Datasets:

rusano

/

Teli5

like 0

[ "Keep the defense honest, get a feel for the pass rush, open up the passing game. An offense that's too one dimensional will fail. And those rushes up the middle can be busted wide open sometimes for big yardage.", "If you throw the ball all the time, then the defense will adapt to always cover for a pass. By doing a simple running play every now and then, you force the defense to stay close and guard against the run. Sometimes, the offense can catch the defense off guard by faking a run and freeing up their receivers.\n\nAlso, you don't have to gain massive yards on every single play. Sometimes, it works best to gain a few yards at a time. As long as you get the first down, you are in good shape.", "In most cases the O-Line is supposed to make a hole for the running back to go through. If you run too many plays to the outside/throws the defense will catch on.\n\nAlso, 2 5 yard plays gets you a new set of downs.", "I you don't like those type of plays, watch CFL. We only get 3 downs so you can't afford to waste one. Lots more passing." ]

[ "46 defense Description To stop a passing game, you can't stop it unless you put pressure on it. Now some people are good enough to put it on with a three-man rush; well, we're not. In fact, I don't know whether we're good enough to put it on with a four-man rush. If we have to send eight, we'll send eight, but we're not going to let you sit back there and pick us apart.\n— Buddy Ryan, 1986 NFL Films interview\nI had to use every bit of knowledge and experience and wisdom I had to come up with game plans to", "especially if more yardage is needed to earn a first down and maintain possession.\nIn both professional and college football, the offense has 40 seconds (in the Alliance of American Football, 30) from the end of the previous play to run the next play. A team running out the clock will allow the play clock (which records the time remaining until a play must be run) to drain as much as possible before running its next play. In the NFL, this is particularly noteworthy due to the existence of the two-minute warning. If the trailing team has no timeouts remaining", "Pass rush On defense in American football, rushing is charging across the line of scrimmage towards the quarterback or kicker in the effort to stop or \"sack\" them. The purpose is tackling, hurrying or flushing the quarterback, or blocking or disrupting a kick. In both college and professional football, getting a strong pass rush is an important skill, as even an average quarterback can be productive if he has lots of time to find an open receiver, even against a good secondary. To increase pressure, teams will sometimes use a pass-rushing specialist, who is usually a quick defensive", "lead, hasten the half's end before the opponent can score.\nIf the leading team has the ball on first down with less than two minutes to go in the game and the opposing team has no timeouts remaining, the quarterback can often safely end the game by taking a knee thrice consecutively without risking injuries or turnovers. This is because at the end of each play, the offensive team can take up to 40 seconds to start running the next play. Other football leagues The CFL has a three-minute warning. Indoor American football leagues historically used a one-minute warning once a", "by making them think it is being put into the game for a pass play, when the play is actually a run. James White of the New England Patriots is used as a third-down back, or as an extra wide receiver. His receiving statistics exceed his rushing statistics, with 2,164 yards and 19 touchdowns on 248 receptions, compared to just 856 yards and 7 touchdowns on only 207 carries. Blocking Running backs are also required to help the offensive line in passing situations, and, in the case of the fullback, running plays. Running backs will often block blitzing linebackers", "carrying the ball does have the option to run, instead of risking an incomplete pass or an interception. This play is not as popular as it once was as defensive players are expected to cover receivers until the football crosses the line of scrimmage on running plays.\nThe running play that halfback options usually resemble is a sweep play. Sometimes the quarterback will run out of the backfield and become a receiving option for the running back. This can be effective because the quarterback usually does very little after handing off or pitching the ball to the running back on", "(as with any play where the ball carrier is tackled in bounds). With the 40-second play clock in the NFL and NCAA, along with the two-minute warning in the NFL, a team can run off over two minutes with three straight kneel-downs if the defensive team has no more timeouts. The winning team can storm the field if up to 40 seconds remains in the game (35 in defunct Alliance of American Football), to let coaches shake hands with each other. (In the defunct AAF, as many as three straight \"victory formations\" from 105 seconds left in regulation can be", "are allowed. The offense also has the option of running the ball to gain yardage, but a hand-off must occur behind the line of scrimmage in order for the offense to gain the run option. Defense The goal of the defense is to stop the opposing offensive unit from scoring. Before each play, one of the referees will mark off seven yards from the line of scrimmage, and the defense has the option to rush the quarterback from the seven yard mark after the ball is snapped. The defense is allowed to rush immediately (even if they are not seven", "end or outside linebacker tasked with aggressively rushing the quarterback in obvious passing situations.\nOne of the most effective methods of rushing the passer is by using a stunt or twist, which is when defensive players quickly change positions at the snap of the ball and engage a different blocker than the offense expected. Defenses typically task three or four defensive lineman to rush the passer on most plays, but most will occasionally increase pressure by blitzing one or more non-lineman at the quarterback when a pass play in anticipated.\nA pass rush can be effective even if it does not sack", "the opposing New York Giants. A related concept in football is the Hail Mary pass.\nIn rugby union the game does not end until the ball goes dead after time has expired – therefore if a side trailing by less than one score can maintain possession and keep the ball in play they have a chance of victory. A rule change in 2017 amended the rules so that if a penalty is awarded the ball can be kicked out and a line-out taken, even if time has elapsed. The rules in rugby league also allow for play after time has elapsed;", "two in a 29–28 victory over the Atlanta Falcons. Berry also achieved an ordinary pick six earlier in the same game.\nIf the intercepting team can run out the clock, the intercepting player may down the ball immediately and not attempt to gain any yardage. This eliminates the chance of a fumble that could be recovered by the other team. There are also player safety implications: when the ball is turned over, the play is now suddenly and unexpectedly moving in the opposite direction. All of the players on offense are instantly susceptible to unexpected blocks, even if not attempting", "the quarterback if it forces the passer to get rid of the ball before he wanted to, resulting in an incomplete pass or interception. To attack a strong pass rush, offenses can throw quicker short passes or run draw plays or screen passes, which are design to lure defenders into the offensive backfield and then quickly get a ball carrier behind them.", "the backfield. On passing plays, a running back will often run a \"safe route,\" such as a hook or a flat route, that gives a quarterback a target when all other receivers are covered or when the quarterback feels pressured. Hall of Famer Lenny Moore was a halfback who played primarily as a pass receiver.\nSome teams have a specialist \"third down back\", who is skilled at catching passes or better at pass blocking and \"picking up the blitz,\" and thus is often put in the game on third down and long. It can also be used to fool the defense", "known as \"passing plays\", while those where the gains are due to the player running with the ball are \"rushing plays\". Rules governing which players are eligible to receive a pass results in the offensive team being split into groups; the guards protect the quarterback, wide receivers and tight-ends are positioned at the line to run forward to receive passes, and the backs are positioned behind the line to receive the ball in a hand-off and then continue running forward for a rush.\nThe defensive team is not privy to which type of play will develop. To protect against common plays,", "with a play even in situations where the game clock expires after the end of the previous play. However, a quarterback kneel is by far the most common play for winning teams to run with \"zeros on the clock\" at the end of a game, barring exceptional (but not unheard-of) situations where the head-to-head point differential in the opposing teams' season series (a key factor in tiebreakers) remains in doubt. History Prior to the mid-1970s, teams leading in the final moments of games generally ran quarterback sneaks (which brought the risk of injuries on low-yardage plays) or dive plays to", "the end zone, but it was too far ahead and the pass fell incomplete. Defensive back Jimmy Smith and Crabtree both made contact prior to the ball arriving, but no penalty was called and the 49ers turned the ball over on downs with 1:46 left in the game.\nSan Francisco managed to force a three-and-out on the Ravens' next drive, but as they had only one timeout remaining, the Ravens were able to run the clock down to twelve seconds. On fourth down, and after the Ravens then called a timeout of their own, punter Sam Koch fielded the snap in", "the number of timeouts the defense has remaining. For example, if there is one minute remaining on the game clock on first down, and the defense has one timeout left, the offense may use two successive quarterback kneels to completely run out the clock, and if the defense uses its timeout the offense can simply run a third kneel to run out the clock. However, if there is one minute remaining on the game clock on third down, then regardless of how many timeouts the defense has, quarterback kneels will not completely run out the clock and the offense must", "even in passing situations, adding, \"If nobody's open, the broken play is probably the hardest play to stop in college football – in any football.\" Regular season In Michigan's 2011 season opener against Western Michigan, Robinson completed 9 of 13 passes for 98 yards and had 46 rushing yards on eight carries. The game was ended with 1:27 left in the third quarter due to inclement weather.\nIn Michigan's next game against Notre Dame, Robinson completed 11 of 24 passes for 338 yards with four touchdowns and had 108 yards rushing on 16 carries with a touchdown on a recovered fumble near", "game ends because of a heavy rain, and all the kids run to the local store and hang out, waiting for the rain to end. All the kids leave, except for Cornbread, Earl and Wilford. Earl and Wilford get into a playful argument about how fast Cornbread can run home. It is decided that Cornbread should make it home in 25 seconds, so he runs off, after buying another soda for himself. Unknown to all of them, an assault suspect is in the neighborhood, and is dressed like Cornbread. The two police officers are hot on the suspect's trail, but lose", "They go for the ballgame...touchdown! Touchdown! Michael Jenkins! On Fourth and One! Would you believe it?! Craig Krenzel strikes with a minute and a half left! Holy Buckeye!\n— Brent Musburger, calling the play on ABC television\nWhat was I thinking on that play? Well, one thing I had always believed was that, when the going gets the toughest, that you always call something that we know how to do. If it was a run, it was probably going to be an off-tackle, and if it was a pass, it was probably going to be", "down the field to a touchdown that many observers described as \"accidental\". With just over a minute of time left in the game, the Giants called a running play and Manning handed off the ball to Ahmad Bradshaw with the hopes of stopping short of the goal line and forcing the Patriots to use their final time out, thus allowing the Giants to run out the clock. The Patriots, in turn, did not attempt to tackle Bradshaw in his run, and he then fell over the goal line despite making an attempt to stop. However, the remaining time was not", "of that game. Trailing by three points, Brady lost control of the ball after being hit by Raiders cornerback and former Michigan teammate Charles Woodson. Oakland initially recovered the ball, but, citing the \"tuck rule,\" which states that any forward throwing motion by a quarterback begins a pass even if the quarterback loses possession of the ball as he is attempting to tuck it back toward his body, referee Walt Coleman overturned the call on instant replay, ruling it an incomplete pass rather than a fumble. Brady finished the game 32-of-52 for 312 passing yards and one interception.\nIn the AFC", "Halfback option play The halfback option play is an unorthodox play in American and Canadian football. It resembles a normal running play, but the running back has the option to throw a pass to another eligible receiver before crossing the line of scrimmage.\nThe key to the play is fooling the defensive players, primarily the defensive backs. If the linebackers and/or the defensive line are fooled and believe the ball carrier is attempting a run, they will pursue the runner, abandoning their pass defense responsibilities and thereby leaving pass receivers uncovered. If the defensive backs are not fooled, the running back", "the possibility existed that the Giants would run a play to stop short of the goal line, which would have forced the Patriots to use that timeout to stop the clock on any of the last two plays. The Giants could run the clock down, allow Tynes—who had not missed under 30 yards in four years—to kick a winning field goal, and give the Patriots only about 20 seconds of play left to score again. This also meant that the Patriots could call a defensive play where they would purposely allow the Giants to score a touchdown, which despite giving", "the game clock by shortening the first quarter to 12 minutes long. The Classic's committee, angered by the change (and an accusation that the clock had been slowed to allow a game-winning rally), asserted control over the game clock for future games so that such an incident could not happen again. The game also used a \"rally rule:\" after either team scored (by way of safety, touchdown, field goal, or returning blocked PAT attempts), if one of the two teams was losing by ten or more points, they would receive the kickoff, in order to keep the game close and", "the serving player does not generally lose the point. Instead a \"chase\" is called where the ball made its second bounce and the server gets the chance, later in the game, to \"play off\" the chase from the receiving end; but to win the point being played off, their shot's second bounce must be further from the net (closer to the back wall) than the shot they originally failed to reach. A chase can also be called at the receiving (\"hazard\") end, but only on the half of that end nearest the net; this is called a \"hazard\" chase.\nThose areas", "100 yards or more per game is likely to win, but the reality is winning teams rush the ball in defense of their leads, and not as a tactic to produce drives that lead to points unless they are markedly superior to their opponents. The larger field generally permits greater YAC (yards after catch) on each individual catch, where the NFL produces passing plays where there are either very few YAC yards (immediate tackle) or huge YAC yards (missed tackle or broken coverage for huge gains.) For this reason, Canadian teams usually prefer passing over rushing to a greater", "backs being instructed to stay in coverage until the running back with the ball crosses the line of scrimmage. Another reason is that the passing ability of most running backs is usually poor in relation to the passing ability of a quarterback. However, certain teams and players do successfully run the option one to a few times a season; used sparingly it can be effective to make a game-changing play. In modern professional football history a halfback has only thrown more than one touchdown in two games: utility player Gene Mingo of the Denver Broncos threw two touchdowns as a", "regulation, James caught an eighteen-yard pass and made a brilliant lateral to teammate Jerard Rabb running the opposite way, resulting in a game-tying touchdown with seven seconds left. The play required James to \"sell\" to the defense the notion that he was going to keep the ball and try for a first down, and also to lateral the ball at the last instant yet lead his teammate in full stride. A close look at the replay shows that had the lateral not been timed and delivered perfectly, the receiver would likely not have made it to the end", "commonly known as the \"Victory Formation\", as the offense lines up in a tightly-protective \"V\" formation to minimize the chances of a fumble or other turnover. (The AAF lets teams run out the clock on three straight victory formations from 90 seconds left in regulation.)\nConversely, a team that faces the risk of the other team running out the clock may attempt to force its opponent to score so it can quickly get the ball back. In Super Bowl XLVI, for example, the New England Patriots were ahead of the New York Giants 17–15 with 1:04 left in the fourth quarter." ]

[ "As someone who uses quality Premium, I wish this was true.", "The difference is in how it burns though is what's critical for you as the end consumer. I drive a forced induction car, so air coming into my engine is compressed before it enters the cylinder where it's further compressed by the piston. The Regular, Mid, and Premium gas are rated by octane, which in the shortest definition is how well it resists ignition, meaning higher octane fuel won't ignite from high pressure or heat, until the spark plug fires. Now that being said, you can look at as a price gouge, as it's not too hard to make higher octane gas, but cars that need it are typically sports cars as their engines run hotter, higher compression, and forced induction. Tying it back into what I said in the beginning, since I drive a forced induction sports car I have to run premium, and gas stations/companies know people like me are going to shut up and pay the extra 30 cents a gallon to protect our engines from lower octane gas detonating in the engine.", "> Is this just an arbitrary convention that undermines arguments of a rational basis for gasoline prices? \n\nYou already know the answer." ]

[ "have traditionally been three to four times the price in the United States, with prices during 2000–2005 of €1.00/litre (about $1.42 per litre ($5.4/US gal) while the US had prices around $1.50 per US gallon ($0.40/l).\nAfter a large increase until the summer of 2008, the end of 2008 experienced a strong decline linked with a sharp economic downturn, with the average price of fuel in the US at $1.613 per US gallon ($0.426/l) (29 December 2008). However, the price of fuel in Europe is still more than double the US price at $1.85 per litre ($7.0/US gal). Russia and some neighboring countries", "protection price per gallon. If the national monthly average price of gas or diesel – as determined by the US Department of Energy – exceeds the customer’s protection price, Pricelock pays the difference. If the national monthly average price lands at or below the company’s protection price, the company does not receive a payout. Customers are not purchasing fuel from Pricelock and are not required to show receipts.", "drink prices by increments of about 10 cents every few minutes depending on their popularity. Popular drinks become more expensive, while unpopular drinks become cheaper.", "gas that could be subject to taxation. The maximum tax for oil was based on a price of $18 per barrel, but the market price rose to $112 per barrel as of May 2011. The maximum tax for natural gas was based on a price of $1.35 per 1000 cubic feet, but the market price for that volume of gas in May 2011 was $4.35. Other states were receiving much more tax and royalty revenue as a result of these high prices. Legislation enacted in 2010 established a rate of 0.24% (an increase from 0.19%) for the oil and gas", "fuel cards for customers with a lower fuel consumption are ordered not directly from an oil company, but from an intermediary. Many premium brands have fully automated pay-at-the-pump facilities. Premium gas stations tend to be highly visible from highway and freeway exits, utilizing tall signs to display their brand logos. Discount brands Discount brands are often smaller, regional chains or independent stations, offering lower prices on gasoline. Most purchase wholesale commodity gasoline from independent suppliers or from the major petroleum companies. Lower-priced gas stations are also found at some supermarkets (Albertsons, Kroger, Ingles, Lowes Foods, Giant, Weis Markets, Safeway, Hy-Vee,", "the face of rising prices took place in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis.\nA reason for setting the price lower than would clear the market may be that there is a shortage, which would drive the market price very high. High prices, especially in the case of necessities, are undesirable with regard to those who cannot afford them. Traditionalist economists argue, however, that high prices act to reduce waste of the scarce resource while also providing incentive to produce more.\nRationing using ration stamps is only one kind of non-price rationing. For example,", "from 25% to 50%. An additional premium may be paid by strategic investors who are motivated by synergistic motives.\nNon-marketable, minority level is the lowest level on the chart, representing the level at which non-controlling equity interests in private companies are generally valued or traded. This level of value is discounted because no ready market exists in which to purchase or sell interests. Private companies are less \"liquid\" than publicly traded companies, and transactions in private companies take longer and are more uncertain. Between the intermediate and lowest levels of the chart, there are restricted shares of publicly traded companies.\nDespite a", "Third World demand, and West Texas Intermediate crude was up 19% to $103.24. The average price of gas was $3.53.\nOn April 24, gasoline was $3.85 compared to $3.86 a year earlier; it had been two years since gas prices were lower than the previous year. Crude oil prices were down; West Texas Intermediate was $103.55 a barrel, down from over $107 late in March, and Brent Crude $118.16 after peaking above $128 in March.\nAfter falling to its lowest price since October 2011, Benchmark crude rose 5.8% to $82.18 on June 29, with Brent crude up 4.5% to $95.51. European bailout", "from $35 to $140 per barrel ($220 to $880/m³), causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market. Taxes Taxes are the next biggest contributor to gasoline prices at around 12%. In the United States, both state and federal taxes apply to gasoline. In addition, other taxes may be placed on gas including applicable state sales taxes, gross", "Governments use price floors to keep certain prices from going too low.\nTwo common price floors are minimum wage laws and supply management in Canadian agriculture. Other price floors include regulated US airfares prior to 1978 and minimum price per-drink laws for alcohol. While price floors are often imposed by governments, there are also price floors which are implemented by non-governmental organizations such as companies, such as the practice of resale price maintenance. With resale price maintenance, a manufacturer and its distributors agree that the distributors will sell the manufacturer's product at certain prices (resale price maintenance), at or above a", "too low.\nTwo common price floors are minimum wage laws and supply management in Canadian agriculture. Other price floors include regulated US airfares prior to 1978 and minimum price per-drink laws for alcohol. A related government intervention, which is also a price control, is the price ceiling; it sets the maximum price that can legally be charged for a good or service, with a common example being rent control. Price ceiling A price ceiling is a price control, or limit, on how high a price is charged for a product, commodity, or service. Governments use price ceilings to protect consumers from", "In terms of offering a higher price, it also has the effect of drawing the attention from consumers, as consumers would wonder the reason behind it, and higher price product tends to be more appealing to the upper class group. However, in order to take advantage from offering a higher price, the quality of the product has to match the price, otherwise, consumers would lose interests because of not getting what they pay for. Differentiation focus The principles of differentiation focus are similar to all the other differentiation strategies, where it differentiates some of the features from the competitors. However,", "Price of oil The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Select (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and/or refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils", "gas companies, and companies whose capital investment is high, like automobile manufacturers.\nTarget pricing is not useful for companies whose capital investment is low because, according to this formula, the selling price will be understated. Also the target pricing method is not keyed to the demand for the product, and if the entire volume is not sold, a company might sustain an overall budgetary loss on the product. Time-based pricing A flexible pricing mechanism made possible by advances in information technology and employed mostly by Internet-based companies. By responding to market fluctuations or large amounts of data gathered from customers –", "to about 54 million liters per day.\nThe price of gasoline based on the official USD to IRR rate is 0.29 USD/Litre in 2018 which is the second cheapest price in the world after Venezuela. Nigeria On 1 January 2012, the Nigerian government headed by president Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, tried to cease the subsidy on petrol and deregulate the oil prices by announcing the new price for petrol as USD 0.88/litre from the old subsidised price of USD 0.406/litre (LAGOS), which in areas distant from Lagos petrol was priced at USD 1.25/litre. This led to the longest general strike (eight days),", "the US had driven US gas prices down to 29% of natural gas prices in Europe, and to one-fifth of natural gas prices in Japan. Lower natural gas prices in the US have encouraged the replacement of coal- with gas-fired power plants, but have also discouraged the switch to renewable sources of energy. Facing a supply glut and consequent further price drops in 2012, some large US gas producers announced plans to cut natural gas production; however, production rates rose to all-time highs, and natural gas prices remained near ten-year lows. The high price of gas overseas has provided a", "a wellhead price based on market forces, while consumer groups argued that the Natural Gas Act intended that both producers and pipelines should be limited to cost-based rate regulation, so that the final price paid by consumers would represent only the cost of producing, transporting and distributing the gas.\nIn Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Wisconsin, the Supreme Court held that the sale of natural gas at the wellhead was indeed subject to regulation under the Natural Gas Act. The case resulted in federal price controls on wellhead gas prices for the next 40 years. The act also specified that \"no new", "Price–performance ratio In economics and engineering, the price–performance ratio refers to a product's ability to deliver performance, of any sort, for its price. Generally speaking, products with a lower price/performance ratio are more desirable, excluding other factors.\nPrice–performance is often written as cost–performance or cost–benefit. Even though this term would seem to be a straightforward ratio, when price performance is improved, better, or increased, it actually refers to the performance divided by the price, in other words exactly the opposite ratio (i.e. an inverse ratio) to rank a product as having an increased price/performance. Consumer and medical products According to", "to lower the price to $1.10 if demand has waned. The business would choose this approach because the incremental profit of 10 cents from the transaction is better than no sale at all. Cost plus pricing Cost plus pricing is a cost-based method for setting the prices of goods and services. Under this approach, the direct material cost, direct labor cost, and overhead costs for a product are added up and added to a markup percentage (to create a profit margin) in order to derive the price of the product. Odd pricing In this type of pricing, the seller tends", "to its price. Consumers often believe a high price of a product indicates a higher level of quality.\nEven though it is suggested that high prices seem to make certain products more desirable, consumers that fall in this category have their own perception of quality and make decisions based upon their own judgement. They may also use the premium price as an indicator of the product's level of quality.", "to 5.5 cents per litre (or to a maximum of 7.5 cents per litre for full-serve gasoline). Notice There is no notice of change in prices. Every Friday, prices may go up or down or stay the same, depending on the market price over the past 7 days. Interrupter and Price Changes Scheduled price changes occur every second Thursday starting 13 July 2006. The interrupter is based on a formula that will determine whether the market prices of fuels have changed enough to warrant a price change . This “interrupter” formula will run every second Wednesday beginning 19 July 2006.", "have their own pricing power, prices are directly controlled by the government, and taxpayers cannot pass tax burden through price changes. \nUnder the floating price system, the government determines the maximum price or minimum price of a commodity. Within the range of fluctuations, the producers,operators and other market entities have a certain amount of freedom in pricing, and tax shift can be realized within a certain extent and within a certain range. \nUnder the free pricing system, the producers,operators and other market players can freely set prices according to changes in the market supply and demand relationship, and the tax", "of 4.2 US$ per mmbtu on gross calorific value (GCV) basis is calculated already at maximum price cap of Brent crude (US$ 60/bbl) under the applicable formula linking the price of gas per mmbtu (GP) to the price of oil:\nGP = 2.5 + (OP – 25) ^0.15\nwhere OP is the annual average Brent crude price for the previous FY, with a cap of USD 60/bbl\nand a floor of USD 25/bbl. As the annual Brent price has always been above US$ 60 since 2007, the revised gas price at 5.61 US$ during the year 2014 is in excess of the", "by 28.5% overall. Higher-end bourbon and whiskeys experienced the greatest growth. During 2009–14, the volume of the value segment increased by 12.1%, premium by 25.8%, high-end premium by 27.8%, and super-premium by 123.8%. Gross supplier revenues (including federal excise tax) for U.S. bourbon and Tennessee whiskey increased by 46.7% over the 2009–14 period, with the greatest growth coming from high-end products (18.7% growth for value, 33.6% for premium, 44.5% for high-end premium, and 137.2% for super-premium). In 2014, more than 19 million nine-liter cases of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey were sold in the U.S., generating almost $2.7 billion in wholesale", "Gasoline price website Commercial services Many commercial websites allow registered users or site visitors to update the price information, usually for an incentive such as \"points\" which are accumulated and displayed alongside a user's name. In some cases, points can be redeemed for rewards, such as an entry in a drawing for a prize, such as electric vehicles and free fuel cards. Some sites also provide message forums to allow users to engage in discussions about gas prices and money-saving strategies, among other topics. Fuel prices are sometimes made available via SMS text messaging.\nOne site, Gasbuddy.com, has different web", "Brent crude price for the previous FY, with a cap of USD 60/bbl\nand a floor of USD 25/bbl. As the annual Brent price has always been above US$60 since 2007, the revised gas price at 5.61 US$ during the year 2014 is in excess of the applicable price by nearly 20%.", "when retailers mark up from wholesale costs, so costs follow wholesale variations closely. Alternative models of price cycles There is a separate literature, which has explored conditions under which price cycles like the ones observed gasoline markets and found that consumer search models can rationalize cycling under various conditions. Here, the intuition is that there is a small subset of consumers that are not informed about prices and therefore will buy from a firm regardless of the price charged. Once prices get low enough, a firm may find it optimal to charge a high price and exploit this small loyal", "the two aspects of the business model: \"free\" and \"premium\". It has become a highly popular model, with notable successes. High-low pricing Methods of services offered by the organization are regularly priced higher than competitors, but through promotions, advertisements, and or coupons, lower prices are offered on key items. The lower promotional prices designed to bring customers to the organization where the customer is offered the promotional product as well as the regular higher priced products. Keystone pricing A retail pricing strategy where retail price is set at double the wholesale price. For example, if a cost of", "as fewer and fewer consumers are initially perfectly informed.\nThe distribution of price has a closed form:\non support ; where the share of perfectly informed consumers, the number of firms, the revenue function that attains its maximum in , consumers' reservation price, and", "have a much smaller tax, with fuel prices similar to the US.\nCompetitive petrol pricing in the UK is led by supermarkets with their own forecourts. Generally each supermarket tends to match the other's prices; the lead players being Asda, Tesco, Sainsbury's and Morrisons. In recent years the AA has criticized speculators as being the prime reason for fuel fluctuations in the UK. Countries with subsidised gasoline A number of countries subsidize the cost of petrol/gasoline and other petroleum products. Subsidies make transport of people and goods cheaper, but discourage fuel efficiency. In some countries, the soaring cost of crude oil" ]

[ "It's a quirk of the human eye. At the center of the eye (the fovea) we mostly have colour-sensitive cone cells to see detail and colour of what we're focusing on. Around the fovea we mostly have rod cells that can't see colour but are more sensitive to variations in light intensity and movement. \nLooking slightly to the side of the thing you're examining sends more of the light to the rod cells and lets you see things more clearly in low-light conditions where cones don't work well." ]

[ "of the intrinsic brightness of the sky, namely airglow, indirect scattering of sunlight, scattering of starlight, and artificial light pollution. Visual presentation Depending on local sky cloud cover, pollution, humidity, and light pollution levels, the stars visible to the unaided naked eye appear as hundreds, thousands or tens of thousands of white pinpoints of light in an otherwise near black sky together with some faint nebulae or clouds of light . In ancient times the stars were often assumed to be equidistant on a dome above the earth because they are much too far away for stereopsis to", "offer any depth cues. Visible stars range in color from blue (hot) to red (cold), but with such small points of faint light, most look white because they stimulate the rod cells without triggering the cone cells. If it is particularly dark and a particularly faint celestial object is of interest, averted vision may be helpful.\nThe stars of the night sky cannot be counted unaided because they are so numerous and there is no way to track which have been counted and which have not. Further complicating the count, fainter stars may appear and disappear depending on", "the brightest S star in the visible sky, because other bright S stars are mira variables or other types of variable star with large changes in apparent brightness. Its own brightness variability in the visible part of the spectrum is modest.\nOn the basis of the measurement of radial velocities of the line components it is concluded that the helium emission originates in the vicinity of the inner Lagrangian point of the system, indicating a gas motion from the red giant primary, directed to the secondary, with a velocity of about 5 km/s. At the same time, there is a", "understood that stars are so far away as to essentially appear as point sources of light. Following advances in understanding the diffraction of light and astronomical seeing, astronomers fully understood both that the apparent sizes of stars were spurious and how those sizes depended on the intensity of light coming from a star (this is the star's apparent brightness, which can be measured in units such as watts/cm²) so that brighter stars appeared larger. Modern definition Early photometric measurements (made, for example, by using a light to project an artificial “star” into a telescope's field of view and adjusting it", "the spectral classification B2. Its color is blue or blueish-white, due to the surface temperature of 22,200K. It emits a total radiation equal to 38,700 times that of the Sun. This star is the brightest-known extreme ultraviolet source in the night sky.\nIt is the strongest source of photons capable of ionizing hydrogen atoms in interstellar gas near the Sun, and is very important in determining the ionization state of the Local Interstellar Cloud.\nThe +7.5-magnitude (the absolute magnitude amounts to +1.9) companion star, ε Canis Majoris B, is 7.5\" away with a position angle of 161° of the main star. Despite", "northern skies for there are few other bright stars in its vicinity. Observational history Astrophotography, the photography of celestial objects, began in 1840 when John William Draper took an image of the Moon using the daguerreotype process. On July 17, 1850, Vega became the first star (other than the Sun) to be photographed, when it was imaged by William Bond and John Adams Whipple at the Harvard College Observatory, also with a daguerreotype. Henry Draper took the first photograph of a star's spectrum in August 1872 when he took an image of Vega, and he also became the first person", "of the star, or how bright it appears from Earth, is around 5. Therefore, it is only just visible to the unaided eye.", "normal for a star like Kepler-1229, with a luminosity of around 4% of that of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 15.474. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.", "that the source of non-thermal X-rays varies with the orbital phase of the binary star system and that the photon index of the emission is similar to that derived through analysis of the γ-ray (gamma) spectrum. Visibility As a 4th-magnitude star, Eta Carinae is comfortably visible to the naked eye in all but the most light-polluted skies in inner city areas according to the Bortle scale. Its brightness has varied over a wide range, from the second-brightest star in the sky at one point in the 19th century to well below naked eye visibility. Its location at around 60°S in", "wavelengths produce brighter sky glow, but for a different reason (see § Dependence on light source). Measurement Amateur astronomers have used the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale to measure skyglow ever since it was published in Sky & Telescope magazine in February 2001. The scale rates the darkness of the night sky inhibited by skyglow with nine classes and provides a detailed description of each position on the scale. Amateurs also increasingly use Sky Quality Meters (SQM) that measure in astronomical photometric units of visual (Johnson V) magnitudes per square arcsecond. Professional astronomers and light pollution researchers use various measures of luminous or", "found in the Sun. The star's luminosity is a bit low for a star like Kepler-442, with a luminosity of around 11% of that of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14.976. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.", "quite hard to observe variability with the naked eye in most cases. The variability increases with decreasing wavelength, thus they are more obviously variable in ultraviolet spectrum than visible light. Their pulsations are non-radial, that is, they vary in shape rather than volume; different parts of the star are expanding and contracting simultaneously.\nThese stars were first identified as a group and named by astronomers Christoffel Waelkens and Fredy Rufener in 1985 while looking for and analysing variability in hot blue stars. Improvements in photometry had made finding smaller changes in magnitude easier, and they had found that a high percentage", "Star hopping The problem Many celestial objects of interest are too faint to be visible to the unaided eye. Telescopes or binoculars collect much more light, making faint objects visible, but have a smaller field of view, thus complicating orientation on the sky. \nThe field of view of binoculars is rarely more than eight degrees, while that of typical amateur telescopes may be substantially less than one degree, depending on the magnification used. Many objects are best observed using higher magnifications, which inevitably go along with narrow fields of view. The technique Star hopping uses bright stars as a guide", "long as one's stargazing is not hampered by the light pollution common to most cities.\nThe best time for observation is in the evening sky during the summer months, when the \"Dragon constellation\" passes the meridian at midnight, but given its circumpolar nature in the northern hemisphere, it is visible to most of the world's inhabitants throughout the year. Properties Epsilon Draconis is a yellow giant star with a spectral type of G8III. It has a radius that has been estimated at 10 solar radii and a mass of 2.7 solar masses. Compared to most G class stars, Epsilon Draconis", "Limiting magnitude Naked eye visibility The limiting magnitude for naked eye visibility refers to the faintest stars that can be seen with the unaided eye near the zenith on clear moonless nights. The quantity is most often used as an overall indicator of sky brightness, in that light polluted and humid areas generally have brighter limiting magnitudes than remote desert or high altitude areas. The limiting magnitude will depend on the observer, and will increase with the eye's dark adaptation. On a relatively clear sky, the limiting visibility will be about 6th magnitude.\nThere is even variation within metropolitan areas. For", "exactly where the observer is looking. The result is an impression of an extraordinarily vast star field.\nBecause stargazing is best done from a dark place away from city lights, dark adaptation is important to achieve and maintain. It takes several minutes for eyes to adjust to the darkness necessary for seeing the most stars, and surroundings on the ground are hard to discern. A red flashlight (torch) can be used to illuminate star charts, telescope parts, and the like without undoing the dark adaptation. (See Purkinje effect). Constellations There are no markings on the night sky,", "unaided eye. However, it should be easily seen in binoculars or a small telescope.\nThe star is over twice as enriched with chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium as the Sun. Because of this and the fact that the star is relatively bright, a group of astronomers in N2K Consortium began to study the star. The star's anomalous composition as measured may be surface pollution only, from the intake of heavy-element planetesimals.", "Skyglow Skyglow (or sky glow) is the diffuse luminance of the night sky, apart from discrete light sources such as the Moon and visible individual stars. It is a commonly noticed aspect of light pollution. While usually referring to sky luminance arising from artificial lighting, skyglow may also involve any nighttime sources of diffuse light, including natural ones like the zodiacal light, starlight, and airglow.\nIn the context of light pollution, skyglow arises from the use of artificial light sources, including electrical (or rarely gas) lighting used for illumination and advertisement, and from gas flares. Light propagating into the atmosphere directly", "Starlight and the diffuse light of the Milky Way are also scattered by the air, and it is found that stars up to V magnitude 16 contribute to the diffuse scattered starlight.\nOther sources such as galaxies and nebulae don't contribute significantly.\nThe total brightness of all the stars was first measured by Burns in 1899, with a calculated result that the total brightness reaching earth was equivalent to that of 2,000 first-magnitude stars with subsequent measurements by others. Light pollution Light pollution is an ever-increasing source of sky brightness in urbanized areas. In densely populated areas that do not have", "Sun. The star's luminosity is somewhat normal for a star like Kepler-61, with a luminosity of around 8% of that of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 15. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.", "of that of the solar luminosity, respectively.\nThe apparent magnitude of the star system, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is about 15.4. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which can typically detect objects with a magnitude less than 6.5.", "a 7.4 magnitude night sky, making it one of the darkest in North America. Stargazers can, therefore, see 7,500 stars with the naked eye, while in most places fewer than 2,000 can be seen due to light pollution, and in many large cities only a few dozen can be seen. Park rangers host public stargazing events and evening programs on astronomy, nocturnal animals, and night sky protection. The Bryce Canyon Astronomy Festival, typically held in June, attracts thousands of visitors. In honor of this astronomy festival, Asteroid 49272 was named after the national park.\nThere are two campgrounds in the park, North", "Photometric-standard star Photometric-standard stars are a series of stars that have had their light output in various passbands of photometric system measured very carefully. Other objects can be observed using CCD cameras or photoelectric photometers connected to a telescope, and the flux, or amount of light received, can be compared to a photometric-standard star to determine the exact brightness, or stellar magnitude, of the object.\nA current set of photometric-standard stars for UBVRI photometry was published by Arlo U. Landolt in 1992 in the Astronomical Journal.", "radiant intensity per unit area, such as (nano-)Lamberts, magnitudes per square arcsecond, or (micro-)candela per square meter. All-sky maps of skyglow brightness are produced with professional-grade imaging cameras with CCD detectors and using stars as calibration sources. Negative effects Skyglow, and more generally light pollution, has various negative effects: from aesthetic diminishment of the beauty of a star-filled sky, through energy and resources wasted in the production of excessive or uncontrolled lighting, to impacts on birds and other biological systems,\nincluding humans. Skyglow is a prime problem for astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where", "HD 34989 Observation The star is in the northern celestial hemisphere, but close to the celestial equator; this means that it can be observed from all the inhabited regions of the Earth without difficulty and that it is not visible only in the innermost areas of Antarctica. It appears as circumpolar only far beyond the Arctic polar circle. Its brightness puts it at the limit of visibility to the naked eye, so to be observed without the aid of devices requires a clear, and preferably moonless, sky.\nThe best period for observation in the evening sky is between late October and", "Star A star is an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. The observable Universe contains an estimated 1×10²⁴", "years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less. Discovery In 2009, NASA's Kepler spacecraft was completing observing stars on its photometer, the instrument it uses to detect transit events, in which a planet crosses in front of and dims its host star for a brief and roughly regular period of time. In this last test, Kepler observed 50000 stars in the", "the time it reaches the star's outer layers.\nThe color of a star, as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light, depends on the temperature of the star's outer layers, including its photosphere. Besides\nvisible light, stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye. In fact, stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the longest wavelengths of radio waves through infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, to the shortest of X-rays, and gamma rays. From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star, not all components of stellar electromagnetic radiation are significant,", "would consider the entire sky fully dark. Because of light pollution, observers in some localities, generally in large cities, may never have the opportunity to view even fourth-magnitude stars, irrespective of the presence of any twilight at all, and to experience truly dark skies. Between day and night Observers within 48°34’ of the Equator can view twilight twice each day on every date of the year between astronomical dawn, nautical dawn, or civil dawn, and sunrise as well as between sunset and civil dusk, nautical dusk, or astronomical dusk. This also occurs for most observers at higher latitudes on", "with descriptions of the terrestrial hemispheres of Earth itself. Observation From the South Pole, in good visibility conditions, the Southern Sky features over 2,000 fixed stars that are easily visible to the naked eye, while about 20,000 to 40,000 with the aided eye. In large cities, about 300 to 500 stars can be seen depending on the extent of light and air pollution. The farther north, the fewer are visible to the observer.\nThe brightest stars are all larger than the Sun. Sirius in the constellation of Canis Major has the brightest apparent magnitude of –1.46; it has a radius twice" ]

