arm's length, and the financial structure and product lines of the studied companies may have changed during the three year pre-IPO window. Applying the studies The studies confirm what the marketplace knows intuitively: Investors covet", "various indirect IPR strategies. Companies no longer need to rely exclusively on IPRs developed from their own R&D.\nCompanies may purchase external, third-party IPRs to fulfill a variety of needs. If a competitor has a product that threatens a company's own products, but the company holds no pertinent IPRs of its own, the company may purchase relevant IPRs in the market for use in an infringement action against the competitor. Similarly, if a company is sued for infringement but holds no pertinent IPRs to use in a countersuit, the company may purchase an appropriate IPR in the market. IP privateering, a", "No-IP History No-IP was launched in October 2000 offering free dynamic DNS and URL redirection. Users were able to create a sub-domain under a few domains owned by No-IP. In May 2000, Vitalwerks Internet Solutions, LLC was formed as the parent company of No-IP. In January 2001 No-IP began offering paid managed DNS services which allowed users to set up dynamic DNS using their own domain name. Later that year they began offering email services to complement their DNS product. With growing popularity, No-IP has been featured in magazines such as PC magazine and Mac User. They began reselling domain", "exercised. The IPO was once thought to be able to raise US$30 billion, but weaker market sentiment dampened the value. Despite a 15-month low for the Chinese benchmark index, the IPO was said to have gone smoothly.\nCICC, Goldman Sachs, and Morgan Stanley led the Hong Kong offering, with JPMorgan, Macquarie, Deutsche Bank and ABC's own securities unit also involved. CICC, Citic Securities, Galaxy and Guotai Junan Securities handled the Shanghai portion. ABC sold about 40% of the Shanghai offering to 27 strategic investors including China Life Insurance and China State Construction. They were subject to lock-up periods of 12–18 months.", "Palm OS Creator and ownership Palm OS was originally developed under the direction of Jeff Hawkins at Palm Computing, Inc. Palm was later acquired by U.S. Robotics Corp., which in turn was later bought by 3Com, which made the Palm subsidiary an independent publicly traded company on March 2, 2000.\nIn January 2002, Palm set up a wholly owned subsidiary to develop and license Palm OS, which was named PalmSource. PalmSource was then spun off from Palm as an independent company on October 28, 2003. Palm (then called palmOne) became a regular licensee of Palm OS, no longer in control", "the IPO launch was issued on July 7, 2010. On completion in August 2010 it became the world's biggest initial public offering (IPO) surpassing the one set by Industrial and Commercial Bank of China in 2006 of US$21.9 billion. This record has since been beaten by another Chinese company, Alibaba, in 2014.\nABC raised US$19.21 billion in an IPO in Hong Kong and Shanghai on July 6, 2010, before overallotment options were exercised. On August 13, 2010, ABC officially completed the world's largest initial public offering, raising a total of $22.1 billion after both Shanghai and Hong Kong's over-allotments were fully", "(IIX), a logistical network that would connect every ISP in Indonesia to a single exchange point. The IIX was officially launched in August 1997.\nWithout funding from the government, the IIX was promoted by the non-profit Indonesian Internet Service Provider Association (APJII), which sought sponsorship from international vendors to build the much-needed Internet exchange. Major vendors contributed routers, switches, hubs, servers, and software to APJII for the IIX. These vendors included Cisco, Hewlett Packard, Bay, Microsoft, RAD, and Digital. IP exchange blocks for routing were provided by Bill Manning of isi.edu. The distance from one ISP in Indonesia to another ISP", "IP PBX product category. Nortel overhung the IP PBX market, announcing products 12 months or more before their availability.\nIn June 2006 - Microsoft enters the IP Telephony market with PowerPoints. Here the collection of products and related applications in adjacent markets combined with announcements of as-yet-not-available products, attempt to overhang the IP PBX market, slowing down the growth of the market, forcing the players to consider the implications and adjust, encouraging customers to think about what Microsoft can bring to the market, giving Microsoft engineering the time to catch up with product. Effectiveness of Market Overhang The empirical evidence suggests", "IPsec was originally designed as a base specification in IPv6 in 1995, and later adapted to IPv4, with which it has found widespread use in securing virtual private networks. Relation to OSI model Because the internet layer of the TCP/IP model is easily compared directly with the network layer (layer 3) in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocol stack, the internet layer is often improperly called network layer. Although they have some overlap, these two models use different classification methods.", "months later he announced Atos’ acquisition of Xerox’s IT outsourcing activities as well as a strategic partnership with the American company. This operation, which was viewed favorably by the Stock Market, made Atos one of the five largest digital companies in the world. The company had doubled in size within six years with a headcount of around 100,000 employees.\nThierry Breton got World attention after an interview with the Wall Street Journal in 2011 when he reiterated his intention to ban internal Email, dubbed as \"the pollution of the information age\", at Atos within 18 months (known as the Zero-Email Strategy),", "go to the IPL, 8% as prize money and 72% would be distributed to the franchisees from 2008 until 2012, after which the IPL would go public and list its shares. However, in March 2010, IPL decided not to go public and list its shares. As of the 2016 season, Sony MAX, Sony SIX, and Sony ESPN served as the domestic broadcasters of the IPL; MAX and SIX aired broadcasts in Hindi, while SIX also aired broadcasts in the Bengali, Tamil, and Telugu languages. Sony ESPN broadcast English-language feeds. Sony also produced an entertainment-oriented companion talk show, Extraaa Innings T20,", "American, with the purchase of the American company ASI Market Research, a leading advertising researcher.\nIn 1999, Ipsos was listed on the Paris stock exchange. The successful offering enabled Artemis and Amstar to cash out on their investments and also gave Ipsos the possibility to continue its expansion. Then, it participated of the creation of an Internet audience research joint-venture, MMXI Europe, with the majority of shares held by partner Media Matrix and 20 percent by Ipsos. The company also took control of four subsidiaries of NFO Worldwide specializing in the formation of access panels. The expansion continued in Asia, South", "the application layer of the OSI reference model. These included Appletalk, IPX, and NetBIOS with the dominant protocol set during the early 1990s being IPX due to its popularity with MS-DOS users. TCP/IP existed at this point, but it was typically only used by large government and research facilities.\nAs the Internet grew in popularity and its traffic was required to be routed into private networks, the TCP/IP protocols replaced existing local area network technologies. Additional technologies, such as DHCP, allowed TCP/IP-based computers to self-configure in the network. Such functions also existed in the AppleTalk/ IPX/ NetBIOS protocol sets.\nWhereas Asynchronous Transfer", "speaking also an inter-process communication mechanism, but the abbreviation IPC usually only refers to message passing, and it is the latter that is particularly relevant to microkernels. IPC allows the operating system to be built from a number of small programs called servers, which are used by other programs on the system, invoked via IPC. Most or all support for peripheral hardware is handled in this fashion, with servers for device drivers, network protocol stacks, file systems, graphics, etc.\nIPC can be synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous IPC is analogous to network communication: the sender dispatches a message and continues executing." ]

[ "Heat resistent in what way?\n\nIf you refer to \"Why doesn't it melt\", simply because it's melting point is incredibly high, much higher than your grill can produce (​(660.32 °C, ​1220.58 °F).\n\nIf you are instead refering to \"Why doesn't it get super hot to the touch\" then you're building on a wrong premise: it isn't heat resistant at all and does get hot. It gets just as hot as the food underneath it. However tinfoil is so thin and so large that any heat that it does have dissapitates into the surrounding air almost instantly. Things that have little mass cannot hold as well to their energy as more massive things, and things with large surface area cool down faster than things that have lower area." ]

[ "a radiation barrier by attaching metal foil on one side or both sides, this thermal insulation mainly reduces the radiation heat transfer. Although the polished metal foil attached on the materials can only prevent the radiation heat transfer, its effect to stop heat transfer can be dramatic. Another thermal insulation that doesn’t apply air cavity is vacuum insulation, the vacuum-insulated panels can stop all kinds of convection and conduction and it can also largely mitigate the radiation heat transfer. But the effectiveness of vacuum insulation is also limited by the edge of the material, since the edge of the vacuum", "that the use of aluminum offers a near complete barrier for water and oxygen, allowing an extended product expiry date. The principal disadvantages of cold form foil blisters are: the slower speed of production compared to thermoforming; the lack of transparency of the package (a therapy compliance disadvantage); and the larger size of the blister card (aluminum can not be formed with near 90 degree angles). PVC The most basic material for the forming web is polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The principal advantages of PVC are the low cost and the ease of thermoforming. The main disadvantages are the poor", "plastic. Composite materials are used to make an aircraft lighter compared to an all-metal design, and the LCA's percentage employment of carbon-fibre composites is one of the highest among contemporary aircraft of its class. Apart from making the plane much lighter, there are also fewer joints or rivets, which increases the aircraft's reliability and lowers its susceptibility to structural fatigue cracks. The wing and fin of the compound-delta aircraft are of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer, and were designed to provide a minimum weight structure and to serve as integral fuel tanks. The tailfin is a monolithic honeycomb structure piece, reducing the manufacturing", "due to its relative low price and ease to fit. In the past it has usually been custom made from rigid steel; however, flexible aluminium is now the standard. The key difference between a heat shield and insulating the pipe, through either wrapping or thermal coating, is the air gap that exists between the exhaust and the shield.\nMore recently technology has become available to apply ceramic thermal barrier coatings onto flexible aluminium in order to increase the thermal insulatory properties. This same procedure is also used on composite materials, which is often used on high-performance race cars, such as in", "Radiant barrier A radiant barrier is a type of building material that reflects thermal radiation and reduces heat transfer. Because thermal energy is also transferred by conduction and convection, in addition radiation, radiant barriers are often supplemented with thermal insulation that slows down heat transfer by conduction or convection.\nA radiant barrier reflects heat radiation (radiant heat), preventing transfer from one side of the barrier to another due to a reflective, low emittance surface. In building applications, this surface is typically a very thin, mirror-like aluminum foil. The foil may be coated for resistance to the elements or for abrasion resistance.", "Foil (fluid mechanics) A foil is a solid object with a shape such that when placed in a moving fluid at a suitable angle of attack the lift (force generated perpendicular to the fluid flow) is substantially larger than the drag (force generated parallel to the fluid flow). If the fluid is a gas, the foil is called an airfoil or aerofoil, and if the fluid is water the foil is called a hydrofoil. Physics of foils A foil generates lift primarily because of its shape and angle of attack. When oriented at a suitable angle, the foil deflects", "that aluminum is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high heat loss through aluminum curtain wall mullions.\nThere are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of thermal breaks. Thermal breaks are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks provide a significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis and deflection analysis", "those used on the Raptor. Cure times for coating repairs are lower and many of the fasteners and access panels are not coated, further reducing the workload for maintenance crews. Some of the F-35's radar-absorbent materials are baked into the jet's composite skin, which means its stealthy signature is not easily degraded. It is still harder to maintain (because of the need to preserve its stealth characteristics) than fourth-generation aircraft.\nHowever, the DOT&E Report on the F-35 program published in January 2015 determined that the plane has not, in fact, reached any of the nine reliability measures the program was supposed", "various applications due to its good chemical resistance and weldability. It has lowest density among commodity plastics. It is commonly used in packaging applications, consumer goods, automatic applications and medical applications. Polypropylene sheets are widely used in industrial sector to produce acid and chemical tanks, sheets, pipes, Returnable Transport Packaging (RTP), etc. because of its properties like high tensile strength, resistance to high temperatures and corrosion resistance. Composites Typical uses of composites are monocoque structures for aerospace and automobiles, as well as more mundane products like fishing rods and bicycles. The stealth bomber was the first all-composite aircraft, but", "aluminium sheets, but found that sheets of the special plastic developed by the OPUR just 400 micrometres (0.016 in) thick generally worked even better than the metal sheets and were less expensive. The plastic film, known as OPUR foil, is hydrophilic and is made from polyethylene mixed with titanium dioxide and barium sulphate. Types There are three principal approaches to the design of the heat sinks that collect the moisture in air wells: high mass, radiative and active. Early in the twentieth century, there was interest in high-mass air wells, but despite much experimentation including the construction of massive structures, this", " Labor costs to build an Alleweder are significant due to the many rivets and rivet holes. Also, the choices of aerodynamic shapes are limited by the formability of the aluminum sheet. That said, aluminum is relatively inexpensive, and as of 2017 Alleweders can be often be bought for less than other designs; they can also be bought as kits, to reduce out-of-pocket cost. Aluminum can also be repaired relatively easily, and aluminum, which is homogeneous, can be recycled more easily than many composite materials.\nAnother common modern design is a monocoque shell, often made of fiber-reinforced plastic", "most aircraft of the period, the Mallard was built using an aluminium stressed skin construction. Unlike earlier fabric covered aircraft where the fabric covering is merely for aerodynamic purposes and contributes little to the overall strength of the airframe, the metal skin itself carries part of the flight loads and is stressed during flight. Many such aircraft develop minor skin cracks over time; provided appropriate action is taken to repair any cracking, the safety of the aircraft is not compromised.\nThe unseen cracked stringer on the accident aircraft allowed the right wing to flex more during flight which increased the bending", "tools could not be used, as they also caused corrosion. Metallurgical contamination was another problem; at one point, 80% of the delivered titanium for manufacture was rejected on these grounds.\nThe high temperatures generated in flight required special design and operating techniques. Major portions of the skin of the inboard wings were corrugated, not smooth. Aerodynamicists initially opposed the concept, disparagingly referring to the aircraft as a Mach 3 variant of the 1920s-era Ford Trimotor, known for its corrugated aluminum skin. The heat would have caused a smooth skin to split or curl, whereas the corrugated skin could expand vertically and", "which can make subsequent coating or printing more difficult.\nThe rolls of aluminium foil are then slit on slitter rewinding machines into smaller rolls. Roll slitting and rewinding is an essential part of the finishing process. Properties Aluminium foils thicker than 25 μm (1 mil) are impermeable to oxygen and water. Foils thinner than this become slightly permeable due to minute pinholes caused by the production process.\nAluminium foil has a shiny side and a matte side. The shiny side is produced when the aluminium is rolled during the final pass. It is difficult to produce rollers with a gap fine enough to", "Lower wing skins on single-aisle aircraft are thicker than fuselage skins, measuring at least 8 mm (0.31 in; 310 mils) thick overall and between 10 to 15 mm (0.39 to 0.59 in; 390 to 590 mils) thick between the fuselage and the engine mount, so larger aluminum layer thicknesses of 0.8 to 1.6 mm (0.031 to 0.063 in; 31 to 63 mils) will probably be required to reduce the number of layers for manufacturing ease.", "involving aircraft construction, Alclad has proven to have increased resistance to corrosion at the expense of increased weight when compared to sheet aluminum.", "pressure coefficient to the critical value Cp-crit, where the local flow velocity will be Mach 1. The position of this shockwave is determined by the geometry of the airfoil; a supercritical foil is more efficient because the shockwave is minimized and is created as far aft as possible, thus reducing drag. Compared to a typical airfoil section, the supercritical airfoil creates more of its lift at the aft end, due to its more even pressure distribution over the upper surface.\nIn addition to improved transonic performance, a supercritical wing's enlarged leading edge gives it excellent high-lift characteristics. Consequently, aircraft", "or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainly thermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used as skin materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some cases.\nThe core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal components by brazing together. Types of sandwich structures Metal composite material (MCM) is a type of sandwich formed from two thin skins of metal bonded to a plastic core in a continuous process under controlled pressure, heat, and tension.\nRecycled paper is also now being used over a closed-cell recycled kraft honeycomb core, creating a lightweight, strong, and fully repulpable composite", "the core layers is to increase the separation between the outer layers where the bending stresses are highest, thus increasing the panel's resistance to bending. As a result, thicker panels can span greater distances under the same loads. In bending, the maximum stress occurs in the outermost layers, one in tension, the other in compression. Bending stress decreases from the maximum at the face layers to nearly zero at the central layer. Shear stress, by contrast, is higher in the center of the panel, and at the outer fibres. Types of plywood Different varieties of plywood exist for different applications:", "the current and the electrical (conductivity) and magnetic properties of the conductor. This decreased area causes the resistance to rise due to the inverse relationship between resistance and conductor cross sectional area. The skin effect benefits the design, as it causes the current to be concentrated towards the low-resistivity aluminum on the outside of the conductor. To illustrate the impact of the skin effect, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard includes the conductivity of the steel core when calculating the DC and AC resistance of the conductor, but the (IEC) and The CSA Group standards do", "while wire bracing forms the outer diamond. Bracing wires Most commonly found on biplane and other multiplane aircraft, wire bracing was also common on early monoplanes.\nUnlike struts, bracing wires always act in tension.\nThe thickness and profile of a wire affect the drag it causes, especially at higher speeds. Wires may be made of multi-stranded cable, a single strand of piano wire, or aerofoil sectioned steel.\nBracing wires primarily divide into flying wires which hold the wings down when flying and landing wires which hold the wings up when they are not generating lift. (The wires connecting a basket or gondola to", "addition of sulphur and phosphorus. Aluminium Aluminium is a much softer metal than steel, and the techniques to improve its machinability usually rely on making it more brittle. Alloys 2007, 2011 and 6020 have very good machinability. Other materials Thermoplastics are difficult to machine because they have poor thermal conductivity. This creates heat that builds up in the cutting zone, which degrades the tool life and locally melts the plastic. Once the plastic melts, it just flows around the cutting edge instead of being removed by it. Machinability can be improved by using high lubricity coolant and keeping the cutting", "materials. Such multiple surfaces are abundant in batting and porous foam. Radiation is also minimized by low emissivity (highly reflective) exterior surfaces such as aluminum foil.\nLower thermal conductivity, or higher R-values, can be achieved by replacing air with argon when practical such as within special closed-pore foam insulation because argon has a lower thermal conductivity than air. General Heat transfer through an insulating layer is analogous to electrical resistance. The heat transfers can be worked out by thinking of resistance in series with a fixed potential, except the resistances are thermal resistances and the potential is the difference", "Skin (aeronautics) The skin of an aircraft is the outer surface which covers much of its wings and fuselage. The most commonly used materials are aluminum and aluminium alloys with other metals, including zinc, magnesium and copper. History As the twentieth century progressed, aluminum became an essential metal in aircraft. The cylinder block of the engine that powered the Wright brothers’ plane at Kitty Hawk in 1903 was a one-piece casting in an aluminum alloy containing 8% copper; aluminum propeller blades appeared as early as 1907; and aluminum covers, seats, cowlings, cast brackets, and similar parts were common by the", "Polyester foam, for example, is lightweight and economical, though usually leaks air to some degree, but is degraded by time, exposure to ozone, UV light, humidity and elevated temperatures, limiting useful life before failure. Treated paper surrounds will eventually fail.\nNeoprene rubber and resin-coated fabric surrounds are longer-lasting. \nThe wire in a voice coil is usually made of copper, though aluminum—and, rarely, silver—may be used. The advantage of aluminum is its light weight, which reduces the moving mass compared to copper. This raises the resonant frequency of the speaker and increases its efficiency. A disadvantage of aluminum is", "area free of chip build up.\nComposites often have the worst machinability because they combine the poor thermal conductivity of a plastic resin with the tough or abrasive qualities of the fiber (glass, carbon etc.) material.\nThe machinability of rubber and other soft materials improves by using a very low temperature coolant, such as liquid carbon dioxide. The low temperatures chill the material prior to cutting so that it cannot deform or stick to the cutting edge. This means less wear on the tools and easier machining.", "plate and extrusions, precluding the use of alclad exterior skins. Maintenance requirements increased as a result, and these stimulated research and development programs seeking higher-strength alloys with improved resistance to corrosion without cladding.\nAluminum alloy castings traditionally have been used in nonstructural airplane hardware, such as pulley brackets, quadrants, doublers, clips, ducts, and wave guides. They also have been employed extensively in complex valve bodies of hydraulic control systems. The philosophy of some aircraft manufacturers still is to specify castings only in places where failure of the part cannot cause loss of the airplane. Redundancy in cable and hydraulic control systems", "as a heating element in higher resistance versions. Their benefits over solid or stranded metal wires come from conductive fibers' flexibility and ability to use them in existing textile and wire machinery (weaving, knitting, braiding, etc.).\nOne major use is by Micro Coax's ARACON™ fiber built on a KEVLAR® base, and used for shielding cabling in air- and spacecraft and other specialty purposes where light weight, high strength, and high-frequency shielding is imperative. Another more recent use is in the production of 'stun gun' or Taser-proof clothing, where the conductive textile forms a flexible Faraday cage in a layer", "Tar paper Uses Tar paper is far less common than asphalt felt paper and is used, among other things, for waterproofing roofs to prevent ingress of moisture. It is used in a small percentage of built-up roofs (BUR), as underlayment with asphalt, wood, shake, and other shingles, or even gravel, since tar paper itself isn't particularly wind- or sun-resistant. It is sold in rolls of various widths, lengths, and thicknesses – 3-foot-wide (0.91 m) rolls, 50 or 100 feet (15 or 30 m) long and \"15 lb\" (7 kg) and \"30 lb\" (14 kg) weights are common in the U.S. – often marked with chalk lines", "in a plastic-like covering. It has become more common to cover planes with heat-shrinking plastic films backed with heat-sensitive adhesive. These films are generally known as 'iron-on covering' since a hand-held iron allows the film to be attached to the frame; a higher temperature then causes the film to tighten. This plastic covering is more durable and makes for a quick repair. Other varieties of heat shrinkable coverings are also available, that have fibrous reinforcements within the plastic film, or are actual woven heat shrinkable fabrics.\nIt is common to leave landing gear off smaller planes (roughly 36\" or smaller) in" ]

[ "Alcohol is a chemical that affects almost every organ in the human body, but in particular it interferes with the brains' cells abilities to communicate with each other. If you drink alcohol faster than your liver and kidneys can process it, it begins to build up in the bloodstream and hence gets carried to your brain, where it basically blocks some of the normal brain behaviour from occurring.\n\n[This paper explains alcohol's physical effects](_URL_0_) in a reasonably simple to understand format.", "Check out the [mouse party](_URL_1_) - a little flash app on the effects of different drugs in the body.", "Basically, it increases the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA and causes an overall decrease in neuron firing. The actions of ethanol on different brain structures are responsible for the various effects intoxication has on us - for example, dampening activity in the hippocampus is responsible for the memory loss of ethanol, whereas its inhibitory action on the prefrontal cortex causes us to lose behavioral inhibitions.", "The complex mechanics of how alcohol produces its effects are fairly well studied, as others have indicated. However, among the complex biochemical interactions and pathways, it is easy it miss the forest for the trees. So let me give another point of view.\n\nAlcohol is a very small molecule that very readily mixed with water and alters its chemistry. It is therefore a pervasive poison. In one way or another, it affects almost all body systems, as it is very hard to keep it away, the only defense the body has is to try and get rid of it as fast as possible, and the body IS in fact pretty good at it. (Which is why comparatively speaking, you have to drink so much alcohol to get drunk or to get poisoned). And this is not limited to humans. Animals get drunk too, in fact almost all mammals do to varying extent and effect.\n\nSo the more revealing question then might not be how alcohol gets us drunk but maybe *why* it gets us drunk instead of say just getting us sick immediately. In other words, alcohol almost inevitably would have, and does have, many many effects in the body, and evolution could have picked any of various manifestations for it that made sense. But for us, we get merry and uninhibited for a while, until eventually the body enters its protection mode making you puke and pass out.\n\nSo now this becomes and evolutionary question, and the reasons might be for instance, that alcohol initially occurred in fermenting fruits, so some positive reinforcement would be nice and the brain chemistry circuits aiding that (making us happier) would be selected for. Or that being able to sit around in lean times eating/drinking old fermented stuff productively in merryment led to better survival than the other easier alternatives (getting poisoned, passing out, puking immediately, getting depressed and retracting from the group etc). Or a number of other possibilities... \n\nThe bigger picture I guess is that some effect from alcohol was inevitable, but the particular effect in us is not (evolution has many other choices), so the full story of how/why we get drunk cannot be found just in the chemical mechanics for it (that were selected for in humans), but also in looking at how it came about." ]

[ "Alcoholic drink An alcoholic drink (or alcoholic beverage) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The consumption of alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures. Most countries have laws regulating the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Some countries ban such activities entirely, but alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world. The global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2018.\nAlcohol is a depressant, which in low doses causes euphoria, reduces anxiety, and improves sociability. In higher doses, it causes", "Wine, beer, distilled spirits and other alcoholic drinks contain ethyl alcohol and alcohol consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the wine, beer or spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Alcohol in carbonated drinks is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks.\nDrinking enough", "Blood alcohol content Binge drinking The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) define the term \"binge drinking\" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. This typically happens when men consume 5 or more drinks, and when women consume 4 or more drinks, in about 2 hours. Full stomachs Alcohol absorption can be slowed by ingesting alcohol on a full stomach. The belief that the food absorbs the alcohol is a common misconception. Alcohol absorption is slowed because the stomach sphincter closes in order", "of Law and Public Safety under the New Jersey Attorney General's office. The statutes define an alcoholic drink as \"any fluid or solid capable of being converted into a fluid, suitable for human consumption, and having an alcohol content of more than one-half of one per centum (1/2 of 1%) by volume, including alcohol, beer, lager beer, ale, porter, naturally fermented wine, treated wine, blended wine, fortified wine, sparkling wine, distilled liquors, blended distilled liquors and any brewed, fermented or distilled liquors fit for use for drink purposes or any mixture of the same, and fruit juices.\" Other authorities Casinos", "alcohol.", "to break down the food. The alcohol cannot be absorbed through the stomach, thus cannot be absorbed until the sphincter is opened and the consumed alcohol can flow to the small intestine. Carbonated beverages Alcohol in carbonated beverages is absorbed faster than alcohol in non-carbonated drinks. Stress Being under stress causes alcohol to metabolize faster. Retrograde extrapolation Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test. This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and", "Legal drinking age controversy in the United States History behind alcohol consumption Fermented beverages contain ethanol (C₂H₅OH), a consumable member of the alcohol class often simply called \"alcohol.