[ "I'm pretty confident most of it isn't going back to the people. That's how politics works.", "It's not. Punitive damages are like parking tickets. It is a fine you pay to the government.", "> but I don't hear anything about where this money goes\n\nThe details of the various settlements differ. Some of it goes to a specific prosecutors office or justice department as part of ongoing operating revenue and costs, some of it lands back in Treasury, some of it can end up in victim compensation funds, some of it is costs incurred by the bank to do something that complies with the new rules (e.g. setting up new loans with new terms or something). \n\nWhenever it ends up back in treasury there's nothing to say, it's an irrelevantly small amount of money to the federal government. \n\nThe Bernie Madoff related stuff is going to include payments to people who lost money from that, probably through some complex legal proceeding there. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHas a (very rough) breakdown of the 13 billion dollar settlement for example.", "In almost all the class action lawsuits a large majority of the settlement goes towards legal fees/costs etc...It would be interesting to request a freedom of information act and ask to see the canceled check from JP MOrgan to \"United States Treasury\" for the 13Bil.", "It doesn't matter that it's \"not technically\" going back to the people. It increases the government's spending budget so the taxes they would need to collect would theoretically be less.\n\nTheoretically..", "you might ask the same question about income tax." ]

[ "all future funds would be placed in selected state banks, and the government would draw on its remaining funds in the B.U.S. to cover operating expenses until those funds were exhausted. In case the B.U.S. retaliated, the administration decided to secretly equip a number of the state banks with transfer warrants, allowing money to be moved to them from the B.U.S. These were to be used only to counteract any hostile behavior from the B.U.S. Removal of the deposits and panic of 1833-34 Taney, in his capacity as an interim treasury secretary, initiated the removal of the Bank's public deposits,", "the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. Commercial bank Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or 'at call'). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using", "as much cash on hand they would return the cash to the monetary authority, or offer the surplus to other banks. Bank deposits at central bank Commercial banks are usually required to keep funds in the bank's account with the central bank. Such funds are usually counted as part of the banks’ reserves. Some central banks pay interest on these deposits while others do not.", "valuable service by aggregating funds from many individual deposits, portioning them into loans for borrowers, and spreading the risks both of default and sudden demands for cash. Banks can charge much higher interest on their long-term loans than they pay out on demand deposits, allowing them to earn a profit.\nIf only a few depositors withdraw at any given time, this arrangement works well. Barring some major emergency on a scale matching or exceeding the bank's geographical area of operation, depositors' unpredictable needs for cash are unlikely to occur at the same time; that is, by the law of large numbers,", "stop this draining from destroying the banking system, the government froze all bank accounts, initially for 90 days. Only a small amount of cash was allowed for withdrawal on a weekly basis (initially 250 Argentine pesos, then 300), and only from accounts denominated in pesos. No withdrawals were allowed from accounts denominated in U.S. dollars, unless the owner agreed to convert the funds into pesos. Operations using credit cards, debit cards, cheques and other means of payment could be conducted normally, but the lack of cash availability caused numerous problems for the general public and for businesses. Immediate effects The", "bank accounts, thus creating \"new money.\" Western Michigan University political scientist Susan Hoffmann, author of Politics and Banking, opens that book by declaring that Congress has historically struggled with the reality that banks create money and that money itself arises \"in an institutionalized decision process.\" This became apparent to the directors of the Bank of Amsterdam in the 17th century, when they realized that loaning out deposits created money for borrowers while the same amount still sat in the accounts of the original depositors.\nProfessor Richard Werner of the University of Southampton has utilized empirical research to conclude in", "banks can expect only a small percentage of accounts withdrawn on any one day because individual expenditure needs are largely uncorrelated. A bank can make loans over a long horizon, while keeping only relatively small amounts of cash on hand to pay any depositors who may demand withdrawals.\nHowever, if many depositors withdraw all at once, the bank itself (as opposed to individual investors) may run short of liquidity, and depositors will rush to withdraw their money, forcing the bank to liquidate many of its assets at a loss, and eventually to fail. If such a bank were to attempt to", "Foreign banks who maintain corresponding accounts must maintain records in the U.S. that will identify the owners' real names and addresses. The banks must be able to provide this information within 7 days of receipt of the request. It is also a requirement that when so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury (they must consult each other first) the financial institution must terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days. Corresponding accounts can be ordered to be closed if the foreign bank fails to comply with a summons or subpoena (see above), or has failed to legally", "money if it had been wrongly paid away, and (subject to agreement) claim profits made on the money. However, the courts have denied that bank customers have property rights. The same position has generally spread in banking practice globally, and Parliament has not yet taken the opportunity to ensure banks offer accounts where customer money is protected as property. Deposit protection Because insolvent banks do not enable customers to recover their money as a property right (only contract), governments have found it necessary to publicly guarantee depositors' savings. This follows the model, started in the Great Depression, the US set", "the bank run by forbidding the withdrawal of money from bank accounts. Duhalde promised in his oath of office speech that \"The one who deposited dollars will receive dollars\". The minister of economy Jorge Remes Lenicov pointed out that that would be impossible, as the amount of dollars required was higher than even the foreign-exchange reserves of the Central Bank. Duhalde acknowledged two weeks later that he was mistaken. The bank accounts in dollars would be \"pesified\" at a 1.4 exchange rate, and the state financed the banks for the different rates with other operations. The taxes of public services", "receives funding from two sources:\n1. Banks and building societies in the UK pay money from dormant accounts into the Reclaim Fund Limited. The Reclaim Fund keeps sufficient funds to meet reclaims from any account holders and passes surplus funds to the Big Lottery Fund. The Big Lottery Fund releases the English portion of these funds to the Big Society Trust to invest in Big Society Capital. BSC expects to receive up to £400 million from dormant accounts.\n2. Four of the main UK banks (Barclays, HSBC, Lloyds Banking Group and RBS) have each agreed to invest up to £50 million in", "bank. This tool is generally used in countries with non-convertible currencies or partially convertible currencies. The recipient of the local currency may be allowed to freely dispose of the funds, required to hold the funds with the central bank for some period of time, or allowed to use the funds subject to certain restrictions. In other cases, the ability to hold or use the foreign exchange may be otherwise limited.\nIn this method, money supply is increased by the central bank when it purchases the foreign currency by issuing (selling) the local currency. The central bank may subsequently reduce the money", "limitation period. Foreign bank accounts Some may be able to protect their assets by transferring them into a bank account in a foreign country, where the money is considered to be untouchable according to the laws of the country where the judgment was made. However, in the United States, more recent court rulings have made this more difficult.", "with transferring US$500 million from an account belonging to the central bank to a bank account in the UK. Authorities in the UK froze this amount as it was a suspicious transaction and the money can now be returned to the central bank.", "bank and others of cash going out. Banks do not have a reliable way of predicting what or how much those transactions will be. At the end of each day banks must reconcile their positions. The bank that finds itself with a surplus of cash would miss out earning interest on the cash, even if it's for only one night. Other banks may find that they had more money going out than coming in, and the bank must borrow cash to cover the shortfall. To meet its liquidity obligations, the bank with the shortfall would borrow from a bank with", "banks. The Federal Reserve therefore performs an intermediary role, clearing and settling international bank payments. Prior to the completion of the clearing, the banks settle payment transactions by debiting the accounts of the depository institutions, while crediting the accounts of depository institutions receiving the payments.\nThe Fedwire Funds Service provides a real-time gross settlement system in which more than 9,500 participants are able to initiate electronic funds transfers that are immediate, final, and irrevocable. Depository institutions that maintain an account with a Reserve Bank are eligible to use the service to send payments directly to, or receive payments from, other participants.", "and settlement of multiple or individual customer transactions within the bank, usually on the same day. Such accounts can lead to the concealment by financial institutions transactions made by customers, however section 325 bans their use for such purposes by prohibiting financial institutions from allowing clients to direct transactions that move their funds into, out of, or through the concentration accounts of the financial institution. Financial institutions are also prohibited from informing clients about the existence of such accounts and disallows any disclosure that may give customer a way of identifying such accounts that the financial institution may use. The", "banks, which in turn were required to have reserves in central city banks. During the planting seasons, rural banks would exploit their reserves to finance full plantings, and during the harvest seasons they would use profits from loan interest payments to restore and grow their reserves. A national bank whose reserves were being drained would replace its reserves by selling stocks and bonds, by borrowing from a clearing house or by calling in loans. As there was little in the way of deposit insurance, if a bank was rumored to be having liquidity problems then this might cause many people", "the end of that month, the unprecedented worsening of the economic situation, investments away due to the complicated situation policy caused public distrust in the financial system, so strong withdrawals from bank deposits occurred. To stop them, the economy minister imposed restrictions involving the freezing of funds deposited in banks, measurement known as the \"corralito\" 44 The measure was enacted on December 1 and originally allowed only one withdrawal of 250 pesos weekly cash the ban on sending money out of the country and the obligation to perform most of the business operations by check, credit card or debit card,", "billion into India.\nMoney is sent to India either electronically (for example, by SWIFT) or by demand draft. In recent years many banks are offering money transfers and this has grown into a huge business. Around 40% of the India's remittances flow to the states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh which are among the top international remittance receiving states. States like Andhra Pradesh gets most of its remittance from USA, Kerala from UAE, Punjab from Canada as most of the people migrate from their states to these countries. Research work on remittances to India is listed", "transactions may still only be settled with a member bank. But this stipulation is reportedly under review as the BancNet POS is now being considered for the collection requirements of government agencies and government controlled entities. In this case, a non-member bank acts as the depository while the BancNet treasury bank acts as the collecting bank.", "a new tax transparency law that would allow for a more effective battle against tax evasion. Starting in 2018, banks in both Greece and Switzerland will exchange information about the bank accounts of citizens of the other country to minimize the possibility of hiding untaxed income.\nIn 2016 and 2017, the government was encouraging the use of credit cards or debit cards to pay for goods and services in order to reduce cash only payments. By January 2017, taxpayers were only granted tax-allowances or deductions when payments were made electronically, with a \"paper trail\" of the transactions that the government could", "private bank accounts in Switzerland and London, through a complex set of transactions between 1992 and 1994, using a private investment company named Trocca, all with the help of Citibank and its affiliates. In 2008, the government of Switzerland turned over $74 million, out of the $110 million in frozen bank accounts held by Trocca to the government of Mexico. The Swiss Justice Ministry indicated that the Mexican government had demonstrated that $66 million of the funds had been misappropriated, and the funds, with interest, were returned to Mexico. The bank accounts were held at Pictet & Cie, Citibank Zurich,", "country needs to progress in banking and economy.\nIf banks want to borrow money (for short term, usually overnight) from RBI then banks have to charge this interest rate. Banks have to pledge government securities as collateral. This kind of deal happens through a re-purchase agreement. If a bank wants to borrow ₹100 crore (US$14 million), it has to provide government securities at least worth ₹100 crore (could be more because of margin requirement which is 5%–10% of loan amount) and agree to repurchase them at ₹106.5 crore (US$15 million) at the end of borrowing period. So the bank has paid ₹6.5 crore (US$940,000)", "for the clearing of checks to and from individual banks) based in New York were gaining power at the public's expense. This was done via minimum capital requirements as well as predatory membership and discriminatory member policies. The report states, \"Non-member banks must engage a member bank as its clearing agent, which in effect leaves its future up to the discretion a single bank.\" This clause allowed member banks and the boards of these clearing houses to stifle any competition that might arise from smaller upstart banks by simply telling their member banks not to act as their clearing agents.", "6.5% of all households did not have a bank account; and 18.7% with accounts also used non-insured institutions for financial transactions. In New York City, 12% did not have bank accounts in 2013; including “domestic violence survivors who don't wish to be traced and undocumented immigrants as some of those who may face significant challenges when opening bank accounts”. They instead often use payday loans and check cashing facilities. Torres’ proposal would fine non-compliant businesses, while allowing them to refuse currency higher than $20 bills. It also prohibits charging more for using cash payment. Third-Party Transfer program In July 2019,", "securities settlement systems. Since ultimately, the Banks need to meet their obligations in Central Bank money held in payment systems that are commonly operated or closely supervised by central banks (e.g. CHAPS, FedWire, Target2, which are also referred to as large value payment systems), it is of great interest to monitor these systems' participants' (mainly banks) liquidity positions.\nThe amount of liquidity held by banks on their accounts can be a lot less (and usually is) than the total value of transferred payments during a day. The total amount of liquidity needed by banks to settle a given set of payments", "bank to buy back its currency on a specified future date at the same exchange rate. The second transaction unwinds the first. At the conclusion of the second transaction, the foreign central bank pays interest, at a market-based rate, to the Federal Reserve.\nWhen the foreign central bank lends the dollars it obtained by drawing on its swap line to institutions in its jurisdiction, the dollars are transferred from the foreign central bank's account at the Federal Reserve to the account of the bank that the borrowing institution uses to clear its dollar transactions. The foreign central bank remains obligated to", "the absence of funds in a transactional account on the day the check is due to clear at the bank. Such acts are frequently committed by bankrupt or temporarily unemployed individuals or small businesses seeking emergency loans, by start-up businesses or other struggling businesses seeking interest-free financing while intending to make good on their balances, or by pathological gamblers who have the expectation of depositing funds upon winning. It has also been used by those who have some genuine funds in interest-bearing accounts, but who artificially inflate their balances in order to increase the interest paid by their banks.", "any existing funds—it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new high-powered money. Commercial banks can freely withdraw in cash any excess reserves from their reserve account at the Federal Reserve. To fulfill those requests, the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department. The Treasury Department in turn sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new dollar bills) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).\nUsually, the short-term goal of open market operations is to achieve a specific short-term interest rate target. In other" ]

[ "Automatics weigh more, so that alone makes gas mileage worse. They are also more complicated, so that means reliability is going to be lower. It is easier to operate, which may free up your attention for focus on what is *outside* the car.\n\nSome people derive satisfaction from shifting, and flexibility in using the power curve." ]

[ "amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some systems will override the driver's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speeds. Comparison with manual transmission Most cars sold in North America since the 1950s have been available with an automatic transmission, based on the fact that the three major American car manufacturers had started using automatics. Conversely, in Europe a manual gearbox is standard, with only 20% of drivers opting", "selection of gear ratios. Many vehicles offer a 5-speed or 6-speed manual, whereas the automatic option would typically be a 4-speed. This is generally due to the increased space available inside a manual transmission compared with an automatic, since the latter requires extra components for self-shifting, such as torque converters and pumps. However, automatic transmissions are now adding more speeds as the technology matures. ZF currently manufactures 7- and 8-speed automatic transmissions. ZF is also planning a 9-speed automatic for use in front-wheel drive vehicles. The increased number of gears allows for better use of the engine's power band, resulting", "fear of losing too much speed to reach a hilltop, automatic transmissions are at a great advantage — whereas driving a manual car depends on finding a gear that is not too low to enter the bottom of the hill at the necessary speed, but not too high to stall the engine at the top of the hill, sometimes an impossible task, this is not an issue with automatic transmissions, not just because gearshifts are quick, but they typically maintain some power on the driving wheels during the gear change. Energy efficiency Earlier hydraulic automatic transmissions were almost always less", "Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck", "floor and move the gearstick from one position to another. This is especially true in regards to dual-clutch transmissions, which are specialized computer-controlled automatic transmissions that mechanically operate more like a manual transmission than a traditional automatic one. Ease of use Because manual transmissions require the operation of an extra pedal, and keeping the vehicle in the correct gear at all times, they require more concentration, especially in heavy traffic situations. The automatic transmissions, on the other hand, simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed, with the vehicle doing the work of choosing an appropriate", "better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\nConversely, manual transmissions are no longer popular in many classes of vehicles sold in North America, Australia, and some parts of Asia, although they remain dominant in other parts of Asia, and in Europe, Africa, and Latin America. Nearly all vehicles are available", "for an automatic gearbox compared to the United States. In some Asian markets and in Australia, automatic transmissions have become very popular since the 1980s.\nVehicles equipped with automatic transmissions are not as complex to drive. Consequently, in some jurisdictions, drivers who have passed their driving test in a vehicle with an automatic transmission will not be licensed to drive a manual transmission vehicle. Conversely, a manual license will allow the driver to drive vehicles with either an automatic or manual transmission. Countries in which such driving license restrictions are applied include some states in Australia, Austria, Botswana, Belgium, Belize, China,", "of a continuously variable transmission, which slip by nature. Manual transmissions also lack the parasitic power consumption of the automatic transmission's hydraulic pump. Also, manual transmissions do not require active cooling and because they are, mechanically, much simpler than automatic transmissions, they generally weigh less than comparable automatics, which can improve economy in stop-and-go traffic. Because of this, manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions; however the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions. Increased fuel economy with a properly operated manual transmission vehicle versus an", "energy efficient than manual transmissions due mainly to viscous and pumping losses (parasitic losses), both in the torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. 21% is the loss on a 3-speed Chrysler Torqueflite compared to a modern GM 6L80 automatic. A relatively small amount of energy is required to pressurise the hydraulic control system, which uses fluid pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms. However, with technological developments some modern continuously variable transmissions are more fuel efficient than their manual counterparts and modern 8-speed automatics are within 5% as efficient as a manual gearbox.\nManual", "AP automatic transmission Known Issues - Because the unit uses engine oil for both lubrication and for powering its hydraulic circuit, engine oil changes are critical to the long term reliability of the transmission. Typically it should be changed every 6000 miles.\n- The transmission is not interchangeable with a conventional BMC sump mounted manual gearbox. Because of an extended flywheel mounting flange on the crankshaft, the AP automatic requires to be fitted to its own unique version of the A-series engine. This causes issues for Mini owners wanting to convert to a manual gearbox, since the entire", "mechanism must be calibrated and tuned to deliver a fast gear change.\nGenerally, a dual-clutch transmission (DCT) shifts faster than a standard automatic or semi-automatic transmission. This is possible because the DCT can pre-select the next gear change and switch between two separate clutches to the next pre-determined gear, thus reducing shift times. Using a freewheel may reduce shift time as it may not be necessary to use the clutch. A shift kit is also intended to reduce the shift time of a manual vehicle.\nIn a manual transmission car, shift time for upshifts can be reduced by installing a lighter flywheel.", "gearhead because some of the features he describes are mutually exclusive with others: a car with an \"automatic ... Hydramatic\" transmission therefore could not have \"a four speed on the floor\" i.e. manual transmission, and \"four-barrel quads\" are carburetors inconsistent with true \"Fuel injection cut off\". (In the film, despite the contradictions in the lyrics, the greasers along with a shop teacher succeed in rebuilding the car into racing condition.) Both the musical and the film imply that at least some of the parts Kenickie uses are stolen.\nIn the original recording, as was in the case with the stage musical", "in the United States shortly after production began due to a risk of exhaust system fires. Owners that were not made aware of the manual shifting mode (\"sport mode\") of the 4-speed automatic transmission would mistakenly leave the shifter in that position, resulting in high temperatures as the car would remain in second gear. Mazda's solution was to add a heat shield around the muffler and to alter the vehicle's software to not allow excessively high engine speeds beyond a short period of time when in \"sport mode\". Although the five-speed manual transmission equipped cars would seemingly not need to", "rotates faster than the driveshaft. For example, Saab used a freewheel system in the Saab 96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel efficiency. It was also used in Saab's two-stroke models at the cost of engine braking. Some cars, such as the Rover P4, include a manual switch to engage or disengage the freewheel. Manual Manual transmission is also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, standard, and stick. Most automobile manual transmissions have several gear ratios that are chosen by locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission. Manual transmissions feature a driver-operated clutch", "or alternatively it can be driven in exactly the same way as a fully conventional automatic—however, many Easytronic owners have complained that gear shifts in \"automatic mode\" are jerky; a common complaint with semi-autos based on a conventional manual gearbox. As with conventional, full automatic transmission cars, the Easytronic will \"creep\" forwards when the driver's foot is released from the brake pedal when the car is stationary. Packard Also in 1941, Packard introduced the Electro-Matic clutch, which was a vacuum operated clutch pedal, signaled by the position of the accelerator. Significantly, it came with an 'off' switch, probably due to", "(which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to \"slippage\" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.\nAttempts to improve fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut", "k.p.h.) and effect a \"kick-down\" gear change. Many people assume they have a two speed transmission because they expect the first Drive position (D2) to shift through all three gears as all automatic transmissions have done since 1968. Some vehicles had the same system without the D1 and D2, instead just having D, and only 5 stations on the quadrant.\nStarting in 1965 the M-3x was made with the now common P-R-N-D-2-1 shift arrangement (Park, Reverse, Neutral, Drive, Second gear, First gear). AMC called this \"Shift-Command\" to differentiate it from the D2/D1 models, since either could be ordered in an", "transmission built by ZF Friedrichshafen. The decision to replace the automatic transmission was primarily made to make the car more engaging to drive. This move was lauded by the purists and resulted in a positive response.\nThe interior was available in three colour combinations, those being black leather with blue and green stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel (or alternatively red stitching), red leather with red stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel and beige with maroon piping and maroon stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel. Noticeable changes to the interior include an Alpina blue instrument cluster, Alpina logos", "reverse gear must be used, with rear-wheel drive. The gearbox is constructed of carbon titanium, as heat dissipation is a critical issue, and is bolted onto the back of the engine. Full automatic gearboxes, and systems such as launch control and traction control, are illegal, to keep driver skill important in controlling the car. The driver initiates gear changes using paddles mounted on the back of the steering wheel and electro-hydraulics perform the actual change as well as throttle control. Clutch control is also performed electro-hydraulically, except to and from a standstill, when the driver operates the clutch using a", "difficult to use controls that aren't understood, which is not good because understanding control operation of an unfamiliar car is one of the first steps recommended in defensive driving. Owner's manuals usually cover three main areas: a description of the location and operation of all controls; a schedule and descriptions of maintenance required, both by the owner and by a mechanic; and specifications such as oil and fuel capacity and part numbers of light bulbs used. Current car owner's manuals have become much bigger in part due to many safety warnings most likely designed to avoid product liability lawsuits, as", "should occur.\nIn many jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom, a driving licence issued for only vehicles with an automatic transmission is not valid for driving vehicles with a manual transmission, but a licence for manual transmissions covers both. This is also the case for P1 (provisional-1) car licence holders in New South Wales, Australia, but P2 (provisional-2) licence holders are allowed to drive vehicles with either transmission. Shifting speed Automatic transmissions can typically shift ratios faster than a manual gear change can be accomplished, due to the time required for the average driver to push the clutch pedal to the", "an incline, this problem is made worse because the amount of work needed to overcome the acceleration of gravity causes the clutch to heat up considerably more. For this reason, stop-and-go driving and hills tend to have an effect on the clutches to a certain degree.\nAutomatic transmissions are better suited for these applications because they have a hydraulic torque converter which is externally cooled, unlike a clutch. Torque converters also do not have a friction material that rubs off over time like a clutch. Some automatics even lock the output shaft so that the vehicle cannot roll backwards when beginning", "that opt to disallow road tests on automatic vehicles completely, China, Dominican Republic, Israel, Jordan, Norway, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, and the U.A.E. This treatment of the manual transmission skill seems to maintain the widespread use of the manual transmission. As many new drivers worry that their restricted license will become an obstacle for them where most vehicles have manual transmissions, they make the effort to learn with manual transmissions and obtain full licenses. Some other countries (such as Turkey, Greece, Georgia, India, Pakistan, Portugal, Malaysia, Serbia, Brazil, Ukraine and Denmark) go even further,", "change that tends to be rougher than the others, where just one band is released or actuated. This also means more wear in auto box parts. This is solved by the use of one-way overrun clutches which allow one or more components to \"free wheel\" when the transmission shifts into a higher gear. GM's Turbo Hydra-Matic 350 and 400 transmissions utilized overrun clutches in both the low and intermediate gears, allowing for fully progressive shifting with no \"overlap\".\nDue to both factors abovementioned, gear changing patterns in some Simpson gearboxes, including modern 4-speed units, avoid first gear as much", "pedal and gear stick. Historically, cars had a manual overdrive switch. Automatic The desire for driver convenience led to the widespread implementation of the semi-automatic transmission, automatic transmission and continuously variable transmission (CVT). Some automatic transmission vehicles have extra controls that modify the choices made by the transmission system. These controls depend on the engine and road speed. Automatic transmissions generally have a straight pattern, beginning at the most forward position with park, and running through reverse, neutral, drive, and then to the lower gears. Signals and lighting Cars have controls for headlamps, fog lamps, turn signals, and other automotive", "freewheel mechanism acts as an automatic clutch, making it possible to change gears in a manual gearbox, either up- or downshifting, without depressing the clutch pedal, limiting the use of the manual clutch to starting from standstill or stopping. The Saab freewheel can be engaged or disengaged by the driver by respectively pushing or pulling a lever. This locks or unlocks the main shaft with the freewheel hub.\nA freewheel also produces slightly better fuel economy on carbureted engines (without fuel turn-off on engine brake) and less wear on the manual clutch, but leads to more wear on the brakes as", "use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible.\nAutomatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, some automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems", "third out of four gearboxes that are available, but gearbox upgrades require an engine that is strong enough to allow shifting into higher gears in order to be effective. Upgrading the armor allows cars to take more damage before the armor is destroyed in the area that is being upgraded. The paint shop allows the color of the car to be changed. Upgrading the tires improves their grip and the car's turning performance. Reception Reviewing the Genesis version, GamePro assessed that Top Gear 2 has a good number of tracks and solid controls, but feels outdated compared to contemporary racing", "for vehicles equipped with the 7-speed automatic has been (numerically) reduced from 3.69 to 3.36, the new 7-speed automatic has much lower first through fourth gear overall ratios than the old 5-speed automatic and the 6-speed manual in the 6MT cars (which retain the old 3.69 final drive ratio). Giving it closer gear ratios in all gears, to match engine rpm better with power demand, brings better acceleration while overdrive ratios in 6th and 7th gears reduces highway cruising rpm and improves fuel mileage. The new 7-speed automatic retains the Drive Sport (DS) shift mode and Downshift Rev Matching (DRM)", "gear, but for safety reasons this is only possible when the motorcycle is stationary. Some models also have gear position indicators for all gear positions at the instrument panel. Semi-manual Some new transmissions (Alfa Romeo's Selespeed gearbox and BMW's Sequential Manual Gearbox (SMG) for example) are conventional manual transmissions with a computerized control mechanism. These transmissions feature independently selectable gears but do not have a clutch pedal. Instead, the transmission computer controls a servo which disengages the clutch when necessary.\nThese transmissions vary from sequential transmissions in that they still allow nonsequential shifts: the SMG system formerly used by BMW, for" ]

[ "We know that light moves at the speed *c* (roughly 300000km/s).\n\nSo here's a question for you (that Einstein asked himself): what would you see if you sat on a beam of light and looked into the mirror? Would your reflection disappear? Would it be normal?\n\nHe then thought: what's the speed of light relative to anyway?\n\nHere's the thing: if I run 10m/s, and I'm on a train going at 100m/s, then when I run along the train I'm running 10m/s relative to the train, and 110m/s relative to the tracks. So what is the speed of light relative to?\n\nIn his earlier career he did some experiments [EDIT: He didn't: it was Michelson and Morley, but Einstein knew about the results, and everything. Thanks /u/AramisAthosPorthos for pointing that out.]: can you tell which way the Earth is moving by looking at light inside a sealed box? If the speed of light is measured compared to something in the universe (which they called a luminiferous aether, IIRC) then you should be able to measure it, by seeing that the light hits one side of the box earlier, because the box is moving.\n\nBut there was no change, so Einstein realised that the speed of light isn't relative to anything. No matter what speed you're going at, you must always get the same speed of light.\n\nThis led to the special theory of relativity. He basically said \"what if time is variable and the speed of light is constant?\" and did all the maths to figure out what would happen. It's called \"special relativity\" because it only works in a special case: there is no mass (which causes forces) in it.\n\nGeneral relativity involved a lot more complicated maths to take into account the affects of gravity, which he modelled as a warping of space-time, and took some really, really hard maths to figure out. It's called general relativity because it can be applied to generally any situation. (Actually, it breaks down at quantum-mechanics levels, but that's a different story.)\n\nI think that covers the difference and where they came from. If you want any more details on them, feel free to ask and I'll see what I can get for you." ]