\" They are legal in most countries. Currently, alcohol such as red wine is used to reduce risk of coronary artery disease, as an analgesic for pain, relief from exhaustion in hard labor, and a \"greeter\" at social gatherings and gaming entertainment. In Egypt, alcohol is made in the home on an everyday basis and used as a thirst quencher and to provide the majority of nutrients and calories. In China, alcohol was", "Dry drunk Dry drunk is a informal expression which describes an alcoholic or former alcoholic who no longer drinks but otherwise maintains the same behavior patterns of an alcoholic. They may have many different emotions during the period of them becoming sober.\nThe objective of groups such as Narcotics Anonymous (NA) and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is not just to help their members stop abusing drugs and alcohol. It is acknowledged in these programs that addiction is more systemic than a \"bad habit\" and is fundamentally caused by self-centeredness. Long term membership in Alcoholics Anonymous has been found to reform pathological", "Drink A drink (or beverage) is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, coffee, tea, hot chocolate, juice and soft drinks. In addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture for more than 8,000 years.\nNon-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer and wine, but are made with less than .5 percent alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks", "Get My Drink On Content The song describes a narrator whose lover has left him, so he decides to \"get [his] drink on\" (i. e., consume alcohol until he is intoxicated). \"Get My Drink On\" is an up-tempo song with primarily spoken-word lyrics delivered at a rapid pace. Critical reception Kevin John Coyne, reviewing the song for Country Universe, gave it an A− rating. He called the song \"one of the best up-tempo romps in a career that’s been long on them in recent years.\"", "Cooking with alcohol Cooking with alcohol can mean using alcohol as an ingredient for heat or effect. \nWine, especially, is used as an ingredient for its acidic properties, for the bitterness of its tannins, and for its fruit components. Beer and liqueurs are also commonly used as alcoholic ingredients. For a flambé, in which warm alcohol is ignited, the higher alcohol content of a distilled spirit is required. As an ingredient Many dishes incorporate alcoholic beverages into the food itself. Such dishes include coq au vin, chicken cacciatore, and boeuf bourguignon. More modern examples are beer grilled chicken", "Drinking Drinking is the act of ingesting water or other liquids into the body through the mouth. Water is required for many physiological processes. Both excessive and inadequate water intake are associated with health problems. In humans When a liquid enters a human mouth, the swallowing process is completed by peristalsis which delivers the liquid to the stomach; much of the activity is abetted by gravity. The liquid may be poured from the hands or drinkware may be used as vessels. Drinking can also be performed by acts of inhalation, typically when imbibing hot liquids or drinking from a", "recommendation. Alcoholic beverages The term “drinking” is often used metonymically for the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Most cultures throughout history have incorporated some number of the wide variety of \"strong drinks\" into their meals, celebrations, ceremonies, toasts and other occasions. Evidence of fermented drinks in human culture goes back as early as the Neolithic Period, and the first pictorial evidence can be found in Egypt around 4,000 BC. \nAlcohol consumption has developed into a variety of well-established drinking cultures around the world. Despite its popularity, alcohol consumption poses significant health risks. Alcohol abuse and the addiction of alcoholism are common", "and some bitters. As a consumer product, it is almost always mixed with other beverages to create drinks like alcoholic punch or Jello shots or is sometimes added to cocktails in place of vodka or rum. It is also used to make homemade liqueurs, such as limoncello or cassis, and in cooking because its high concentration of alcohol acts as a solvent to extract flavors. Rectified spirits are also used for medicinal tinctures and as a household solvent. It is sometimes consumed undiluted; however because the alcohol is very high proof, over consumption can cause alcohol poisoning more quickly than", "alcohols such as those made by Ancho Reyes and others.", "lives of the alcoholics and accepting sobriety comes with its own challenges and understanding of their personality. Despite leaving alcohol and de-addicting themselves, most of their personalities are an embodiment of their drunkard selves. \nThe dry drunk is portrayed with feelings of profound depression and frustration and with the indecisive feeling of wanting a drink that they have given up. Several alcoholics drink for about 10-20 years before maintaining sobriety and get used to their personality and character traits that are embodied by their drunkard selves. During this phase of dry drunk, the addicts face restlessness, frustration, anger, impatience and", "an accident and is often a separately defined felony punishable by jail, license suspension, fines or compulsory treatment. Long-term effects Alcohol is the main active ingredient of wine, beer and distilled spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men per day) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount, however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking, which may result in violence or", "crime, it may either be referred to as a DUI (Driving Under the Influence) or a DWI (Driving While Intoxicated), where a DUI is generally considered to be a lesser crime.\nStudies have been performed to identify commonalities between severe drunk drivers. Effects of alcohol on cognitive processes Alcohol has a very significant effect on the functions of the body which are vital to driving and being able to function. Alcohol is a depressant, which mainly affects the function of the brain. Alcohol first affects the most vital components of the brain and \"when the brain cortex is released from", "of 0.5% or the like of alcohol does not entail deeming its consumption unlawful as long as there is no effect of the alcohol upon consumption of the beverage and it does not intoxicate in large quantities.\nMuhammad ibn al Uthaymeen, a Salafi scholar of Saudi Arabia, was once asked about the so-called (non-alcoholic) beer, given that some brands of non-alcoholic beer have a percentage of alcohol. The following was part of his reply:\nAs to percentage, do not think that any percentage of alcohol in a thing makes it unlawful; rather if the percentage of alcohol has an effect whereby when", "Drinking in public Controversy Opponents of drinking in public (such as religious organizations or governmental agencies) argue that it encourages overconsumption of alcohol and binge drinking, rowdiness and violence, and propose that people should instead drink at private businesses such as public houses, bars or clubs, where a bartender may prevent overconsumption and where rowdiness can be better controlled by the fact that one is sitting down and security or bouncers may be present. Alternatively, adults may drink at home. Opponents of normalizing the public consumption of alcohol are also concerned about the risks associated with public inebriation such as", "Alcohol In chemistry, alcohols are organic compounds that carry at least one hydroxyl functional group (C–OH) bound to their aliphatic substructure. The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic beverages. An important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members, includes all compounds for which the general formula is CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH. Simple monoalcohols that are the subject of this article include primary (RCH₂OH), secondary (R₂CHOH), and tertiary (R₃COH) alcohols.\nThe suffix -ol appears in the IUPAC chemical name of", "not consumed any alcohol, simply by being in the presence of alcohol. This is mainly exercised when officials break up large parties or other events where alcohol is being consumed and the issuance of chemical tests to every individual is deemed impractical. Drunk driving Driving, operating, or being in actual physical control of the movement of vehicle under the influence is a crime in Pennsylvania, and is subject to a great number of regulations outside of the state's alcohol laws. Pennsylvania's maximum blood alcohol level for driving is 0.08% for persons at or over the age of 21 (with suspension", "shot before serving or handing off to a server. Untrained bartenders should refrain from handling fire. History Alcohol has been consumed as a drink for millennia. It has been used as a fuel for fire for a long time as well. Exactly when people began combining alcohol in drink with fire is uncertain.\nMany traditional recipes for food incorporate flaming alcohol as a key process or ingredient. This method of cooking is usually referred to as flambé. Bananas Foster, cherries jubilee, bombe Alaska, crêpe Suzette, steak Diane, and coq au vin are a few well-known dishes that utilize this method for", "alcohol).", "are produced by three major global brands: Coca-Cola, PepsiCo and the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. Alcoholic drinks A drink is considered \"alcoholic\" if it contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of \"alcohol\" includes many other compounds). Beer has been a part of human culture for 8,000 years.\nIn many countries, imbibing alcoholic drinks in a local bar or pub is a cultural tradition. Beer Beer is an alcoholic drink produced by the saccharification of starch and fermentation of the resulting sugar. The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived from malted cereal grains, most commonly malted", "before drinking, which allows alcohol to be metabolized more efficiently and steadily and will keep one's blood sugar levels more even. Certain foods, such as crackers and cheese, have the right levels of carbohydrates, fat, and protein to help further slow the emptying of one's stomach. In popular culture Someone getting or having the spins is mentioned in several books, including: Being Irish by Joseph Keefe, The Girls' Guide to Surviving a Break-Up by Delphine Hirsh, The Stranger Guide to Seattle by Paula Gilovich and Traci Vogel, Rag Man by Pete Hautman, The Tin Roof Blowdown by James Lee Burke.", "bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.\nThe intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the \"false thirst\" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in", "with other diners and both serve and be served the alcohol. Alcohol should always be served to older and higher-ranked diners with both hands, and younger or lower-ranked diners may turn their face away from other diners when drinking the alcohol.", "drunkenness, and that alcohol consumption is prohibited by Islam because it weakens the conscience of the believer.\nIn the Quran, intoxicants, i.e. all kinds of alcoholic drinks, are variably referenced as incentives from Satan, as well as a cautionary note against their adverse effect on human attitude in several verses:\nO you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone altars [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful.\n— Surat 5:90\nSatan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and to avert", "National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines the term \"binge drinking\" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. Whatever the numerical definition used, heavy drinking or rapid consumption over a short period of time with the intention of becoming intoxicated is often implied when the term is used colloquially, since four or five drinks consumed over the course of a whole day and as an accompaniment to meals will not have the same effects as the same amount consumed over a couple of hours on" ]

[ "Your tongue can detect basic flavours only: sweetness, saltiness, sourness, etc. Most of what we call the sense of taste is actually sense of smell. (An experiment can confirm this: peel an apple and a raw potato and cut a cube from each. Pinch your nose and eat both, and it may be hard to tell which is which.)\n\nThe smell of food while eating comes from molecules being carried from the food into your nose via the back of your mouth. Food that is hot gives off loads of these molecules, but food that is cold gives off hardly any. Hence a large part of the flavour of food is lost when it is cold, so your fries no longer taste as good." ]

[ "aioli, brown sauce, ketchup, lemon juice, piccalilli, pickled cucumber, pickled gherkins, pickled onions or pickled eggs. Health aspects French fries primarily contain carbohydrates (mostly in the form of starch) and protein from the potato, and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process. Salt, which contains sodium, is almost always applied as a surface seasoning. For example, a large serving of french fries at McDonald's in the United States is 154 grams. The 510 calories come from 66 g of carbohydrates, 24 g of fat, 7 g of protein and 350 mg of sodium.\nExperts have criticized french fries for being very unhealthy. According", "to Jonathan Bonnet, MD, in a TIME magazine article, \"fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud\" because they \"involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found.\" Kristin Kirkpatrick, RD, calls french fries \"...an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all.\" David Katz, MD states that \"French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often", "of french fries (called friet or patat) with a sauce and a meat product. The most common sauce to accompany french fries is fritessaus. It is a sweet, vinegary and low fat mayonnaise substitute, that the Dutch nevertheless still call \"mayonnaise\". When ordering it is very often abbreviated to met (literally \"with\"). Other popular sauces are ketchup or spiced ketchup (\"curry\"), Indonesian style peanut sauce (\"satésaus\" or \"pindasaus\") or piccalilli. Sometimes the fries are served with combinations of sauces, most famously speciaal (special): mayonnaise, with (spiced) ketchup and chopped onions; and oorlog (literally \"war\"): mayonnaise and peanut sauce (sometimes also", "snack bar. A Dutch fast food meal often consists of a portion of French fries (called patat or friet), with a sauce and a meat product. The most common sauce to accompany French fries is fritessaus (a low fat mayonnaise substitute), while others can be ketchup or currysaus, hot peanut sauce, a pickle relish of chopped vegetables and spices, such as piccalilli or joppiesaus. Sometimes the French fries are served with a combinations of different sauces, most famously speciaal (lit. \"special\"), which consists of mayonnaise with spiced ketchup, chopped raw onions, and oorlog (lit. \"war\"), which consists of fries covered", "oil and spices/flavoring before baking them. The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, and which also reduces acrylamide formation. Legal issues In June 2004, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont, Texas, classified batter-coated french fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act. This was primarily for trade reasons; french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a processed food. This classification, referred to as the \"French fry rule\", was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit case", "At that time, the term \"french fries\" was growing in popularity – the term was already used in the United States as early as 1899 – although it isn't clear whether this referred to batons (chips) or slices of potato e.g. in an item in Good Housekeeping which specifically references \"Kitchen Economy in France\": \"The perfection of french fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used\".\n\"Pommes frites\" or just \"frites\" (French), \"frieten\" (a word used in Flanders and the southern provinces of the Netherlands) or \"patat\" (used in the north and middle parts of the", "the food a chance to migrate and caramelize, producing a sweeter outcome.\nIn fragile foods such as eggs, gentle frying prevents the food from scorching or falling apart. Disadvantages In deep-fat frying, if done incorrectly, low temperatures may substantially increase oil absorption, leaving the food greasy, soggy, and unappetizing. However, Cook's Illustrated developed a recipe where French Fries are left in cold oil for 25 minutes as the oil is slowly heated to 280°F, and this was found to contain 30% less oil than French Fries cooked by the traditional method with oil between 325° and 350°F.", "French fries Etymology In the United States and most of Canada, the term french fries, sometimes capitalized as French fries, or shortened to fries, refers to all dishes of fried elongated pieces of potatoes. Variations in shape and size may have names such as curly fries, shoestring fries, etc. (see § Variants). In the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand, the term chips is generally used instead, though thinly cut fried potatoes are sometimes called french fries, skinny fries, or pommes frites (from French), to distinguish them from chips, which are cut thicker. A person from", "a little place called a frituur in Dutch, a friterie in French. In Belgium, French fries are traditionally fried in suet (beef fat) but this has become less common and people tend to fry them in oil. Liège-style waffles (Dutch wafel or French gaufre) are served warm as a street snack, somewhat similar to what is known in other countries as \"Belgian waffles\" (which are called in Belgium \"Gaufres de Bruxelles\" or \"Brusselse Wafels\") but richer, denser and sweeter. The pancake is fluffier than the French crêpe or the Russian blin. Czech Republic The most common and traditional Czech street", "is a sausage (often bratwurst or bockwurst) in a spiced ketchup-based sauce, dusted with curry powder. South Africa Whilst eating 'regular' crispy french fries is common in South Africa, a regional favorite, particularly in Cape Town, is a soft soggy version doused in white vinegar called \"slap-chips\" (pronounced \"slup-chips\" in English or \"slaptjips\" in Afrikaans). These chips are typically thicker and fried at a lower temperature for a longer period of time than regular french fries. Slap-chips are an important component of a Gatsby sandwich, also a common Cape Town delicacy. Slap-chips are also commonly served with deep fried", "the fries do not become moist. Often, the moules are served in the same pan and stock used to cook them. A second pan or dish is generally also provided in which the mussels' shells can be left once the mussels themselves have been eaten.\nAccording to a French nutritionist, the optimum quantity of mussels is one litre, considering their nutritional value and Omega 3 content, but not more than 150 grams (5.3 oz) of fries. This quantity contains between 500-600 calories. Popularity and in popular culture In both Belgium and France, moules-frites are available in most restaurants. According to a survey", "Although french fries were a popular dish in most British Commonwealth countries, the \"thin style\" french fries have been popularized worldwide in large part by the large American fast food chains such as McDonald's, Burger King, Wendy's, and White Castle.\nIn the United States, the J. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercializing french fries in frozen form during the 1940s. Subsequently, in 1967, Ray Kroc of McDonald's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries, replacing fresh-cut potatoes. In 2004, 29% of the United States' potato crop was used to make frozen fries – 90% consumed by", "later. Professor Paul Ilegems, curator of the Frietmuseum in Bruges, Belgium, believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila of Spain cooked the first french fries, and refers also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine as evidence. France In France and other French-speaking countries, fried potatoes are formally pommes de terre frites, but more commonly pommes frites, patates frites, or simply frites. The words aiguillettes (\"needle-ettes\") or allumettes (\"matchsticks\") are used when the french fries are very small and thin. One enduring origin story holds that french fries were invented by street vendors on the Pont Neuf bridge in Paris", "chef, Honoré Julien.\nIn addition, from 1813 on, recipes for what can be described as \"french fries\" occur in popular American cookbooks. By the late 1850s, a cookbook was published that used the term French Fried Potatoes.\nThe thick-cut fries are called Pommes Pont-Neuf or simply pommes frites (about 10 mm); thinner variants are pommes allumettes (matchstick potatoes; about 7 mm), and pommes paille (potato straws; 3–4 mm). (Roughly 0.4, 0.3 and 0.15 inch respectively.) Pommes gaufrettes are waffle fries. A popular dish in France is steak-frites, which is steak accompanied by thin french fries. Canada The town of Florenceville-Bristol, New Brunswick, headquarters of McCain", "crispy roasted onions - the last being a local delicacy, not often found outside Scandinavia. Local variations Primarily in the Jutland region of Denmark, it is customary to serve the bøfsandwich with sliced beetroots inside and brown gravy poured over the sandwich. This version is sometimes dubbed 'gravy burger' by foreigners. Other local variants may include gherkins or pickled red cabbage. International variations In Canada, the hot hamburger, which consists of a beef patty, buns, and gravy poured on top, somewhat resembles the bøfsandwich.", "In various forms, frites or friet play an important role in Belgian culture and cuisine. Within Belgium, bintje potatoes are generally preferred as a basis to make fries because of their high starch content. They are generally double-fried (fried, left to cool and then fried again) in order to make them both moist in the core and crispy on the outside. As a part of this, they are often fried at a particularly high temperature (around 190 °C (374 °F) ). Presentation and nutrition As a dish, the moules and the frites are usually served on separate plates or dishes so that", "Belgian cuisine Belgian fries Fries, deep-fried chipped potatoes, are very popular in Belgium, where they are thought to have originated. The earliest evidence of the dish comes from a book entitled Curiosités de la table dans les Pays-Bas-Belgiques written in 1781, which described how inhabitants of Namur, Dinant and Andenne around the Meuse River had eaten fried potatoes since around 1680. Though they are usually known as \"french fries\" in the United States, it is argued that American soldiers during the First World War called them \"french fries\" because the Belgian soldiers who introduced them to the dish spoke French.\nIn", "French version would be diced onions (sauteed briefly), salt, white pepper, and a pinch of ground nutmeg. A bouquet garni consisting of parsley, bay leaf, and thyme may have been added to the shrimp stock. New Orleans chefs would have added more onion, a bit of garlic, and a pinch of cayenne pepper (or a splash of hot sauce) in addition to the white pepper, producing a spicier version compared to the classic. Not the tongue searing hotness that came out of the caricature of Cajun food in the 1980s, but rather a piquant that added interest.\nThe final driving force", "German fries German fries (also referred to as German fried potatoes) is a name for fries or a preparation of fries in which potatoes are sliced into any sizes and shapes, fried or deep-fried, and sometimes prepared with additional cooked ingredients such as onion, green pepper and bacon. By the 1870s, dishes under these names were listed in American and British cookbooks. In German, they are called Bratkartoffeln (listen ). In the United States During World War I in the United States, due to Germany being an enemy of the United States, \"German\" place names (such as Berlin, Ohio) and the", "are preferred by scientists as they eliminate the potential ambiguity arising from use of the words \"hot\" and \"spicy\", which can also refer to temperature and the presence of spices, respectively.\nFor instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not pungent. (A food critic may nevertheless use the word \"piquant\" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature", "thinner than British and Irish chips). However, some restaurants will use thicker french fries which are known as steak fries. These fries are closer to British chips. In the Southern United States, a common form of cuisine is fried catfish with french fries, accompanied by coleslaw, pickles, raw onion slices and lemon slices. Cooking Traditional frying uses beef dripping or lard; however, vegetable oils, such as palm oil, rapeseed or peanut oil (used because of its relatively high smoke point) now predominate. A minority of vendors in the North of England and Scotland, and the majority of vendors in", "the French pronunciation which would be \"Pom freet\" or \"Pom\") or regionally as Fritten in German, are a common style of fried potatoes; they are traditionally offered with either ketchup or mayonnaise, or, as Pommes rot/weiß (lit. fries red/white), with both.\nAlso common are dumplings (including Klöße as the term in the north or Knödel as the term in the south) and in southern Germany potato noodles, including Schupfnudeln, which are similar to Italian gnocchi.\nSalads, also modern variations, as well as vegetarian dishes become more and more popular in Germany. Spices and condiments With the exception of mustard for sausages, German", "Netherlands) became the national snack and a substantial part of several national dishes, such as Moules-frites or Steak-frites.\nFries are very popular in Belgium, where they are known as frieten (in Dutch) or frites (in French), and the Netherlands, where among the working classes they are known as patat in the north and, in the south, friet(en). In Belgium, fries are sold in shops called friteries (French), frietkot/frituur (Belgian Dutch), snackbar (Dutch in The Netherlands) or Fritüre/Frittüre (German). They are served with a large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks. Traditionally fries are", "a hard texture, and the pasties are heavily spiced with ginger or succade or contain small bits of meat. Various kinds of Kruidkoek (such as Groninger koek), Fryske dúmkes and spekdik (small savory pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical.\nEach of the provinces of Gelderland, Overijssel and Groningen has a long-standing rye bread tradition, but rye bread from Friesland became well known because of its taste. Notable characteristics of Fries roggebrood (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark color.\nIn terms of alcoholic beverages, the", "food is an important consideration. Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins. Milder spices, such as black pepper, pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins—such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper-crusted ahi tuna.\nFats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate. When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a", "and grilled with bacon.\nWhen the sausage is served in a traditional hot dog bun, it is called a \"hot dog\". It is commonly served with Danish remoulade, ketchup, mustard, onion (both raw and toasted, i.e. ristede) and thinly sliced pickles on top. The ristede løg fried onions are similar in taste to French-fried onion rings. The pickled condiment varies from region to region, and includes rødkål red cabbage in some places, but cucumber relish is the most widespread. Another variety is the French hot dog (Fransk hotdog) which is a sausage stuffed into a special long baguette-like bread roll. The", "where it is called mititei. Pljeskavica, a grilled dish of spiced meat patty mixture of pork, beef and lamb, is also very popular. Benelux In the Netherlands and Belgium, french fries are served with sauces such as mayonnaise, ketchup, curry, or tartar sauce (the latter mainly in Belgium). The combination of mayonnaise, ketchup or curry ketchup and chopped onions is called speciaal (\"special\"), and mayonnaise mixed with peanut sauce is called oorlog (\"war\"). Belgium In Belgium, a thicker variety of fries is used, frieten in Dutch and frites in French. They are mainly sold by street vendors (see picture), in", "higher temperature for a shorter amount of time, resulting in a soft meringue with slightly browned peaks on top.\nAnother dish is meringue de angel, which consists of shortbread biscuits layered with meringue and lemon curd, topped off with drizzled lemon glaze. Variations include assorted fruits such as raspberries, peaches, mangoes, cherries, strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, pineapple, papayas, honeydew, oranges, and cantaloupe. Embellishment Meringue may be used for embellishment. It can be formed into whimsical shapes, such as mushrooms, or piped into a crisp basket that is baked and filled with cake, fruit, or flowers. Shelf life Meringue is not a", "irregular cuts, is patatas bravas. The potatoes are cut into big chunks, partially boiled and then fried. They are usually seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce, and the dish is one of the most preferred tapas by Spaniards. Fries may have been invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared from the New World colonies, and assume fries' first appearance to have been as an accompaniment to fish dishes in Galicia, from which it spread to the rest of the country and then further away, to the \"Spanish Netherlands\", which became Belgium more than a century", "Freedom fries Freedom fries was a politically motivated renaming for French fries in the United States. The term was born in 2003 when the then Republican Chairman of the Committee on House Administration, Bob Ney, renamed the menu item in three Congressional cafeterias in response to France's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq. Although originally supported with several restaurants changing their menus as well, the term fell out of use due to declining support for the Iraq War. Following Ney's resignation as Chairman in 2006, it was quietly reverted. French war-opposition Following the September 11 attacks by Al-Qaeda and" ]

[ "There are several methods to calculate the distance of a celestial body. Which one is used depends on the exact circumstance. Here are some of the most important methods:\n\n---\n\n* **Parallax**: Earth orbits the sun. In the process of this orbit, we change our position in space relative to a celestial body (just like you see a nearby tree in a different position if you move 10 steps to one side) Using trigonometry, we can calculate the distance to the celestial body in question. \n * Advantages: very precise for close objects, no complicated instruments needed. \n * Disadvantage: only possible for close objects \n\n\n---\n\n\n\n* **Spectral emission**: Stars emit photons with specific wavelengths based on the material they are fusing in their core. We can identify the composition of a star by analyzing those photons. Due to the expansion of space, however, the wavelengths of photons emitted very far away get redshifted. That means, their wavelengths get longer the further they travel. By comparing the wavelengths of the photons we *measure* to the wavelengths the photons *should have* we can calculate the distance those photons traveled. And thus the distance to the celestial body. \n\n * Advantage: Possible over longer distances\n\n * Disadvantage: The object has to be bright enough so we can measure spectral lines reliably \n\n\n---\n\n\n\n* **Standard candles**: Standard candles are celestial bodies of known luminosity (~brightness). We know this luminosity due to the characteristics of some bodies (special types of super novae etc.) By comparing the absolute brightness to the apparent brightness (the brightness the object has vs the brightness we see from the distance) we can calculate the distance to the standard candle. By identifying standard candles in distant galaxies and nebulae, we can infer the distance of those structures. \n\n * Advantage: Possible over long distances\n\n * Disadvantage: We need to find standard candles\n\n\n---" ]