[ "Relativity: The Special and the General Theory Relativity: The Special and the General Theory began as a short paper and was eventually published as a book written by Albert Einstein with the aim of giving:\n. . . an exact insight into the theory of relativity to those readers who, from a general scientific and philosophical point of view, are interested in the theory, but who are not conversant with the mathematical apparatus of theoretical physics.\n— from the Preface\nIt was first published in German in 1916 and later translated into English in 1920. It is divided into 3 parts, the first dealing", "special theory of relativity was proposed by Einstein as an explanation for the seeming inconsistency between the constancy of the speed of light and the non-existence of a special, preferred or absolute frame of reference.\nAlbert Einstein's theory of general relativity could not easily be tested as it did not produce any effects observable on a terrestrial scale. However, as one of the first tests of general relativity, the theory predicted that large masses such as stars would bend light, in contradiction to accepted theory; this was observed in a 1919 eclipse. Finance Mathematical models of stock market behaviour (and economic", "Physical theories modified by general relativity Classical mechanics and special relativity Classical mechanics and special relativity are lumped together here because special relativity is in many ways intermediate between general relativity and classical mechanics, and shares many attributes with classical mechanics.\nIn the following discussion, the mathematics of general relativity is used heavily. Also, under the principle of minimal coupling, the physical equations of special relativity can be turned into their general relativity counterparts by replacing the Minkowski metric (ηab) with the relevant metric of spacetime (gab) and by replacing any partial derivatives with covariant derivatives. In the discussions that follow,", "\"general relativity\".", "or general relativity.", "relativity resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the frame-dependent concept of spacetime.\nGeneral relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16. It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that gravitation can be described by", "relativity generalizes the notion of inertial frame to include all physical laws, not simply Newton's first law.\nNewton viewed the first law as valid in any reference frame that is in uniform motion relative to the fixed stars; that is, neither rotating nor accelerating relative to the stars. Today the notion of \"absolute space\" is abandoned, and an inertial frame in the field of classical mechanics is defined as:\nAn inertial frame of reference is one in which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is in a straight line at constant speed.\nHence, with respect to an inertial frame, an", "History of special relativity The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. It culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein and subsequent work of Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others. Introduction Although Isaac Newton based his physics on absolute time and space, he also adhered to the principle of relativity of Galileo Galilei restating it precisely for mechanical systems. This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally", "Relativity of simultaneity In physics, the relativity of simultaneity is the concept that distant simultaneity – whether two spatially separated events occur at the same time – is not absolute, but depends on the observer's reference frame. Description According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense that two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. If one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to two events that are at different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first will generally assign", "of relativity, which states that the laws of physics remain the same for any non-accelerating frame of reference (called an inertial reference frame), to the laws of electrodynamics and optics as well as mechanics. In the second postulate, Einstein proposes that the speed of light has the same value in all frames of reference, independent of the state of motion of the emitting body.\nSpecial relativity is thus consistent with the result of the Michelson–Morley experiment, which had not detected a medium of conductance (or aether) for light waves unlike other known waves that require a medium (such as water or", "Introduction to general relativity From special to general relativity In September 1905, Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity, which reconciles Newton's laws of motion with electrodynamics (the interaction between objects with electric charge). Special relativity introduced a new framework for all of physics by proposing new concepts of space and time. Some then-accepted physical theories were inconsistent with that framework; a key example was Newton's theory of gravity, which describes the mutual attraction experienced by bodies due to their mass.\nSeveral physicists, including Einstein, searched for a theory that would reconcile Newton's law of gravity and special", "Rietdijk–Putnam argument In philosophy, the Rietdijk–Putnam argument, named after C. W. Rietdijk and Hilary Putnam, uses 20th-century findings in physics – specifically in special relativity – to support the philosophical position known as four-dimensionalism.\nIf special relativity is true, then each observer will have their own plane of simultaneity, which contains a unique set of events that constitutes the observer's present moment. Observers moving at different relative velocities have different planes of simultaneity, and hence different sets of events that are present. Each observer considers their set of present events to be a three-dimensional universe, but even the slightest movement of the head", "physicists believe general relativity is a fundamentally accurate description of gravitation, and instead seek a theory of quantum gravity. Total vs. partial holism Some scholars, like Quine, argue that if a prediction that a theory makes comes out true, then the corresponding piece of evidence confirms the whole theory and even the whole framework within which that theory is embedded. Some have questioned this radical or total form of confirmational holism. If total holism were true, they argue, that would lead to absurd consequences like the confirmation of arbitrary conjunctions. For example, if the general theory of relativity is confirmed", "Oxford University Press published Introduction to Special Relativity, with the second edition in 1991. A reviewer noted that other books provide a better introduction and intuitive understanding, but that it \"should provide a useful reference for most applications of special relativity: kinematics, optics, particle mechanics, electromagnetism and mechanics of continua.\"\nIn 1984 Roger Penrose and Rindler published Spinors and Spacetime, volume 1, on \"two-spinor calculus and relativistic fields\". Michał Heller wrote that Spinors and Spacetime \"is both elementary and highly advanced. It begins on an almost graduate level but soon, step by step, reaches the highest standards of modern mathematical physics.\"\nIn", "points, and determined, in their turn, by physical factors, namely the distribution of mass/energy. Thus the aether of general relativity differs from those of classical mechanics and special relativity in that it is not ‘absolute’ but determined, in its locally variable characteristics, by ponderable matter.\n— Albert Einstein, Über den Äther (1924) General relativity Special relativity eliminates absolute time (although Gödel and others suspect absolute time may be valid for some forms of general relativity) and general relativity further reduces the physical scope of absolute space and time through the concept of geodesics. There appears to be absolute space in relation to", "fundamental for the special theory of relativity is this: The assumptions relativity and light speed invariance are compatible if relations of a new type (\"Lorentz transformation\") are postulated for the conversion of coordinates and times of events... The universal principle of the special theory of relativity is contained in the postulate: The laws of physics are invariant with respect to Lorentz transformations (for the transition from one inertial system to any other arbitrarily chosen inertial system). This is a restricting principle for natural laws...\nThus many modern treatments of special relativity base it on the single postulate of universal Lorentz covariance,", "with special relativity, the second dealing with general relativity and the third dealing with considerations on the universe as a whole. There have been many versions published since the original in 1916, the latest in December, 2011. The work has been labeled unique in that it gives readers an insight into the thought processes of one of the greatest minds of the 20th century.", "of the same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression \"theory of relativity\" (German: Relativitätstheorie).\nBy the 1920s, the physics community understood and accepted special relativity. It rapidly became a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic physics, nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics.\nBy comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful, beyond making minor corrections to predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory. It seemed to offer little potential for experimental test, as most of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics seemed difficult and fully understandable only by", "of the universe (special relativity) Special relativity places space and time on equal footing, so that one considers the geometry of a unified spacetime instead of considering space and time separately. Minkowski geometry replaces Galilean geometry (which is the three-dimensional Euclidean space with time of Galilean relativity).\nIn relativity, rather than considering Euclidean, elliptic and hyperbolic geometries, the appropriate geometries to consider are Minkowski space, de Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space, corresponding to zero, positive and negative curvature respectively.\nHyperbolic geometry enters special relativity through rapidity, which stands in for velocity, and is expressed by a hyperbolic angle. The study of", "confuses a physical theory with a moral value. Similarly, New Scientist stated at the end of their article that:\nIn the end there is no liberal conspiracy at work. Unfortunately, humanities scholars often confuse the issue by misusing the term \"relativity\". The theory in no way encourages relativism, regardless of what Conservapedia may think. The theory of relativity is ultimately not so much about what it renders relative—three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time—but about what it renders absolute: the speed of light and four-dimensional space-time.\nIn October 2010, Scientific American criticized Conservapedia's attitude towards the Theory of Relativity, assigning them a zero score", "situations. However, general relativity is a fully covariant theory – its laws are the same, independent of which coordinates are chosen to describe a given situation. One direct consequence is that two apparently different exact solutions could correspond to the same model universe, and differ only in their coordinates. Ehlers began to look for serviceable ways of characterizing exact solutions invariantly, that is, in ways that do not depend on coordinate choice. In order to do so, he examined ways of describing the intrinsic geometric properties of the known exact solutions.\nDuring the 1960s, following up on his doctoral thesis, Ehlers", "Relativity priority dispute Albert Einstein presented the theories of special relativity and general relativity in publications that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, and to the work of Carl F. Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and Ernst Mach for general relativity. Subsequently, claims have been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Einstein. At issue is the extent", "may be perceived by another (in a different frame of reference) as a magnetic force, or a mixture of electric and magnetic forces.\nFormally, special relativity combines the electric and magnetic fields into a rank-2 tensor, called the electromagnetic tensor. Changing reference frames mixes these components. This is analogous to the way that special relativity mixes space and time into spacetime, and mass, momentum, and energy into four-momentum. Quantum electrodynamics In modern physics, the electromagnetic field is understood to be not a classical field, but rather a quantum field; it is represented not as a vector of three numbers at each", "Mathematics of general relativity Tensors The principle of general covariance states that the laws of physics should take the same mathematical form in all reference frames and was one of the central principles in the development of general relativity. The term 'general covariance' was used in the early formulation of general relativity, but is now referred to by many as diffeomorphism covariance. Although diffeomorphism covariance is not the defining feature of general relativity, and controversies remain regarding its present status in general relativity, the invariance property of physical laws implied in the principle coupled with the fact that the theory", "of Einstein's general relativity, by Israeli scientists Yaakov Friedman in collaboration with Joseph Steiner, RND predicts accurately both classical and modern tests of general relativity, such as, the perihelion precession of Mercury (planet) which agree with the known observed perihelion precession, the periastron advance of a binary star, which is identical to the post-Keplerian equation of the relativistic advance of the periastron in a binary, gravitational lensing which is identical to Einstein's formula for weak gravitational lensing using GR, and light travel (Shapiro delay) time delay which agree with the known formula for the Shapiro time", "changing present. This conventional model presents a number of difficult philosophical problems, and seems difficult to reconcile with currently accepted scientific theories such as the theory of relativity.\nSpecial relativity eliminates the concept of absolute simultaneity and a universal present: according to the relativity of simultaneity, observers in different frames of reference can have different measurements of whether a given pair of events happened at the same time or at different times, with there being no physical basis for preferring one frame's judgments over another's. However, there are events that may be non-simultaneous in all frames of reference: when one event", "to curve.\nWhile general relativity replaces the scalar gravitational potential of classical physics by a symmetric rank-two tensor, the latter reduces to the former in certain limiting cases. For weak gravitational fields and slow speed relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation.\nAs it is constructed using tensors, general relativity exhibits general covariance: its laws—and further laws formulated within the general relativistic framework—take on the same form in all coordinate systems. Furthermore, the theory does not contain any invariant geometric background structures, i.e. it is background independent. It thus satisfies a", "of Lorentz and proved the Lorentz covariance of the electromagnetic equations. However, he used the notion of an aether as a perfectly undetectable medium and distinguished between apparent and real time, so most historians of science argue that he failed to invent special relativity. Special relativity Aether theory was dealt another blow when the Galilean transformation and Newtonian dynamics were both modified by Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, giving the mathematics of Lorentzian electrodynamics a new, \"non-aether\" context. Unlike most major shifts in scientific thought, special relativity was adopted by the scientific community remarkably quickly, consistent with Einstein's later", "Very special relativity Ignoring gravity, experimental bounds seem to suggest that special relativity with its Lorentz symmetry and Poincaré symmetry describes spacetime. Surprisingly, Cohen and Glashow have demonstrated that a small subgroup of the Lorentz group is sufficient to explain all the current bounds.\nThe minimal subgroup in question can be described as follows: The stabilizer of a null vector is the special Euclidean group SE(2), which contains T(2) as the subgroup of parabolic transformations. This T(2), when extended to include either parity or time reversal (i.e. subgroups of the orthochronous and time-reversal respectively), is sufficient to give us all the", "Event symmetry What it means Since general relativity was discovered by Albert Einstein in 1915, observation and experiment have demonstrated that it is an accurate gravitation theory up to cosmic scales. On small scales, the laws of quantum mechanics have likewise been found to describe nature in a way consistent with every experiment performed, so far. To describe the laws of the universe fully a synthesis of general relativity and quantum mechanics must be found. Only then can physicists hope to understand the realms where gravity and quantum come together. The Big Bang is one such place.\nThe task to find" ]

[ "I hope this answer qualifies as technical, yet simple enough (as I very rarely post here), but the basic idea that I understand is that your muscles rip and tear on a microscopic level when you are working out, and the harder you push those muscles, the more they rip. Hence where the idea comes from that more reps and less weight equal more tone, but more weight and less reps equal more muscle growth.\n\nWhat happens is that following those tiny rips and tears, your muscle heals over itself and essentially stacks on top of itself, healing bigger and stronger than before. The more those muscles are used, kept active and challenged, the more they will continue to build and grow over time.\n\nOther factors go into the growth of muscle as well, such as your nutrition. Protein, fats, etc. also play a factor, as they cause your body to \"feed\" your body and muscles in different ways of varying effectiveness - but I think that's an ELI5 for another day.", "The enlargement of muscles, known as hypertrophy, is essentially the tearing of muscle fibers being put back together by larger muscle fibers." ]

[ "Muscle Structure The anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle. Microanatomy Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each end, where the epimysium becomes thicker and collagenous. It also protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones. Within the epimysium are multiple bundles called fascicles, each of which contains 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers collectively sheathed by a perimysium. Besides surrounding each fascicle, the perimysium", "muscle cells are ideal in the aspect that they have already finished development as a muscle, but proliferate hardly at all. Therefore, cells such as myosattelite and myoblast cells are often used as they still proliferate at an acceptable rate, but also sufficiently differentiate from other types of cells. Growth medium The cells are then treated by applying a solution that promotes tissue growth, which is known as a growth medium. These mediums should contain the necessary nutrients and appropriate quantity of growth factors. They are then placed in a culture medium, in a bio-reactor, which is able to supply", "exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result we have fewer muscle cells as an adult than a newborn. Muscle contraction When contracting, thin and thick filaments slide with respect to each other by using adenosine triphosphate. This pulls the Z discs closer together in a process called sliding filament mechanism. The contraction of all the", "is a pathway for nerves and the flow of blood within the muscle. The threadlike muscle fibers are the individual muscle cells (myocytes), and each cell is encased within its own endomysium of collagen fibers. Thus, the overall muscle consists of fibers (cells) that are bundled into fascicles, which are themselves grouped together to form muscles. At each level of bundling, a collagenous membrane surrounds the bundle, and these membranes support muscle function both by resisting passive stretching of the tissue and by distributing forces applied to the muscle. Scattered throughout the muscles are muscle spindles that provide sensory", "filaments along the axis of the muscle. During contraction, the muscle shortens along its longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse axis, producing vibrations at the surface. Evolution The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic. In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor. In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and", "increase muscular hypertrophy.\nMuscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education. Atrophy During ordinary living activities, between 1 to 2 percent of muscle is broken down and rebuilt daily. Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied", "is able to innervate multiple muscle fibers, thereby causing the fibers to contract at the same time. Once innervated, the protein filaments within each skeletal muscle fiber slide past each other to produce a contraction, which is explained by the sliding filament theory. The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials. In skeletal muscles, muscle tension is at its greatest when the muscle is stretched to an intermediate length as described by the length-tension relationship.\nUnlike skeletal muscle, the contractions of smooth and cardiac muscles are myogenic (meaning that they", "Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscles Connective tissue is present in all muscles as fascia. Enclosing each muscle is a layer of connective tissue known as the epimysium; enclosing each fascicle is a layer called the perimysium, and enclosing each muscle fiber is a layer of connective tissue called the endomysium. Types of muscle by action Many muscles are named by the action the muscle performs. These include:\nThe flexor and extensor; abductor and adductor; levator and depressor; supinator and pronator; sphincter, tensor, and rotator muscles.\nA flexor muscle decreases the anterior angle at a joint; an extensor increases the anterior angle at a", "work of the skeletal muscle in response to an independent variable, such as the direct application of caffeine, sodium bicarbonate, and taurine to an isolated skeletal muscle, and the changes in work loop power output and fatigue resistance during ageing and in response to an obesogenic diet. Identifying muscle functional roles: motors, brakes, springs, or struts As a “motor” the muscle does work on the environment resulting in positive work in the work loop in the counter-clockwise direction. When positive work happens the length of the muscle will increase followed by an increase in force before reaching a peak. When", "force through simultaneous contractions of cellular structures called sarcomeres. Importantly, these cells are kept in a terminal G₀ phase since disruption of muscle fiber structure after myofiber formation would prevent proper transmission of force through the length of the muscle. Muscle growth can be stimulated by growth or injury and involves the recruitment of muscle stem cells – also known as satellite cells – out of a reversible quiescent state. These stem cells differentiate and fuse to generate new muscle fibers both in parallel and in series to increase force generation capacity.\nCardiac muscle is also formed through myogenesis but instead", "Muscular system Muscles There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non-striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the body to keep warm. Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscles, like other striated muscles, are composed of myocytes, or muscle fibers, which are in turn composed of myofibrils, which are composed of sarcomeres, the basic building block of striated muscle tissue. Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.", "muscle, when present, is similar to its neighbouring adductors, it is formed by separation from the superficial layer of the external obturator, and is thus not ontogenetically related to the adductor muscles of the hip. This muscle originates from the upper part of the inferior pubic ramus from where it runs downwards and laterally. In half of cases, it inserts into the anterior surface of the insertion aponeurosis of the adductor minimus. In the remaining cases, it is either inserted into the upper part of the pectineal line or the posterior part of the lesser trochanter.\nIt has been demonstrated", "Core (anatomy) Muscles Major muscles included are the pelvic floor muscles, transversus abdominis, multifidus, internal and external obliques, rectus abdominis, erector spinae (sacrospinalis) especially the longissimus thoracis, and the diaphragm. The lumbar muscles, quadratus Lumborum (deep portion), deep rotators, as well as cervical muscles, rectus capitus anterior and lateralis, longus coli may also be considered members of the core group.\nMinor core muscles include the latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus, and trapezius. Anatomical posture and support The core is traditionally assumed to originate most full-body functional movement, including most sports. In addition, the core determines to a large part a", "Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size. Hypertrophy stimulation A range of stimuli can increase the volume of muscle cells. These changes occur as an adaptive response that serves to increase the ability to generate force or resist fatigue in anaerobic conditions. Strength training Strength training, or resistance exercise, brings about neural and muscular adaptations which increase the capacity of an", "processes taking place in the muscles for the supply of energy.", "muscle cells are found in the muscle of the eye and in the base of hair follicles. Multi-unit smooth muscle cells contract by being separately stimulated by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. As such, they allow for fine control and gradual responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle. Mechanisms of smooth muscle contraction The contractile activity of smooth muscle cells is influenced by multiple inputs such as spontaneous electrical activity, neural and hormonal inputs, local changes in chemical composition, and stretch. This is in contrast to the contractile activity of skeletal muscle cells, which relies on a", "Gracilis muscle Structure It arises by a thin aponeurosis from the anterior margins of the lower half of the symphysis pubis and the upper half of the pubic arch.\nThe muscle's fibers run vertically downward, ending in a rounded tendon. This tendon passes behind the medial condyle of the femur, curves around the medial condyle of the tibia where it becomes flattened, and inserts into the upper part of the medial surface of the body of the tibia, below the condyle. For this reason, the muscle is a lower limb adductor. At its insertion the tendon is situated immediately above that", "Muscular system of the horse Build of skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle is made up of several muscle bundles, which in turn are made up of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers have bundles of myofibrils, which are all parallel to one another, and are able to contract due to actin and myosin. Muscle is covered by a fibrous tissue called fascia, to which other muscles can attach, and muscles attach to bone via tendons. Muscles of the tail The Coccygeus, Intertransversal caude, Sacralcoccygeus ventralis, Sacral coccygeus dorsalis, Sacral coccygeus lateralis, Sacro-coccygeus ventralis raise and move the tail.", "as a mechanical buffer against it. In addition, in vivo experiments it has been found that the elastic mechanism gives protection to musculoskeletal structure exceeding the sarcomere. Due to this fact, forces developed in active muscles eventually decide the forces on tendons such as bones, joints, and ligaments.\nSimilarly, tendons are unable to entirely insulate muscles from dynamic extension. Tendons affect muscles when muscles lengthen, which affects peak forces experienced due to energy absorbing actions in the muscle tendon unit. Active lengthening of muscle fibers results in both an accumulation and loss of energy. Even though energy is briefly stored in", "micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.\nWeight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so is favored by bodybuilders more than myofibrillar hypertrophy, which builds athletic strength. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is triggered by increasing repetitions, whereas myofibrillar hypertrophy is triggered by lifting heavier weight. In either case, there is an increase in both size and strength of the muscles (compared to what", "Motor pool (neuroscience) Anatomy Distinct skeletal muscles are controlled by groups of individual motor units. Such motor units are made up of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Motor neurons are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and the brainstem. These neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers through the propagation of action potentials down their axons (through ventral roots and cranial nerves), and they stimulate skeletal muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions where they synapse with the motor end plates of muscle fibers. In humans, these axons can be as long as one meter.", "are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.\nThe action a muscle generates is determined by the origin and insertion locations. The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather than volume or length) determines the amount of force it can generate by defining the number of \"sarcomeres\" which can operate in parallel. Each skeletal muscle contains long units called myofibrils, and each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres. Since contraction occurs at the same time", "seen as muscles grow. Excitation-contraction coupling T-tubules are an important link in the chain from electrical excitation of a cell to its subsequent contraction (excitation-contraction coupling). When contraction of a muscle is needed, stimulation from a nerve or an adjacent muscle cell causes a characteristic flow of charged particles across the cell membrane known as an action potential. At rest, there are fewer positively charged particles on the inner side of the membrane compared to the outer side, and the membrane is described as being polarised. During an action potential, positively charged particles (predominantly sodium and calcium ions)", "from skeletal muscle during exercise acts directly on bone by increasing cortical bone mineral density, bone perimeter and polar moment of inertia.", "It was demonstrated that when a single smooth muscle cell is rhythmically stretched, it shows increased expression of a number of genes (caldesmon, calpomin, α-actine, smooth muscle myosin), along with increased proliferation ability.\nDiscovery and research of T-Cadherin functions\nIn the early of the 90s, while studying blood cells, V. A. Tkachuk and his colleagues discovered that calcium ions get mobilized in platelets under the influence of lipoproteins, which leads to their aggregation. This effect is more pronounced under the influence of adrenaline. Around the same time it was discovered that Ca²⁺ is mobilized in smooth muscle cells (SMC) under the influence", "and this has given rise to various strategies to continue improving. Voluntary skeletal muscle is in balance between the amount of muscle synthesized or renewed each day and the amount that is degraded. Muscle fibers respond to repetition and load, and increased training causes the quantity of exercised muscle fiber to increase exponentially (simply meaning that the greatest gains are seen during the first weeks of training). Successful training produces hypertrophy of muscle fibers as an adaptation to the training regimen. In order to make further gains, greater workout intensity is required with heavier loads and more repetitions, although improvement", "stored within the body. Within the muscles, its primary use is to enable contractions. Muscle cells draw calcium from the blood, allowing it to bind with troponin, a component of the muscle fibre that signals for a contraction by moving actin and myosin. After a contraction, calcium dissipates and the filaments move back to a resting state before the release of more calcium for the next contraction. Furthermore, calcium plays a significant role in allowing nerve impulses to be transmitted between neurons. The release of calcium ions from voltage gated ion channels signals for the release of neurotransmitters into the", "Anatomical terms of muscle Types There are three types of muscle tissue in the human body: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle Skeletal striated muscle, or \"voluntary muscle\", primarily joins to bone with tendons. Skeletal muscle enables movement of the bones of the human skeleton and maintains posture. Smooth muscle Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the", "correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.\nPreviously untrained muscles acquire newly formed nuclei by fusion of satellite cells preceding the hypertrophy. Subsequent detraining leads to atrophy but no loss of myo-nuclei. The elevated number of nuclei in muscle fibers that had experienced a hypertrophic episode would provide a mechanism for muscle memory, explaining the long-lasting effects of training and the ease with which previously trained individuals are more easily retrained.\nOn subsequent detraining, the fibers maintain an elevated", "size of the muscle cell. During treppe (or summation) contraction muscles do not start at maximum efficiency; instead they achieve increased strength of contraction due to repeated stimuli. Tetanus involves a sustained contraction of muscles due to a series of rapid stimuli, which can continue until the muscles fatigue. Isometric contractions are skeletal muscle contractions that do not cause movement of the muscle. However, isotonic contractions are skeletal muscle contractions that do cause movement.\nSpecialized cardiomyocytes located in the sinoatrial node are responsible for generating the electrical impulses that control the heart rate. These electrical impulses coordinate contraction throughout" ]

[ "Could you elaborate your question?\n\nThey are voice actors. They sit in a studio and record their lines. The animators then animate the characters to match the recordings.\n\nThere are some cases (for example Andy Serkis as Gollum in the Lord of the Rings film series) where the voice actors also provides the motions of the character using motion capture technology.", "For strictly voice-acting: To draw fans \n \nMotion-capture is another story though, such as Andy Serkis in all his roles and Benedict Cumberbatch as Smaug." ]

[ "Emmy award for Outstanding Animated Program that year. It was the first feature-length animated film ever made for television. For its release on British television, many of the characters' voices were re-recorded by British actors and actresses (including Leo McKern, Arthur Lowe and Sheila Hancock), but Stephen Thorne was the voice of \"Aslan\" in both the U.S. and British versions.\nFrom 1988–90, parts of The Chronicles of Narnia were turned into four successful BBC television serials, The Chronicles of Narnia, based on the first four of the seven books. All four were shown on the PBS show WonderWorks and they were", "The series also used the work of many of the same voice actors for Animaniacs including Tress MacNeille, Jess Harnell, Frank Welker, Nancy Cartwright, Janet Waldo and Jeff Bennett. Celebrities such as Roddy McDowall, Nora Dunn, Townsend Coleman, Ernest Borgnine, Eric Idle, Dick Clark, Ed McMahon, Steve Allen, Joyce Brothers, Gavin MacLeod, John Tesh, Michael McKean, Garry Marshall, Mark Hamill, James Belushi and Steven Spielberg have all performed guest voice work for the series as well.Cree Summer has also voiced characters in Pinky and the Brain and reprised her role as Elmyra Duff during Pinky, Elmyra, and The Brain. Music", "involved in the creation of special effects. However, as opposed to The Lord of the Rings, where the actors who played Orcs portrayed them through full-body makeup and prosthetics, many of those actors in The Hobbit had computer-generated faces in order to portray them. Many of the actors who played Orcs in this trilogy portrayed them through performance capture. Theatrical The world premiere for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey took place on 28 November 2012 in Wellington, New Zealand, with the film's wide release in New Zealand on 12 December. 100,000 people lined the red carpet on Wellington's Courtenay", "Kangaroo and Monument to Michael Jackson, and has done voice work for animated films, including the Serbian dub of Sid the Sloth in the Serbian Ice Age franchise, Tommy in Horton Hears a Who!, Murray the Mummy in the Hotel Transylvania film series and Humpty Dumpty in Puss in Boots.", "realistic animals; robots; extraterrestrial or mythical creatures; or other forms of abstract characters.\nThe Muppets are distinguished from ventriloquist dummies, which are usually animated only in the head and face, in that their arms or other features are also animated. They are also generally made of softer material. They are presented as being independent of the puppeteer, officially known as a \"Muppet peformer\", who is usually hidden behind a set or outside of the camera frame. Using the camera frame to this advantage was an innovation of the Muppets. Prior to this, a stage was used to mask the performers, as", "Henson entered similar agreements with Lionsgate Home Entertainment and Gaiam Vivendi Entertainment. As well, the company became involved with computer animated projects, including the direct-to-video Unstable Fables series; Sid the Science Kid; Dinosaur Train; and Splash and Bubbles, as well as the puppet series Pajanimals. \nHenson later formed Henson Alternative, which specializes in adult content, including the live shows known alternatively as Puppet Improv, Puppet Up!, and Stuffed and Unstrung. Current projects in development include The Dark Crystal: Age of Resistance, a prequel to The Dark Crystal; and a Fraggle Rock film. In recent years, the Fraggle Rock characters have", "a 3D community for PlayStation 3.\nLlewellyn has worked as a voice actor, providing the voices of the alien creatures in Skywhales (1983), the voice of Feeble for The Feeble Files (1997), Old Joe in Christmas Carol: The Film, and the perplexed Gryphon in the film MirrorMask (2005). He has described himself as \"very much a 'don't want to do it now' kind of person\" (\"Dwarfing USA\" documentary, Red Dwarf V DVD).\nIn November 2010, the Carpool series began broadcasting on UKTV channel, Dave, before having a month's hiatus for Christmas and New Year, it then returned in January 2011. It is", "in Swedish, Russian, and Greek. He was the original voice of Thor in the German dubs of the Danish 1986 animated film Valhalla, and of King Haggard in both the English and German dubs of the 1982 animated adaptation of The Last Unicorn.\nLee provided the off-camera voice of \"U. N. Owen\", the mysterious host who brings disparate characters together in Agatha Christie's Ten Little Indians (1965). The film was produced by Harry Alan Towers, for whom Lee had worked repeatedly in the 1960s. Even though he was not credited on the film, his voice is unmistakable. He also provided all the", "He brought a unique sensibility to the show, combining youth, unusual interests, talent as an impersonator, and an almost lunatic intensity. Guest host Eric Idle of Monty Python said that Aykroyd's ability to write and act out characters flawlessly made him the only member of the SNL cast capable of being a Python.\nHe was known for his impersonations of celebrities like Jimmy Carter, Vincent Price, Richard Nixon, Rod Serling, Tom Snyder, Julia Child, and others. He was also known for his recurring roles, such as Beldar, father of the Coneheads family; with Steve Martin, Yortuk Festrunk, one of the \"Two", "several animated shows; Batman: The Animated Series, Pinky and the Brain, Quack Pack, The Angry Beavers, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Danger Rangers, ChalkZone, Johnny Bravo, Ozzy & Drix, Superman: The Animated Series, The Woody Woodpecker Show (the 1999 version), and many more.\nMore recently, as a voice actor, he dubbed Kun Lan of the video game Killer7.\nHe had ultimately walked away from the entertainment business in the mid-2000s in order to care for his mother who had dementia. Lala coached young actors at the Italian Club in his native Ybor City.\nJoe Lala died suddenly from complications of lung", "Muppets (2011), The Master (2012), Man of Steel (2013), Her (2013), American Hustle (2013), Big Eyes (2014), Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016), Arrival (2016), Nocturnal Animals (2016), and Justice League (2017). Among her television projects, she has starred in the HBO miniseries Sharp Objects (2018). On stage, she has appeared in the Public Theater's revival of Into the Woods in 2012.\nAdams has been nominated for six Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actress for Junebug (2005), Doubt (2008), The Fighter (2010), The Master (2012), and Vice (2018); and Best Actress for American Hustle (2013). She has twice won the Golden", "1987. His previous writing credits for Muppet productions include the Muppet*Vision 3D attraction at Walt Disney World, and the tribute special The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson, which earned Prady an Emmy Award nomination in 1991.\nExecutive producer Bob Kushell explained the intention behind the series; \"We have the opportunity to explore these characters as individuals with their own emotional lives that are separate from each other and aren't shadowed by each other's presence, as I think they have been for the last 20 years... it's not just a behind-the-scenes look at a show, but it's the relationship-driven, emotional stories that people", "include The Muppets Take Manhattan, John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together, Little Muppet Monsters, The Muppets: A Celebration of 30 Years, The Jim Henson Hour, Sesame Street's 20th Anniversary Special and Dinosaurs. Earl also appeared (as a puppet Alien) opposite Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones in Men in Black II.\nEarl mentored and/or coached many TV and film puppeteers, including Drew Massey, Kevin Carlson, Camille Bonora and James Murray. He served as a puppetry consultant to entertainment companies such as MCA/Universal Pictures, Warner Bros. and Disney, working one-on-one with the Vice President of Disneyland Entertainment to conceive, develop", "fellow The Hobbit alumni Dean O'Gorman and Adam Brown. Voice-work McTavish has an done extensive voice-work in animated series, films and video games. Animation and films McTavish's first voice work was in The WB's children's cartoon What's New, Scooby Doo? (2005), where he performed additional voices for a 2005 episode. He next appeared in the recurring role of Sebastian Shaw in Nicktoons' 2009 animated Marvel Comics series Wolverine and the X-Men. McTavish continued in the Marvel Universe by portraying the villain Loki in the direct-to-video animated feature Hulk Versus and Disney XD's animated series The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. In", "film, and Runaway Brain starring Mickey Mouse. \nCoats is best known for producing the animated film Mulan (1998), her first full-length film. For her work on Mulan, she was awarded an Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Producing in an Animated Feature Production. \nIn 1999 Coats was promoted to senior vice president of creative development, becoming the highest-ranking woman in the Walt Disney Animation Studios. As a Disney executive, she was involved in the English translation and adaptation of Hayao Miyazaki's Spirited Away. She maintained the position until 2004, when her contract was not renewed. \nPost-Disney, Coats worked for", "to return to the studio to develop The Seven Dwarfs, a computer-animated prequel to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which would have been produced by DisneyToon Studios. He left over creative differences when executives wanted Dopey to talk, a decision that he felt disrespected the original film in which the character is silent.\nThe film was cancelled by 2007,\nand growing frustrated with the creative restraints of working on studio produced films, Disa left to become an independent filmmaker. He spent a year working on Rob Zombie's animated film The Haunted World of El Superbeasto (2009), and was then asked to", "for the CGI character. His work on The Lord of the Rings started a debate on the legitimacy of CGI-assisted acting. Some critics felt Serkis should have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, since his voice, body language, and facial expressions were used.\nSerkis has done critically acclaimed motion capture work in several other films, including the title character in the 2005 version of King Kong (in which he also played the ship's cook in live action) and as Caesar in Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011), Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014),", "The Wiggles characters The Wiggles characters are a group of characters who perform with The Wiggles, the Australian children's music group. Aside from the four Wiggles, four secondary characters, along with a troupe of singers, actors, and dancers, appear in their television series, videos, and live concerts. These characters were developed in the 1990s and were originally played by group members and by Anthony Field's brother Paul, the band's manager. Later in the group's history, the characters were played by hired actors dressed in the characters' costumes. Captain Feathersword Captain Feathersword, \"the friendly pirate\", wears a hat, patch, and", "and noted his ability to mimic well-known voices, though he would rather develop original voices. West's favorite characters are Philip J. Fry and Stimpy, both of which he originated. West has been very outspoken over his displeasure about the influx of movie star actors providing voice-over for films and major shows. West has stated that he did not like the Disney version of Doug and that he \"couldn't watch\" the show. West was the voice of the show's namesake, Geeker, throughout Project Geeker's 13-episode run. West was the voice of Zim in the original pilot for Invader Zim. Richard Steven", "Aardman Animations 1972–1996 Aardman was founded in 1972 as a low-budget project by Peter Lord and David Sproxton, who wanted to realise their dream of producing an animated motion picture. The partnership provided animated sequences for the BBC series for deaf children Vision On. The company name originates from the name of their nerdish Superman character in that sequence. After creating a segment called \"Greeblies\" (1975) using clay animation, became what was the inspiration for creating Morph, a simple clay character. Around the same time Lord and Sproxton made their first foray into adult animation with the shorts Down and", "television series Terminal City, and a 2017 Canadian Screen Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Digital Production for My 90-Year-Old Roommate. Voice work Soles also did voices on various animated television shows and films such as Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, Rocket Robin Hood, Spider-Man, The Smokey Bear Show, The Little Brown Burro, King of the Beasts, The Marvel Super Heroes, the original Spider-Man cartoon, The Trolls and the Christmas Express, Take Me Up to the Ball Game, Willy McBean and his Magic Machine, Festival of Family Classics, The Reluctant Dragon and Mr. Toad Show, Noah's Animals, Iron", "Imaginary Friends, Dr. Two-Brains in the PBS Kids show, WordGirl and the villains Knightbrace, The Common Cold and Mr. Wink in Codename Kids Next Door.\nKenny is The Penguin in 2004 TV series The Batman.\nHe voiced the character Squanchy on Rick and Morty.\nHe plays a number of roles in the Transformers Animated TV show. A few of the characters he voices in this series are Starscream and his clones, Isaac Sumdac and Waspinator. Kenny also voiced several characters on the animated show Xiaolin Showdown, as well as the Autobots Skids and Wheelie in the live-action Transformers film series. On Dilbert,", "of the Mexico trilogy, the Spy Kids trilogy, From Dusk Till Dawn and Machete. He provided his voice for several Disney animated films, most notably Tito the Chihuahua in Oliver & Company (1988), Banzai the hyena in The Lion King (1994), and Ramone in Cars (2006) and its sequels Cars 2 (2011) and Cars 3 (2017). He also played Pancho in The Cisco Kid (1994), and reprised the Banzai role in the video game Kingdom Hearts II. Children's music albums and related works Marin has released two best-selling albums in the children's music genre, My Name is Cheech, the School", "while Farscape included two puppets as regular characters. In Stargate SG-1, the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are sitting, standing, or lying down. In Mystery Science Theater 3000, the characters of Crow T. Robot and Tom Servo, two of the show's main (and most iconic) characters, are puppets constructed from random household items. Animation As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity, momentum, and physical reality, it is an ideal technique for science fiction and fantasy on television. In a sense, virtually all animated series allow characters and objects to perform in unrealistic ways, so", "name. Reception Brains is widely considered to be one of the best-known characters devised for an Anderson series, and is described by Daniel Sperling of the entertainment website Digital Spy as one of a few Thunderbirds characters to \"have almost become as beloved as the show\". Stephen La Rivière, writer of Filmed in Supermarionation: A History of the Future, argues that Brains is the series' \"third iconic character\" after Lady Penelope and Parker, and is distinctive for his \"big, blue-rimmed glasses and stuttering American accent\". Tom Eames of Digital Spy judges Brains to be among the most memorable puppet characters", "film's animation been completed, but Niño's visa did not allow him to submit freelance work on any other projects.\nThe film's main cast includes Bob Holt, Jesse Welles, Richard Romanus, David Proval and Steve Gravers. Bakshi cast Holt based on his ability to imitate the voice of actor Peter Falk, of whom Bakshi is a fan. Welles, Romanus and Proval had previously worked with Bakshi on Hey Good Lookin', where Romanus and Proval provided the voices of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro, respectively. Actress Tina Bowman, who plays a small role in Wizards, has a larger role in Hey Good Lookin'. Actor", "producer for Lee Isaac Chung's A24 immigrant drama Minari, which also includes Will Patton and Scott Haze among the cast. Other television work Yeun has also voice acted in both animated series and films. Some of these roles include Avatar Wan in season 2 of The Legend of Korra, Steve Palchuk in Trollhunters and 3Below, Keith in Voltron: Legendary Defender, Nathan Park/Wingspan in Stretch Armstrong and the Flex Fighters, Little Cato in Final Space, and Speckle in Tuca & Bertie.\nIt was later revealed that Yeun's role as Steve Palchuk would continue into Wizards, the third series of the Tales of", "Thomas & Friends (series 12) Filming and animation Series 12 marked the beginning of the show's transition into CGI (computer-generated imagery). Characters' faces were animated through CGI with the aid of motion capture animation. The physical models' molded faces were replaced by white targets with triangles to fix a computer-animated face in post-production. Static models of people and animals were replaced with 3D animations by using small, metal sticks with colored points on each end. The animation was provided by Nitrogen Studios, the studio contracted for future full-CGI episodes. This change marked the movement of production of the show from", "like Uli von Bödefeld, she was built by German puppet makers and not the Muppet Workshop. After her short-lived Sesame career, she got her own ALF-like show called \"Leonie Löwenherz\" on ARD, featuring herself, her two lion brothers, and a few human characters. During this time period, older puppets were re-used for new characters such as Simson (on and off in 1989–2000), Samson's cousin; with slight changes being made to his appearance (equipped with a hat, a tie, or another article of clothing). Originally, Simson was only imagined by Samson and other characters doubted his existence, much like Big Bird", "Academy Award-nominated feature films, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron (2002) and Shrek 2 (2004). In addition to directing, Asbury provided some of the extra voices in Shrek 2 and Shrek the Third.\nKelly Asbury directed and co-wrote the animated film Gnomeo & Juliet (2011), for which he also provided the voices of the tiny Red Goon Gnomes. He was nominated for two Annie Awards for directing and co-writing that film.\nIn 2003, he wrote a non-fiction book titled Dummy Days, which is a biography of five 20th century ventriloquists. He is the author and illustrator of twelve published children's books, including Rusty's" ]