[ "how to measure distance in space using parallax.\nThe NASA Sci-Ke group was composed of the following students: Max, Tatiana, Kiara, Ashely Kimberly Echevaria, Cynthia Roman, Aida Yoguely Cortés-Peña, Bryan Plaza, Bryan Castillo, Rubén, David, Amir Saffar, Jonathan and Brandon.", "and desire of surface scientists to measure the physical structure of many surfaces. For example, they make it possible to follow reactions at the solid–gas interface in real space, if those proceed on a time scale accessible by the instrument.", "Space research Space research is scientific study carried out in outer space, and by studying outer space. From the use of space technology to the observable universe, space research is a wide research field. Earth science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics all apply to the space research environment. The term includes scientific payloads at any altitude from deep space to low Earth orbit, extended to include sounding rocket research in the upper atmosphere, and high-altitude balloons.\nSpace exploration is also a form of space research. Rockets Chinese rockets were used in ceremony and as weaponry since the 13th", "such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, particle accelerators, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.\nI am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations.\n— Andreas Vesalius, (1546)", "Einstein protocol The protocol Because there are many factors in measuring the distance of space a protocol was set up to determine order of importance when measuring a distance, using light, from a to b and back.", "used while in motion, measuring the change in gravity between locations. This change over distance is called the gravity gradient, which can be measured with a gravity gradiometer.\nDeveloping an operationally useful gravity gradiometer is a major technical challenge. One type, the SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device gradiometer, may have adequate sensitivity, but it needs extreme cryogenic cooling, even if in space, a logistic nightmare. Another technique, far more operationally practical but lacking the necessary sensitivity, is the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) technique, currently using radar to measure the distance between pairs of satellites, whose orbits will change based", "space.\nTraditional sampling of 1D time varying signals is performed by measuring the amplitude of the signal under consideration in discrete intervals of time. Similarly sampling of space-time signals (signals which are functions of 4 variables – 3D space and time), is performed by measuring the amplitude of the signals at different time instances and different locations in the space. For example, the earth's gravitational data is measured with the help of gravitational wave sensor or gradiometer by placing it in different locations at different instances of time. Beamforming Simply put, space-time signal filtering problem can be thought as localizing the", "measurement takes place, there must exist something in the real world, an \"element of reality\", that determines the measurement outcome. They postulate that these elements of reality are - in modern terminology - local, in the sense that each belongs to a certain point in spacetime. Each element may - again in modern terminology - only be influenced by events which are located in the backward light cone of its point in spacetime (i.e., the past). These claims are founded on assumptions about nature that constitute what is now known as local realism.\nThough the EPR paper has often been taken", "the user to determine the direction of magnetic field, in space the user is linked by telecommunications to a satellite traveling at 25,000 km per hour. The magnetometers used need to give an accurate reading quickly to be able to deduce magnetic fields. Several strategies can be employed, it is easier to rotate a space craft about its axis than to carry the weight of an additional magnetometer. Other strategy is to increase the size of the rocket, or make the magnetometer lighter and more effective. One of the problems, for example in studying planets with low magnetic fields like Venus,", "and molecules are more appropriate at finer scales.\nFor a computer vision system analysing an unknown scene, there is no way to know a priori what scales are appropriate for describing the interesting structures in the image data.\nHence, the only reasonable approach is to consider descriptions at multiple scales in order to be able to capture the unknown scale variations that may occur.\nTaken to the limit, a scale-space representation considers representations at all scales.\nAnother motivation to the scale-space concept originates from the process of performing a physical measurement on real-world data. In order to extract any information from a measurement process,", "\"observer\" with a measurement apparatus and observable with what can be measured. This conflict of usages within physics is sometimes a source of confusion.", "merely by sensory input may be evaluated with other kinds of measuring instruments. For example, objects too small to be seen with the naked eye may be measured when viewed through a microscope, while objects too large to fit within the field of vision may be measured using a telescope, or through extrapolation from known reference points. However, even very advanced measuring devices may still present a limited field of view. Terminology Objects being described by their relative size are often described as being comparatively big and little, or large and small, although \"big and little tend to carry affective", "these data is achieved through systems of space tracking and sensors in multiple forms, as well as the use of different techniques to obtain.\nThe ideal system for this type of interaction is a system based on the tracking of the position, using six degrees of freedom (6-DOF), these systems are characterized by the ability to obtain absolute 3D position of the user, in this way will get information on all possible three-dimensional field angles.\nThe implementation of these systems can be achieved by using various technologies, such as electromagnetic fields, optical, or ultrasonically tracking, but all share the main limitation, they", "Atmospheric sounding Direct methods Sensors that measure atmospheric constituents directly, such as thermometers, barometers, and humidity sensors, can be sent aloft on balloons, rockets or dropsondes. They can also be carried on the outer hulls of ships and aircraft or even mounted on towers. In this case, all that is needed to capture the measurements are storage devices and/or transponders. Indirect methods The more challenging case involves sensors, primarily satellite-mounted, such as radiometers, optical sensors, radar, lidar and ceilometer as well as sodar since these cannot measure the quantity of interest, such as temperature, pressure, humidity etc., directly. By understanding", "object is to be determined. This can occur in surveying, astronomy, and also has military applications. Astronomy The skinny triangle is frequently used in astronomy to measure the distance to solar system objects. The base of the triangle is formed by the distance between two measuring stations and the angle θ is the parallax angle formed by the object as seen by the two stations. This baseline is usually very long for best accuracy; in principle the stations could be on opposite sides of the Earth. However, this distance is still short compared to the distance", "where the location of each individual can be specified with respect to both dimensions. The distance between individuals within this space is a quantitative measure of their differences with respect to income and education. However, in spatial analysis, we are concerned with specific types of mathematical spaces, namely, geographic space. In geographic space, the observations correspond to locations in a spatial measurement framework that capture their proximity in the real world. The locations in a spatial measurement framework often represent locations on the surface of the Earth, but this is not strictly necessary. A spatial measurement framework can also capture", "space (usually formulated using curvature assumption) to derive some information about the global structure of the space, including either some information on the topological type of the manifold or on the behavior of points at \"sufficiently large\" distances.", "to study Time and Extra Dimensions in Space.", "important for precise estimates of atmospheric pressure; measuring the absolute acceleration of falling bodies, and determining the Earth's gravitational potential, by using the precisely known orbits of the Sputnik satellites. His interests included precision measurement for time and length standards, particularly using hyperfine lines in the spectrum of cadmium and interference spectroscopy, laser interferometry and masers. In 1966 he became superintendent of the Laboratory's quantum metrology division.\nIn 1969 he became professor of geophysics at Edinburgh University, founding that university's geophysics department. Three years later, he was appointed Jacksonian Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, where", "of millimeter molecular astronomy: studying molecules in space through the use of molecular spectroscopy at millimeter wavelengths. Many of the molecules that have been discovered in the interstellar medium were discovered by the 12m.", "Atacama Desert of Chile. Space-based observatories Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based", "or laboratory device which simulates the Earth's magnetic field in a vacuum chamber, and which uses a cathode ray tube to simulate the energetic particles which compose the solar wind. A theory began to be formulated about the interaction between the Earth's magnetic field and the solar wind.\nSpace physics did not begin in earnest, however, until the first in situ measurements in the early 1950s, when a team led by Van Allen launched the first rockets to a height around 110 km. In 1958, a Geiger counter on board the first US satellite, Explorer 1 detected the Earth's radiation belts, later", "one has to apply operators of non-infinitesimal size to the data. In many branches of computer science and applied mathematics, the size of the measurement operator is disregarded in the theoretical modelling of a problem. The scale-space theory on the other hand explicitly incorporates the need for a non-infinitesimal size of the image operators as an integral part of any measurement as well as any other operation that depends on a real-world measurement.\nThere is a close link between scale-space theory and biological vision. Many scale-space operations show a high degree of similarity with receptive field profiles recorded from the mammalian", "The Space Observatory (Observatoire de l'Espace) The Space Observatory (Observatoire de l’Espace) is a cultural laboratory created in 2000 by CNES (the French Space Agency) to promote a new vision of outer space, different from that of popular science. Space has a major influence on people’s perceptions and imagination. The Observatoire de l’Espace introduces artists to the activities of the CNES and paves the way for any kind of space-inspired creations. Those creations strongly connected to space art are thereafter shared with the wider audience. Programs As a cultural laboratory, the Observatoire de l’Espace has a specific methodology: the", "objects on or near earth that we might measure are being held together or pushed apart by several forces which are far larger in their effects. So even if we could measure the tiny expansion that is still happening, we would not notice the change on a small scale or in everyday life. On a large intergalactic scale, we can use other tests of distance and these do show that space is expanding, even if a ruler on earth could not measure it.\nThe metric expansion of space is described using the mathematics of metric tensors. The coordinate system we use", "Square Kilometre Array Extreme tests of general relativity For almost one hundred years, Einstein's general theory of relativity has precisely predicted the outcome of every experiment made to test it. Most of these tests, including the most stringent ones, have been carried out using radio astronomical measurements. By using pulsars as cosmic gravitational wave detectors, or timing pulsars found orbiting black holes, astronomers will be able to examine the limits of general relativity such as the behaviour of spacetime in regions of extremely curved space. The goal is to reveal whether Einstein was correct in his description of space, time", "requirements to perform this measurement are very exacting, due to the great difference in the mass ratio, and the typically long period of the planet's orbit. Detection of position shifts of a star is a very exacting science, and it is difficult to achieve the necessary precision. Space telescopes can avoid the blurring effect of Earth's atmosphere, resulting in more precise resolution. Configuration of the system Another classification is based on the distance between the stars, relative to their sizes:\nDetached binaries are binary stars where each component is within its Roche lobe, i.e. the area where the gravitational pull of", "objects in space, such as to approach, depends on their situation models. The interpretation of observers also depends on the size of the landmark and the speed of the figure. Observers behave as if they are actually present in the situation. Goals and causation In one study observers recognized goals yet to be accomplished by the protagonist more quickly than goals that had just been accomplished. When Keefe and McDaniel presented subjects with sentences such as \"after standing through a 3-hour debate, the tired speaker walked over to his chair (and sat down)\" and then with probe words (e.g., \"sat\").", "commercial providers operate tracking networks to provide these observations. See Category:Deep Space Network for a partial listing. Space-based tracking of satellites is also regularly performed. See List of radio telescopes#Space-based and Space Network. Methods Orbit determination must take into account that the apparent celestial motion of the body is influenced by the observer's own motion. For instance, an observer on Earth tracking an asteroid must take into account the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the rotation of the Earth, and the observer's local latitude and longitude, as these affect the apparent position of the", "research during spaceflight is that one can perform a straightforward experiment in which there is no requirement to provide some type of countermeasure intervention as there is for humans, and can thereby avoid the introduction of a confounding variable in ascertaining the true effects of spaceflight on a wide range of physiological variables. Also, given the remarkable agreement in the quantitative and qualitative nature of the findings observed in the spaceflight studies versus those obtained from ground-based HS studies, we have chosen to combine and integrate significant portions of the data that have been gathered in the last 25 years." ]

[ "This was covered in part by This American Life recently. \n\n_URL_0_\n\n\"So, here's the thing about the codes that people don't realize. It's not like he has a piece of paper in his pocket. It's like, here are the nuclear codes. It doesn't work that way. How it works is, there's a military officer that walks around with what's called a Football. That officer, he's got more experience than I do. And at the end of the day, if the president goes off the handle and says, nuke these guys because I don't like them, we're taught, in the military, as officers, that we have a moral obligation to refuse orders that are not moral. So if my commander tells me to do that, and it is not moral, I have an obligation to tell him to [BLEEP] off.\"", "You're the president. You order a nuclear launch. You go to your vault that contains the instructions on how to do this. It probably contains a code. You give this code to the silo that will make the launch. This could be done by a secure internet connection, verbally by satellite phone call, or some other medium of communication. Another high ranking military official probably has to make the same decision. The silo then takes these codes, confirms that they are valid (likely by an on-site manual checksum that was pre-calculated for the codes you and your other military officer have) then enters the codes into the [PAL](_URL_1_) which arms the nuclear missile. The computer directing the missile's flight is then programmed with the target and the missile is launched.\n\nNobody knows *for sure* how the launch would work, because the protocol is highly protected to prevent someone faking the launch code or launch protocol, and nobody has ever done a full launch. Simulated launches are done all the time for tests and training, but the president isn't involved in those. An incoming message with a simulated code is sent to the silo and the on-site personnel act out their part up to pressing \"launch\" which does nothing due to the code being fake and likely the operators using a simulator instead of the real launch room.\n\nNuclear launch codes (or at least PAL codes) at this point are 12-character strings of gibberish." ]

[ "to nuclear safety expert Bruce G. Blair, the US Air Force's Strategic Air Command worried that in times of need the codes for the Minuteman ICBM force would not be available, so it quietly decided to set the codes to 00000000 in all missile launch control centers. Blair said the missile launch checklists included an item confirming this combination until 1977. A 2014 article in Foreign Policy said that the US Air Force told the United States House Committee on Armed Services that \"A code consisting of eight zeroes has never been used to enable a MM ICBM, as claimed", "Modern PALs use the two-man rule, which is designed to prevent accidental or malicious launch of nuclear weapons by a single individual.\nFor example, on a ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), both the commanding officer (CO) and executive officer (XO) must agree that the order to launch is valid, and then mutually authorize the launch with their operations personnel. Instead of another party confirming a missile launch as in the case of land-based ICBMs, the set of keys is distributed among the key personnel on the submarine and kept in safes (each of these crew members has access only to his keys),", "some of which are locked by combination locks. Nobody on board has the combination to open these safes; the unlock key comes as a part of the launch order from the higher authority.\nIn the case of Minuteman missile launch crews, both operators must agree that the launch order is valid by comparing the order's authorization code against a code from a Sealed Authenticator (a special sealed envelope that holds a code). The Sealed Authenticators are stored in a safe that has two separate locks so a single crew member cannot open the safe alone. Both crew members must simultaneously turn", "by just inserting a key into a simple lock similar to those used to protect bicycles from theft. The UK withdrew all air-launched bombs in 1998. The current UK Trident warheads can also be launched by a submarine commander with the support of his crew without any code being transmitted from the chain of command.\nDetailed information about PAL systems design and their use is classified, although these mechanisms have been offered to Pakistan for protection of their nuclear weapons. In the end, the US decided that it could not do so for legal reasons; the Pakistanis were also concerned that", "three warhead types) is typically used in the attempt to disable or destroy the target aircraft. Warheads are typically detonated by a proximity fuze or by an impact fuze if it scores a direct hit. Less commonly, nuclear warheads have been mounted on a small number of air-to-air missile types (such as the AIM-26 Falcon) although these are not known to have ever been used in combat. Guidance Guided missiles operate by detecting their target (usually by either radar or infrared methods, although rarely others such as laser guidance or optical tracking), and then \"homing\" in on the target on", "from the safe a set of codes that would be compared to the code received. If a match was found, then the launch would proceed, requiring each operator to input a launch key into their respective control consoles. The Titan II would then be required to be unlocked for launch using a six letter combination. Once unlocked, the operators would have to simultaneously turn the missile launch keys within two seconds of each other and then hold the keys for a further five seconds. This would then initialise the missile launch sequence; firstly, the Titan II's batteries would be charged", "that military officers could launch British nuclear weapons without authorisation.\nUntil 1998, when it was withdrawn from service, the WE.177 bomb was armed with a standard tubular pin tumbler lock (as used on bicycle locks) and a standard allen key was used to set yield and burst height. Currently, British Trident missile commanders are able to launch their missiles without authorisation, whereas their American counterparts cannot. At the end of the Cold War the U.S. Fail Safe Commission recommended installing devices to prevent rogue commanders persuading their crews to launch unauthorised nuclear attacks. This was endorsed by the Nuclear Posture Review", "Lock-on after launch Lock-on after launch, or LOAL, is a capability of missile systems to lock-on to its target after being launched from its carrier vehicle. The term is normally used in reference to airborne weapons, especially air-to-air missiles. LOAL is an important part of modern weapon systems as it allows the weapons to be carried internally to increase stealth and then acquire the target once it has left the launching aircraft. LOAL systems normally rely on cuing from a helmet mounted sight or onboard sensors like radar or FLIR, and use a simple strapdown inertial guidance system to know", "modify its own bytes to include bytes outside of the normally allowed range, thereby expanding the range of instructions it can use. Using this trick, a self-modifying decoder can be created that initially uses only bytes in the allowed range. The main code of the shellcode is encoded, also only using bytes in the allowed range. When the output shellcode is run, the decoder can modify its own code to be able to use any instruction it requires to function properly and then continues to decode the original shellcode. After decoding the shellcode the decoder transfers control to it, so", "Shellcode In hacking, a shellcode is a small piece of code used as the payload in the exploitation of a software vulnerability. It is called \"shellcode\" because it typically starts a command shell from which the attacker can control the compromised machine, but any piece of code that performs a similar task can be called shellcode. Because the function of a payload is not limited to merely spawning a shell, some have suggested that the name shellcode is insufficient. However, attempts at replacing the term have not gained wide acceptance.\nShellcode is commonly written in machine code. Types of", "to write shellcode that can run successfully after this transformation. Programs that can automatically encode any shellcode into alphanumeric UTF-16-proof shellcode exist, based on the same principle of a small self-modifying decoder that decodes the original shellcode. Platforms Most shellcode is written in machine code because of the low level at which the vulnerability being exploited gives an attacker access to the process. Shellcode is therefore often created to target one specific combination of processor, operating system and service pack, called a platform. For some exploits, due to the constraints put on the shellcode by the target process, a very", "as the resolution increases. This generally limits first generation TERCOM systems to targets on the order of hundreds of meters, limiting them to the use of nuclear warheads. Use of conventional warheads requires further accuracy, which in turn demands additional terminal guidance systems. Disadvantages The limited data storage and computing systems of the time meant that the entire route had to be pre-planned, including its launch point. If the missile was launched from an unexpected location or flew too far off-course, it would never fly over the features included in the maps, and would become lost. The INS system can", "codes are issued on a time-limited basis and expire at the end of the month containing the best before date of the relevant product. This program ended on 15 October 2013, and all points earned were voided at 11:59 pm on that date. Code reuse There were two types of codes: single-use and multi-use codes. Single-use codes like those found on Coke products contained a mix of letters and numbers. These codes could only be used once; if they have been entered in any account they will not work again. By contrast, multi-use codes were identified by being all numeric", "and Trident missile Coded Control Devices were fitted to all U.S. SSBNs by 1997. These devices prevented an attack until a launch code had been sent by the Chiefs of Staff on behalf of the President. The UK took a decision not to install Trident CCDs or their equivalent on the grounds that an aggressor might be able to wipe out the British chain of command before a launch order had been sent.\nIn December 2008 BBC Radio 4 made a programme titled The Human Button, providing new information on the manner in which the United Kingdom could launch its nuclear", "the weapon is launched, as in the case of the targeting information being updated:\nSeveral attack plans are pre-programmed in the computer on board the torpedo carried by the weapon, and when target update occurs, the new information is passed on the weapon, so that the torpedo carried can switch to the best attack plan from the original one selected prior to the update. However, it is not clear if CY-3 has entered service in any significant numbers due to competition from CJ-1, and there are no official governmental sources of confirmation to date. CY-4 CY-4 is a modified CY-1 to", "the place of the nuclear warhead and are the main differences between the Topol ICBM and the Start-1 rocket. Additionally, a Post-Boost Propulsion System (PBPS) may be added between the fourth stage and the payload to circularize the orbit of the payload if necessary. The PBPS provides propulsion using a solid-propellant nitrogen gas generator. The gas goes through three pairs of nozzles that can swivel to maneuver the payload.\nThe Start-1 rocket is unique amongst launch vehicles in that its launch platform is mobile, allowing for the Start-1 to potentially launch from anywhere. The Start-1 launches from an", "APR-3E is extremely limited, only around 3 km. During the course of flight that may take up to several minutes, a very fast nuclear powered submarine might be able to escape because it could open up the distance by 3 km during that time. To overcome this shortcoming, a one-way data link is added, so that targeting information can be received from platforms such as aircraft and surface ships, to ensure the point of entry is as close to the target as possible so that target would be in range. It is also considered helpful when targeting information is changed after", "R-11 was formally accepted into military service. The definitive R-11M, designed to carry a nuclear warhead, was accepted officially into service on 1 April 1958. The launch system received the GRAU index 9K51, the rocket itself 8K11, and the launcher 8U218.\nLike the V-2, the R-11 relied on inertial guidance, and its flight was controlled by four graphite vanes in the engine exhaust, that were active only while the motor was burning. The R-11M had a maximum range of 270 kilometres, but when carrying a nuclear warhead, this was reduced to 170 kilometres, hence an alternative designation R-170. At maximum range,", "out in tests) was considered a military secret. So the designation painted on the sides of the rocket was not a serial number in clear text, but employed a simple transformation cypher that the staff would be sure not to forget. The key was taken from the name of the design and test base: Huntsville, Alabama, giving HUNTSVILE, with duplicated letters dropped: H was used for 1, U for 2, ..., E for 9 and X for 0.\nFor example, the Jupiter-C modified to launch Explorer 1 had \"UE\" painted on the side, indicating it was S/N 29 (U→2, E→9).", "series codes) or radioteletype operation (the QJ series).\nMany military and other organizations that use Morse code have adopted additional codes, including the Z code used by most European and NATO countries. The Z code adds commands and questions adapted for military radio transmissions, for example, \"ZBW 2\", which means \"change to backup frequency number 2\", and \"ZNB abc\", which means \"my checksum is abc, what is yours?\"\nUsed in their formal question / answer sense, the meaning of a Q-code varies depending on whether the individual Q-code is sent as a question or an answer. For example, the message \"QRP?\" means", "which point the missile could be fired, riding the beam until impact, proximity fuze or radio signal detonation. Launchers, slaved to the beam transmitter could launch missiles at any angle form 10° to 90° at a sustained rate of fire of up to two launches per minute. Control of the missiles was by vectoring rocket motor combustion chamber at launch and controllable rear fins at higher speeds.\nThe complete system included a battery command post, target tracking radar, guidance beam transmitter and six twin railed trainable launchers and four diesel generator units. The components were carried on single-axle trailers apart from", "codes has been created (referred to as ZIP codes in the United States, postcodes in the United Kingdom and Australia, and postal codes in most other countries), in order to facilitate the automation of operations. This also includes placing additional marks on the address portion of the letter or mailed object, called \"bar coding.\" Bar coding of mail for delivery is usually expressed either by a series of vertical bars, usually called POSTNET coding or a block of dots as a two-dimensional barcode. The \"block of dots\" method allows for the encoding of proof of payment of postage, exact routing", "1 (GR-1). The concept was to construct a missile that could be launched into low earth orbit (150 km), from which a 1500 kg nuclear warhead equipped with a deorbit stage could be dropped to its targets in a non-ballistic manner and without giving away its target until final descent. This concept would allow for very little warning to the U.S. because the rocket would be able to approach the United States from any direction and avoid missile tracking radar by flying below its coverage. Not only could such a missile hit any point on earth, but the enemy would also", "launch. After being fired, the capsule would float to the surface where the rocket would ignite and its fins would deploy. An inertial guidance system would direct the missile to the general location of the target. Initial plans were to have the surface-launched version operate in a similar manner: launched from the Mk 41 vertical launching system. When the missile reached the intended area, the payload would separate from the missile, then deploy a parachute to decelerate the warhead or torpedo. Both missiles were initially planned to carry a depth charge with a 200 kiloton W89 thermonuclear warhead. Such a", "that the originator can track possessors of the information. Information in these compartments is usually marked with specific keywords in addition to the classification level.\nGovernment information about nuclear weapons often has an additional marking to show it contains such information (CNWDI). International When a government agency or group shares information between an agency or group of other country's government they will generally employ a special classification scheme that both parties have previously agreed to honour.\nFor example, the marking ATOMAL, is applied to U.S. RESTRICTED DATA or FORMERLY RESTRICTED DATA and United Kingdom ATOMIC information that has been released to NATO.", "into clutter and performance against the latest IRCM. Though not part of the original requirement, AIM-9X demonstrated potential for a Lock-on After Launch capability, allowing for possible internal use for the F-35, F-22 Raptor and even in a submarine-launched configuration for use against ASW platforms. The AIM-9X has been tested for a surface attack capability, with mixed results. Block II Testing work on the AIM-9X Block II version began in September 2008. The Block II adds Lock-on After Launch capability with a datalink, so the missile can be launched first and then directed to its target afterwards by an aircraft", "Umbilical cable Rockets Umbilicals connect a missile or space vehicle to ground support equipment on the launch pad before launch. Cables carry electrical power, communications, and telemetry, and pipes or hoses carry liquid propellants, cryogenic fluids, and pressurizing and purge gases. These are automatically disconnected shortly before or at launch.\nUmbilical connections are also used between rocket stages, and between the rocket and its spacecraft payload; these umbilicals are disconnected as stages are disconnected and discarded. Space suits Early space suits used in Project Gemini in 1965 and 1966 employed umbilicals to the spacecraft for to provide suit oxygen and communications", "impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers. This method is the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61.\nPreferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted on a missile, which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic", "code words pertaining to specific projects and are used to more easily manage individual access requirements. Code words are not levels of classification themselves, but a person working on a project may have the code word for that project added to his file, and then will be given access to the relevant documents. Code words may also label the sources of various documents; for example, code words are used to indicate that a document may break the cover of intelligence operatives if its content becomes known. The WWII code word Ultra identified information found by decrypting German ciphers, such as", "Radar lock-on Lock-on is a feature of many radar systems that allow it to automatically follow a selected target. Lock-on was first designed for the AI Mk. IX radar in the UK, where it was known as lock-follow or auto-follow. Its first operational use was in the US ground-based SCR-584 radar, which demonstrated the ability to easily track almost any airborne target, from aircraft to artillery shells.\nIn the post-WWII era, the term became more widely used in connection to missile guidance concepts. Many modern anti-aircraft missiles use some form of semi-active radar homing, where the missile seeker listens for reflections" ]