[ "Yes, but the pipes going to one place could have a build up that's changing the taste or the composition of the pipes can be different, i.e. pvc pipes going to your kitchen, but copper pipes to your bathroom." ]

[ "hot water is rarely available from the tap, and sinks are perceived as dirty surfaces (essentially a convenient drain). Westerners usually prefer standing hot water. This is practical in environments where hot water is cheaply and easily available, and sinks are perceived as clean surfaces (essentially a bowl with a convenient drainage device). In this method, the sink is usually first filled with dirty dishes (which may have already been rinsed and scraped to remove most food) and hot, soapy water. The detergent is added while the sink is filling with water, so a layer of suds forms at the", "Bidet Some bathrooms contain a bidet, which might be placed next to a toilet. Plumbing The design of a bathroom must account for the use of both hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is also used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot humid air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge. Ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and", "Tap (valve) Liquid Water for baths, sinks and basins can be provided by separate hot and cold taps; this arrangement is common in older installations, particularly in public washrooms/lavatories and utility rooms/laundries. In kitchens and bathrooms, mixer taps are commonly used. In this case, hot and cold water from the two valves is mixed before reaching the outlet, allowing the water to emerge at any temperature between that of the hot and cold water supplies. Mixer taps were invented by Thomas Campbell of Saint John, New Brunswick, and patented in 1880.\nFor baths and showers, mixer taps frequently incorporate some sort", "right opens the cold water passages (using the standard North American convention of the hot water control on the left).\nLater Moen bathtub/shower controls with single handles use a larger cartridge with a pressure balancing mechanism which compensates for sudden pressure changes in either the hot or cold water supply (as caused by a toilet being flushed while someone is showering). The design goal is to maintain the temperature of the shower for safety and comfort reasons, even if the volume of water is reduced. The cartridge is known as the 1222. The operation is similar to the 1225 (above), though", "Faucet aerator A faucet aerator (or tap aerator) is often found at the tip of modern indoor water faucets. Aerators can be simply screwed onto the faucet head, creating a non-splashing stream and often delivering a mixture of water and air. Prevents splashing When a single stream of water hits a surface the water must go somewhere, and because the stream is uniform the water will tend to go mostly in the same direction. If a single stream hits a surface which is curved, then the stream will conform to the shape and be easily redirected with the force", "Moen (company) Faucet design Most Moen kitchen, washbasin, and bathtub/shower faucets are of the single-handle design, and almost all have used the same basic water-controlling cartridge since the 1960s. Known as the Moen 1225, it is a plastic (older versions were brass) cylinder approximately 4 inches long by 3/4 inches in diameter. As the \"engine\" in most Moen single-handle faucets, it has undergone at least two revisions since its inception though newer versions remain compatible with older faucets. Pulling up the stem of the cartridge opens the water supply; rotating toward the left opens the hot water passages while rotating to the", "natural clays used, it is normal for the product to vary in size and shape, and +/− 5 mm is normal. Accessories Some public restrooms feature automatic faucets, which use a motion-sensing valve to detect the user's hands moving beneath the tap and turn the water on. Some kitchen sinks also come equipped with a sink sprayer. \nSinks, especially those made of stainless steel, can be fitted with an integrated drainboard, allowing for the draining of washed dishes. Gallery There are many different shapes and sizes of sinks.", "in bathtubs) usually lack this feature because their drains normally cannot be stopped.\nEach fixture usually has a characteristic means of connection. Normal plumbing practice is to install a valve on each water supply line before the fixture, and this is most commonly termed a stop or \"service valve\". The water supply to some fixtures is cold water only (such as water closets and urinals). Most fixtures also have a hot water supply. In some occasional cases, a sink may have both a potable (drinkable) and a non-potable water supply.\nLavatories and water closets normally connect to the", "the aerator limits the water flow through the faucet, water usage is reduced compared to the same duration of flow without an aerator. In the case of hot water, because less water is used, less heat energy is used. Perceived water pressure The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low", "as the weather there is usually already hot, and there is no need to keep the hot air in the bath. Sentō in Okinawa usually have no separation between the changing room and the bathing area or only a small wall with an opening to pass through.\nThe bathing area is usually tiled. Near the entrance area is a supply of small stools and buckets. There are a number of washing stations at the wall and sometimes in the middle of the room, each with usually two faucets (karan, カラン, after the Dutch word kraan for faucet), one for hot water", "the sink, and the water draining into the tank – which runs during the flush cycle; this is particularly common in mid-20th century buildings. The room with the sink, which is called a clothes changing room, usually includes a space for a clothes-washing machine. The room containing the bathtub is waterproof with a space for washing, and often for showering, adjacent to (rather than in) the tub. As a result, bathwater is neither soapy nor dirty, and can be reused. Many washing machines in Japan come with an extension pipe to draw water from the tub for the wash.\nHot water", "There the customer also received his/her ration of hot water, since there were no faucets in the actual bath. The entrance to the steam bath was only a very small opening with a height of about 80 cm, so that the heat did not escape. Due to the small opening, the lack of windows, and the thick steam, these baths were usually very dark, and customers often cleared their throats to signal their position to others. Edo period At the beginning of the Edo period (1603–1867), there were two types of baths common to the eastern and western regions of Japan", "of pressure balancing feature so that the hot/cold mixture ratio will not be affected by transient changes in the pressure of one or other of the supplies. This helps avoid scalding or uncomfortable chilling as other water loads occur (such as the flushing of a toilet).\nRather than two separate valves, mixer taps frequently use a single, more complex, valve controlled by a single handle (single handle mixer). The handle moves up and down to control the amount of water flow and from side to side to control the temperature of the water. Especially for baths and showers, the latest designs", "more powder than is necessary, and that these powders contain unnecessary fillers or fragrances. Given that Americans tend to use excessive amounts of laundry detergent, using a ball and less laundry detergent could result in cleaner clothing.\nThe effect of the laundry balls may be explained by simple mechanical action and by the usage of hotter water. Some manufacturers claim that their products reduce energy consumption, but their pamphlets recommend using hot water. Hot water will clean some types of spots better than cold water, leading some people to conclude that the balls worked. The mechanical action of the laundry", "was invented around 1889 by Ruud after he immigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (US). The Ruud Manufacturing Company, still in existence today, made many advancements in tank-type and tankless water heater design and operation. Thermodynamics and economics Water typically enters residences in the US at about 10 °C (50 °F), depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about 40 °C (72 °F) if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use. The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow", "and pooling on the floor. These devices are installed to fill the intersecting void between the top ledge of the bathtub and the perpendicular wall. Relationship to bathtub or shower curtains and doors Other common devices for containing water spray include a highly flexible, waterproof bathtub or shower curtain, or more recently, a shower door, which is a permanently installed sliding or pivoting door made from glass or plastic. Containing water spray, leaks, and splashes within the bathtub is particularly important in bathrooms constructed with wooden under-flooring because water causes the wooden floor boards and floor joists to rot or", "inside the sink. This practice may have started as a matter of hygiene, as the kitchen sink was the only sink available for all the household water. The clothes were washed in the sink; the water used to wash the floor went down the sink, and so it made sense to separate the dishwater from the sink. There were two other possible reasons: First, kitchen sinks tended to be very large in a time when heating water was considered to be a major household expense; a tub used less water. Second, kitchen sinks were usually made of hard ceramic; any", "where water is considered essential for anal cleansing.\nDrawbacks include the possibility of wetting a user's clothing if used carelessly. In addition, a user must be reasonably mobile and flexible to use a hand-held bidet shower. Conventional or standalone bidet A bidet is a plumbing fixture that is installed as a separate unit in the bathroom besides toilet, shower and sink, which users have to straddle. Some bidets resemble a large hand basin, with taps and a stopper so they can be filled up; other designs have a nozzle that squirts a jet of water to aid in cleansing. Add-on bidets", "central heating – instead using space heating – the bathroom may be only a few degrees above freezing in the winter. Customization Most high-tech toilets allow water temperature and water pressure to be adjusted to match the preferences of the user. By default, the vulva receives less pressure than the anus. Researchers in Japan have found that most users prefer a water temperature slightly above body temperature, with 38 °C (100 °F) considered optimal. The nozzle position can also often be manually adjusted forward or aft. High-end washlets allow selection of vibrating and pulsating jets of water, claimed by manufacturers\nto", "French \"chaud\"/Italian \"caldo\"/Spanish \"caliente\" (hot) and French \"froid\"/Italian \"freddo\"/Spanish \"frio\" (cold)). This can create confusion for English-speaking visitors. Mixer taps may have a red-blue stripe or arrows indicating which side will give hot and which cold.\nIn most countries, there is a standard arrangement of hot/cold taps. For example, in the United States and many other countries, the hot tap is on the left by building code requirements. Many installations exist where this standard has been ignored (called \"crossed connections\" by plumbers). Mis-assembly of some single-valve mixer taps will exchange hot and cold even if the fixture has been plumbed correctly.\nMost", "water used by a standard household. Other benefits of automatic faucets are found in inhibiting the spread of germs which are known to thrive on faucet handles, as well as help prevent or mitigate scalding incidents caused by hot water flowing out of the faucet. Advantages Automatic faucets have the advantage of shutting off automatically after hand washing, thereby reducing water waste. When installed in a home, sensor faucets alleviate the need for parents to ensure that children have turned off the faucet. They can also benefit the elderly and those suffering from arthritis or other mobility limiting conditions since", "across all sampled households). Each bath uses on average 20.2 gallons (or 76.5 liters) of water. Faucet flows Water flowing through opened faucets (including kitchen, bathroom, utility sink faucets, and hose bibs) accounts for 19 percent (26.3 gphd, or 100 lphd) of total indoor water use in an average household where faucets are used 51 times per day. On average, faucets are opened for 30 seconds at a flow of 1 gpm (gallons per minute) and an average discharge of 0.5 gallons (1.9 liters) per each use. Clothes washing Washing laundry is a significant use of water in the average", "Laundry ball A laundry ball or washing ball is a product promoted as a substitute for laundry detergent. Producers of laundry balls often make pseudoscientific claims about how these balls work and exaggerate the extent of their benefits.\nIn the United States, laundry balls have been sold on home shopping channels or by participants in multilevel marketing, although this is not the case in all countries.\nWashing with laundry balls is as effective or less effective than washing without detergent. The effect can largely be attributed to the mechanical effect of the ball or to using hot water instead of cold water.\nThe", "just a toilet and sink; and \"3/4 bath\" containing toilet, sink, and shower, although the terms vary from market to market. In some U.S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a \"full bath.\" In addition, there is the use of the word \"bathroom\" to describe a room containing a toilet and a basin, and nothing else. Towels Bathrooms often have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels Furniture Some bathrooms contain a bathroom cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, and drawers or shelves (sometimes in column form) for storing towels and other items.", "and periodic cleaning of the fixture and its surrounds is still required. When maintained according to manufacturers' recommendations, well-designed waterless urinals do not emit any more odors than flushed urinals do. However, some odor-trapping devices work better than others in the longer term. Regular, thorough maintenance of the respective odor control device is needed for all types of waterless urinals, as per the manufacturer's recommendation. Situation in the United States US federal law has mandated no more than one gallon per flush since 1994, and the EPA estimates that the average urinal is flushed 20 times per day, which gives", "such as in schools, music festivals, theatrical events, sports stadiums, discos, dance clubs, and convention halls. \nUrinals were once installed exclusively in commercial or institutional settings, but are also now available for private homes. They offer the advantages of substantial water savings in residences with many occupants, and reduction of \"splash back\", making cleaning easier. Urinals with flushing Most public urinals incorporate a water flushing system to rinse urine from the bowl of the device, to prevent foul odors. The flush can be triggered by one of several methods: Manual handles This type of flush might be regarded as standard", "with a shower; it is designed to eliminate moisture damage and is compatible with underfloor heating systems.\nIn the United States, there is a lack of a single definition. This commonly results in discrepancies between advertised and actual number of baths in real estate listings. Bathrooms are generally categorized as \"master bathroom\", containing a shower and a bathtub that is adjoining to the largest bedroom; a \"full bathroom\" (or \"full bath\"), containing four plumbing fixtures: a toilet and sink, and either a bathtub with a shower, or a bathtub and a separate shower stall; \"half (1/2) bath\" (or \"powder room\") containing", "floors and equipment and internal combustion engines and parts. Among the advantages of using steam versus a hot water spray are the facts that steam can operate at higher temperatures and it uses substantially less water per minute.", "its lack of size, its dampness and its dilapidation, is that it is not self-contained. There is no water supply inside the house, no adequate provision for discharging slop water, and the only sanitary convenience is often some distance from the house and usually common to two or more houses. This convenience is frequently in a revolting condition because of its common user. There is no bath or means of taking a bath in many of the houses. The whole outlook from these houses is sullied by soot besmirched in a soot-laden atmosphere.\nMany of those houses, I am sorry to", "may be built into hot tubs for use in cold weather. This solves the problem of keeping the hydraulist warm, as well as keeping the hydraulic fluid (e.g. water) heated by way of standard pumping and heating equipment. In this kind of hydraulophone (e.g. balnaphone, from the Greek \"balnea\" meaning \"bath\") the hydraulist is immersed in the hydraulic fluid used by the instrument. Relationship to the pipe organ Many hydraulophones include a separate water-filled pipe for each note, and have sound-production means similar to pipe organs (but with water rather than air), while maintaining the flutelike user-interface (finger" ]

[ "Why the hell would you need to learn about precipitation rxns in second grade??? I was taught that in the seventh grade IIRC... Please tell me 2nd was a typo???\n\nThe principles are pretty advanced for second graders... \n\nHave you talked about elements and compounds, solutions, solubility?\n\nYou need to be able to talk about solubility before you can actually talk about precipitation reactions, since that is the basic principle. \n\nI am not sure that is something that can be taught to 2nd graders.... \n\nI just asked my mom who teaches 7th grade science... Her students have a hard time learning this in 7th grade, she laughed when I told her about your question. Good luck" ]

[ "resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory. Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom. Precipitation Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results", "Rain-out model The rain-out model is a model of planetary science that describes the first stage of planetary differentiation and core formation. According to this model, a planetary body is assumed to be composed primarily of silicate minerals and NiFe (i.e. a mixture of nickel and iron). If temperatures within this body reach about 1500 K, the minerals and the metals will melt. This will produce an emulsion in which globules of liquid NiFe are dispersed in a magma of liquid silicates, the two being immiscible. Because the NiFe globules are denser than the silicates, they will sink under the influence", "Precipitation methods are often called simply as argentometry. In the two other methods the situation is the same. Complex forming titration is a reaction that occurs between metal ions and a standard solution that is in the most cases EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid). In the redox titration that reaction is carried out between an oxidizing agent and a reduction agent. There are some more methods like Liebig method / Duma's method / Kjeldahl's method and Carius method for estimation of organic compounds.\nFor example, quantitative analysis performed by [mass spectrometry] on biological samples can determine, by the relative", "of Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ weathered out of the mineral. Given that some of the dissolved cations react with existing alkalinity in the solution to form CO₃²⁻ ions, the ratio is not exactly 1:1 in natural systems but is a function of temperature and CO₂ partial pressure. The net CO₂ sequestration of carbonate weathering (Eq.2) and carbonate precipitation (Eq.3) is zero.\nWeathering and biological carbonate precipitation are thought to be only loosely coupled on short time periods (<1000 years). Therefore, an increase in both carbonate and silicate weathering with respect to carbonate precipitation will result in a buildup of alkalinity in the", "pH. Since carbonate solubility decreases with increased pH, precipitation is induced. Supersaturation may be enhanced by factors leading to a reduction in pCO₂, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important, as may photosynthesis.\nRecently it has been demonstrated that microbially induced precipitation may be more important than physico-chemical precipitation. Pedley et al. (2009) showed with flume experiments that precipitation does not occur unless a biofilm is present, despite supersaturation.\nCalcite is the dominant mineral precipitate found; however, the polymorph aragonite is also found. Uses Tufa is today occasionally shaped into a planter. Its porous consistency makes tufa ideal for", "weather. As climate changes, the probabilities of extreme weather events increases.\nChanges have been observed in the amount, intensity, frequency, and type of precipitation. Widespread increases in heavy precipitation have occurred, even in places where total rain amounts have decreased. With medium confidence (see footnote 1), IPCC (2012) concluded that human influences had contributed to an increase in heavy precipitation events at the global scale.\nProjections of future changes in precipitation show overall increases in the global average, but with substantial shifts in where and how precipitation falls. Projections suggest a reduction in rainfall in the subtropics, and an increase in precipitation", "every process, much attention has been devoted to the question of whether the measurements, mentioned just above, truly demonstrate thermotaxis or whether they reflect another temperature-dependent process. The most pronounced effect of temperature in liquid is convection, which raised the concern that the apparent thermotactic response could have been a reflection of a passive drift in the liquid current or a rheotactic response to the current (rather than to the temperature gradient per se). Another concern was that the temperature could have changed the local pH of the buffer solution in which the spermatozoa are suspended. This could generate a", "caused by indirect effects show even greater variations in model prediction because of the parameterization of aerosol indirect effect. However, model results present a stronger indirect effect on the Southern Hemisphere. Influencing precipitation process Like all other soluble aerosols, increasing normal-sized sea salts suppresses the precipitation process in warm clouds by increasing cloud droplet number concentration and reducing the cloud droplet size. Also, they invigorate precipitation in mix-phase clouds because once the suppressed smaller cloud droplets are lifted above freezing level, more latent heat content would be released due to the freezing of cloud drops. Besides that, adding giant sea", "Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs. Graupel and hail indicate convection. In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts. Orographic effects Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is", "precipitation when used in high concentrations are classified as precipitants, while certain other salts such as zinc sulfate or calcium sulfate that may cause a protein to precipitate vigorously even when used in small amounts are considered adjutants. Crystallization adjutants are considered additives when they are effective at relatively low concentrations.\nThe distinction between buffers and adjutants is also fuzzy. Buffer molecules can become part of the lattice (for example HEPES in becomes incorporated in crystals of human neutrophil collagenase) but their main use is to maintain the rather precise pH requirements for crystallization that many proteins have. Commonly used", "precipitation, making most precipitation unrealistically stratiform in nature. Calibration When a physical process is parameterized, two choices have to be make: what is the structural form (for instance, two variables can be related linearly) and what is the exact value of the parameters (for instance, the constant of proportionality). The process of determining the exact values of the parameters in a parameterization is called calibration, or sometimes less precise, tuning. Calibration is a difficult process, and different strategies are used to do it. One popular method is to run a model, or a submodel, and compare it to a small", "Reaction dynamics Reaction dynamics is a field within physical chemistry, studying why chemical reactions occur, how to predict their behavior, and how to control them. It is closely related to chemical kinetics, but is concerned with individual chemical events on atomic length scales and over very brief time periods. It considers state-to-state kinetics between reactant and product molecules in specific quantum states, and how energy is distributed between translational, vibrational, rotational, and electronic modes.\nExperimental methods of reaction dynamics probe the chemical physics associated with molecular collisions. They include crossed molecular beam and infrared chemiluminescence experiments, both recognized by the", "These results derive from the Coriolis effect; that article explains in detail the physics, and provides an animation of a model to aid understanding. Formation High-pressure areas form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs. Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.\nOn weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as convergence, near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere, and about half the atmospheric", "of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.\nWhen a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE. If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement. Hydrometeor definition A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor. Any particulates of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors. Formations due to condensation, such as clouds, haze,", "melts into rain. Using the reflectivity equation, one can demonstrate that the returns from the snow before melting and the rain after, are not too different as the change in dielectric constant compensates for the change in size. However, during the melting process, the radar wave \"sees\" something akin to very large droplets as snow flakes become coated with water.\nThis gives enhanced returns that can be mistaken for stronger precipitations. On a PPI, this will show up as an intense ring of precipitation at the altitude where the beam crosses the melting level while on a series of CAPPIs, only", "The reactants, generally in the gaseous or vapor phase, react on or near the surface of the substrates, which are at some elevated temperature. The subsequent reaction results in the deposition of atoms or molecules on the entire substrate surface. CVD processes are also widely used for growing epitaxial layers such as a silicon epitaxial layer on a single-crystal silicon substrate (homoepitaxy or commonly referred to as epitaxy) or epitaxial layer deposition on a sapphire (Heteroepitaxy). A special method in CVD, called Epitaxy or Epitaxial Layer Deposition or Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (VPE), has only a single-crystal form as the deposited layer.", "reaction is experimentally determined through the Arrhenius equation and the Eyring equation. The main factors that influence the reaction rate include: the physical state of the reactants, the concentrations of the reactants, the temperature at which the reaction occurs, and whether or not any catalysts are present in the reaction.\nGorban and Yablonsky have suggested that the history of chemical dynamics can be divided into three eras. The first is the van 't Hoff wave searching for the general laws of chemical reactions and relating kinetics to thermodynamics. The second may be called the Semenov--Hinshelwood wave with emphasis on reaction mechanisms,", "area diminishes correspondingly. Inversion of temperature exists too ahead of warm fronts, and around thunderstorms' cold pool. Since precipitation exists in those circumstances, the abnormal propagation echoes are then mixed with real rain and/or targets of interest, which make them more difficult to separate. \nAnomalous Propagation is different from ground clutter, ocean reflections (sea clutter), biological returns from birds and insects, debris, chaff, sand storms, volcanic eruption plumes, and other non-precipitation meteorological phenomena. Ground and sea clutters are permanent reflection from fixed areas on the surface with stable reflective characteristics. Biological scatterer gives weak echoes over a large surface. These", "likes of Pierre Gassendi and René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur to lay the foundations for removing superstition from explanations of the phenomenon.\nOne of the first scientists who correctly explained this phenomenon was Giuseppe Maria Giovene (1753-1837). Blood rain fell on Apulia on 7 March 1803, and it was then believed that the rain was caused by the explosion of Italy's volcanoes Mount Vesuvius or Etna, or that it was due to the transport of matter coming from the sea floor and raised by vapor. Giuseppe Maria Giovene related the phenomenon to the wind which occurred prior to the rain event,", "Inflow (meteorology) Inflow is the flow of a fluid into a large collection of that fluid. Within meteorology, inflow normally refers to the influx of warmth and moisture from air within the Earth's atmosphere into storm systems. Extratropical cyclones are fed by inflow focused along their cold front and warm fronts. Tropical cyclones require a large inflow of warmth and moisture from warm oceans in order to develop significantly, mainly within the lowest 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) of the atmosphere. Once the flow of warm and moist air is cut off from thunderstorms and their associated tornadoes, normally by the thunderstorm's", "cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, and asbestosis.\nWhether or not flares contribute to acid rain is debatable, as some independent studies conducted have found that the sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide content of most flares was insufficient to establish a link between flaring and acid rain. Other studies from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) report that gas flaring is \"a major contributor to air pollution and acid rain.\"\nOlder flares are rarely relocated away from villages and are known to coat the land and communities with soot and to damage adjacent vegetation. Almost no vegetation can grow in the area directly", "The rate constant was calculated from the formula . For the primary formation reaction, a = 1.05×10⁻⁶ and B = −0.47. Assuming an NH₄⁺ abundance of 3×10⁻⁷ and an electron abundance of 10⁻⁷ typical of molecular clouds, the formation will proceed at a rate of 1.6×10⁻⁹ cm⁻³s⁻¹ in a molecular cloud of total density 10⁵ cm⁻³.\nAll other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between 2 and 13 orders of magnitude smaller, making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant. As an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play, the reaction:\nH₂ + NH₂ → NH₃ + H\nhas a rate constant of 2.2×10⁻¹⁵.", "effect. On porous substrates, the competition among infiltration, particle motion and evaporation of the solvent governs the final deposition morphology.\nThe pH of the solution of the drop influences the final deposit pattern. The transition between these patterns is explained by considering how DLVO interactions such as the electrostatic and Van der Waals forces modify the particle deposition process. Applications The coffee ring effect is utilized in convective deposition by researchers wanting to order particles on a substrate using capillary-driven assembly, replacing a stationary droplet with an advancing meniscus drawn across the substrate. This process differs from dip-coating in that", "formation reactions are chemical in nature, forming bonds between oxygen dimers and pure metals or metal alloys. The reactions are endothermic for transition metals and semi-metals. At isothermic and isobaric conditions at atmosphere, the probability for a free metal surface to bind an oxygen dimer via oxidation is a function of the partial pressure of oxygen, the surface energy between the crystal and the liquid or vapor phase (see heat of formation), and time.\nIn standard conditions, the determining factors for phase change are temperature and pressure. The idea here is that oxygen is making a phase change from gas to", "Vertically integrated liquid Vertically integrated liquid (VIL) is an estimate of the total mass of precipitation in the clouds. The measurement is obtained by observing the reflectivity of the air which is obtained with weather radar. Usage The VIL measurement is usually used in determining the size of prospective hail, the potential amount of rain under a thunderstorm, and the potential downdraft strength when combined with the height of the echo tops.\nWhen VIL values are high for longer periods of time, the storm may be a supercell. Multicells Multicells usually have alternating VIL values. Multicells can have high VIL values", "those of 1983 and 1997–98.\nCharacteristic of this phenomenon are the intense rains. These are caused by the warming of the sea off the north coast of Peru, up to 29 °C, when the normal is 22º or a little more; this causes the water to evaporate, forming clouds that then precipitate as rain on the coast. The rains cause both landslides or mudslides, and river overflows or floods, severely affecting the populations settled in its path. Areas affected The most serious damages were verified in the departments of northern Peru: Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque, which have endured intense rains, sometimes accompanied", "that influence the reaction rate are the nature of the reaction, concentration, pressure, reaction order, temperature, solvent, electromagnetic radiation, catalyst, isotopes, surface area, stirring, and diffusion limit. Some reactions are naturally faster than others. The number of reacting species, their physical state (the particles that form solids move much more slowly than those of gases or those in solution), the complexity of the reaction and other factors can greatly influence the rate of a reaction.\nReaction rate increases with concentration, as described by the rate law and explained by collision theory. As reactant concentration increases, the frequency of collision increases. The", "include ELISA, enzyme-linked immunospot (Elispot), immunofluorescence, and immunoelectrophoresis. Precipitation reaction Soluble antigens combine with soluble antibodies in presence of an electrolyte at suitable temperature and pH to form insoluble visible complex. This is called a precipitation reaction. It is used for qualitative and quantitative determination of both antigen and antibody.\nIt involves the reaction of soluble antigen with soluble antibodies to form large interlocking aggravated called lattice .\nIt occurs in tow distinct stage . firstly,the Antigen and antibody rapidly form antigen-antibody complexes within few seconds and this is followed by a slower reaction in which the antibody-antigen complexes", "total volume of precipitate formation.\nDiffusion's exponential dependence upon temperature makes precipitation strengthening, like all heat treatments, a fairly delicate process. Too little diffusion (under ageing), and the particles will be too small to impede dislocations effectively; too much (over ageing), and they will be too large and dispersed to interact with the majority of dislocations. Alloy design Precipitation strengthening is possible if the line of solid solubility slopes strongly toward the centre of a phase diagram. While a large volume of precipitate particles is desirable, a small enough amount of the alloying element should be added that it", "a multistep reaction. Reaction Intermediates Reaction intermediates are chemical species, often unstable and short-lived (however sometimes can be isolated), which are not reactants or products of the overall chemical reaction, but are temporary products and/or reactants in the mechanism's reaction steps. Reaction intermediates are often free radicals or ions. \nThe kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps and the rate equation for the overall reaction) are explained in terms of the energy needed for the conversion of the reactants to the proposed transition states (molecular states that corresponds to maxima on the reaction coordinates, and to saddle points" ]

[ "Two things going on here. First, heat doesn't have anything to do with sunburn, it's all about UV rays. Encountering more UV rays = more sunburn.\n\nHowever, dark skin absorbs more UV rays than pale skin. And in fact that's exactly why it burns less. The pigmented layer absorbs more UV in the upper layers of the skin, shading the cells underneath from UV and preventing burns (because it's the lower, reproducing cells that matter, the upper ones are disposable protection). Just like sitting outside under an opaque black umbrella would shade you more than sitting outside under a translucent white one.", "In dark skin, there's a a pigment called melanin that absorbs the UV rays (heat has nothing to do with sun burn). In light skin, there is much less melanin, so the UV rays just directly damage the cells because there's nothing else to absorb the rays.." ]