[ "It also messes with your sleep cycle. I'm afraid I can't remember exactly how it goes about doing this, but I saw a documentary where the person who the sleep-scientists gave several large glasses of red wine ended up staying in REM and light sleep relatively longer, and only attaining deep sleep for a short time before coming back into lighter sleep at an early stage than normal" ]

[ "to, and the oaths we never keep,\n\n    And all we know most distant and most dear,\n\nAcross the snoring barrack-room return to break our sleep,\n\n    Can you blame us if we soak ourselves in beer?\n\nWhen the drunken comrade mutters and the great guard-lantern gutters\n\n    And the horror of our fall is written plain,\n\nEvery secret, self-revealing on the aching white-washed ceiling,\n\n    Do you wonder that we drug ourselves from pain?\n\nWe have done with Hope and Honour, we are lost to Love and Truth,\n\n    We are dropping down the ladder rung by rung,\n\nAnd the measure of our torment is the measure of our youth.\n\n    God help us, for we", "Sergeant Fred Colon postulates that this was because Vimes' body didn't produce any \"natural alcohol\", and he estimates that Vimes was about \"two drinks below par\". This meant that when he hadn't been drinking, he was beyond sober - he was \"knurd\". Thus he saw reality as it really was (\"first sight\"); stripped of all the mental illusions that most people construct in their minds to get to sleep at night (\"second sight\"). This horrifying state of mind caused Vimes to try to balance it out through drinking, but he would get the dosage wrong and would just end up", "be decreased using a shower or sauna, or swimming in the nearby lake. Drinking too much beer (or hard liquor) will eventually get the player drunk, which first causes the player to waver and their vision to distort; further consumption of alcohol can lead the player to pass out and wake up at a random place on the map the next day. Stress is added in recent experimental updates, and can be alleviated by using a sauna, drinking alcohol or smoking cigarettes; failing to do so will eventually lead to a fatal heart attack. Police traffic stops randomly spawn along", "– mood being worse upon waking and better in the evening). Robb disclosed that, since adolescence, he had suffered depression for several hours each day in the morning.\nThe following week, Robb said in an interview with 3AW's Neil Mitchell that he had found \"doing things increasingly more difficult, I could be taking on more responsibilities especially in a public sense and decided to confront it a few weeks ago. Rang Jeff Kennett and within three days he had me in front one of the best professionals in the state and this guy said you know you've had a problem for", "craving. The symptoms of dry drunkenness are irregular and become less intense as the period of sobriety increases. Most of the symptoms of dry drunkenness can be noticed in the initial phase of sobriety.", "wane:\nI was loaded all the time... I'd wake up about 6:30 in the morning, take three aspirins mixed with codeine, slug down half a pint of vodka and then do four lines of cocaine. That was just so I could get the front door open to peek out and see if I could face the day... I would lie, steal and cheat, all those wonderful things that drunks do. I was crafty. Nobody knew how much I drank then. If a bottle was out on the counter, I'd take a swig when I passed it and quickly put it back.\n\"I", "when the characters are both \"tired and wired.\"\nDavid Berry of the National Post noted that experiences at this hour are more definitive for being beyond daily routines.\nJournalist Melita Kuburas wrote that the show is about the moments when the effects of alcohol wear off which \"reveal tender, sweet and sad aspects of young adulthood.\"\nActor Maslany felt the characters are escaping the frustrations of their daily lives and seeking the unexpected. He noted that social codes don't seem to apply in a time when most people are asleep.\nCreator Ira Parker called it a \"genre-bending show\", more drama than comedy, with", "people usually in the weekend and public holiday as they might drink when hanging with friends or having a party (Arensman et al., 2016). Young people who drank at an earlier age might also make them drink regularly and more in the future (Departments of Public Health, 2001). \nHeavy drinking or alcohol abuse had a negative influence on people's mental health, especially for the young people, which increased their feeling of depression and anxiety leading to increase self-harm and suicide (Departments of Public Health, 2001). Suicide prevention Suicide thought is often a temporal thought of mind which is possible to", "assumed his alcohol consumption was just affecting his mind, but one night when he was sleeping between 10:06pm to 10:52pm, he had woken up to see a woman Cheng Jia Le played by Nikki Hsieh who is a lying next to him asleep. The unaware asleep Cheng Jia Le unknowingly was grabbing onto Ke Zhen Yu. She then also unknowingly and accidentally began grabbing and clutching very tightly onto Ke Zhen Yu's entire genital area as well as began rubbing and jiggling with his whole entire genital area, which unintentionally caused his genital system to have an orgasm leading his", "with more sleeping pills than chilling thrills\" and \"an obvious misstep for Yuzna, whose past successes are fastly fading in time. Do yourself a favor and leave this dog bone of a mess alone – you'll be happy that you did.\"", "Day Drinking Content \"Day Drinking\" is a mid-tempo song about not wanting to wait until later or needing a reason to have some drinks, so the song's narrator suggests they do a little \"day drinking.\" The song was written by three members of the band (Karen Fairchild, Phillip Sweet, and Jimi Westbrook) with Barry Dean and Troy Verges. Of the song's inception, Fairchild said: \"We didn't know it really, but with 'Day Drinking,' we had a blast that day because we were drinking and writing songs. We left it alone, then a couple of weeks later, Barry Dean and Troy", "to massive quick consumption, acute alcohol poisoning, hospitalization, and death.\nA 2012 study of more 250 Swiss students indicated that those who \"pre-loaded\" ended up consuming more total alcohol over the night (seven drinks rather than four) and engaged in riskier behavior. They had a 24% chance of reporting negative consequences from drinking (such as injury, unprotected sex, and unplanned drug use), compared to 18% chance for those who did not pre-drink.", "addiction quite exhausting actually, because I grew a really thick beard and my hair was always really filthy. When I was shooting those scenes I met with a guy who was an addict, and he told me things that you go through, like you can’t relax when you’re trying to come off it. You can‘t sleep so you drink loads of alcohol to try and kill the pain. The clock barely seems to move. For me as an actor, they really let me go as far as I could on that. We had letters as well from people saying how", "one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast", "prior to the war:\n\"We are having a particularly hungry period and [I] can quite truthfully say that our mouths water, and that we 'slaver' as dogs do before meals. Some of us find it advisable to rise slowly after lying down, as due to malnutrition, any rapid movement is apt to cause dizziness or even a black-out ... one morning recently I awoke and discovered to my horror that my sight had become very dim. Later I realised this was due to vitamin deficiency in our poor diet.\"\nBy the end of their third year of internment, most women suffered from", "hours at which people of rank go to bed, renders it wholly unnecessary to force a sleep in public places.\" This followed with a joke in a later journal: a \"gentleman, lately arrived in town, has been for several days past afflicted with a lethargy, owing to the perusal of three chapters in Hawkins's Life of Johnson.\" A third stated: the branches of willow trees planted in Lichfield \"should be lopped off, and tied in bundles, ... and properly applied to the naked backs of his various biographers, taking care, that the largest bundle be appropriated unto the use and", "– your adrenaline is pumping so hard it’s over before you notice and you don’t really remember much. We usually get off stage and collapse and/or vomit. Then we pack up, sleep, wake up, load the car and get out of the hotel before they charge us for the room, and rush to make it in time for sound check at the next gig. During the off-days, you’re pretty much useless to anyone. It’s an insane lifestyle and it sounds like I’m complaining but it’s what I always wanted to do, and once it’s all over I always can’t wait", "when he fell asleep while smoking.", "fall asleep. I, too, lay awake, on the floor beside my sisters, my mother close by. Suddenly, the familiar voices of drunken men reached us. We all heard them ... These men, whom we all knew quite well, cried out: 'Abdellah, little girl, come down. Come down. Wake up and come down. We all want you. Come down, Abdellah. Don't be afraid. We won't hurt you. We just want to have sex with you.' ...\nI hoped my big brother, my hero, would rise and answer them ... But my brother, the absolute monarch of our family, did nothing. Everyone turned", "Another Sleepless Night (Anne Murray song) Content The song, light and uptempo, was a bit of a departure for Murray, whose previous few singles had all been slower-tempo ballads. The narrator notes how it had been hard to sleep during recent nights, as her lover had been away, but then speculates that, with his return, it will yet be \"another sleepless night\", but this time because they'll be up all night \"making romance\".", "go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\"\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at", "are often more frequent and more intense during hot weather or in an overheated room, the surrounding heat apparently making the hot flashes themselves both more likely to occur, and more severe.\nSevere hot flashes can make it difficult to get a full night's sleep (often characterized as insomnia), which in turn can affect mood, impair concentration, and cause other physical problems. When hot flashes occur at night, they are called \"night sweats\". As estrogen is typically lowest at night, some women get night sweats without having any hot flashes during the daytime. Young females If hot flashes occur at other", " half of their consciousness, heavy clothing starts becoming lighter and when they shiver they feel like in the state of unconsciousness or like when they are asleep. This shows that the community has strong devotion toward their tradition and culture. They must not stop dancing even if it is raining.\nThimi too hosts piercing tongue jatra the night after Indra Jatra.In Thimi, tongue is bored in front of Bhairab temple of Digu tole. After boring the tongue, the very person is taken around the town and sometimes even in other towns and distant places, Changu, Pashupati, for instance. Thus it", "sleep, but the Doctor calls for her husband Rory (Arthur Darvill) to come deal with her emotions when he realises that he picked up the wrong goldfish. \"Good Night\" The Doctor returns from another night out with River Song. Amy, wide awake and sitting in her nightie on the stairs, catches him. She convinces him to tell her what he does while he's out at night, then tells him why she is finding it hard to sleep lately because her life doesn't make any sense. Due to the events of \"The Big Bang\", she can remember two versions of her", "contexts. Surveys conducted in Argentina, Hong Kong, and Canada have each indicated the most common reason for drinking among adolescents to relate to pleasure and recreation; 80% of Argentinian teens reported drinking for enjoyment, while only 7% drank to improve a bad mood. The most prevalent answers among Canadian adolescents were to \"get in a party mood,\" 18%; \"because I enjoy it,\" 16%; and \"to get drunk,\" 10%. In Hong Kong, female participants most frequently reported drinking for social enjoyment, while males most frequently reported drinking to feel the effects of alcohol. Body image Much research has", "Wake Up Lovin' You Content The song is a midtempo ballad about a man who, despite being parted from his lover, is unable to forget her despite his actions.\nMorgan told The Boot that \"I really believe that this will be the song of my career, because it’s a turning point.\" Critical reception Giving it a \"B+\", Joseph Hudak of Country Weekly compared the song's theme favorably to \"Sunday Mornin' Comin' Down\" by Kris Kristofferson, and said that the song was \"dark stuff\" for Morgan. It received 4 out of 5 stars from Billy Dukes of Taste of Country, who wrote", "the evening is not over because it is \"never late until the sun comes up.\" Although Gil is disturbed by the comment, his loneliness draws him closer to her. When bar patron George insinuates that he has purchased Trudy's company for the evening, Gil defends her, causing a fight between the two men. After knocking George unconscious, Gil flees with Trudy into the night. Later that evening, after walking the shoreline, they make love, falling asleep in the sand until the morning light awakens Gil. Horrified, Gil flees in his car leaving Trudy stranded on the beach. Arriving at the", "he have stayed in bed?\" \nJames Thurber, in his book Fables for our Time, ended the Fable of the Shrike: \"Early to rise and early to bed, makes a Shrike healthy, and wealthy, and dead\". Criticisms Such recommendations may cast individuals with different natural sleep patterns as lazy or unmotivated when it is a much different matter for a person with a longer or delayed sleep cycle to get up earlier in the morning than for a person with an advanced sleep cycle. In effect, the person accustomed to a later wake time is being", "all in bed by nine, They enjoy a long sleep, and don't appear for breakfast before nine.\n\nOur diet is an extremely plain one. The customary fare consists of fish, chops and steaks. Vegetables and sweets are banned when a match is about to be played and so are spirits. Half a pint of beer per meal, however, is allowed, and directly the match is over, the players can eat whatever they please. As regards smoking, we only prohibit it on the morning preceding a big match.\nThe semi-final was played at Crystal Palace on 24 March, with a 30,000 crowd seeing", "for a person to get up for Yaza is to drink a good deal of water at bed time. This will encourage them to get up when they have to urinate." ]

[ "Meek called Drake out for using a ghost writer (aka, having someone else write his songs and hiding that). Drake got offended and started a one-sided twitter war while Meek sat back and laughed.\n\nDrake made a dis track, Meek still sat back and laughed.\n\nIt's a joke because it's like watching a 3 year old throw a tantrum and tell their parents they hate them and they're running away forever while the parents are like \"yea, sure, uh huh, finish your juice sweetie\"." ]