[ "eumelanin in their skins. This makes their skins brown or black and protects them against high levels of exposure to the sun, which more frequently result in melanomas in lighter-skinned people.\nNot all the effects of pigmentation are advantageous. Pigmentation increases the heat load in hot climates, and black people absorb 30% more heat from sunlight than do white people, although this factor may be offset by more profuse sweating. In cold climates black skin entails more heat loss by radiation. Pigmentation also hinders synthesis of vitamin D, so that in areas of poor nutrition black children are more liable to", "dark skin evolved as a protection against the effect of UV radiation is overwhelming, and research shows that eumelanin protects against both folate depletion and direct damage to DNA. This accounts for the development of dark skin pigmentation of people living near the equator but does not account for the increasingly lighter-skinned people living outside the tropics.\nIn the 1960s, biochemist W. Farnsworth Loomis suggested that skin colour is related to the body’s need for vitamin D. The overwhelming positive effect of UV radiation in land-living vertebrates is the ability to synthesize vitamin D3 from it. A certain amount of vitamin", "burner) or a local excess of fuel (as for a kerosene torch). Because of this dependency upon relatively inefficient combustion, luminosity is associated with diffusion flames and is lessened with premixed flames.\nThe flame is yellow because of its temperature. To produce enough soot to be luminous, the flame is operated at a lower temperature than its efficient heating flame (see Bunsen burner). The colour of simple incandescence is due to black-body radiation. By Planck's law, as the temperature decreases, the peak of the black-body radiation curve moves to longer wavelengths, i.e. from the blue to the yellow. However, the blue", "the amount of ultraviolet radiation penetrating the skin, controlling its biochemical effects.\nNatural skin color can darken as a result of tanning due to exposure to sunlight. The leading theory is that skin color adapts to intense sunlight irradiation to provide partial protection against the ultraviolet fraction that produces damage and thus mutations in the DNA of the skin cells. There is a correlation between the geographic distribution of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and the distribution of indigenous skin pigmentation around the world. Darker-skinned populations are found in the regions with the most ultraviolet, closer to the equator, while lighter skinned populations", "other main hypotheses that have been put forward to explain the development of light skin pigmentation: resistance to cold injury, and occurrence of a mutation effect; now both of them are considered unlikely to be the main mechanism behind the evolution of light skin.\nThe resistance to cold injury hypothesis claimed that dark skin was selected against in cold climates far from the equator and in higher altitudes as dark skin was more affected by frostbite. It has been found that reaction of the skin to extreme cold climates has actually more to do with other aspects, such as the distribution", "of illumination has a great influence on the intensity of color quality. In order to prove this most vividly, take some colors before daybreak, when it begins slowly to get lighter. Initially one sees only black and grey. Particularly the brightest colors, red and green, appear darkest. Yellow cannot be distinguished from a rosy red. Blue became noticeable to me first. Nuances of red, which otherwise burn brightest in daylight, namely carmine, cinnabar and orange, show themselves as darkest for quite a while, in contrast to their average brightness. Green appears more bluish", "skin, eyes and fur to protect themselves against sunburn (damage to living tissues caused by ultraviolet light). Temperature regulation Some frogs such as Bokermannohyla alvarengai, which basks in sunlight, lighten their skin color when hot (and darkens when cold), making their skin reflect more heat and so avoid overheating. Incidental coloration Some animals are colored purely incidentally because their blood contains pigments. For example, amphibians like the olm that live in caves may be largely colorless as color has no function in that environment, but they show some red because of the haem pigment in their red blood cells, needed", "color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected. Mammals with a darker colored coat can absorb more heat from solar radiation, and stay warmer, and some smaller mammals, such as voles, have darker fur in the winter. The white, pigmentless fur of arctic mammals, such as the polar bear, may reflect more solar radiation directly onto the skin. The dazzling black-and-white striping of zebras appear to provide some protection from biting flies. Reproductive system In male placentals, the penis is used both for urination and copulation. Depending on the species, an erection may", "individuals are less likely to seek shade or to protect themselves against the sun, and are more likely to stay exposed to the burning effects of the sun's UV radiation for longer. Along with being cooling, the wind also has a drying effect on the skin, which may exacerbate the symptoms of a sunburn. There are also some claims that the natural oils and moisture in the skin are reduced in cold conditions, making the skin more vulnerable to the drying effects of the wind and the sun's UV radiation, and thus more easily burnt in situations where people may", "of connective tissue and distribution of fat, and with the responsiveness of peripheral capillaries to differences in temperature, and not with pigmentation.\nThe supposition that dark skin evolved in the absence of selective pressure was put forward by the probable mutation effect hypothesis. The main factor initiating the development of light skin was seen as a consequence of genetic mutation without an evolutionary selective pressure. The subsequent spread of light skin was thought to be caused by assortive mating and sexual selection contributed to an even lighter pigmentation in females. Doubt has been cast on this hypothesis, as a more random", "advantage of this new ability, such as the emergence of red faces.\nRed light is used to help adapt night vision in low-light or night time, as the rod cells in the human eye are not sensitive to red.\nRed illumination was (and sometimes still is) used as a safelight while working in a darkroom as it does not expose most photographic paper and some films. Today modern darkrooms usually use an amber safelight. In color theory and on a computer screen On the color wheel long used by painters, and in traditional color theory, red is one of the three primary", "in total darkness.\nMany photosensitive materials used in technical and industrial applications, such as photoresist, are sensitive only to blue, violet, and ultraviolet light and may be handled under a brighter yellow safelight. Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps sometimes are used in larger industrial darkrooms. They emit nearly monochromatic light at 589 nm (yellow), to which the materials are insensitive; as a result they can be extremely bright while still \"safe\".\nThe word \"safe\" in \"safelight\" is relative, as in most cases, a sensitised material eventually will be affected by its safelight if exposed to it for an extended length of time.", "metal (usually aluminium). The result is a mirrored surface that reflects some light and is penetrated by the rest. Light always passes equally in both directions. However, when one side is brightly lit and the other kept dark, the darker side becomes difficult to see from the brightly lit side because it is masked by the much brighter reflection of the lit side.", "added protection from the sun's ultraviolet radiation is thought to give an evolutionary advantage—and lighter skin tones closer to the poles.\nThe hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of pigments called melanins. Human skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism. Human hair ranges in color from white to red to blond to brown to black, which is most frequent. Hair color depends on the amount of melanin (an effective sun blocking pigment) in the skin and hair, with hair melanin concentrations in hair", "to scatter blue light more than red light.\nSome daylight in the early morning and late afternoon (the golden hours) has a lower (\"warmer\") color temperature due to increased scattering of shorter-wavelength sunlight by atmospheric particles – an optical phenomenon called the Tyndall effect.\nDaylight has a spectrum similar to that of a black body with a correlated color temperature of 6500 K (D65 viewing standard) or 5500 K (daylight-balanced photographic film standard).\nFor colors based on black-body theory, blue occurs at higher temperatures, whereas red occurs at lower temperatures. This is the opposite of the cultural associations attributed to colors, in which \"red\" is", "dark-colored species that want to increase their body temperature via exposure to the sun. Although the gregaria larvae are shown to heat up more rapidly than the solitaria larvae, gregaria caterpillars have less body mass, which is the main contributing factor to the increased effect of temperature. However, darker coloration was favored in high temperatures when the species is more likely to overheat, suggesting that the coloration between the two phases could be more significant at extreme temperatures. Pest control The gregaria phase of the S. exempta species are considered agricultural pests due to their high densities and feeding behavior.", "wavelengths have little to do with visual emissivities (visible colors); in the far infra-red, most objects have high emissivities. Thus, except in sunlight, the color of clothing makes little difference as regards warmth; likewise, paint color of houses makes little difference to warmth except when the painted part is sunlit.\nThe main exception to this is shiny metal surfaces, which have low emissivities both in the visible wavelengths and in the far infrared. Such surfaces can be used to reduce heat transfer in both directions; an example of this is the multi-layer insulation used to insulate spacecraft.\nLow-emissivity windows in houses are", "Amber shift Basic example This can best be seen with domestic lighting which is controlled with dimmers. When the dimmer is turned down the light being produced also appears to be more of a warm, amber colour. Whereas when the light level is increased the light becomes more white. Uses This characteristic of incandescent lighting can be used for various practical applications where a different colour temperature of light is required. Art exhibitions Often an artist will want to show his or her work in high colour temperature light. The reason for this is because a higher colour temperature will", "eumelanin, and possess fewer melanosomes than humans with dark skin pigmentation. Light skin provides better absorption qualities of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to synthesize higher amounts of vitamin D for bodily processes such as calcium development. Light-skinned people who live near the equator with high sunlight are at an increased risk of folate depletion. As consequence of folate depletion, they are at a higher risk of DNA damage, birth defects, and numerous types of cancers, especially skin cancer.\nThe distribution of indigenous light-skinned populations is highly correlated with the low ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them.", "superior to darker skin. The downside to this is not only that it makes women of darker complexion feel inferior, but that these skin whitening products can come with many risky side effects. The active ingredient in many of these products is mercury which has been known to cause serious psychiatric, neurological, and kidney problems.", "sunlight has lower UV light content. The adaptation of lighter skin is needed so that individuals in higher latitudes can still absorb enough UV for the production of vitamin D. Freckled individuals tend to tan less and have very light skin, which would have helped the individuals that expressed these genes absorb vitamin D. Types Ephelides describes a freckle which is flat and light brown or red and fades with reduction of sun exposure. Ephelides are more common in those with light complexions, although they are found on people with a variety of skin tones. The regular", "a blue-white appearance. For critical inspection or color matching tasks, or for retail displays of food and clothing, the color temperature of the lamps will be selected for the best overall lighting effect. Color may also be used for functional reasons. For example, blue light makes it difficult to see veins and thus may be used to discourage drug use. Correlated color temperature The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of comparable hue to that of the light source. Color temperature is a characteristic of visible", "prone to superficial burns because of the simple fact that there's more to burn before it gets deep. Skin thickness varies throughout the body, from 0.5mm of the eye lids to 6mm in the soles of the feet. Skin thickness overall varies with age, being thinner at extremes of age.\nExternal factors on the skin like hair, moisture or oils can also help ease and delay the burn. Another factor is skin circulation, which is used to dissipate heat imprinted on the skin. Hot liquids and steam Scalding is a type of thermal burn caused by boiling water and steam, commonly", "fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Most researchers believe that skin darkening is an adaptation that evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation, which also helps balancing folate, which is destroyed by ultraviolet radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make. Skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is clinally distributed across the planet, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Psychology The human brain, the", "UV are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present and causes the colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored.\nUV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles either to enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and aesthetic applications.\nAmusement parks often use UV lighting to fluoresce ride artwork and backdrops. This", "\"hot\", and \"blue\" is \"cold\". Lighting For lighting building interiors, it is often important to take into account the color temperature of illumination. A warmer (i.e., a lower color temperature) light is often used in public areas to promote relaxation, while a cooler (higher color temperature) light is used to enhance concentration, for example in schools and offices.\nCCT dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task, since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output. Here feedback loop systems are used, for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control the", "reflects so little light as to be called \"black\". This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the absorption of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment.\nIn physics, a black body is a perfect absorber of light, but, by a thermodynamic rule, it is also the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the infrared as well. In elementary science, far ultraviolet light is called \"black light\" because,", "poor radiative insulators because infrared radiation (which transfers heat) passes through them.\nOwing to its hygroscopic nature, aerogel feels dry and acts as a strong desiccant. People handling aerogel for extended periods should wear gloves to prevent the appearance of dry brittle spots on their skin.\nThe slight color it does have is due to Rayleigh scattering of the shorter wavelengths of visible light by the nano-sized dendritic structure. This causes it to appear smoky blue against dark backgrounds and yellowish against bright backgrounds.\nAerogels by themselves are hydrophilic, and if they absorb moisture they usually suffer a structural change, such as contraction,", "Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect Lightness Even when they have the same luminance, colored lights seem brighter to human observers than white light does. The way humans perceive the brightness of the lights will be different for everyone. When the colors are more saturated, our eyes interpret it as the color's luminance and chroma. This makes us believe that the colors are actually brighter. An exception to this is when the human observer is red-green colorblind, they cannot distinguish the differences between the lightness of the colors. Certain colors do not have significant effect, however, any hue of colored lights still seem brighter", "Light skin Light skin is a human skin color, which has little eumelanin pigmentation and which has been adapted to environments of low UV radiation. Light skin is most commonly found amongst the native populations of Europe and Northeast Asia as measured through skin reflectance. People with light skin pigmentation are often referred to as white or fair, although these usages can be ambiguous in some countries where they are used to refer specifically to certain ethnic groups or populations.\nAs populations migrated away from the tropics between 125,000 and 65,000 years ago into areas of low UV radiation, they developed" ]

[ "Your email contacts, your academic/work institutions info you've put, and the friends of your friends.", "Piggyback question (more an example): \n\nI had a fb acct that only had ~30 people on it. I just used it for work and didn't have any other fb accts. I didn't personally add any address info to that acct, I don't think I provided any info beyond what was required to activate the acct. \n\nWe had a new apartment manager who called me one day from the leasing office land line and I received 1 email from her that was to an email address not associated with my fb acct. Very shortly after these 2 times she contacted me, she showed up on \"people I may know.\" \n\nHow the hell? I immediately deleted that account, which I didn't really use or want anyway. It creeped me the fuck out because I assumed it was due to some weird permission I granted when agreeing to the terms. I've always been curious about what happened there. \n\n**Edit to add that she wasn't friends with anyone else on my page because she was a brand new apartment manager and this was strictly a work acct.", "Some speculation and good answers in a thread about this a few months ago. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThink of it this way. It isn't as much about FB knowing who you know, but Facebook already knowing who your friends know. Every data point you give them is another source for them to measure against how you fit into that web." ]

[ "Facebook has the ability for people to view your personal life with you posting picture, videos and updating your status. As of today Facebook is one of the most popular social media websites for multiple types of communication. Generally Facebook is used for communication with relatives and friends along with people who share interests.\nSocial media have introduced new difficulties into relationships.  One way this has occurred is through catfishing.  The term catfish refers to a person who uses a false online profile on a social media platform. Most commonly, a catfish communicates with another online profile to get them to", "and are less inclined to initiate new connections: “Facebook members seem to be using Facebook as a surveillance tool for maintaining previous relationships, and as a “social search” tool by which they investigate people they've met offline”.\nConnections formed online sometimes are transformed to off-line personal relationships. Parks and Floyd (1996) report that 60% of their random sample “reported that they had formed a personal relationship of some kind with someone they had first contacted through a newsgroup”, and that “relationships that begin on line rarely stay there”.\nPrivacy issues are commonly reported in popular media. According to Gross and Acquisti (2005),", "exposing the fact that Facebook was collecting personal information about their users, without their knowledge, even when those users opted out of Facebook's ill-fated Beacon program, and even when those users were not logged into Facebook.", "found that young people are taking measures to keep their posted information on Facebook private to some degree. Examples of such actions include managing their privacy settings so that certain content can be visible to \"Only Friends\" and ignoring Facebook friend requests from strangers.\nIn 2013 a class action lawsuit was filed against Facebook alleging the company scanned user messages for web links, translating them to “likes” on the user's Facebook profile. Data lifted from the private messages was then used for targeted advertising, the plaintiffs claimed. \"Facebook's practice of scanning the content of these messages violates the federal Electronic Communications", "is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's.\nSuppose that Mallory, an attacker, joins the site and wants to figure out the real names of the people she sees on the site. To do so, she writes a script designed to run from", "People expect others to present themselves on Facebook in a positive manner and even to limit a post of anything that could hurt their own image or that of a friend. Even if those in a virtual or long-distance relationship do arrange to meet in person, it is usually set up well in advance and allows time to prepare for control of the encounter to reinforce the online image rather than the reality of their life.\nDespite its drawbacks, computer-mediated communication has changed the way people maintain relationships. Through the technological advancements that have taken place over the past twenty years,", "Facebook Dating Features Facebook Dating is a feature within Facebook's main app rather than a separate app release. Facebook users create a separate dating profile. After indicating interest in another profile, the service lets users contact each other. Facebook also plans a feature to let people attending the same event make their profiles visible to each other. In an effort to meet new people, the service ensures that users do not match with their friends, and that they match with people who have things in common, as well as mutual friends. The company is also adding a \"Secret Crush\" feature", "what we \"click\" to filter out what comes up in our searches. In addition, Facebook searches are not necessarily as private as the Google ones. Facebook draws on the more public self and users share what other people want to see. Even while tagging photographs, Facebook uses personalization and face recognition that will automatically assign a name to face. Facebook’s like button utilizes its users to do their own personalization for the website. What posts the user comments on or likes tells Facebook what type of posts they will be interested in for the future. In addition to this, it", "Mark Zuckerberg, CEO, had hundreds of personal photos and his events calendar exposed in the transition. Facebook has since re-included an option to hide friends lists from being viewable; however, this preference is no longer listed with other privacy settings, and the former ability to hide the friends list from selected people among one's own friends is no longer possible. Journalist Dan Gillmor deleted his Facebook account over the changes, stating he \"can't entirely trust Facebook\" and Heidi Moore at Slate's Big Money temporarily deactivated her account as a \"conscientious objection\". Other journalists have been similarly disappointed and outraged by", "but it is also brilliant.\" Some Facebook users have raised privacy concerns because they do not like that Facebook sells user’s information to third parties. In 2012, users sued Facebook for using their pictures and information on a Facebook advertisement. Facebook gathers user information by keeping track of pages users have \"Liked\" and through the interactions users have with their connections. They then create value of the gathered data by selling it. In 2009 users also filed a lawsuit for Facebook’s privacy invasion through Facebook Beacon system. Facebook’s team believed that through the Beacon system people could inspire their friends", "main source of news and breaking new stories, people can connect to people from all over the world and learn in new ways. It is easier to see people's private life on a public network. This being said, social networks such as Facebook makes viewing someone's daily life as simple as sending a request. Society is exposed to everyone's lives and people are starting to compare themselves with their friends that they have on Facebook. It is easy to log in and see someone brag about their success or their new belongings and feel bad about", "order to share information with specific people on the network. \"Facebook encourages users to engage in self-promoting\". Facebook allows users to engage in self-promotion in a positive way; it allows friends to like and/or comment on posts and statuses. \nFacebook users are also able to \"follow\" people whom they may not be friends with, such as public figures, companies, or celebrities. This allows users to keep up to date with things that interest them like music, sports, and promotions from their favorite companies, and share them with their Facebook friends. Individualized experience Aside from features such as email, the photo", "Facebook friends. Many profiles contain minimal, if any information, and are limited to photos.\nUsing a similar technique to the Tinder app, a user swipes right on a presented profile to indicate interest in the other person, causing a Star of David with a happy face to appear; a user swipes left to indicate a lack of interest, and the symbol has a frown; when two users have both swiped right on each other, one of a set of animated sketches of Jewish wedding activities appears.\nAfter a match, the users have the ability to send online messages to each other.\nGiven the", "to find employment than were those who contacted acquaintances. In 2014, Burke and Kraut published a study which found that interaction with other users on Facebook increases closeness, regardless of how much effort this interaction takes.", "provides opportunities for students to share what they wrote with their peers and with their caretakers. The blogs could also be a form of electronic portfolios that could show what the students created during the school year. Blogger has settings in which only people with permission can see or write on the blogs themselves. Facebook Facebook is an online communication tool that allows individuals to interact with each other within a virtual community. It has become the most popular social networking site since its beginnings in 2004. Facebook was co-founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with his roommates and colleagues", "until the user has joined the group. A Facebook member must request to join a closed group or be added by an existing member or admin. All members of the group may post and comment in the group, however, all posts must be approved by group moderators before it appears on the page. Subtle Asian Traits currently receives over 500 new posts a day. The group mainly consists of jokes and concepts or catchphrases intended for humorous purposes, also known as Internet memes. An example of a popular Internet meme on the page was a picture of an Asian household", "know the celebrity even though the celebrity does not know them. As part of the risk they take for being in the public eye, celebrities and public figures are often targets of lies or made-up stories in tabloids as well as by stalkers, some even seeming to be fans.\nIn one noted case in 2011, actress Patricia Arquette quit Facebook after alleged cyberstalking. In her last post, Arquette explained that her security warned her Facebook friends to never accept friend requests from people they do not actually know. Arquette stressed that just because people seemed to be fans did not mean", "so that people will be able to match with others that they 'like'. Once two people 'like' each other, they will be able to match and potentially talk to each other.\nUsers can filter results based on location, number of children, religion, age, or height, and can match with other users within a 100-km range. Development Facebook announced the product at their F8 developer conference in May 2018. The service was not fully announced at the conference, and attendees were told that more information would be coming soon. The feature was in internal beta testing within several months of the", "app that allowed users to identify and threaten Facebook friends for assassination. Methods of identifying female friends included \"her hairy legs\", \"her muffin top\" and \"her small tits\". Methods of identifying male friends included \"his ginger hair\", \"his shit hair\" and \"his tiny penis\". Users could choose a reason to kill their friend, such as the fact that they \"smell bad\" or were cheating on their partner. Friends received a personalised video on their Facebook wall identifying them as a target. Signing up to watch the video presented recipients with a mixture of their own photos and Facebook details merged", "online friends, but never met in person or spoke. Meier thought \"Josh\" was attractive. As Meier began to exchange messages with this person, her family said she seemed to have had her \"spirits lifted\". This person claimed to have moved to the nearby city of O'Fallon, was homeschooled and did not yet have a phone number.\nA 16-year-old male named \"Josh Evans\" was registered on the account used for bullying messages to Meier. But Lori Drew, the mother of Sarah Drew, a former friend of Meier, later admitted creating the MySpace account. At the time of the suicide, the Drew and", "friends begin online dating and encourages them to be safe by writing down some tips and advice and places it on the fridge. But out of curiosity, she tries online dating herself and starts talking to a good looking man who claims to be called Cameron through the internet. She is on her way to meet him when she spots a middle aged man (Silas Blissett) whose car has broken down. Shortly after she lends him her phone to call for breakdown assistance, she soon realises he is Cameron, when he says her name. A struggle then ensues when she", "in most social networks, users can add people as their friends. Their friends are listed on their user profile accordingly. Journals Each user has a personal collection of articles that they can publish under the user profile. This collection is called \"journals\", and is publicly available for anyone to read. Questions and answers Each user is asked several personal questions while using the web application, allowing him to provide an answer or skip the question. These answers are then publicly available on the user's profile for other users to see, a feature that allows the owner to reveal numerous details", "Facebook fans asking them personal questions and advice for their own personal problems. Unlike a normal episode the topics are decided entirely by the fans. Both episodes are similar to The Real's online exclusive segments and both episodes are around four minutes. Appearances in other media On March 14, 2016, all of The Talk hosts (including then host Aisha Tyler) made a cameo on Supergirl in the episode \"Falling\" when Cat Grant (played by Calista Flockhart) made a guest appearance on The Talk. On December 15, 2017, Julie Chen revealed that all of the current hosts of The Talk (including", "simply to have an up-to-date addressbook and not to lose contact with friends. Other people on the globe had the same idea. Friendster, Facebook and many other services were successors to this.\nIn April 2002, Jonathan Abrams created his profile on Friendster.\nIn 2003, Hi5, LinkedIn, MySpace, and XING were launched.\nIn February 2004, Facebook was launched.\nIn 2004, Levin (in Allen 2004, sec. 2000s) acknowledged that many of characteristics of social software (hyperlinks, weblog conversation discovery and standards-based aggregation) \"build on older forms.\". Nevertheless, \"the difference in scale, standardization, simplicity and social incentives provided by web access turn a difference in degree to", "& Parks, 2002). An example of this is information self-reported on personal profile pages. These can range from interests and hobbies, to other personal details (also known as constraining information, which is not easily verified but restricts identity). Experiment Walther, Van Der Heide, Kim, Westerman, and Tong (2008), wanted to explore if the attractiveness of friends, as well as what these friends said on an individual's profile, had an effect on social attraction. They investigated the topic by assigning random participants to view fake Facebook pages.\nThis experiment had two phases. In the first phase, researchers displayed two comments from friends", "about Facebook and stuff.\" The song lyrics follow a theme of infatuation and disappointment with each member describing their own personal experience of how they met someone they thought was 'The one' and how the person left before they were able to get the phone number. References by Dappy include how he searched on Facebook for the woman he never got a phone number from. Tulisa's story includes how she wore a \"LBD\" and \"Bang bang shoes\" when leaving her date for a moment to go to the ladies bathroom at a club and on return discovering he left her", "weight, age, or address, also constitutes as partial warranting, as these figures are easily checked and provide little room for gray area. Others-generated warrants Much of the existing research regarding warranting examined how perception and judgments about an individual are influenced by others-generated information. Walther, Van Der Heide, Kim, Westerman, and Tong (2008), used fake Facebook profiles to assess if the attractiveness of friends, as well as what these friends said on an individual's profile, had an effect on social attraction. Profiles that were neutral in content displayed two comments from friends. The small profile pictures of commenting friends were", "daily, for an average of 34 minutes, while 150 million users accessed the site by mobile.\nIn October 2012 Facebook's monthly active users passed one billion, with 600 million mobile users, 219 billion photo uploads, and 140 billion friend connections. The 2 billion user mark was crossed in June 2017.\nIn November 2015, after skepticism about the accuracy of its \"monthly active users\" measurement, Facebook changed its definition to a logged-in member who visits the Facebook site through the web browser or mobile app, or uses the Facebook Messenger app, in the 30 day period prior to the measurement. This excluded the", "example, interviewers can obtain information from search engines (e.g. Google, Bing, Yahoo), blogs, and even social networks (e.g. Linkedin, Facebook, Twitter). While some of this information may be job-related, some of it may not be. In some cases, a review of Facebook may reveal undesirable behaviors such as drunkenness or drug use. Despite the relevance of the information, any information interviewers obtain about the applicant before the interview is likely to influence theirimpression of the candidate. Furthermore, researchers have found that what interviewers think about the applicant before the interview (preinterview phase) is related to how they evaluate the", "website Facebook along with his home address, and others made threats of violence against him. The man's lawyer said that, as a consequence of that information being published, threats were made against the man's family. The man's ex-girlfriend and her family were also harassed after the Herald Sun newspaper published a photograph and a story about her. On 17 February, after requests from Victoria Police, the man's MySpace profile was removed; Facebook commenced deleting postings containing threats, and deleted a photo from one group. Looting By the morning of 11 February 2009, reports of looting had been posted. Witnesses" ]

[ "It's mostly due to the difference in immune system between a child and an adult. A primary varicella zoster infection (chickenpox) in adulthood is indeed associated with increased risk of complications. Most of these complications are due to the intense response by the adult immune system that comes into contact with the virus for the first time. Children have less active immune systems, but usually active enough to clear the virus - making them immune to it thereafter, and are therefore less likely to develop complications with this particular infection. The same goes to hepatitis A: adults develop jaundice, while children are asymptomatic. \n\nNote: a secondary varicella zoster infection during adulthood is called \"shingles\" and is generally less dangerous than a primary varicella during adulthood, due to the immunity that is already present at the time of the second infection." ]

[ "\"chickenpox parties\". Doctors counter that children are safer getting the vaccine, which is a weakened form of the virus, rather than getting the disease, which can be fatal. Repeated exposure to chickenpox may protect against zoster. Other animals Humans are the only known species that the disease affects naturally. However, chickenpox has been caused in other primates, including chimpanzees and gorillas. Research Sorivudine, a nucleoside analog, has been reported to be effective in the treatment of primary varicella in healthy adults (case reports only), but large-scale clinical trials are still needed to demonstrate its efficacy. There has also been speculation", "to one month.\nChickenpox is rarely fatal, although it is generally more severe in adult men than in women or children. Non-immune pregnant women and those with a suppressed immune system are at highest risk of serious complications. Arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) associated with chickenpox in the previous year accounts for nearly one third of childhood AIS. The most common late complication of chickenpox is shingles (herpes zoster), caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus decades after the initial, often childhood, chickenpox infection. Pathophysiology Exposure to VZV in a healthy child initiates the production of host immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin", "mild disease. It has been said to be derived from chickpeas, based on resemblance of the vesicles to chickpeas, or to come from the rash resembling chicken pecks. Other suggestions include the designation chicken for a child (i.e., literally 'child pox'), a corruption of itching-pox, or the idea that the disease may have originated in chickens. Samuel Johnson explained the designation as \"from its being of no very great danger\". Intentional exposure Because chickenpox is usually more severe in adults than it is in children, some parents deliberately expose their children to the virus, for example by taking them to", "the vaccine is only recommended in people who are particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. The National Health Service cites concerns about unvaccinated children catching chickenpox as adults when it is more dangerous, an increased risk of shingles in adults due to the lack of contact with chickenpox-infected children providing a natural boosting to immunity, and the fact that chickenpox is usually a mild illness. Contraindications The varicella vaccine is not recommended for seriously ill people, pregnant women, people who have tuberculosis, people who have experienced a serious allergic reaction to the varicella vaccine in the past, people who are allergic to", "strep.\nThese serious complications (i.e. they can cause brain damage or death) are vastly more likely than adverse vaccine events. Before the chickenpox vaccine became available 100 to 150 children in the U.S. died from chickenpox annually. The chickenpox vaccine is recommended by health officials as safer than infection by any means.\nSome parents have attempted to collect infected material, such as saliva, licked lollipops, or other infected items from people who claim to have children infected with chickenpox. The parents use social networking services to make contact with these strangers. The unknown person then mails the potentially infectious matter to the", "in children usually from 4 to 7 days, and the appearance of new blisters begins to subside after the fifth day. Chickenpox infection is milder in young children, and symptomatic treatment, with sodium bicarbonate baths or antihistamine medication may ease itching. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is widely used to reduce fever. Aspirin, or products containing aspirin, should not be given to children with chickenpox, as it can cause Reye syndrome.\nIn adults, the disease is more severe, though the incidence is much less common. Infection in adults is associated with greater morbidity and mortality due to pneumonia (either direct viral pneumonia or", "of children who get the vaccine in their early childhood and later have contact with children with chickenpox. Some of these children may develop a mild chickenpox also known as breakthrough disease.\nAnother vaccine, known as zoster vaccine, is simply a larger-than-normal dose of the same vaccine used against chickenpox, and is used in older adults to reduce the risk of shingles (also called herpes zoster) and postherpetic neuralgia, which are caused by the same virus. The live zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 60 years and older. A recombinant zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 50", "the virus after vaccine tend to experience milder cases of chickenpox.\nCatching \"wild\" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with \"pox parties\". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The CDC and corresponding national organizations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines—large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated. Chickenpox Prior to the introduction of the vaccine in 1995 in the", "childhood, or after a latency period of many years. Shingles After a chickenpox infection, the virus remains dormant in the body's nerve tissues. The immune system keeps the virus at bay, but later in life, usually in an adult, it can be reactivated and cause a different form of the viral infection called shingles (also known as herpes zoster).\nThe United States Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) suggests that every adult over the age of 50 years get the herpes zoster vaccine.\nShingles affects one in five adults infected with chickenpox as children, especially those who are immune-suppressed, particularly from cancer,", "chickenpox from occurring in nonimmune children and adults, or at least lessen the risk of the varicella zoster virus lying dormant in the body and reactivating later as shingles. If shingles could be prevented, postherpetic neuralgia could be completely avoided.\nIn May 2006 the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices approved a new vaccine by Merck (Zostavax) against shingles. This vaccine is a more potent version of the chickenpox vaccine, and evidence shows that it reduces the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. The CDC recommends use of this vaccine in all persons over 60 years old.\nThe most effective means of preventing PHN from", "the relationship between chickenpox and shingles). This recurrence often occurs in times of relative immunosuppression, which is often in the context of malnutrition and other illnesses. In combination with poor sanitation and hygiene which leads to a greater density of lice, this reactivation is why typhus forms epidemics in times of social chaos and upheaval. Diagnosis IFA, ELISA or PCR positive after 10 days Treatment The infection is treated with antibiotics. Intravenous fluids and oxygen may be needed to stabilize the patient. There is a significant disparity between the untreated mortality and treated mortality rates: 10-60% untreated versus close to", "than 16 years, as it has been related to Reye syndrome. Adults Infection in otherwise healthy adults tends to be more severe. Treatment with antiviral drugs (e.g. aciclovir or valaciclovir) is generally advised, as long as it is started within 24–48 hours from rash onset. Remedies to ease the symptoms of chickenpox in adults are basically the same as those used for children. Adults are more often prescribed antiviral medication, as it is effective in reducing the severity of the condition and the likelihood of developing complications. Antiviral medicines do not kill the virus but stop it from multiplying. Adults", "increased as adults are less exposed to infected children (which would otherwise help protect against shingles). Ten years after the vaccine was recommended in the US, the CDC reported as much as a 90% drop in chickenpox cases, a varicella-related hospital admission decline of 71% and a 97% drop in chickenpox deaths among those under 20.\nVaccines are less effective among high-risk patients, as well as being more dangerous because they contain attenuated live virus. In a study performed on children with an impaired immune system, 30% had lost the antibody after five years, and 8% had already caught wild chickenpox", "is primarily a disease of children, with most cases occurring during the winter and spring, most likely due to school contact. It is one of the classic diseases of childhood, with the highest prevalence in the 4–10-year-old age group. Like rubella, it is uncommon in preschool children. Varicella is highly communicable, with an infection rate of 90% in close contacts. In temperate countries, most people become infected before adulthood, and 10% of young adults remain susceptible.\nIn the tropics, chickenpox often occurs in older people and may cause more serious disease. In adults, the pock marks are darker and the scars", "Chickenpox (South Park) Plot Chickenpox infects Stan's sister Shelley and Kenny. The other boys' mothers begin to think that maybe the other boys should be exposed to it too, so as to get it while they are young, when it is easier to deal with. They agree and have the other boys stay at Kenny's house. The boys are unenthusiastic about spending the night at Kenny's house because he is poor. The next day, Cartman and Stan get sick, but not Kyle. Stan's chickenpox gets so bad he has to be brought to the hospital with Shelley. Mrs. Broflovski tries", "more prominent than in children.\nIn the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not require state health departments to report infections of chickenpox, and only 31 states currently volunteer this information. However, in a 2013 study conducted by the social media disease surveillance tool called Sickweather, anecdotal reports of chickenpox infections on Facebook and Twitter were used to measure and rank states with the most infections per capita, with Maryland, Tennessee and Illinois in the top three. Etymology How the term chickenpox originated is not clear but it may be due to it being a relatively", "secondary bacterial pneumonia), bronchitis (either viral bronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis), hepatitis, and encephalitis. In particular, up to 10% of pregnant women with chickenpox develop pneumonia, the severity of which increases with onset later in gestation. In England and Wales, 75% of deaths due to chickenpox are in adults. Inflammation of the brain, or encephalitis, can occur in immunocompromised individuals, although the risk is higher with herpes zoster. Necrotizing fasciitis is also a rare complication.\nVaricella can be lethal to individuals with impaired immunity. The number of people in this high-risk group has increased, due to the HIV epidemic and the", "HIV, or other conditions. Stress can bring on shingles as well, although scientists are still researching the connection. Shingles is most commonly found in adults over the age of 60 who were diagnosed with chickenpox when they were under the age of 1. Diagnosis The diagnosis of chickenpox is primarily based on the signs and symptoms, with typical early symptoms followed by a characteristic rash. Confirmation of the diagnosis is by examination of the fluid within the vesicles of the rash, or by testing blood for evidence of an acute immunologic response.\nVesicular fluid can be examined with a Tzanck smear,", "Chickenpox Signs and symptoms The early (prodromal) symptoms in adolescents and adults are nausea, loss of appetite, aching muscles, and headache. This is followed by the characteristic rash or oral sores, malaise, and a low-grade fever that signal the presence of the disease. Oral manifestations of the disease (enanthem) not uncommonly may precede the external rash (exanthem). In children the illness is not usually preceded by prodromal symptoms, and the first sign is the rash or the spots in the oral cavity. The rash begins as small red dots on the face, scalp, torso, upper arms and legs; progressing over", "secondary infection.\nParacetamol (acetaminophen) but not aspirin may be used to reduce fever. Aspirin use by someone with chickenpox may cause the serious, sometimes fatal disease of the liver and brain, Reye syndrome. People at risk of developing severe complications who have had significant exposure to the virus may be given intra-muscular varicella zoster immune globulin (VZIG), a preparation containing high titres of antibodies to varicella zoster virus, to ward off the disease.\nAntivirals are sometimes used. Children If aciclovir by mouth is started within 24 hours of rash onset, it decreases symptoms by one day but has no effect on complication", "fetal varicella syndrome. Hygiene measures The spread of chickenpox can be prevented by isolating affected individuals. Contagion is by exposure to respiratory droplets, or direct contact with lesions, within a period lasting from three days before the onset of the rash, to four days after the onset of the rash. The chickenpox virus is susceptible to disinfectants, notably chlorine bleach (i.e., sodium hypochlorite). Like all enveloped viruses, it is sensitive to desiccation, heat and detergents. Vaccine The varicella vaccine is recommended in many countries. Some countries require the varicella vaccination or an exemption before entering elementary school. A second dose", "periodic boost to the immune system helps to prevent shingles in older adults. When routine chickenpox vaccination was introduced in the United States, there was concern that, because older adults would no longer receive this natural periodic boost, there would be an increase in the incidence of shingles.\nMultiple studies and surveillance data, at least when viewed superficially, demonstrate no consistent trends in incidence in the U.S. since the chickenpox vaccination program began in 1995. However, upon closer inspection, the two studies that showed no increase in shingles incidence were conducted among populations where varicella vaccination was not as yet widespread", "well, with up to 100% of poultry, including chickens, turkeys, and waterfowl, having asymptomatic infections in their intestinal tracts. Infected chicken feces may contain up to 10⁹ bacteria per 25 grams, and due to the animals' close proximity, the bacteria are rapidly spread to other chickens. This vastly exceeds the infectious dose of 1000–10,000 bacteria for humans.\nIn January 2013, the UK's Food Standards Agency warned that two-thirds of all raw chicken bought from UK shops was contaminated with campylobacter, affecting an estimated half a million people annually and killing approximately 100. Outbreak In August–September 2016, 5,200 people fell ill with campylobacteriosis", "live in their own feces. They have the ends of their beaks sliced off without painkillers when they're still babies and are bred to grow so big, so fast, that their legs often snap under the weight of their bloated bodies. The sickest thing of all is that a lot of times chickens are still fully conscious when their throats are cut or when they're dunked into tanks of scalding hot water to remove their feathers. If KFC execs treated cats or dogs the way their suppliers treat chickens, they could be charged with crimes. Other activities At the launch", "induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. \"Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85 percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99 percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens", "Lymphoid leucosis Lymphoid leucosis is a disease that affects chickens, caused by the retrovirus Avian leukosis virus.\nIt is a neoplastic disease caused by a virus, which may take the form of a tumor of the bursa of Fabricius and may metastasize to other tissues of the chicken and cause enlargement and swelling of the abdomen. Symptoms Symptoms include enlargement of abdomen, bursa, weight loss, weakness and emaciation, and depression. The disease is more likely to affect chicken around five to eight months of age who are more vulnerable. Green diarrhea tends to develops at the terminal stage.", "pox. About 10,600 people were hospitalized and 100 to 150 died each year. Transmission Varicella spreads person to person through the air from coughing or sneezing, touching or breathing in the virus that comes from the chickenpox blisters, and can be spread from people with Shingles. It takes 10 to 21 days after exposure to develop symptoms and it lasts about 5–10 days. For the most part, getting the chickenpox provides immunity for life. Although uncommon, it is possible for some people to get chickenpox more than once. Hepatitis A Hepatitis A, like Hepatitis B is inflammation of the liver.", "Varicella zoster virus Epidemiology Primary varicella zoster virus infection results in chickenpox (varicella), which may result in complications including encephalitis, pneumonia (either direct viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia), or bronchitis (either viral bronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis). Even when clinical symptoms of chickenpox have resolved, VZV remains dormant in the nervous system of the infected person (virus latency), in the trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia. VZV enters through the respiratory system. Having an incubation period of 10–21 days, averaging at 14 days. targeting the skin and peripheral nerve, the period of illness is from 3 to 4 days.", "some studies may not be related to vaccination programs, as the incidence increases prior to the varicella vaccine program being initiated.\nRegarding herpes zoster, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated in 2014: \"Chickenpox vaccines contain weakened live VZV, which may cause latent (dormant) infection. The vaccine-strain VZV can reactivate later in life and cause shingles. However, the risk of getting shingles from vaccine-strain VZV after chickenpox vaccination is much lower than getting shingles after natural infection with wild-type VZV.\" Schedule The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends one or two doses with the initial dose given at 12", "to occur in young children. Only 16 cases have been reported of D. caninum infections in humans within the last 20 years, and almost all of the cases were found in children. Young children and toddlers are at a greater risk of infection because of how they interact with their pets. A human may attain an infection by accidentally ingesting an infected flea through food contamination or through the saliva of pets. Most infections are asymptomatic, but sometimes these symptoms may be identified in an infected individual: mild diarrhea, abdominal colic, anorexia, restlessness, constipation, rectal itching, and pain due to" ]

[ "The theater will be fined a massive amount of money for allowing a leak, the person leaking it will be fined a massive amount of money for uploading it, and they automatically lose their job. This is a combination of copyright law violation and contracts that you sign when taking the job. So the risk are so extremely high that most will not risk it. \n\nThey also have security features such as login codes to open, proprietary file types that need special programs to play, and the rooms operating the projector system requiring special key access at times.", "The movies are shipped to the theaters in special hard drive enclosures that are tamper-proof and force every access to be logged. The film itself is encrypted in a way that's tied to specific projectors.\n\nIt's not like you can just copy a file over - they've thought this shit through thoroughly and any theater that tries to break the security will get sued to hell and back **and** never get another movie again." ]

[ "sale on sites such as EBay, these are legal \"backup\" copies made from VHS cassettes.\nIn 2016, the film was officially released in the U.S. for Digital HD and Video On Demand and is available from digital retailers like iTunes and Amazon.", "allows users to play the film from any location via iTunes or Windows Media Player. All releases include bloopers and the \"Becoming Number 6\" featurette, while the single-disc Blu-ray and three-disc Blu-ray, DVD, and \"Digital Copy\" combo pack versions additionally include six deleted scenes with an introduction from the director. In its first three weeks of release, 316,081 Blu-ray units were sold in the US, bringing in $7,693,808. As of October 2, 2011, the standard DVD of 'I am Number Four' has sold 767,692 copies in the United States, generating $12,571,326, and thus bringing the total gross to $166,247,931.", "In comparison, a typical DVD makes a 2-hour movie about 4.7 GB.\nDue to the large size of the files being downloaded, the service required a broadband internet connection capable of sustaining transfer speeds of 800 kbit/s. A 2-hour filme might have taken 7 hours and 20 minutes to download using a 750 kbit/s DSL/cable connection or 1 hour and 50 minutes with a 3.0 Mbit/s DSL/cable connection.\nFor Bell Video Store users with a high speed connection, the service delivered a progressive download feature which aimed to have any Bell Video Store files playing within 5 minutes. Requirements For display on", "the Motion Picture Association. Zediva argued that it serves a similar function as rental stores like Blockbuster who don't need a licensing agreement to rent movies. Zediva only rented DVD's to one customer at a time and did not make DVD copies. The Motion Picture Association contended that this type of streaming was illegal and in violation of copyright law. In August 2011, the U.S. District court Judge John Walter ordered a preliminary injunction against Zediva, shutting down their service. The Columbia Pictures v. Redd Horne ruling played a key role in this case.", "can be seen at the beginning and end of the film.\nBecause the film is in the public domain, there have been at least a dozen DVD releases from a variety of companies over the years. However, FremantleMedia now holds ancillary rights to this film (as the successor in interest to LBS Communications), and official video releases have been issued under license from Fremantle, with DVD and HD-DVD releases coming from BCI Eclipse. A Blu-Ray was released on July 5, 2017 by the Kino International (company).", "which launched in beta in 2012 and officially opened in May 2013, users are able to add high-definition and standard definition movies to their collections instantly. Cinema One allows the storage and playback of up to 100 Blu-ray quality, 600 DVD quality or 6,000 CD quality titles. Legal issues In 2004, the DVD Copy Control Association, the licensor of CSS (content scramble system), the technology for the copy control of DVDs, sued Kaleidescape for breach of contract. The DVD CCA alleged that its CSS License did not permit Kaleidescape's movie servers to serve DVDs from copies on hard disk. They", "videocassettes, the film is now available on DVD through Amazon via Columbia/Sony's manufacture-on-demand (MOD) business.", "straight-to-Blu-ray depending on the media upon which the movie is made available) release occurs when a movie is released on home video formats (such as VHS, DVD, etc.) without being released in theaters first, thereby not taking into consideration the \"theatrical window\".\nAs a result of strong DVD sales, Direct-to-video releases also achieved higher success and have become a profitable market lately, especially for independent moviemakers and companies. Internet release Feature films that have been released directly to YouTube or other streaming sites include Home (2009), The Cult of Sincerity (2008), Life in a Day (2011), Eyes and Ears of", "often purchased by pubs and students' unions, to enable them to show occasional feature films on a TV in their bars. Home video distribution Some distributors only handle home video distribution or some sub-set of home video distribution such as DVD or Blu-ray distribution. The remaining home video rights may be licensed by the producer to other distributors or the distributor may sub-license them to other distributors.\nIf a distributor is going to distribute a movie on a physical format such as DVD, they must arrange for the creation of the artwork for the case and the face of the DVD", "of movies are available before they are released in cinemas. Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is an established small-scale industry in parts of south and southeast Asia. The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) estimates that the Bollywood industry loses $100 million annually from unlicensed home videos and DVDs. In addition to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst portions of the Indian diaspora. Bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bollywood movies, since the Pakistani government has banned their sale, distribution", "released and produced in a traditional way, to a feature-length film funded through Crowdfunding and released for free under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Release The film, when finished, will be released on the Internet available for download and in HD. Also, besides the full movie on HD, all raw footage shot during the movie's filming will be uploaded too. As the film is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, the users will be able to download, lend, re-cut or use the film footage in any way they wish. This way, the audience not only will be allowed, but", "a couple of weeks at the Roxy Theatre in New York.\" Home media In 1998, Universal released the film in 1998 on VHS tape. However, the movie has not had an official DVD release in any region. As a result, only bootleg DVD-R copies of the film exist, most of which are video transfers from the official VHS tape.", "edited into a two-hour movie and released on DVD, Blu-Ray, and online.", "Home formats After the film's theatrical release, HBO released the film onto VHS. In 2004, HBO released the film onto DVD. The DVD is now discontinued and as of March 29, 2010, neither HBO or Focus Features, the latter of which has begun to acquire some of Savoy's movies, has announced any plans to release a new DVD of the film. For these reasons, used copies of the original DVD have gone for as much as $35 online.", "film on videocassette and laserdisc. To this day, the film has never been released on a region 1 DVD and as of March 4, 2018, MGM has no current plans to release the film onto DVD.", "to go out and view the film in theaters before it was released to DVD. He then went on to say that the film would likely see a DVD release around July 2014.", "on DVD on February 12, 2008. It opened at #20 the DVD sales chart, selling 69,000 units for revenue of $1.3 million. As per the latest figures, 400,000 DVD units have been sold, acquiring revenue of $7,613,945. This does not include DVD rentals/Blu-ray sales. The film is available on Netflix streaming.", "also includes an exclusive feature called \"community screening\", which enables owners of the HD DVD to watch the film together over the Internet. Order of the Phoenix was the seventh best-selling DVD of 2007, with 10.14 million units. The high-definition DVDs had combined sales of 179,500 copies, with more units coming from the Blu-ray version.\nThere was also a third DVD with extras featuring a behind-the-scenes look at the sets of the movie. This can only be found in those purchased at Target stores (Future Shop in Canada) since it is a Target exclusive. The package included a one-time-only code that", "1-month trial of an $8/month unlimited streaming service that includes 4 disc rentals from kiosks ($1 more for Blu-ray). The service launched with 4,600 titles from movie companies such as EPIX, Lionsgate, NBCUniversal, Paramount Pictures, Relativity, and Sony Pictures. According to early reports, Redbox Instant also planned to allow users to download content to mobile devices for offline viewing; titles could be either rented or purchased, in SD or HD quality, with rental customers having 30 days to begin viewing their title and 48 hours of unlimited views thereafter.\nIn June 2013, Sony made the official announcement at E3 that Redbox", "to digital when digital cable services launched from late 1999 onwards. On 13 September 2012, the FilmFlex service was rebranded as Virgin Movies on the cable platform.\nVirgin Movies provides over 500 movies some of which are available in HD (high definition), which are available at any time for the viewer to watch when they want to. Viewers can search for a movie by title, genre, cast or director. Once a movie has been ordered it can be viewed any time within the next 24 hours before it has to be paid for again. The movie can also be viewed as", "for a one-time fee ($149.99 as of August 2007). The cost of viewing a movie varied from $1.99 for older movies in standard definition to $4.99 for newer releases in HD. Movie rentals expired 24 hours after the rental period began.\nThe box had high-end hardware, including HDMI, component video outputs, and coaxial (SPDIF) and optical (TosLink) digital audio outputs. The box also had USB and Ethernet ports, although these were not activated in the last release of the firmware. An HDMI or DVI connection was required to watch HD content, which was in 720p resolution.\nMovieBeam connected", "sold to Strand Releasing, who are distributing the film on Netflix, Hulu, Amazon, iTunes, VOD, DVD and Blu-ray.", "is available in its entirety, a first for the UK.\nOn June 5, 2007, 20th Century Fox officially announced that a completely unedited and unrated director's cut of the film would be released on region 1 DVD on September 18, 2007. Through seamless branching, this disc not only features an unrated cut (which was claimed to run at 95 minutes, but is only 91 minutes, with 92 seconds of extra footage), but as a bonus, also contains the original 90-minute, R-rated US theatrical version. Aside from this, the DVD is a special edition, featuring an audio commentary from director Mark L.", "to be transferred to. Bonus features were also unavailable for the most part until online movie stores were able to include them as bonus files with the download.\nDigital copy files based on transcoding solutions can use the correct audio track and subtitle based on the user's location or choice and individually create the digital copy based on the target device properties (video and audio bitrate, display resolution, aspect ratio and device utilize for viewing the copy).\nMost often, digital copy solutions mainly offered Apple iTunes files with their respective DRM services, with Windows Media with Windows Media DRM and FairPlay also", "the audience to see how the director envisioned the main title without the constraints which are placed on a theatrical release.\nOther extras that can be included on DVDs are motion menus, still pictures, up to 32 selectable subtitles, seamless branching for multiple storylines, up to 9 camera angles, and DVD-ROM / data files that can be accessed on a computer.\nExtra features require additional storage space, which often means encoding the main title with lower than possible data rate to fit both the main title and the extras on one disc. Lower data rate may decrease visual and sound quality, which", "with a featurette on the Moto-Terminators. The Blu-ray features both the theatrical cut and the R-rated Director's cut, which is three minutes longer (118 minutes), with bonus material including Maximum Movie Mode, a video commentary in which director McG talks about the film while it plays, featurettes, a video archive, and a digital comic of the first issue of the official film prequel comic. Both versions include a digital copy of the theatrical cut for portable media players. Target Stores will be the only retailer to carry the Director's Cut on DVD. On its first week of retail, Terminator Salvation", "from US$397 million to US$2 billion. Videos Many traditional network television shows, movies and other video content is now available online, either from the content owner directly or from third party services. YouTube, Netflix, Hulu, Vudu, Amazon Prime Video, DirecTV, SlingTV and other Internet-based video services allow content owners to let users access their content on computers, smart phones, tablets or by using appliances such as video game consoles, set-top boxes or Smart TVs.\nMany film distributors also include a Digital Copy, also called Digital HD, with Blu-ray disc, Ultra HD Blu-ray, 3D Blu-ray or a DVD. Books Some companies, such", "it is possible to hire a copy of a film from its distributor with the rights already cleared. The primary non-theatrical distributors of feature films on DVD, video and 16mm in Britain are the BFI and Filmbank Distributors.\nAnother option is to buy a blanket licence for the year known as a 'Public Video Screening Licence' which may work out cheaper if showing film is to be a regular event.", "recalled all DVD and Blu-ray releases of the film with no plan to repress or re-release and have also pulled all online streaming sources.", "and an official DVD release has yet to emerge. But the film has circulated as bootleg DVDs and downloads." ]

[ "Yes, they could 'throw' a case.\n\nHowever, that's a serious ethics violation which would almost certainly cause disbarment if found out, and not only that, the conviction could then be appealed based on ineffective assistance of counsel (embodied in the 6th amendment).\n\nIf it makes it easier to wrap your head around, think of defense lawyers defending the integrity of the judicial system, not just their client. The idea being, the system must obey all of its own rules in proving that someone is guilty, or else it's a dishonest system and could easily \"prove\" that an innocent person is guilty next time. Defense lawyers are there to help ensure the system stays honest.", "That would be unethical. In our society, even the guilty are given competent representation. What they can do is seriously suggest that the person take a plea deal. Part of the process requires a good defense or the conviction can be overturned on appeal." ]

[ "serious, prosecutors often can still bluff defense attorneys and their clients into pleading guilty to a lesser offense.\nAs a result, people who might have been acquitted because of lack of evidence, but also who are in fact truly innocent, will often plead guilty to the charge. Why? In a word, fear. And the more numerous and serious the charges, studies have shown, the greater the fear. That explains why prosecutors sometimes seem to file every charge imaginable against defendants.\nThe theoretical work based on the prisoner's dilemma is one reason why, in many countries, plea bargaining is forbidden. Often, precisely the", "many indications that prosecutors are willing to go a long way to avoid losing cases, [and that] when prosecutors decide to proceed with such weak cases they are often willing to go a long way to assure that a plea bargain is struck\". Prosecutors often have great power to procure a desired level of incentive, as they select the charges to be presented. For this reason,\n[P]lea bargains are just as likely in strong and weak cases. Prosecutors only need to adjust the offer to the probability of conviction in order to reach an agreement. Thus, weaker cases result in more", "other illegally obtained evidence could result in evidence being inadmissible at trial. Accordingly, a criminal defense lawyer often spends a considerable amount of time reviewing all documentation to determine if the case can be won on constitutional grounds due to illegal conduct by the government.\nIf there are no constitutional violations, much of the work of a criminal defense attorney then turns to trial preparation. Any proposed settlement agreement must be compared to the best judgment about the outcome after trial. A criminal defense lawyer will usually discuss potential plea bargains with the prosecuting attorney, as an alternative to exercising", "also argued that the Court's decision would have problematic implications for trial attorneys deciding whether to concede certain elements of a charged offense. For example, in defending a client charged with possession of a firearm by a convicted felon, Alito noted, the Court's decision left unclear whether an attorney would be bound by the client's frivolous insistence on refusing to admit that he had a prior felony conviction, which could easily be proven.", "their clients into pleading guilty to a lesser offense. As a result, people who might have been acquitted because of lack of evidence, but also who are in fact truly innocent, will often plead guilty to the charge. Why? In a word, fear. And the more numerous and serious the charges, studies have shown, the greater the fear. That explains why prosecutors sometimes seem to file every charge imaginable against defendants.\nThis tactic is prohibited in some other countries—for example in the United Kingdom the prosecutor's code states:\nProsecutors should never go ahead with more charges than are necessary just to encourage", "in the adversarial system lawyers are usually free to present statistical evidence as best suits their case; retrials are more commonly the result of the prosecutor's fallacy in expert witness testimony or in the judge's summation. Possible examples of fallacious defense arguments Authors have cited defense arguments in the O. J. Simpson murder trial as an example of this fallacy regarding the context in which the accused had been brought to court: crime scene blood matched Simpson's with characteristics shared by 1 in 400 people. The defense argued that a football stadium could be filled with Angelenos matching the sample", "be far from congruent with those of their principals. Moreover, prosecutors and defense attorneys often view each other as colleagues and generally wish to maintain good relations with one another. A defense attorney often receives a flat fee or in any event will not receive enough additional money if he goes to trial to cover the costs of doing so; this can create an incentive to plea bargain, even at the expense of the defense attorney's client's interests.\nOn the other hand, the prosecutor may wish to maintain a high conviction rate and avoid losing high-profile trials; thus, settling a case", "the intended view of the argument.\nInoculation and procatalepsis are both present in certain courtroom situations, as described in the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. An attorney may set up their defense by disclaiming the negative views or classifications of the accused as untrue: \"The prosecutor will call Ms. Jones evil, a bad mother, and a poor member of society, but these labels are not true. I will prove to you their inaccuracy.\" When the prosecutor asserts an attack on Ms. Jones' character, the jury is already prepared and expecting to hear it and they may question or even discount these accusations.", "the defendant is not guilty or that (s)he is legally obligated to show the defense. In the latter case, this would be a violation of the 5th amendment to the United States Constitution. Also Rule 3.8 of the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct requires prosecutors to \"make timely disclosure to the defense of all evidence or information that tends to negate the guilt of the accused or mitigates the offense.\" (This is not for all states.) This can result in a mistrial in the latter case and/or the dismissal of the prosecutor. United States Law In the United States,", "often is for a criminal charge that has not been levied or verified by an attorney or judge. Criminal defense lawyers also deal with the substantive issues of the crimes with which his or her clients are charged. Criminal defense lawyers may also help clients before charges have been filed by a prosecuting attorney. This is done when someone believes he or she is being investigated, or is arrested.\nThe accused may hire a criminal defense lawyer to help with counsel and representation dealing with police or other investigators, perform his or her own investigation, and at times present exculpatory evidence", "any conviction where the defendant was fairly tried and clearly proven to be guilty upon any error of the trial court which did not deprive the defendant of a constitutional right. Courts are not established as an arena in which contending counsel may use the processes of the law as a game of skill, but their sole purpose is to enforce justice, punish criminals, and suppress vice, and it is their duty to disregard all errors which do not involve substantial rights and result in material injury to the defendant. This is the fundamental principle upon which all of the", "that the evidence we had is not admissible, so all we can do is to take an exception and carry it to a higher court to see whether the evidence is admissible or not ... we cannot even explain to you that we think you should return a verdict of not guilty. We do not see how you could. We do not ask it.\nDarrow closed the case for the defense without a final summation. Under Tennessee law, when the defense waived its right to make a closing speech, the prosecution was also barred from summing up its case, preventing Bryan", "proceedings against him. Without it, though he be not guilty, he faces the danger of conviction because he does not know how to establish his innocence.\nJustice Black's opinion showed a similar argument that that of the Court's from Powell v. Alabama, the guiding hand of counsel can prevent an innocent man from being imprisoned falsely. From this point on, all defendants on trial for criminal charges were guaranteed the right to a lawyer, no matter what their financial situation looks like. The Court's decision in this case overturned the previous understanding of legal counsel set by the Court in Betts", "a defendant to plead guilty to a few. In the same way, they should never go ahead with a more serious charge just to encourage a defendant to plead guilty to a less serious one.\nalthough it adds that in some kinds of complex cases such as major fraud trials:\nThe over-riding duty of the prosecutor is ... to see that justice is done. The procedures must command public and judicial confidence. Many defendants in serious and complex fraud cases are represented by solicitors experienced in commercial litigation, including negotiation. This means that the defendant is usually protected from being put under", "If the defense lawyer can then induce sympathy for the defendant, a plea bargain will result. This process is aided by the jury system used in Texas, as juries can be easier to persuade than judges. Prosecutors cooperate in order to reduce caseload, knowing the suspects will most likely violate probation making them easier to prosecute later.", "court may refuse to permit a defense witness to testify. For example, if a defense lawyer fails to notify the prosecution of the identity of a witness to gain a tactical advantage, that witness may be precluded from testifying. Assistance of counsel A criminal defendant has the right to be assisted by counsel.\nIn Powell v. Alabama, 287 U.S. 45 (1932), the Supreme Court ruled that \"in a capital case, where the defendant is unable to employ counsel, and is incapable adequately of making his own defense because of ignorance, feeble mindedness, illiteracy, or the like, it is the duty of", "an irreconcilable conflict with their attorney would deprive them of effective assistance of counsel.\nEven when counsel is found to be competent, it has been found that a conflict between counsel and defendant that cannot be resolved would create a situation where the defendant is being denied the right to counsel. In Daniels V. Woodford, it was found that when a court refuses to appoint new counsel after a defendant has completely lost trust in their attorney, that defendant is thereby effectively thereby constructively denied any counsel whatsoever, \"Even if trial counsel is competent, a serious breakdown in communications can result", "[Y]ou have to wonder if you're a juror sitting on this case, why was this prosecution brought in the first place? ... I mean, there are just huge, huge holes in the prosecution's case.\" Criminal defense attorney Diana Tennis agreed, saying in part: \"[W]e have a rule of law, we have a very high burden in criminal cases for a reason, no matter what the color of any party and in the USA you don't get convicted typically on evidence that is not better than this.\"\nAttorney and former Court TV anchor Jami Floyd told BET, \"It is clear that George", "defender at the state's cost to defend those who can not afford a chosen lawyer. The defence counsel's participation is required by the Criminal Procedure Act. Usually a private lawyer is appointed, one for each defendant, and conflict of interest between contradicting suspects is avoided, e.g. the same lawyer may not represent two accused whose evidence is mutually contradictory. If convicted, the defendant is in principle liable for the fee, but is rarely pursued.", "quality of the defense in a case where the accused has a public defender. The competence of the defense attorney \"is a better predictor of whether or not someone will be sentenced to death than the facts of the crime\".\nIn 2015, the Justice Department and the FBI formally acknowledged that nearly every examiner in an FBI forensic squad overstated forensic hair matches for two decades before the year 2000. 26 out of 28 forensic examiners overstated evidence of forensic hair matches in 268 trials reviewed, and 95% of the overstatements favored the prosecution. Those cases involve 32 cases in which", "bias against a non-death penalty sentence) and be granted by the trial judge; often both attorneys and sometimes the judge will question the juror being challenged.\nIf one attorney moves to strike a juror for cause but the judge rejects the motion, the attorney may still use a peremptory challenge (if s/he has any remaining) to strike the juror, and on appeal may raise a claim that the motion should have been granted but, because it was not, the attorney had to either use a peremptory challenge or seat a biased juror.", "and emotional strain to both the defense and the prosecution. If you should fail to agree upon a verdict, the case will be left open and may have to be tried again. Obviously, another trial would only serve to increase the cost to both sides, and there is no reason to believe that the case can be tried again by either side any better or more exhaustively than it has been tried before you.\nAny future jury must be selected in the same manner and from the same source as you were chosen, and there is no reason to believe that", "legal actions may refuse to cooperate with a counsel by not volunteering information and refusing to testify. Prosecutors may try to break their united front by offering incentives such as immunity from prosecution. Another tactic of stonewalling is providing the jurors with misleading information or purposefully withholding certain pieces of information that can be self incriminating. When witnesses practice the stonewalling practice they are usually in an agreement with other witnesses to do the same in order for the tactic to be effective.", "criminal cases. More recently the American Bar Association and the National Legal Aid and Defender Association have set minimum training requirements, caseload levels, and experience requirements for defenders. There is often controversy whether caseloads set upon public defenders give them enough time to sufficiently defend their clients. Some criticize the mindset in which public defense lawyers encourage their clients to simply plead guilty. Some defenders say this is intended to lessen their own workload, while others would say it is intended to obtain a lighter sentence by negotiating a plea bargain as compared with going to trial and perhaps having", "represented by an attorney, and if the accused cannot afford a private attorney, one is assigned to them from the Public Defense, a unit of the Ministry of Justice. Prosecutions are handled by the State Attorney's Office, which consists of a central bureau and eight regional offices.\nEven if the suspect confesses to his or her crime and pleads guilty at their court arraignment, they will still receive a trial to determine the penalty to be imposed upon them. Following a verdict, the defense or prosecution has the right to appeal to a higher court. Israeli law also provides for the", "prosecution and the defense have a limited number of peremptory challenges, which are accepted on their face, as the right of the party making the challenge and which they use to excuse any juror for any reason which the particular side believes will help their case.\nIn this case, the judge dismissed several potential jurors for various causes. The defense peremptorily challenged nine potential jurors and the prosecutor, Joe Gutmann, peremptorily challenged six, including all four black persons, and a jury composed only of white persons was selected. The defense counsel moved to discharge the whole jury on the ground that", "innocence a defendant is to enjoy at trial, disregards harm that may result to a client other than being convicted, and potentially allow a defense lawyer to shirk duties to a client the lawyer knows to be guilty.", "held in common. The defendant must understand the charges and have the ability to aid his attorney in his own defense.\nCompetency to stand trial is generally determined via a pretrial evaluation of the defendant's overall mental status and mental state at the time of the examination. This evaluation aims to provide sufficient information to allow a judge to rule on the competency of the defendant should a motion to that effect be made by either the prosecutor or defense attorney. A judge may also directly rule a defendant incompetent to stand trial without receiving a motion to that effect from", "attorneys and witnesses on a 1-10 scale (though some states use different scales for high school competitions) based on each stage of the trial. These consist of the opening statements for the plaintiff and defense, each of the witnesses’ testimony, direct and cross-examination by attorneys, and the closing statements for both sides. The team with the highest total number of points is often, but not always, the team that wins the judge's verdict. Given this method of scoring, it is possible for the defendant to be found guilty or lose the case but for the defense team to still win", "dismiss the witness's own charges in exchange for her testimony; must not destroy potentially useful evidence in bad faith; and must not use false testimony to secure a conviction. Failure to follow these rules may result in a finding of prosecutorial misconduct, although a 2013 investigation found that actual discipline for prosecutorial misconduct was lacking.\n\nProsecutors are also tasked with seeking justice in their prosecutions. \"The United States Attorney,\" explained the U.S. Supreme Court, \nis the representative not of an ordinary party to a controversy, but of a sovereignty whose obligation to govern impartially is as compelling as its obligation to" ]

[ "the fluid in your inner ear keeps you orientated and standing upwards, although when your drunk certain functions in your brain don't work as well or as they are meant to. So if you've had a bit too much to drink, your brain might not be able to tell which way is up and which way is down if your inner ears are miscommunicating with your brain. So that's why when you close your eyes it feels like you're falling off the face of the world.", "Your sensitive inner-ears get affected more-easily, and tell you that you are spinning. But your eyes--while they're open--tell you that you're not.\n\nUnless you get drunker, your brain decides to trust your eyes more." ]