[ "The Wyatt Family Concept Wyatt was portrayed as an evil cult leader who believed himself to be more monster than human. Their gimmick is based on a backwoods cult and Wyatt's character has drawn comparisons to Charles Manson and wrestler Waylon Mercy as well as Max Cady from Cape Fear. During the early process of creation, Judas Devlin and Baron Corbin were considered as part of the stable. Formation and beginnings (2012–2013) The character of Bray Wyatt debuted in Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) in April 2012 and initially associated himself with Eli Cottonwood. When WWE re-branded their developmental territory into", "The Beefeaters The Beefeaters were a Danish garage rock band active from 1964–71. A precursor to this band was formed in Copenhagen in early 1964, but their strong orientation towards blues-rock began only with the arrival of Peter Thorup in 1966. In 1967, The Beefeaters played as support band for Jimi Hendrix, John Mayall and Pink Floyd during their concerts in Denmark.\nThe Beefeaters produced two albums: Beefeaters (1967) and Meet You There (1969). Both albums were top-notch \"real\" blues-rock efforts to file along albums by John Mayall, early Fleetwood Mac and even Cuby & The Blizzards. The first album was,", "Beef announced that former Cornhusker and NFL veteran Cory Ross would be the head coach for the 2015 season. Ross previously coached the Lincoln Haymakers of the CPIFL, also owned by Beef owner Rich Tokhiem, which ceased operations after the 2014 season.\nIn 2015 season, the Beef started playing in Champions Indoor Football (CIF), created by the merger of the CPIFL with the Lone Star Football League (LSFL).\nOmaha opened 2015 with their worst start in franchise history at 0–5. On April 1, defensive coordinator Demetrius Ross opined that the Beef's poor start was in part due to preparations beginning", "Beef (film) Content Beef takes a chronological look at battles (some friendly, but many personal) dating back to rap music's infancy in the early 1980s. The notable rivalries discussed include KRS-One vs. MC Shan, Kool Moe Dee vs. Busy Bee, 50 Cent vs. Murder Inc Records, Tru Life vs. Mobb Deep, Common vs. Ice Cube & Westside Connection, the break-up of legendary group N.W.A, which includes Ice Cube's abrupt departure, and the later animosity between Dr. Dre and Eazy-E, the highly publicized Jay-Z vs. Nas rivalry and the most infamous feud of all, 2Pac vs. The Notorious B.I.G.. It was", "escalated into a beef with the entire Roc-A-Fella camp with the exception of Kanye West, Jay-Z and Just Blaze. The Game dissed Bleek and The Young Gunz on his 15-minute freestyle track \"300 Bars and Runnin'\". The Young Gunz, along with Pooda Brown, responded with a freestyle of their own. Surprisingly, Chris & Neef started a beef with actor, comedian and rapper, Katt Williams. This beef stemmed from \"Set It Off\" by the Young Gunz, in which they called a character from a movie that Katt Williams played as, a \"fake ass pimp.\" This beef was encouraged by The Game", "street beefs in New York hip hop. Background According to Max B, his beef with Jones stems from his allegations he was forced into a contract which offered him inadequate pay and no recognition of his contributions which included writing hooks, verses and melodies for Jim Jones during their stint together. He also alleges he was paid $300 for live shows where Jones earned in the range of $10–15,000. In his infamous interview on The Come Up Vol. 18 (2008), he confirmed having delivered \"10 albums\" worth of material to Jones to fulfill the terms of his contract.\nIn the case", "Beef (rapper) Career Growing up in Madison, Wisconsin, Beef began writing poetry, performing spoken word, singing, whistling and dancing at a young age. He started rapping over industry tunes during his early teens.\nGrefe attended University of Wisconsin–Madison in the Fall of 2008. During his time in college, he also worked for 93.1 JAMZ (WJQM) as a part-time on-air personality and producer, for The Badger Herald as a staff writer, for Wisconsin Union Theater as a marketing intern, and a bartender for several bars in downtown Madison. He graduated in the spring of 2013 with degrees in Sociology and Spanish.\nGrefe received", "1988, beginning when Bass attacked him after a match on Superstars of Wrestling, lacerating his head with a spur. As a result, the injured Beefcake missed his scheduled Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship match against The Honky Tonk Man at the first SummerSlam event on August 29. He ultimately defeated Bass in a grudge match.\nBeefcake then feuded with Randy Savage during 1989. On \"The Brother Love Show\" (an interview segment on WWF Superstars of Wrestling), Beefcake called Savage's new manager, Sensational Sherri, \"Scary Sherri,\" and an angered Savage attacked him and, with the help of Sherri, humiliated him with a haircut. Eventually,", "play in March 2013. The Beef posted a 123–65 (.654) record up to this time. Cornhusker Beef, Inc. ownership (2013–2018) In December 2012, the Omaha Beef were bought by Cornhusker Beef, Inc. On December 6, 2012, the Beef announced the new ownership group composing of Rich Tokhiem, Gerard Daly and Jim Tokhiem. \nIn their first season in the Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL), the Beef hired Andy Yost as head coach, who had finished the previous season as interim co-head coach. Yost led the Beef to a 10–2 record and qualified for the playoffs, as they finished", "Rooster grew tired of Heenan's demeaning style of coaching and turned against him, becoming a face. Shortly thereafter, on an episode of Prime Time Wrestling, Heenan claimed to want to break off their relationship amicably but it was a ruse to set Rooster up to be ambushed by Heenan's new protégé, long-time enhancement talent Steve Lombardi, whom had just been reinvented as The Brooklyn Brawler. Aftermath Hulk Hogan continued his feud with Randy Savage. WWF financed a movie in 1989 titled No Holds Barred which starred Hogan as the lead character Rip and Tom Lister, Jr. acted as the villain", "Beef announced the new owners as Ricky Bertz, a founder of the CIF, and Craig Tirey. On November 6, 2018, the Beef announced that James Kerwin would return as head coach for the 2019 season. Rivalries Omaha has rivalries with the Sioux City Bandits (since the NIFL days) and the Sioux Falls Storm, which also moved from the NIFL to the IFL. Omaha's rivalry with Sioux City has become one-sided, as the Bandits have defeated the Beef in 14 of their last 17 meetings,. A new rivalry developed when the IFL expanded to Grand Island, Nebraska, in 2011", "you, Clive!\" from the street up to his building.\nIn one 1989 interview with Classic Rock magazine, Steinman labeled Todd Rundgren \"the only genuine genius I've ever worked with.\" In a 1989 interview with Redbeard for the In the Studio with Redbeard episode on the making of the album, Meat Loaf revealed that Jimmy Iovine and Andy Johns were potential candidates for producing Bat Out of Hell before being rejected by the singer and Steinman in favor of Todd Rundgren, whom Meat Loaf initially found cocky but grew to like. Rundgren found the album hilarious, thinking it was a parody of", "himself, Cena challenged him to a steel cage match, which Wyatt accepted. On the April 28, 2014 episode of Raw, Cena entered the steel cage to address Wyatt's evil message saying that it has begun to spread amongst the audience, only to be greeted by Wyatt and a children's choir singing \"He's Got the Whole World in His Hands\" with many Wyatt Family supporters singing along. As the children surrounded the ring, the lights went out before coming back on, with the children now wearing sheep masks as Wyatt laughed maniacally with a child on his lap.\nOn Raw the day", "Rawhide (1938 film) Plot The storyline revolves around Lou Gehrig playing himself, who decides to give up baseball in New York for the life of a western cattle rancher. Once at the ranch, Gehrig encounters a protection racket preying on the ranchers by extortion and violence. He teams up with a crusading local attorney to fight the crooks and ultimately put them in jail.\nIn the opening scene, Lou Gehrig is surrounded by a group of reporters at Grand Central Terminal in New York City, where he is about to take a train to his sister's ranch out west in Rawhide.", "WrestleMania XXX based on the story that Wyatt was capturing Cena's fanbase, which was exemplified by Wyatt leading a children's choir to the ring on the April 28 episode of Raw, with the children later putting on sheep masks. At Extreme Rules on May 4, Wyatt defeated Cena in a steel cage match, after repeated interference from the rest of The Wyatt Family and a \"demonic\" child. Cena's feud with Wyatt continued with a Last Man Standing match being set up for Payback on June 1, where Cena buried Wyatt under multiple equipment cases to win the match and end", "to lead the Chiefs' defense in their 1969 championship season, en route to winning their first and only AFL-NFL World Championship (Super Bowl IV).\nLynch finished his career with 17 interceptions and 14 fumble recoveries. He scored 1 touchdown and was selected to play in the 1968 AFL All-Star Game. In 1990, Lynch was inducted into the Chiefs' Hall of Fame. After football In 2006, Lynch was interviewed for the NFL Network documentary America's Game: The Super Bowl Champions chronicling the 1969 Kansas City Chiefs AFL and World Championship season. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame", "Gaspard.\nThe main rivalry from the Raw brand heading into Bragging Rights was the continuing conflict between Randy Orton and John Cena over the WWE Championship. The two had faced at the three previous pay-per-view events, with Orton retaining the title at SummerSlam, Cena winning the title at Breaking Point in an \"I Quit\" match and Orton reclaiming the title at Hell in a Cell in the event's eponymous match. On the October 5, 2009 edition of Raw, Cena challenged Orton to one last rematch for the title, this time a 60-minute Iron Man match where the competitor with the most", "Beefeater (band) History Beefeater was formed by Tomas Squip, Fred \"Freak\" Smith, Dug E. Bird (Birdzell) and Bruce Atchley Taylor. Their debut LP, Plays for Lovers, was released in 1985 on Dischord Records, their follow-up was the six-song 1986 Need a Job EP, whereas their second record on Dischord, House Burning Down, was posthumously released in 1987 as their farewell album. Both band's Dischord releases would be combined on the 1992 compilation CD Plays For Lovers & House Burning Down, with two bonus tracks.\nFor Beefeater's second record, drummer Bruce Taylor was replaced by Mark \"Two-Chair\" Shellhaas, who in turn, would", "Beef III Twista vs. Bone Thugs-N-Harmony During the mid-to-late 1990s, rappers from parts other than New York City and Los Angeles were emerging. Among them were Twista (a Chicago native) and Bone Thugs-N-Harmony (their members originate from both Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio). They both became very popular for their quick, rapid-fire style of rapping delivery. The beef started with a dispute over who originated this style. Bone Thugs say that Twista did not come out with the rapid-fire style. Layzie Bone elaborated and said \"yeah he came spittin it a hundred miles an hour but he wasn't adding the harmony", "Del Rio and Sheamus eliminated each other, leaving Cesaro and Show to fight back and forth until Cesaro lifted Show and body slammed him out of the ring to become the victor, mirroring Hulk Hogan's momentous body slam of André the Giant at WrestleMania III.\nThe next match was between John Cena and Bray Wyatt. The Wyatt Family's entrance was voodoo-themed and performed live by a costumed Mark Crozer and the Rels. Wyatt started the match by kneeling down and telling Cena to be the monster that he is and to finish him off; Cena refused. Wyatt continued taunts led to", "Pork (band) History In August 2006, Pork supported American band Fear Factory at the Pepsi Stadium in Buenos Aires, drawing the attention of Alejandro Taranto, an executive producer for bands such as A.N.I.M.A.L. and Los Fabulosos Cadillacs. He later had Pork signed onto TommyGun Entertainment and Universal Music Argentina to record their debut album.\nThe recording sessions took place between April and June 2007 at \"Del Cielito Studio\", which is now owned by local band Bersuit Vergarabat. The post-production and mastering was done by Eduardo Bergallo. The album, titled \"Multiple Choice\", was released in May 2008. The song \"Akira\"", "the Omaha Beef took advantage of their schedule to improve their record to 7–5. Omaha played six of their 12 games against first year franchises (Chicago Eagles and Salina Liberty) in which the Beef recorded five of their seven wins. Omaha only had one win over a team with a winning record when they played (Wichita Force 4-1 on April 16) and only played three games all season against teams that came into the contest with a winning record. In the Beef’s seven wins, the opponent’s combined 2016 records were 29–54. Despite playoff expansion for the", "Buffalo's first full-length album, Hogtied Like a Rodeo, debuted in 2002. This was followed by The White Buffalo EP, produced by Eels' Koool G Murder, which Smith states is about \"relationships, love, loss and booze with a little murder mixed in.\" This EP was musically grounded in acoustic folk and country blues. In a friend's living room in 2008, he re-recorded the first album, dubbing it Hogtied Revisited. Musically, this 2008 album was a blend of folk, modern rock, and alternative country.\nWhen a bootleg tape of Smith's music made it into the hands of pro surfer Chris Malloy, one of", "contraction, the Beef were a constant and competitive member. During the 2012 season, ownership of the team was then taken over by the league. The head coach was let go during season and several other changes were made to cut costs. Despite this, Andy Yost and James Kerwin took over as co-head coaches and the Beef qualified for the playoffs with some key wins. The IFL decided to not allow Omaha in the playoffs. This resulted in the ending of a 12-year playoff appearance streak.\nIn December 2012, the Omaha Beef was accepted by the CPIFL to begin", "Babi Slymm Professional wrestling career A defensive tackle and competitor in discus and track at high school, Drake began to train as a wrestler at the invitation of a friend operating a small Californian wrestling promotion in Oakland. Drake has competed for numerous organisations in the California area, including Xtreme Pro Wrestling under the ring name Saleem Jihad, Ultimate Pro Wrestling, NWA Pro Wrestling and Pro Wrestling Guerrilla. Drake received his greatest exposure competing for MTV's Wrestling Society X, in which he formed a team with Ruckus named Keepin' It Gangsta.\nOn March 29, 2004, Drake won the inaugural", "Bragging Rights (2010) Storylines Bragging Rights featured professional wrestling matches involving different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds, plots, and storylines that were played out on World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) television programs. Wrestlers portrayed villains or heroes as they followed a series of events that build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches.\nThe main concept of the show featured an inter-promotional match featuring wrestlers from Raw against those of SmackDown for Bragging Rights with Team SmackDown going for their second Bragging Rights victory since their inaugural win last year. On the October 8 episode of SmackDown, Big", "24, drug overdose), and three granddaughters. He was a Christian.\nIn 1965, Starr and his wife Cherry helped co-found Rawhide Boys Ranch in New London, Wisconsin, a facility designed to help at-risk and troubled boys throughout the state of Wisconsin. Starr even donated the Corvette he received as MVP of Super Bowl II to help Rawhide during their early years. He was affiliated with Rawhide Boys Ranch until his death. As of 2019, Cherry and Bart Jr. are still spokespersons for Rawhide and are in communication with Rawhide on a frequent basis.\nIn 1971, Starr and his wife Cherry helped start the", "American Bucking Bull History People first began to breed cattle specifically to produce bulls that were good at bucking in rodeos in the 1970s. An early pioneer was Bob Wilfong. He came from a background of ranching and rodeo. \"Raising bucking stock was just kind of a deal to play with,\" Wilfong said. Wilsong's whole breeding program was to buy cattle and see if they could buck.\nThe idea of registering bucking bulls originated in 1992 with Bob Tallman and Sammy Andrews. Tallman is a fifth generation cattleman and a ProRodeo Hall of Fame rodeo announcer. Andrews is a stock", "Unconditionally Guaranteed Aftermath Immediately after recording of the album the entire Magic Band quit – as biographer Mike Barnes has stated, \"[Beefheart] was in effect sacked by his own group.\" They had become increasingly disenchanted with the lack of financial success, having subsisted on food stamps and donations from their parents, and with Beefheart's tyrannical control over the group. In the words of guitarist Bill Harkleroad \"we had had enough of him treating us like punching bags.\"\nThe album's lackluster and unchallenging music was the last straw. Drummer Art Tripp recalled, \"When the band finally got our album copies, we were", "Marcus Cor Von in forming the New Breed stable, with Thorn taking on the enforcer role and describing himself as the \"muscle\" of the group. The New Breed immediately engaged themselves in a feud with the ECW Originals (Rob Van Dam, Tommy Dreamer, Sabu and The Sandman). Different members of the New Breeds wrestled members of the ECW originals over several weeks, leading up to WrestleMania 23. At WrestleMania, the New Breed was defeated by the ECW Originals in an 8-man tag team match, but won a rematch on the following episode of ECW. In April, CM Punk aligned himself" ]