[ "Spins The spins (as in having \"the spins\") is an adverse reaction of intoxication that causes a state of vertigo and nausea, causing one to feel as if \"spinning out of control\", especially when lying down. It is most commonly associated with drunkenness or mixing alcohol with other psychoactive drugs such as cannabis. This state is likely to cause vomiting, but having \"the spins\" is not life-threatening unless pulmonary aspiration occurs. Symptoms The most common general symptom of having the spins is described by its name: the feeling that one has the uncontrollable sense of spinning, although one is not", "of the spins is to avoid staring at moving objects, such as people who are dancing or ceiling fans. Instead, it helps to stare at a non-moving object and slowly blink a few times. However, it will make things worse to keep one's eyes closed for an extended period. In minor cases of the spins, simply sitting alone in a quiet place or taking a walk is all it takes to make them subside.\nThe best ways to avoid the spins are to continuously keep monitoring one's alcohol intake, which involves limiting one's intake to a reasonable level and to eat", "Visual depictions of the imbalance or dizziness associated with drunkenness were also featured in Mabel's Strange Predicament and other Charlie Chaplin movies. The cause of the spins is also described in Season 1, Episode 10 of the Netflix Original Series Marvel's Daredevil during a discussion between two main characters, Matt Murdock and Foggy Nelson, after a night of drinking. Murdock confirms when asked by Nelson that he still gets the spins despite being blind due to disturbed equilibrium of the fluid in the inner ear. In the film Frances Ha, Benji tells Frances that placing one foot on the ground", "in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo. Causes Ingesting a great deal of alcohol in a short amount of time causes alcohol to quickly enter the bloodstream.\nMixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\nThe dizzying effects of alcohol upset the", "of motion. In addition, centrifugal force can cause the vestibular system to give one the sense that downward is in the direction away from the center of the centrifuge rather than the true downward direction. Dizziness due to spinning When one spins and stops suddenly, fluid in the inner ear continues to rotate causing a sense of continued spinning while one's visual system no longer detects motion. Virtual reality disorientation Usually, VR programs would detect the motion of the user's head and abject the rotation of vision to avoid dizziness. However, some cases such as system lagging or software crashing", "as she lies down on her bed will somewhat alleviate the spins. Later in the film, she teaches this new trick to her friend Sophie. The Pittsburgh rapper, Mac Miller's album K.I.D.S featured a track titled \"The Spins\". Danger Ronnie and the Spins associate this into their name and music. Rock musician Brian Head Welch references experiencing the spins during his time as an alcoholic and drug addict. He mentions the symptoms were particularly noticeable when laying down with his eyes closed. These references were made in his self-debuted album track \"Flush\". The Philadelphia band Modern Baseball make reference to", "you start to shiver. [N/um] makes you tremble, it's hot. . . . Your eyes are open but you don't look around; you hold your eyes still and look straight ahead. But when you get into !kia, you're looking around because you see everything, because you see what's troubling everybody . . . n/um enters every part of your body right to the tip of your feet and even your hair.”\nKatz also states that in order to cure, people must learn to control their boiling n/um and to “pull out sickness” from the people. When they do this, they", "by staring at a fixed single point of light (ground light or a star) in a totally dark and featureless background. The reason why this visual illusion occurs is because of very small movements of the eyes. In conditions with poor visual cues accompanied by a single source of light, these eye movements are interpreted by the brain as movement of the object being viewed. This illusion can cause a misperception that such a light is on a collision course with the aircraft.\nPlanets or stars in the night sky can often cause the illusion to occur. ", "the wagon-wheel effect under continuous illumination while humming. The humming vibrates the eyes in their sockets, effectively creating stroboscopic conditions within the eye. By humming at a frequency of a multiple of the rotation frequency, he was able to stop the rotation. By humming at slightly higher and lower frequencies, he was able to make the rotation reverse slowly and to make the rotation go slowly in the direction of rotation. A similar stroboscopic effect is now commonly observed by people eating crunchy foods, such as carrots, while watching TV: the image appears to shimmer. The crunching vibrates the eyes", "initial responding, where the main effects are lightheadedness or slight dizziness, in addition to possible tingling sensations in the extremities or other parts of the body. The \"high\" is characterized by feelings of euphoria and exhilaration characterized by mild psychedelia, as well as a sense of disinhibition. If the individual has taken a sufficiently large dose of cannabis, the level of intoxication progresses to the stage of being “stoned,” and the user may feel calm, relaxed, and possibly in a dreamlike state. Sensory reactions may include the feeling of floating, enhanced visual and auditory perception, visual illusions, or the perception", "effect often used to show that a character is undergoing a major realization. The hallucinogenic effects of certain drugs are portrayed by different means. When inhaling cannabis, the alley that Mr. Mackey is in suddenly turns very colorful. After taking LSD, Mackey's head inflates like a giant balloon, and then literally detaches from his body, and floats away (the boys interact with Mackey by looking up at his head as it floats over them).\nIn the scene where the boys are talking to Chef, he leaves without answering the boys' sexual question, angrily saying, \"Dammit, children, why do I always have", "the eye look up, superior rectus causes it to rotate slightly about the long axis, so the top of the eye moves medially (intorsion). Similarly, in addition to making the eye look down, inferior rectus would cause the eye to rotate about the long axis so the top of the eye moves slightly laterally (extorsion), if acting alone. Clearly this is undesirable as our vision would rotate when we looked up and down. For this reason, these two rectus muscles work in conjunction with the two obliques. When acting alone, superior oblique causes intorsion, inferior oblique, extorsion. Hence, when inferior", "Vergence A vergence is the simultaneous movement of both eyes in opposite directions to obtain or maintain single binocular vision.\nWhen a creature with binocular vision looks at an object, the eyes must rotate around a horizontal axis so that the projection of the image is in the centre of the retina in both eyes. To look at an object closer by, the eyes rotate towards each other (convergence), while for an object farther away they rotate away from each other (divergence). Exaggerated convergence is called cross eyed viewing (focusing on the nose for example). When looking into the distance, the", "periodic, rapid rotation of the head that serves to fix the performer's gaze on a single spot, thus giving the impression that the head is always facing forward. Spotting prevents dizziness by allowing the head to remain stable during most of the turn. This helps the performer maintain balance and, when executing traveling turns such as tours chaînés and piques, it helps the performer control the direction of travel. Attitude An attitude turn is performed with the working leg held in attitude position. In ballet, the performer may be assisted by a partner so that the turn can be performed", "him a drink and gives it to him after slipping a drug into it. After reluctantly drinking it, Brown loses control of his senses and leaves with the woman to her home, but Brown is under the effect of the drug and sees everything in a psychedelic way as his eyes turn temporarily neon green (\"Liquor\"). After the night spent with the mysterious woman, Brown then takes a taxi home, only to find a girl he’s been seeing throwing his clothes off a balcony because she did not know where he was. Rather than get into an argument, Brown decides", "him. The lights turn back on immediately and he sees that he is the only one in the room: as if no one was ever there. The lights go off and turn back on again, this time to reveal his friends, all of whom are now ghosts, giving him eerie smiles. The old woman appears back on her chair, giving him a witch's smile. Realizing what is going on, the boy tries to make a frantic escape out of the house but the doors are all jammed and locked. Just as the boy looks back at the upstairs room to", "as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\nThe vestibular apparatus also detects spatial orientation with respect to visual input. A similar sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid apparent motion with respect to the environment. This", "indirectly caused that action\"). However, it is prohibited to knowingly walk past a motion sensor which switches on a light on Shabbat if the street or place is dark and because the turning on of the light substantively benefits the person, and it is a pesik reisha denicha leih (Aramaic: פסיק רישא דניחא ליה, loose translation: \"an inevitable resultant action that does benefit the one who indirectly caused that action\"). Observant Jews are advised to avoid walking past a motion sensor that they know is there and will switch on a light, or close their eyes when", "Gazing-intensive search work When following the letters on the spine of a book with our eyes, our gaze moves in a vertical direction. One famous interpretative model holds that this movement stimulates the defecation urge.[ウェブページ：“本屋で便意を催す理由”][ウェブページ：“本屋に行くとお腹が痛くなる理由”] According to those who have experienced the phenomenon, it is to do with the importance of the \"angle of one's gaze when looking for something.\"[ウェブページ：“今夜も生でさだまさし”] There is also the view that walking around a bookstore looking at printed text causes dizziness, which brings about a change in physical condition.[ウェブページ：“本屋に行くとお腹が痛くなる理由”]\nIn his book Why Do We Need To Go Whenever We're In A Bookstore?", "therefore not only a vestibulospinal reflex. Damage A typical person sways from side to side when the eyes are closed. This is the result of the vestibulospinal reflex working correctly. When an individual sways to the left side, the left lateral vestibulospinal tract is activated to bring the body back to midline. Generally damage to the vestibulospinal system results in ataxia and postural instability. For example, if unilateral damage occurs to the vestibulocochlear nerve, lateral vestibular nucleus, semicircular canals or lateral vestibulospinal tract, the person will likely sway to that side and fall when walking. This occurs because", "it. I'd sometimes hold the bottle, to go like, 'I could stop this feeling if I wanted, but I'm not going to. Because I know if I stop the feeling, somehow I'm not working through it, like I have got to go through the tunnel with the spiders in it.'\n\"And then one morning I woke up and my skin wasn't on fire, and it took me a while to figure out what it was. I wake up the next morning, I'm perfectly fine, to the point where my body's still humming. I'm a bell that's been rung so hard that", "into the topic had concluded.\nCertain types of psychiatric disorders such as delusion can be transmitted between people who are intimately close such as mothers and daughters or romantic couples by way of a kind of \"false belief\". In his book \"Why Do People Feel the Need to Go When They're In a Bookstore?\" (2012, Arimine Shoten), the gastroenterological surgeon Masayoshi Ido touches on the Mariko Aoki phenomenon by stating that the \"past experience and future expectation of having experienced a defecation urge\", the \"supporting of this by knowledge that many others have had the same experience\", and a \"false", "careful synchronisation with the sensation of the swinging floor mechanism, the riders are fooled into feeling as if they themselves are being repeatedly turned upside down.", "in an anxious state. Anxiolytics and some romantic intervals are not enough to stop the sensation that he's always late for something and that he's progressively losing his sense of reality. I was reading the book when Sentieri selvaggi asked me for this piece and going from reading to writing seemed almost inevitable. Therefore, if at times you feel some hints at emotion, think about the second to last sentence of the book: \"The stars are real.\"\n— Lorenzo Ferrero\nGlitterati is a 2004 film directed by Roger Avary assembled from the 70 hours of video footage shot for the European sequence of", "by lust for the eye, for forms, for eye-consciousness, for eye-contact, for [the feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact as condition [repeated for the nose, tongue, body, mind].\nWhen one abides uninflamed by lust, unfettered, uninfatuated, contemplating danger [...] one's craving [...] is abandoned. One's bodily and mental troubles are abandoned, one's bodily and mental torments are abandoned, one's bodily and mental fevers are abandoned, and one experiences bodily and mental pleasure.\n...when one knows and see as it actually is [the feeling] felt as pleasant or painful or neither painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact", "dreams to look at her, and when he does, she realizes that she was dreaming the whole event, thus causing her world to come crashing down around her.", "first contracted: They will shortly begin to dilate, and, after they have done so to a considerable extent, and have assumed a wavy motion, if the fore and middle fingers of the right hand, extended and a little separated, are carried from the object toward the eyes, most probably the eyelids will close involuntarily, with a vibratory motion. If this is not the case, or the patient allows the eyeballs to move, desire him to begin anew, giving him to understand that he is to allow the eyelids to close when the fingers are again carried towards the eyes, but", "wardrobe and the mirror is blank when I look at myself.\" Another such line reads: \"The void drinks the void: air was born with blue eyes, that's why it endlessly swallows aspirin.\" One other exchange, in which Ear compares herself to a \"prize horse\", results later in the text in an actual metamorphosis, through which she becomes the horse Clytemnestra (named after the femme fatale character in Greek myths).\nA series of dance routines, described by British theater historian Claude Schumacher as \"bewildering ballets\", accompanies the dialogues. In its third act, The Gas Heart also features a dance performed by a", "Motion aftereffect The motion aftereffect (MAE) is a visual illusion experienced after viewing a moving visual stimulus for a time (tens of milliseconds to minutes) with stationary eyes, and then fixating a stationary stimulus. The stationary stimulus appears to move in the opposite direction to the original (physically moving) stimulus. The motion aftereffect is believed to be the result of motion adaptation.\nFor example, if one looks at a waterfall for about a minute and then looks at the stationary rocks at the side of the waterfall, these rocks appear to be moving upwards slightly. The illusory upwards movement is the", "Suddenly, O realises he is being watched and turns his head violently to the right. E moves behind him again. He resumes rocking and dozes off. This time E whirls round to the right, passing the window, the mirror, the birdcage and fishbowl and finally stops in front of the space on the wall where the picture was.\nE turns around and, for the first time, we are face-to-face with O, asleep in his rocking chair. All of a sudden he wakes and stares straight into the camera lens. He looks very much like the man in the seventh photograph only" ]

[ "They are small and soft so it does not matter if you swallow them, bigger and harder bones might get stuck in your throat and couse pain" ]

[ "of bones—is said to taste like cod or described as tasting like a cross between scallops and crabmeat. They are low in mercury because they do not eat other fish. To make the fish more appealing to American consumers, the fish have been renamed silverfin or Kentucky tuna. Volunteer efforts to increase the popularity further include making and selling carp-based dishes and using the entrails to make fertilizer.\nSome have thought to collect the carp eggs for caviar, since one bighead carp was found with over 2 million eggs. Two million eggs from one fish could fill two jars of caviar,", "by size; smaller bones can be eaten whole, while larger ones can be broken or gnawed.\nSome meat on the bone is most commonly eaten by picking it up, notably ribs and chicken (wings, drumstick, sometimes thigh). Others are primarily eaten by cutting off the meat, such as steaks, but possibly picking up and gnawing the bone when otherwise finished.\nSmaller fish are often eaten whole, with the bones. Examples include whitebait of all sorts, anchovies, and smelt. \nIn some cases the bone marrow may also be eaten, notably for beef or poultry (especially chicken), in the later case by the eater", "of the bones belong to small animals, likely due to taphonomic bias due to ease of transportation. This is also a possible reason as for why found teeth from the freshwater lungfish Gnathorhiza, are much smaller and rarer than those from terrestrial deposits. Captorhinus, a common small animal in the \"Classic area\", is curiously absent. Shark remains include teeth from Orthacanthus and hybodonts. Marine invertebrates mostly belonged to shallow water or estuary niches, apart from a single poorly preserved nautiloid which likely drifted in from more open waters.\nFossils from terrestrial deposits (like stream conglomerate or red mudstone) are rare in", "which was introduced to North America from Eurasia in the 1800s, are important food fish outside North America.\nThe pearly white flesh—complicated by a series of bones—is said to taste like cod or described as tasting like a cross between scallops and crabmeat. They are low in mercury because they do not eat other fish. To make the fish more appealing to American consumers, the fish have been renamed silverfin or Kentucky tuna. Volunteer efforts to increase the popularity further include making and selling carp-based dishes and using the entrails to make fertilizer.\nSome have thought to collect the carp eggs for", "to keep them wet. As a food fish Only the flesh of young Silurus glanis specimens is valued as food. It is palatable when the catfish weighs less than 15 kg (33 lb). Larger than this size, the fish is highly fatty and not recommended for consumption, but large S. glanis are sought out as a sport fish due to their combativeness.", "or bait, the species is not considered a good table fish, having coarse, tasteless flesh. The IGFA world record stands at 28 kg (61 lb 12 oz) caught off the Loos Islands, Guinea by Daniel Gaillard in 2017, previous records were caught in Angola.", "are tilapia, crayfish, tadpoles, mosquitofish, minnows, and guppies. Also, they will eat their own young when other fish are scarce. Eating quality Their eating quality is very good. Their flesh is white and sweet when cooked, and has very little oil, making it similar in taste to snapper or grouper. Also, they are not excessively bony. However, most professional American anglers recommend practicing catch and release for these species to protect their numbers in the United States. To help ensure this, Florida Wildlife and Game Commission officers strictly enforce bag limits for these fish.", "fish bones and terrestrial animal remains. The terrestrial animal remains came from mammals and reptiles. The mammalian remains were dominated by rodents, followed by bats. The reptilian remains came primarily from lizards, followed by snakes, with some coming from turtles and frogs. The lizard assemblage mostly came from varanids and skinks, with some coming from agamids.\nThe bones of both reef and pelagic fish were found at Kilu Cave. While the bulk of the fish bone remains came from reef fish, about 20% of the fish bones from the Pleistocene layer came from pelagic fish.The pelagic fish bones came from the", "scales does not include the shells of prawns and shrimp, which are in fact the exoskeleton (\"outer skeleton\") of these animals, in the same manner as the shells of lobsters or crabs. Even if these shells were to be misidentified as scales, these creatures would still not be kosher as they lack fins.\nWhile not every fish that has fins will have scales, every true fish that has true fish scales by default also has fins. Insects The Torah allows eating certain kinds of \"winged swarming things\" (i.e. insects) while prohibiting others. However, due to uncertainty about the Hebrew insect names,", "and shellfish, but only eight species of land animals. Oysters were the most common food consumed. Other shellfish included quahogs, surf clams, scallops, whelks and conchs. The large number of fish bones recovered allowed for a detailed analysis. Almost all of the fish were small and of the same size. The archaeologists theorize that the fish were caught in nets with a mesh size of about 1/4 inch. As the nets would have had to be pulled by hand, bigger fish would have been able to escape by leaping over the net or swimming away before the net was closed. Carbonized", "the ritually unclean foods according to these regulations, as they appear to have a smooth skin. However, sharks do have scales, they are just placoid scales, which are denser and appear smooth if rubbed in one direction, in contrast to leptoid scales, ganoid scales, and cosmoid scales. The sturgeon, and related fish, are also sometimes included among the ritually impure foods, as their surfaces are covered in scutes, which are bony armoured nodules; however, fish scutes are actually just hardened and enlarged scales. Scales has thus been traditionally interpreted along the lines of Nahmanides's proposal that qasqeseth (scales) must refer", "for the enzyme to do its job properly. Similar products The popularity of meatless fish inspired another technology-intensive Japanese product, \"Fish with Delicious Bones\" (骨までおいしい魚; honemade oishii sakana), which has been on sale since 2004. The fish, in the form of a butterfly fillet, is prepared by a patent pending process that uses heat and pressure to tenderize fish bones. The entire fish, including the head and fins, becomes completely edible, much like what happens to canned sardines. It is a joint claimed invention of Maruha Corporation (株式会社マルハ) and Miyajima Soysauce Corporation (宮島醤油株式会社).\nAnother similar product is \"Cold Set Bound Fish", "seaweed crabs living on the coast of the South Island of New Zealand, the foreguts were opened among a sample of crabs to determine what foods had been consumed. Algae, including calcareous red algae and branched brown algae, was identified as the most commonly eaten substance, as it was found in nearly all of the crabs sampled. Other common foods included isopods, amphipods, and decapods (e.g. small fish, crayfish, other crabs). Bivalves, sponges, bryozans, and more were consumed as well but not commonly. Meat consumed is usually from dead animals because seaweed crabs are slow moving and not very strong.\nThe", "bones found in more \"modern\" species of fish. Instead, they have cartilaginous skeletons with five rows of thick cartilage plates that extend along their sides, undersides, and backs, as well as over most of the head. These thick cartilage plates are covered by the skin and serve as a protective armor. The bony cartilage also extends along the backside, from the dorsal fin to the tail.\nThe pallid sturgeon's snout and head are longer than that of the shovelnose sturgeon. In both species, the mouth is located well back from the tip of the snout. Lacking teeth, they use their", "is very white and moist, becoming quite firm when cooked. It is served both in soups and grilled, and is similar in texture to the flesh of crustaceans. Fillets are thick and boneless resembling crab or lobster tail. Connoisseurs believe the liver is also excellent. The fish is covered with a soft, scaleless, elastic skin, under which another thin edible membrane covers the flesh. Though much less so than in cod, one can sometimes find parasitic worms in the flesh of anglerfish, whose opacity can make them easier to find. Worms are usually found between", "piscivorous fish such as groupers and snappers also eat H. plumieri. Human uses, commercial and recreational The white grunt has minor importance on the commercial scale, but is somewhat popular with children and beginners as game fish, and even experienced fishermen. Grunts are easy to catch and have white meat that cooks well, so they are sometimes caught to be eaten. A historic Florida dish, \"Grits and Grunts\", is traditionally prepared with H.plumieri. They also have bait value for large piscivorous fish.\nThese fish also have high value as aquarium fish, due to their bright colors.", "water. Bonefishes possess crushing teeth in their palates. Nemoossis and Pterothrissus These genera are similar to Albula, except they can be found in deeper waters.", "As food Partly in consequence of its size, the giant gourami is a significant food fish, and in its native regions it has been harvested as a customary food source. In Asian cuisine, gourami is highly valued as food due to its thick flesh, pleasant texture as well as its tasty flavour. Unlike carp and milkfish, gouramis do not have fine bones within their flesh, which render them easy to consume, thus elevate its economic value. In Southeast Asian market, gourami is one of the most highly-valued freshwater food fish. Gourami flesh is rich in protein and minerals.\nIt is a", "amphibians, because these animals' bones tend to fall apart in many tiny parts. Maceration is an unsuitable method to clean the bones of a fish, as they have a poorly articulated, pliable skeleton. Process In the process of maceration, the carcass is first skinned and defleshed by hand as much as is practical, and all internal organs are removed. In this process, extra care is taken when removing the eyeballs, ears and jugular muscles, because some bones are shallow and brittle, such as the thickened external acoustic opening of many mammals. The tongue is usually left in place, because of", "Papilla (fish anatomy) The papilla, in certain kinds of fish, particularly rays, sharks, and catfish, are small lumps of dermal tissue found in the mouth, where they are \"distributed uniformly on the tongue, palate, and pharynx\". They \"project slightly above the surrounding multi-layered epithelium\", and the taste buds of the fish are \"situated along the crest or at the apex of the papillae\".\nUnlike humans, fish have little or nothing in the way of a tongue, and those that have such an organ do not use it for tasting, but merely for cushioning the mouth and manipulating things within it. The", "permeable. The dermis of bony fish typically contains relatively little of the connective tissue found in tetrapods. Instead, in most species, it is largely replaced by solid, protective bony scales. Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that form parts of the skull, these scales are lost in tetrapods, although many reptiles do have scales of a different kind, as do pangolins. Cartilaginous fish have numerous tooth-like denticles embedded in their skin, in place of true scales.\nSweat glands and sebaceous glands are both unique to mammals, but other types of skin glands are found in fish. Fish typically have numerous", "guts of female crabs contained more brown non-branched algae and unknown substances than male crabs, although there was no apparent difference in the amount or variation of food consumed. Types of foods consumed also varied by the size of the crab. Smaller male crabs ate more gastropods, isopods, and amphipods, while larger males ate more algae and decapods. Similarly, smaller female crabs ate more isopods and larger females ate more algae. These differences are likely due to the impact of size on the crab's ability to process foods. Both soft-bodied and hard-bodied animals were consumed, as well as a wide", "most often consumed. It fishes by sight and can swallow small fish while submerged, but larger specimens are brought to the surface. It can catch several small fish in one dive, holding the first ones in place in its beak with its muscular, grooved tongue while it catches others. The two mandibles are hinged in such a way that they can be held parallel to hold a row of fish in place and these are also retained by inward-facing serrations on the edges of the beak. It copes with the excess salt that it swallows partly through its kidneys and", "without. Together with the fillet, it is similar to the t-bone steak. Without bones, it is also sold as Roastbeef or rump steak. Fish In some instances, the slices of fish with several centimeters of thickness that are cut vertically from the spine are known as koteletts as well. They are typically cut from bigger fish such as cod. Trivia In Switzerland, the popular Cervelat sausage is also known as the kotelett of the laborer.", "Crayfish as food Crayfish are eaten all over the world. Like other edible crustaceans, only a small portion of the body of a crayfish is edible. In most prepared dishes, such as soups, bisques and étouffées, only the tail portion is served. At crawfish boils or other meals where the entire body of the crayfish is presented, other portions, such as the claw meat, may be eaten.\nClaws of larger boiled specimens are often pulled apart to access the meat inside. Another favourite is to suck the head of the crayfish, as seasoning and flavour can collect in the fat of", "soles) bottom trawling\". The IUCN classifies this species as Least Concern, but the damaging bottom trawling methods used to catch it may cause issues, and the large number discarded as bycatch by commercial vessels which are targeting other species is unknown. The flesh is marketed fresh or frozen and is eaten steamed, fried, microwaved and baked. The name Torbay sole appears to be a mainly culinary term, following the habit of renaming certain fish to broaden their appeal.", "because of the bones of strange extinct wildlife preserved in their sediments. A jawbone of the fish Saurocephalus lanciformis was found in a cave near where the Missouri and Soldier rivers combine, however since this fish is known only from the Niobrara chalk in Kansas and western Nebraska it was likely brought to the cave by a Native American. The cave may have been used as a place to commune with nahurac by the Pawnee. Such long distance transportation of fossils was not unusual for Native Americans. Scientific research In August 1804, Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark expedition", "the boiled interior.\nLike all crustaceans, crawfish are not kosher because they are aquatic animals that do not have both fins and scales. They are therefore not eaten by observant Jews. During the Middle Ages in Scandinavia, \"crayfish were counted among the insects, and that sort of animal nobody would put away in the mouth\". Australia Australia is home to genus Cherax which is distinct from European, Asian and North and South American species. Two of the Australian edible crayfish are the common yabby (C. destructor) and the red claw (C. quadricarinatus). The common yabby is closest in size to the North American", "fish... of the sort called Antacaei, without any prickly bones, and good for pickling,\" probably beluga found in Greek colonies along the Dnieper River. Other ancient writers mention skipjack tuna (pelamys); tuna (tonnoi, thynnoi); swordfish (xifiai); sea raven (korakinoi); black carp (melanes kyprinoi), porpoise (phykaina), mackerel (scomber).\nIn the Greek islands and on the coast, fresh fish and seafood (squid, octopus, and shellfish) were common. They were eaten locally but more often transported inland. Sardines and anchovies were regular fare for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more frequently salted. A stele of the late 3rd century", "that feed on mollusks and crustaceans have dense and flattened teeth used for crushing, those that feed on fish have needle-like teeth for gripping, and those that feed on larger prey such as mammals have pointed lower teeth for gripping and triangular upper teeth with serrated edges for cutting. The teeth of plankton-feeders such as the basking shark are small and non-functional. Skeleton Shark skeletons are very different from those of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made of cartilage and connective tissue. Cartilage is flexible and durable, yet is about" ]

[ "If you have a bone to pick with someone, it means they've annoyed or insulted you and you need to talk to them about it.\n\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary (via a thread in /r/etymology) \"a bone to pick\" originally meant something that occupies or distracts you (as a dog is occupied by picking at a bone) and somehow morphed into its modern meaning.", "It's similar to \"I am upset with you about something and want to discuss it\". Depending on the tone of the conversation it might indicate somebody is really really mad at you about something, or just that they have a minor problem they want to talk about, so context is important." ]

[ "You're with me, leather \"You're with me, leather\" or YWML as it is also known, is a phrase popular with sports website Deadspin, its readers and fellow sports bloggers, and has grown into an Internet phenomenon. The phrase gained widespread popularity after an anecdote was submitted to Deadspin on April 11, 2006, describing the use of the phrase as a pick-up line by ESPN anchor Chris Berman.\n\"You're with me, ____,\" with other words or phrases inserted in place of \"leather,\" is often repeated in response to news stories involving Berman. The phrase is also often used without context as a", "as saying, \"You know what side I'm on. I don't make any bones about it.\"", "Bob's your uncle \"Bob's your uncle\" is a phrase commonly used in United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries that means \"and there it is\" or \"and there you have it.\" Typically, someone says it to conclude a set of simple instructions or when a result is reached. The meaning is similar to that of the French expression \"et voilà!\" or the American \"easy as pie\" or \"piece of cake\".\n\"Bob's your uncle\" is an exclamation that is used when \"everything is all right\" and the simple means of obtaining the successful result is explained. For example: \"left over right; right over", "Roll the Bones (song) Background The music of \"Roll the Bones\" was written by Geddy Lee and Alex Lifeson, and its lyrics by Neil Peart. The lyrics reflect on taking chances in life, and urging those unsure to \"roll the bones,\" a term used for dice. \n\"But the bottom line...is to take the chance, roll the bones, if it's a random universe and that's terrifying and it makes you neurotic and everything, never mind. You really have to take the chance or else nothing's going to happen.\"\n\n- Neil Peart, \"It's a Rap\" interview, February 1992\nAs a \"lyrical experiment\", Peart", "Call a spade a spade To \"call a spade a spade\" is a figurative expression. It is also referred to as \"let's call a spade a spade, not a gardening tool\" which refers to calling something \"as it is\", that is, by its right or proper name, without \"beating about the bush\"—being outspoken about it, truthfully, frankly, and directly, even to the point of being blunt or rude, and even if the subject is considered coarse, impolite, or unpleasant. \nThe idiom originates in the classical Greek of Plutarch's Apophthegmata Laconica, and was introduced into the English language in 1542 in", "man says 'that stone' he is talking about a load of broken stone but if he says 'thik stone', he is talking about a particular stone. He will say, \"Pick it up\" when referring to the former but \"Pick en up\" when talking about the latter.\nThe use and formation of pronouns differ from standard English. When emphatic pronouns are used obliquely,for example, the nominative rather than the objective form is employed, thus \"Give the gun to I\" but unemphatically, \"Give me the gun\". 'Self' is inflected in common with other nouns, when used in conjunction with personal pronouns; in the", "No good deed goes unpunished The phrase 'No good deed goes unpunished' is a sardonic commentary on the frequency with which acts of kindness backfire on those who offer them. In other words, those who help others are doomed to suffer as a result of their being helpful.\nIt has been attributed to several luminaries, including Billy Wilder, writer Clare Booth Luce, American financier John P. Grier, banker Andrew W. Mellon, and Oscar Wilde, although its actual origin has never been established. The phrase appears in Brendan Gill's 1950 book The Trouble of One House. The phrase is featured prominently", "give you something. You give me something’ it denotes a reciprocal exchange of gifts that create a social framework of mutual obligations. In contrast to Western ideas of trade, here the defining element of exchange is not the material value of the objects and services traded but the fact that trading itself establishes bonds that link people to each other – not only in a material way, but also socially, emotionally and spiritually. Consequently, it is deferral of immediate gratification that keeps people engaged and not a quid pro quo situation that is sought.", "to hear the truth you've spoken\n\nTwisted by knaves to make a trap for fools,\n\nOr watch the things you gave your life to, broken,\n\nAnd stoop and build 'em up with worn-out tools:\n\nIf you can make one heap of all your winnings \n\nAnd risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss,\n\nAnd lose, and start again at your beginnings \n\nAnd never breathe a word about your loss[es];\n\nIf you can force your heart and nerve and sinew\n\nTo serve your [or our] turn long after they are gone,\n\nAnd so hold on [to it] when there is nothing in you\n\nExcept the Will which says to them: 'Hold", "it makes)\npux-pux\n\n'belly of animal'\ntxʼa-txʼa\n\n'chewing gum' Vocabulary Qʼanjobʼal consists of groups of roots that can take affixes. Words are traditionally classified as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, intransitive and transitive verbs, particles, and positionals. Positionals are a group of roots which cannot function as words on their own; in combination with affixes they are used to describe relationships of position and location. Particles are words that do not take affixes; they mostly function in adverbial roles, and include such things as interrogative particles, affirmative/negative words, markers of time and location, conjunctions, prepositions and demonstratives.\nLocatives are often formed by placing a noun after a", "Jack of all trades, master of none \"Jack of all trades, master of none\" is a figure of speech used in reference to a person who has dabbled in many skills, rather than gaining expertise by focusing on one. \nThe shortened version \"a jack of all trades\" is often a compliment for a person who is good at fixing things, and has a very good broad knowledge. They may be a master of integration, as such an individual who knows enough from many learned trades and skills to be able to bring the individual's disciplines together in a practical manner.", "is \"faithful, devotion, whole hearted, bold, brave\". This is on the basis of its being actually a compound word, a phenomenon quite common in ancient Hebrew. Col (כל, Kaf + Lamed) = \"all\" or \"whole\"; Lev(לב, Lamed + Bet) means \"heart\". Therefore, Caleb (or Calev as pronounced in Hebrew) would actually mean \"whole hearted\". This might be due to the Biblical Caleb, a companion of Moses and Joshua, being noted for his astute powers of observation and fearlessness in the face of overwhelming odds. Biblical account Caleb, son of Jephunneh (Numbers 13:6) is not to be confused with Caleb,", "feast, Rabbi served his disciples tender and tough cuts of beef tongue. When his disciples chose the tender over the tough, Rabbi instructed them so to let their tongues be tender to one another. Rabbi taught that this was the meaning of Leviticus 25:14 when Moses admonished: \"And if you sell anything . . . you shall not wrong one another.\" Similarly, a Midrash concluded that these words of Leviticus 25:14 taught that anyone who wrongs a neighbor with words will be punished according to Scripture.\nIn a Baraita, the Rabbis interpreted the words \"you shall not wrong one another\"", "Talk to the hand \"Talk to the hand\" (or \"tell it to the hand\") is a slang phrase associated with the 1990s. It originated as a sarcastic way of saying one does not want to hear what the person who is speaking is saying.\nIt is often elongated to a phrase such as \"Talk to the hand, because the ears ain't listening\" or \"Talk to the hand, because the face ain't listening.\" Meaning and usage The phrase is often considered to be sarcastic or obnoxious. The phrase was popularized by actor and comedian Martin Lawrence in his 1992 sitcom Martin. The", "I'm alright, Jack I'm alright, Jack is a British expression used to describe those who act only in their own best interests even if assistance to others would necessitate minimal effort on their behalf. It carries a pejorative tone and is relatively rarely used to describe the speaker: \"I limped down the aisle and asked a fellow to move along one seat so I could sit down, but he refused: \"I'm alright Jack\". So I hit him with my crutch, your Honour.\"\nThe phrase is believed to have originated among Royal Navy sailors, where a ladder was slung over the side", "By hook or by crook \"By hook or by crook\" is an English phrase meaning \"by any means necessary\", suggesting that any means possible should be taken to accomplish a goal. The phrase is very old, first recorded in the Middle English Controversial Tracts of John Wyclif in 1380.\nThe origin of the phrase is obscure, with multiple different explanations and no evidence to support any particular one over the others. For example, a commonly repeated suggestion is that it comes from Hook Head in Wexford, Ireland and the nearby village of Crooke, in Waterford, Ireland. Another is that it", "persons pulling on the bone with the one receiving the larger part making a wish developed in the early 17th century. At that time, the name of the bone was a merrythought. The name wishbone in reference to this custom is recorded from 1860.", "\"Give Me Back My Man\" features the line \"Throws Divinity on the sand\", as the narrator's attempt to entice a hungry shark into sparing her sweetheart's life in exchange for the candy. This explanation is provided by Cindy Wilson in the book \"The B-52's Universe\" by Mats Sexton. The band, being from Athens, Georgia would be familiar with this Southern candy.", "True Friends (song) Composition and lyrics \"True Friends\" is a song about disloyalty. Speaking to TeamRock, vocalist Oliver Sykes has explained that the hook \"True Friends stab you in the front\" is based on a quote credited to Irish playwright Oscar Wilde. The song is \"not about anyone in particular\", although Sykes has revealed that \"It's about some people more than it is others, but it's all about one event in particular that spurred it on. It's about people that I thought were my friends, my very good friends, doing something to me that I just didn't see coming in", "The Rotters' Club.\nThe 1970s radio programme I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again made frequent references to Take Your Pick! with phrases such as (in this case, apropos of a vampire rabbit and its coffin): \"Stake the bunny!\" \"Hop in the box!\"", "ingredients. The term may derive from the use of finger and hand bones from the dead in mojo bags, or from ingredients such as the lucky hand root (favored by gamblers). The latter suggests an analogy between the varied bag ingredients and the several cards that make up a hand in card games. Mojo reaches as far back as West African culture, where it is said to drive away evil spirits, keep good luck in the household, manipulate a fortune, and lure and persuade lovers. The ideology of the ancestors and the descendants of the mojo hand used this \"prayer", "am sworn brother to a leash of Drawers, and can call them by their names, as Tom, Dicke, and Francis.\"\nThe phrase is a rhetorical device known as a tricolon. The most common form of tricolon in English is an ascending tricolon, and as such the names are always said in order of ascending syllable length. Other examples of this gradation include \"tall, dark and handsome\", \"hook, line and sinker\", \"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\"; and so on. In medicine English-speaking medical students use the phrase in memorizing the order of an artery, and a nerve, and the three", "Bob and weave Popular usage The oft-heard catchphrase of Finance & Commerce reporter Bill Clements. (Example: \"How're you doing?\" \"Oh, you know, bobbin' and weavin'.\")", "Pickaxe Etymology The Oxford Dictionary of English states that both \"pick\" and \"pickaxe\" have the same meaning, that being a tool with a long handle at right angles to a curved iron or steel bar with a point at one end and a chisel or point at the other, used for breaking up hard ground or rock.\nThe term \"pickaxe\" is a folk etymology alteration of Middle-English picas via Anglo-French piceis, Old French pocois, and directly from Medieval Latin picosa \"pick\", related to Latin picus \"woodpecker\". Though modern picks usually feature a head with both a pointed end and an adze-like", "piece of leather, holding it in his teeth while he steadied his incision. Hearing the words \"Go away, dog!\" deeply upset him, leading to yet another strike on the head and the leathersmith questioning him, \"Do you want a slam with al-anzroot?\", using the term as slang for a hardy, strong strike. Suddenly, the man remembered what he set out to find, and hugged the leathersmith in appreciation.\nClassified as a witticism, the moral of this story is intended to inform listeners to be conscientious of their speech and to recognize that the setting of a social situation and the timing", "winds it about his fingers, another with both hands takes it off perhaps in the shape of a gridiron, the first takes it from him again in another form, and so on alternately changing the packthread into a multitude of figures whose names I forget, it being so many years since I played at it myself.\"\nThe name may have come from a corruption of cratch-cradle, or manger cradle (although this derivation is disputed by the OED). The connection between the two words, cratches and cradle, may come from the Christian story of the birth of Jesus, in which a manger", "convinces the wise if not the clever.\"\nThe word comes from the Greek παλινῳδία from πάλιν (palin, meaning 'back' or 'again') and ᾠδή (\"song\"); the Latin-derived equivalent \"recantation\" is an exact calque (re- meaning 'back or 'again' and cant- meaning 'sing').\nIt can also be a recantation of a defamatory statement in Scots Law.", "be back\"\". In the final verse, he advises the listener to follow the same path in difficult situations such as when \"your lover gives you the elbow or you're threatened with the sack\".", "tongue remember You without ceasing\nAnd my heart enthralled by Your love!\nAnd be gracious to me by answering me favorably,\nAnd nullify my slips\nAnd forgive my lapses!\n...\n...\nO He, whose satisfaction is quickly achieved!\nForgive him who owns nothing but supplication\nFor You do what You will\nO He whose Name is a remedy,\nAnd whose remembrance is a cure,\nAnd whose obedience is wealth!\nHave mercy upon him whose main wealth is hopefulness\nAnd whose weapon is weeping!\nYou can see the complete English text of Du'a Kumayl here and also here via video with English subtitle.", "young person I knew was saying 'Talk to the hand'. Now no one even remembers 'Talk to the hand'\".\nLynne Truss, noted for writing the bestselling Eats, Shoots & Leaves, used the phrase as the title and prime example in her 2006 book, Talk to the Hand: The Utter Bloody Rudeness of the World Today.\nIn 2001, British R&B girl group Honeyz released the single \"Talk to the Hand\", and in 2018 Norwegian pop singer, Aleksander Walmann released a single with the same title as well, taking part in the Norwegian preselection show for the Eurovision Song Contest." ]

[ "Thought and motor cortex are separate. So you can think without acting." ]

[ "task, Haggard and Eimer asked subjects to decide not only when to move their hands, but also to decide which hand to move. In this case, the felt intention correlated much more closely with the \"lateralized readiness potential\" (LRP), an event-related potential (ERP) component that measures the difference between left and right hemisphere brain activity. Haggard and Eimer argue that the feeling of conscious will must therefore follow the decision of which hand to move, since the LRP reflects the decision to lift a particular hand.\nA more direct test of the relationship between the Bereitschaftspotential and the \"awareness of the", "eyes. The body will perform the motion based on the information that is stored in the brain from previous attempts at the same movement. This is possible because the brain has formed connections between the location of body parts in space (the body uses perception to learn where their body is in space) and the subsequent movements that commonly follow these positions. It becomes almost an instinct. The person does not need to even think about what they are doing to perfect the skill, they have done it so many times that it feels natural and requires little to no", "the position of their body and how that changes throughout the motor skill they are trying to perform. While performing the motion the body will use receptors in the muscles to transfer information to the brain to tell the brain about what the body is doing. Then after completing the same motor skill numerous times, the brain will begin to remember the motion based on the position of the body at a given time. Then after learning the motion the body will be able perform the motor skill even when usual senses are inhibited, such as the person closing their", "Beevor's axiom Beevor’s Axiom is the idea that the brain does not know muscles, only movements. In other words, the brain registers the movements that muscles combine to make, not the individual muscles that are making the movements. Hence, this is why one can sign their name (albeit poorly) with their foot. Beevor’s Axiom was coined by Dr. Charles Edward Beevor, an English neurologist.\nDr. Beevor presented Beevor’s Axiom in a series of four lectures from June 3, 1903 to July 4, 1903 before the Royal College of Physicians of London as part of the Croonian Lectures. His experiments showed that", "movement itself. By implication, the dorsal premotor cortex was more involved in planning or preparing for movement and the primary motor cortex more involved in executing movement.\nRizzolatti and colleagues divided the premotor cortex into four parts or fields based on cytoarchitectonics, two dorsal fields and two ventral fields. They then studied the properties of the ventral premotor fields, establishing tactile, visual, and motor properties of a complex nature (summarized in greater detail above in Divisions of the premotor cortex).\nAt least three representations of the hand were reported in the motor cortex, one in the primary motor cortex, one in the", "also a notion of integrating the \"top\" parts of the brain with the \"lower\" parts of the brain to integrate thought and emotion, as well as integrating visual, auditory, and motor skills; \nAnother idea is that of \"brain buttons\" - spots on the neck that if touched in certain ways, can stimulate the flow of blood to the brain.\nAnother set of underlying ideas is psychomotor patterning, also known as the Doman-Delacato theory of development, which claims that if motor skills are not acquired in the correct order, the result will be a lifelong deficit in learning ability, and also claims", "cortices are involved in the formation and retention of memories and skills. When an individual learns physical movements, this leads to changes in the motor cortex. The more practiced a movement is, the stronger the neural encoding becomes. A study cited how the cortical areas include neurons that process movements and that these neurons change their behavior during and after being exposed to tasks. Psychomotor learning is not limited to the motor cortex, however.", "us is defined by the motor potentialities of our body. Motor neurons also respond to visual, tactile and auditory stimuli. Indeed, premotor neurons controlling the movements of the upper arm also respond to tactile stimuli applied to it, to visual stimuli moved within the arm's peripersonal space, or to auditory stimuli also coming from the same peri-personal space. The same applies to artifacts, like three-dimensional objects. The manipulable objects we look at are classified by the motor brain as potential targets of the interactions we might entertain with them. Premotor and parietal 'canonical neurons' control the grasping and manipulation of", "when an area of the cortex was stimulated, the body responded with a movement, not just a single muscle. Dr. Beevor concluded that “only co-ordinated movements are represented in the excitable cortex” \nIn relation to Beevor’s Axiom, it has been found that the brain encodes sequences, such as playing the piano, signing our name, wiping off a counter, and chopping vegetables, and once encoded and practiced, it takes less brain activity to perform them. This supports Beevor’s Axiom, because the brain can recall movements easier than it can learn them.\nBeevor’s Axiom is only partially true, however. Most behavior of muscles", "movement features are recovered, despite the fact that they require startlingly different arm dynamics (i.e. torques and forces). This recovery provides evidence that what is motivating movement is a particular motor plan, and the individual is using a forward model to predict how arm dynamics change the movement of the arm to achieve particular task level characteristics. Differences between the expected arm movement and the observed arm movement produces an error signal which is used as the basis for learning. Additional evidence for forward models comes from experiments which require subjects to determine the location of an effector following an", "well as the limbs. Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected though practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements.\nDespite its previous classification as a motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and cognition. These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Positron emission tomography.\nThe body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger cerebrum, but is also more extensively understood than other structures of the", "brain is called neurolinguistics, which is a large multidisciplinary field drawing from cognitive neuroscience, cognitive linguistics, and psycholinguistics. Lateralisation The cerebrum has a contralateral organisation with each hemisphere of the brain interacting primarily with one half of the body: the left side of the brain interacts with the right side of the body, and vice versa. The developmental cause for this is uncertain. Motor connections from the brain to the spinal cord, and sensory connections from the spinal cord to the brain, both cross sides in the brainstem. Visual input follows a more complex rule: the optic nerves from the", "of balance.\nThe vestibular system of the inner ear is responsible for the sensations of balance and motion. It uses the same kinds of fluids and detection cells (hair cells) as the cochlea uses, and sends information to the brain about the attitude, rotation, and linear motion of the head. The type of motion or attitude detected by a hair cell depends on its associated mechanical structures, such as the curved tube of a semicircular canal or the calcium carbonate crystals (otolith) of the saccule and utricle. Development The human inner ear develops during week 4 of embryonic development", "to parts of the frontal lobe that allows the hands and arms to adjust their movements to correctly grasp objects based on their size, position, and location. This ability has led some neuroscientists to hypothesize that the purpose of the M pathway is not to detect spatial locations, but to guide actions related to the position and motion of objects.\nSome information has also been found to support the hypothesis that the M pathway is necessary for facial processing. Clinical significance Abnormal magnocellular pathways and magnocellular cells can be associated with various disorders and ocular impairments, including dyslexia, prosopagnosia and schizophrenia.", "cerebellum is also active at this time for processing of what is called an efference copy, which compares expectations of the body's posture with how it is oriented at the time. The difference between expected posture and actual posture is corrected for via motorneurons in the spinal cord, which control muscle movements for righting the body.\nThese automatic postural adjustments can be explained in terms of two reflexes similar to the righting reflex: the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and the vestibulocollic reflex (VCR). The VOR involves movement of the eyes while the head turns to remain fixated on a stationary image, and", "of motion. And these two realms, that of efficient causes and that of final causes, harmonize with one another.” This idea refers to the mind-body problem, stating that the mind and brain do not act upon each other, but act alongside each other separately but in harmony. Leibniz, however, did not use the term psychologia.\nLeibniz’ epistemological position—against John Locke and English empiricism (sensualism)—was made clear: “Nihil est in intellectu quod non fuerit in sensu, nisi intellectu ipse.” – “Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses, except the intellect itself.” Principles that are not", "depending on how that individual perceives the information. Proprioceptive system The proprioceptive system concerns a person's joints and muscles. It tells the brain if a part of the body is moving without actually having to see it. It also controls eating, writing, and using utensils. This sense enables a person to understand the amount of pressure used to carry out routine tasks, such as eating and writing. Bodily pressure is part of this as well; for example, a child may enjoy being held tighter by someone or leaning into things such as walls, desks, and potentially other people. Olfactory system", "argued that the perception–action cycle is the fundamental logic of the nervous system. Perception and action processes are functionally intertwined: perception is a means to action and action is a means to perception. Indeed, the vertebrate brain has evolved for governing motor activity with the basic function to transform sensory patterns into patterns of motor coordination. Background The classical approach to cognition is a 'sandwich' model which assumes three stages of information processing: perception, cognition and then action. In this model, perception and action do not interact directly, instead cognitive processing is needed to convert perceptual representations into", "Brain's reflex Brain's reflex is the extension of a hemiplegic flexed arm when a quadrupedal posture is assumed by a human subject. It was first described by Russell Brain, a British neurologist.", "brain from using those limbs to carry out behavior? Since the brain obviously does use the spinal systems in producing behavior, there must be a principle that allows the higher systems to operate by incorporating the reflexes, not just by overcoming them or turning them off. The answer is that the reference value (setpoint) for a spinal reflex is not static; rather, it is varied by higher-level systems as their means of moving the limbs. This principle applies to higher feedback loops, as each loop presents the same problem to subsystems above it.\nWhereas an engineered control system has a reference", "body is static; then the head’s movement when it tilts; and pitch changes during any linear motion of the head. The saccule and utricle detect different motions, which information the brain receives and integrates to determine where the head is and how and where it is moving.\nThe semi-circular canals are three bony structures filled with fluid. As with the vestibule, the primary purpose of the canals is to detect movement. Each canal is oriented at right angles to the others, enabling detection of movement in any plane. The posterior canal detects rolling motion, or motion about the X axis; the", "motor area (pre-SMA) of the brain, in which readiness potential indicating the beginning of a movement genesis has been recorded by EEG. In one study, directly stimulating the pre-SMA caused volunteers to report a feeling of intention, and sufficient stimulation of that same area caused physical movement. In a similar study, it was found that people with no visual awareness of their body can have their limbs be made to move without having any awareness of this movement, by stimulating premotor brain regions. When their parietal cortices were stimulated, they reported an urge (intention) to move a specific limb (that", "of the brain Following the work of Robert Whytt and Marshall Hall, Laycock studied the reflex arc in relation to the nervous system. While Hall believed that the reflex arc was mediated by the spinal cord, separate from the cerebrum, Laycock argued that the brain underwent the same reflex patterns as the rest of the nervous system. After learning the German language, he translated books by Johann August Unzer, who studied afferent and efferent reflexes. Unzer centralised the nervous system in the spinal cord, such that reflexes could occur even without a functional brain, which only controls conscious activity. Laycock", "and logic. The extent of specialised brain function by an area remains under investigation. It is claimed that the difference between the two hemispheres is that the left hemisphere is \"analytic\" or \"logical\" while the right hemisphere is \"holistic\" or \"intuitive\". Many simple tasks, especially comprehension of inputs, require functions that are specific to both the right and left hemispheres and together form a one direction systematised way of creating an output through the communication and coordination that occurs between hemispheres. Role of the corpus callosum The corpus callosum is a structure in the brain along the longitudinal fissure that", "is a major challenge because of the large number of joints that provide the human musculoskeletal system with numerous kinematic degrees of freedom. Because the goal of most movement tasks, like moving a hand to a target, is defined in terms of a much smaller number of kinematic degrees of freedom, it can be achieved in an infinite number of different ways (also referred to as the 'inverse kinematics problem'). Furthermore, the number of muscles acting across a joint generally exceeds the number of kinematic degrees of freedom of that joint. As a result, a given movement can be realized", "representation of the limbs in space. This integration allows for stimuli to be localized in external space with respect to the body. An example by Haggard and Wolpert shows the combination of tactile sensation of the hand with information about the joint angles of the arm, which allow for rapid movements of said arm to swat a fly. Modular The body schema is not represented wholly in a single region of the brain. Recent fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) studies confirm earlier results. For example, the schema for feet and hands are coded by different regions of the brain, while", "action verbs (abstract). One such study used fMRI to study participants whilst they viewed actions performed by the mouth, hand or foot, and read literal and metaphorical sentences related to the mouth hand or foot. This study found activation in the premotor cortex for literal action (e.g. “grasping the scissors”) but not for metaphorical usage (e.g. “grasping the idea”). These findings suggest that the assumption of embodied theories that abstract concepts, as well as concrete ones, are grounded in the sensorimotor system may not be true.\nHowever, in contrast, other research has found motor cortex activation for the metaphorical usage of", "vestibular stimuli which can make people feel they are moving when they are not, not moving when they are, tilted when they are not, or not tilted when they are. Although the vestibular system is a very fast sense used to generate reflexes, including the righting reflex, to maintain perceptual and postural stability, compared to the other senses of vision, touch and audition, vestibular input is perceived with delay.", "all the muscle fibers it innervates) and complex models are built to understand the multitude of biological factors influencing motion. These models become increasingly complicated when multiple joints or environmental factors such as ground reaction forces are introduced. Neurophysiology In neurophysiological studies, the motor system is modeled as a distributed, often hierarchical system with the spinal cord controlling the \"most automatic\" of movements such as stretch reflexes, and the cortex controlling the \"most voluntary\" actions such as reaching for an object, with the brainstem performing a function somewhere in between the two. Such studies seek to investigate how the primary", "object. Different objects evoke different senses of motor readiness. When the object is not present, memory re-evokes those sensations. Learning consists of an association of movements into a set of regular series and combinations. When two movements become closely linked in quick succession, the sense of movement from the first primes the next, beginning a series. Ideas are organized the same way. Thinking becomes a derivative of movements of the hands, eyes, vocal cords, and trunk muscles (remember the thinker's pose). In summary:\n\"While consciousness exists and is not a form of movement, it has as its indispensable" ]

[ "You absolutely could. \n\nBut the fact is that evolution shaped our tastes. That's why fatty foods and sweet foods are so appealing to out taste buds. It is our bodies way of saying \"That has lots of calories and will help us avoid starving.\"\n\nThe 'satisfaction' you feel on swallowing it is simply the body saying \"Good job. Remember that tastes good so we will eat it again if we find it again.\" Rewarding you for fueling it. \n\nYou can see why this system that evolved when we were hunter gatherers to keep us from starving and helping us learn whats best to eat leads to obesity now that we have food options everywhere anytime we want. \n\nFun fact: Most people mistake the bodies thirst craving for being hungry. More often than not if you drink a glass of water when you feel the urge to snack it will go away. Thus helping you lose weight by reducing total calorie intake." ]

[ "reversed by simply tasting (but not swallowing or consuming) sweet beverages, which can have rewarding properties. Others have suggested that the taste of sugar (but not artificial sweetener) has psycho-physiological signaling effects.\nAn experiment by Segertrom (2007) and Solberg Nes, has shown that HRV (heart rate variability) is a marker for both ego depletion, and an index for self-control power before the task.\nThe underlying neural processes associated with self-control failure have been recently examined using neurophysiological techniques. According to cognitive and neuroscientific models of mental control, a \"conflict-monitoring/error-detection system\" identifies discrepancies between intended goals and actual behaviors. Error-related negativity (ERN) signals", "low-sugar drinks taste sweeter helping people reduce sugar intake. \nA team from the University of Tokyo created a device that simulates the different textures of food through electricity. The device uses electrodes place on the masseter muscle (a jaw muscle used for chewing) and simulates the texture by changing this muscle frequency. For example, a higher frequency gives the food a harder texture.", "from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as aspartame (artificial sweetener). Acquired taste An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. Clinical significance Patients with Addison's disease, pituitary insufficiency, or cystic fibrosis sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the five primary tastes.", "little, but the \"just right\" amount of saltiness, sweetness, or richness. The human body has evolved to favor foods delivering these tastes: the brain responds with a \"reward\" in the form of a jolt of endorphins, remembers what we did to get that reward, and makes us want to do it again, an effect run by dopamine, a neurotransmitter. Combinations of sugar, fat, and salt act synergistically, and are more rewarding than any one alone. In food product optimization, the goal is to include two or three of these nutrients at their bliss point.", "with an unrelated stomach virus may still develop a taste aversion to sushi. Even something as obvious as riding a roller coaster (causing nausea) after eating the sushi will influence the development of taste aversion to sushi. Humans might also develop aversions to certain types of alcoholic beverages because of vomiting during intoxication.\nTaste aversion is a common problem with chemotherapy patients, who become nauseated because of the drug therapy but associate the nausea with consumption of food. Applications Taste aversion has been demonstrated in a wide variety of both captive and free-ranging predators. In these studies, animals that consume", "to chew on as a candy. Through chewing and suckling, the intensely sweet flavour is released. The sweetness is 30 to 50 times as strong as sucrose, without causing damage to teeth. Since about the 1970s, zoethout has become rarer and been replaced by easier to consume candies (including 'drop').\nPontefract in Yorkshire, England, was the first place where liquorice mixed with sugar began to be used as a sweet in the same way it is today. Pontefract cakes were originally made there. In County Durham, Yorkshire and Lancashire, it is colloquially known as 'Spanish', supposedly because Spanish monks grew", "too-soft candy body. Before eating, the candy is chilled so that the thin chocolate layer does not melt and become sticky; 20 °C is sufficient, but some people prefer a temperature of around 0 so that the candy will slowly melt in the mouth. The candy is held by the thick cone cap (which is deliberately left outside the foil cone and thick enough to hold) and the foil is gently unrolled immediately before consumption.\nBecause of their delicious taste, exquisite look and quality, this type of candy has a steady consumer base in the CIS, but the relatively high price", "there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical", "control over the use of it, and continued use despite negative consequences. Studies have shown that people can exhibit all three of these components in relation to food, particularly food that contains sugar or fat. Since chocolate contains both, it is often used in studies of food addiction.\nIn addition to sugar and fat, chocolate contains several substances that can make it feel \"addictive\". These include tryptophan, an essential amino acid that is a precursor to serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in regulating moods; high serotonin levels can produce feelings of elation. Another is phenylethylamine, a neurotransmitter from which amphetamine is derived;", "swollen gums, and constipation.\nIn more systematic understandings, each medicine or food item has one of five flavors: sour, sweet, bitter, pungent (or \"acrid\"), and salty. Besides describing the taste of food, each of these \"flavors\" purportedly has specific effects on particular viscera. The sour flavor, for instance, has \"constriction and emollient effects\" and \"can emolliate the liver and control diarrhea and perspiration\", whereas \"bitter\" food can \"purge the heart 'fire', reduce excessive fluids, induce diarrhea, and reinforce the heart 'Yin'\". Scientific assessments There are few studies in English on the scientific validity of these beliefs and practices. A few studies", "substances called aglycones (molecules with other sugars are polysaccharides). Preliminary experiments deduce that the tongue's taste receptors react to the glycosides and transduce the sweet taste sensation and the lingering bitter aftertaste by direct activation of sweet and bitter receptors.\nAccording to basic research, steviol glycosides and steviol interact with a protein channel called TRPM5, potentiating the signal from the sweet or bitter receptors, amplifying the taste of other sweet, bitter and umami tastants. The synergetic effect of the glycosides on the sweet receptor and TRPM5 explains the sweetness sensation. Some steviol glycosides (rebaudioside A) are perceived sweeter than others (stevioside).\nSteviol", "might also avoid eating tangerines and clementines because they look similar to oranges, and might lead one to think that they are also dangerous.\nStimulus generalization operates in most facets of animal and human life far beyond food tastes and aversion. Trauma and negative reinforcement of all kinds create aversion of other negative reaction to generalizations from the adverse event or events. And like taste aversion, the generalization may or not be conscious. Stimulus generalization is a factor in most \"superstitious behavior\", racism and prejudice of all kinds. Compared with taste avoidance Although the terms \"taste avoidance\" and \"taste", "the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion", "possibly can, light-hearted skippyfun can be very, very troublesome to capture in popular music. Too much sugar, as we all know, rots the teeth, and makes people feel sick. So it's often a good idea to leaven it with a bit of sourness, just to cleanse the palate.\nIt's a tough balance to strike though. Too much sour is even worse than too much sweet, cos it curdles the whole confection. Ideally, you'd want a song something like this, something which seems to be full of sunlight and happysighs; something which tumbles through your mind like a carrier bag lifted into", "taste perception are genetically based. If so, then sensations of aftertaste could also be affected by the activities of specific genes that affect an individual's perception of different foods. For example, the intensity of the aftertaste sensations \"nontasters\" experienced after caffeine consumption was found to diminish faster than the sensations \"tasters\" experienced. This may imply that because of their taste bud profiles, \"tasters\" may be more sensitive to the tastes of different foods, and thus experience a more persistent sensation of those foods' tastes. Processing in the cerebral cortex The primary taste perception areas in the cerebral cortex are located", "patients are intolerant to the liquid. Adverse effects Many patients are unable to tolerate the taste, even if the diet is flavored, and choose to receive it through intragastric administration. Possible nausea and diarrhea can result from the high sugar content which can also complicate hyperglycaemia in patients with pre-existing diabetes. As a result of suppression of healthy bacteria, via a loss of bacterial food source, prolonged use of an elemental diet elevates the risk of developing clostridium difficile infection/colonisation.", "sweet taste of its own, miraculin is by itself quite tasteless. The sweetness receptor Despite the wide variety of chemical substances known to be sweet, and knowledge that the ability to perceive sweet taste must reside in taste buds on the tongue, the biomolecular mechanism of sweet taste was sufficiently elusive that as recently as the 1990s, there was some doubt whether any single \"sweetness receptor\" actually exists.\nThe breakthrough for the present understanding of sweetness occurred in 2001, when experiments with laboratory mice showed that mice possessing different versions of the gene T1R3 prefer sweet foods to different extents. Subsequent", "Sweetness Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable, except when in excess. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, and sugar alcohols. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as non-caloric sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and aspartame. Other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself.\nThe perceived intensity of sugars and high-potency sweeteners, such as aspartame and neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, are heritable, with gene effect accounting for approximately 30% of the", "added, which cracks and dissolves the crystal. Similarly in Iran, tea is consumed with sugar candy (called nabat) placed either in the tea or in the mouth. In China, sugar candy is used to sweeten Chrysanthemum tea as well as Cantonese dessert soups and the liquor baijiu. \nSugar candy is a common ingredient in Chinese cooking, and many households have sugar candy available to marinate meats and add to stir fry. Sugar candy is also regarded as having medicinal properties and is used to prepare food such as yao shan. It is a common ingredient in Tamil cuisine, particularly in", "using non-metallic silverware, avoiding metallic or bitter tasting foods, increasing the consumption of foods high in protein, flavoring foods with spices and seasonings, serving foods cold in order to reduce any unpleasant taste or odor, frequently brushing one's teeth and utilizing mouthwash, or using sialogogues such as chewing sugar-free gum or sour-tasting drops that stimulate the productivity of saliva. When taste is impeded, the food experience can be improved through means other than taste, such as texture, aroma, temperature, and color. Psychological impacts People who suffer from dysgeusia are also forced to manage the impact that the disorder has on", "that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of 'candies' at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.\nThe Middle English word candy began to be used in the late 13th century.\nThe first candy came to America in the early 18th century from Britain and France. Only a few of", "are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and the other few to be chewed and digested.'\"\nIn 2011, the British newspaper Metro ran a story that they would begin producing the newspaper on an edible \"Sweet tasting paper\" claiming to bring customers \"news in the best possible taste\". The newspaper later clarified this was nothing more than an April Fools' joke.", "capabilities to jump-start a chain of emotions and comfortable memories, which is exactly what companies are looking for when entering this type of sensorial branding. Taste The sense of taste is considered to be the most intimate one because we can't taste anything from a distance. It is also believed to be the most distinctly emotional sense. Our taste is also dependent on our saliva and differs on each different person. People who prefer saltier foods are used to a higher concentration of sodium and therefore have a saltier saliva. In fact, 78% of our taste preferences are dependent on", "candy, liquorices, peppermints, chocolates, nougats, sweeteners and chews.", "means you can put them in any dish without worrying about overpowering them - there's nothing to overpower! They make an excellent textural addition, though, a little crunchy, a little rubbery, very pleasant. Use them in tomato sauce as a meat substitute, or in a spicy Thai curry. You can't go wrong, because you can't taste them.", " This may help explain why sugar and artificial sweeteners have different tastes. Genetic polymorphisms in TAS1R3 partly explain the difference in sweet taste perception and sugar consumption between people of African American ancestry and people of European and Asian ancestries. Bitter The TAS2R proteins function as bitter taste receptors. There are 43 human TAS2R genes, each of which (excluding the five pseudogenes) lacks introns and codes for a GPCR protein. These proteins, as opposed to TAS1R proteins, have short extracellular domains and are located in circumvallate papillae, palate, foliate papillae, and epiglottis taste buds, with reduced expression", "their otherwise strong sweetness.\nTwo natural products have been documented to have similar sweetness-inhibiting properties: gymnemic acid, extracted from the leaves of the Indian vine Gymnema sylvestre and ziziphin, from the leaves of the Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba). Gymnemic acid has been widely promoted within herbal medicine as a treatment for sugar cravings and diabetes mellitus.\nOn the other hand, two plant proteins, miraculin and curculin, cause sour foods to taste sweet. Once the tongue has been exposed to either of these proteins, sourness is perceived as sweetness for up to an hour afterwards. While curculin has some innate", "fruits, including bottlenose dolphins, sea lions, spotted hyenas and fossas. Sweet receptor pathway To depolarize the cell, and ultimately generate a response, the body uses different cells in the taste bud that each express a receptor for the perception of sweet, sour, salty, bitter or umami. Downstream of the taste receptor, the taste cells for sweet, bitter and umami share the same intracellular signalling pathway. Incoming sweet molecules bind to their receptors, which causes a conformational change in the molecule. This change activates the G-protein, gustducin, which in turn activates phospholipase C to generate inositol trisphosphate (IP₃), this subsequently opens", "Sweetened beverage A sweetened beverage is any beverage with added sugar. It has been described as \"liquid candy\". Consumption of sweetened beverages has been linked to weight gain, obesity, and associated health risks. According to the CDC, consumption of sweetened beverages is also associated with unhealthy behaviors like smoking, not getting enough sleep and exercise, and eating fast food often and not enough fruits regularly. Sugar-related health concerns A number of studies suggest that there is a significant correlation between increased consumption of sweetened beverages and weight gain leading to obesity. There has also been an association between consumption of", "nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion of tastes through dysgeusia. Not all mammals share the same" ]

[ "Let's think about this from an evolutionary perspective. Way back in the day, (like way way way back) humans struggled for food just like every other animal. It was to our species evolutionary advantage to pursue food that would keep us full longer, or provide more energy than other food options. Fats, are 9 calories per gram compared to proteins and carbs that are 4 calories. Humans that preferred fats and craved them, had a higher chance of survival and passing on the fat craving trait. Fast forward to present day where food is plentiful. We are still programmed to eat high calorie foods just in case we won't find food for a week!", "In the ancestral environment, the one where we evolved, sugar and fat were necessary but scarce nutrients so we evolved the ability to taste them and enjoy those particular things so that we could survive better. \nIn today's first world, sugar and fat are relatively abundant so that we have a basically unlimited supply. Our bodies still have the evolved skill of loving the taste of sugar and fat so we still eat as much as possible if we don't check ourselves. \nPlot twist, food scientists know that we love sugar and fat so they create food that hacks our evolutionary impulses toward sugar and fat for profit." ]

[ "nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion of tastes through dysgeusia. Not all mammals share the same", "from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as aspartame (artificial sweetener). Acquired taste An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. Clinical significance Patients with Addison's disease, pituitary insufficiency, or cystic fibrosis sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the five primary tastes.", "the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion", "an important cause of diseases.\nThe tastes are six. They are sweet, sour, saline, pungent, bitter and astringent.\n\nProperly used, they nourish the body.\n\nImproperly used (excess or deficient), they verily lead to the provocation of the Dosha.\n\nThe Dosha are three: Vayu, Pitta and Kapha.\n\nWhen they are in their normal state, they are beneficial to the body.\n\nWhen, however, they become disorganized, verily they afflict the body with diseases of diverse kinds.\n— Charaka Samhita, 3.I.3-4\nThe text suggests that foods are source of heat, nutritive value as well as physiological substances that act like drugs inside human body. Furthermore, along with medicine, Caraka Samhita in Chapters", "swollen gums, and constipation.\nIn more systematic understandings, each medicine or food item has one of five flavors: sour, sweet, bitter, pungent (or \"acrid\"), and salty. Besides describing the taste of food, each of these \"flavors\" purportedly has specific effects on particular viscera. The sour flavor, for instance, has \"constriction and emollient effects\" and \"can emolliate the liver and control diarrhea and perspiration\", whereas \"bitter\" food can \"purge the heart 'fire', reduce excessive fluids, induce diarrhea, and reinforce the heart 'Yin'\". Scientific assessments There are few studies in English on the scientific validity of these beliefs and practices. A few studies", "than compromised. According to the International Water Management Institute and UNEP, well-managed agroecosystems not only provide food, fiber and animal products, they also provide services such as flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, erosion control and habitats for plants, birds, fish and other animals. Taste perception Animals, specifically humans, have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy (sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while others, such as bitter, are not enjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste. Fats, on the other hand,", "BitterDB Summary Basic taste qualities like sour, salty, sweet, bitter and umami serve specific functions in identifying food components found in the diet of humans and animals, and are recognized by proteins in the oral cavity. Recognition of bitter taste and aversion to it are thought to protect the organism against the ingestion of poisonous food compounds, which are often bitter. Bitter taste receptors are expressed not only in the mouth but also in extraoral tissues. BitterDB database, available at http://bitterdb.agri.huji.ac.il/bitterdb/, includes over 670 compounds that were reported to taste bitter to humans. The compounds can be searched by name,", "because it allows an organism to recognize foods that have previously been determined to be poisonous, hopefully allowing said organism to avoid sickness.\nAs a result of Garcia's work, conditioned taste aversion has been called the \"Garcia Effect.\"\nThroughout his work Garcia also achieved a number of awards such as the Howard Crosby Warren Medal and the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1983 and has over 130 publications.", "Good Taste \"Good Taste\" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov. It first appeared in a limited edition book of the same name by Apocalypse Press in 1976. It subsequently appeared in Asimov's Science Fiction (Fall 1977) and in the 1983 collection The Winds of Change and Other Stories. Plot summary Chawker Minor returns from his 'Grand Tour', including a visit to Earth, to his home on Gammer, one of several artificial satellites orbiting the Moon. The introverted society of Gammer specialises in artificial computer-designed food flavourings much in demand in Earth, to the point of", "sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and umami. Scientific experiments have demonstrated that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to distinguish between different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions. Sweet, savory, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, respectively.\nThe basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth—other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of", "taste sort of like a Broadway show. But like the worst versions of its namesake beverage, it’s too watered-down to be much fun.\" The cast was described as talented, and \"carries the show as best it can.\" Vulture also gave it a negative review, calling it an \"empty shell\" instead of fun.", "capabilities to jump-start a chain of emotions and comfortable memories, which is exactly what companies are looking for when entering this type of sensorial branding. Taste The sense of taste is considered to be the most intimate one because we can't taste anything from a distance. It is also believed to be the most distinctly emotional sense. Our taste is also dependent on our saliva and differs on each different person. People who prefer saltier foods are used to a higher concentration of sodium and therefore have a saltier saliva. In fact, 78% of our taste preferences are dependent on", "might also avoid eating tangerines and clementines because they look similar to oranges, and might lead one to think that they are also dangerous.\nStimulus generalization operates in most facets of animal and human life far beyond food tastes and aversion. Trauma and negative reinforcement of all kinds create aversion of other negative reaction to generalizations from the adverse event or events. And like taste aversion, the generalization may or not be conscious. Stimulus generalization is a factor in most \"superstitious behavior\", racism and prejudice of all kinds. Compared with taste avoidance Although the terms \"taste avoidance\" and \"taste", "fruits of the world, according to those who have tasted it.\" He cites another writer: \"To those not used to it, it seems at first to smell like rotten onions, but immediately after they have tasted it they prefer it to all other food. The natives give it honourable titles, exalt it, and make verses on it.\" Despite having tried many foods that are arguably more eccentric, Andrew Zimmern, host of Bizarre Foods, was unable to finish a durian upon sampling it, due to his intolerance of its strong taste.\nWhile Wallace cautions that \"the smell of the ripe fruit is", "produce bitter and toxic fruit. Also, dry weather conditions/irregular watering can stress the plant and favor the production of the toxin. The toxin is not destroyed by cooking. Humans with an impaired sense of taste (particularly among the elderly) should therefore ask a younger person to taste the zucchini for them.\nIn August 2015, a 79-year-old German man and his wife ate a zucchini grown by a neighbor. The couple noted the unusually bitter taste. Shortly afterwards, they were both admitted to Heidenheim hospital, apparently with symptoms of a gastrointestinal infection. The wife, who had eaten a smaller portion, survived, while", "disputandum' (there is no disputing taste)\". We cannot tell someone they do not think something tastes good because we do not agree, and vice versa. In order to evaluate taste in this context, we must explore all the ways in which taste can be defined. According to Alan Weiss, taste fulfills the purpose of six functions: taste is the tool in which we use to define flavor; it is also flavor and how we categorize flavor (sweet or salty); it is the preference, we as the tastemakers, place on specific flavors and our demand for those flavors; it is whether", "unpleasant sour taste and odour. One source considers it \"probably edible\".", "that these five tastes exist and are distinct from one another. Taste buds are able to differentiate among different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions. Sweet, umami, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to G protein-coupled receptors on the cell membranes of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when alkali metal or hydrogen ions enter taste buds, respectively.\nThe basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth—other factors include smell, detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle", "one's genes. Taste also has a social aspect attached to it, we rarely seek to enjoy food by ourselves since eating usually facilitates social interaction between people. Business meetings and home dinners are almost all of the time in company of others and companies need to take this into consideration.\nA Swedish company, City Gross, made great use of this when it opened it the spring of 2007. The Swedish food retail store delivered grocery bags to households containing bread, beverages, sandwich spread and fruits. Competition in the industry is known to be very high and most retailers used low prices", "to drive specialization and bifurcation of taste receptors. Out of all the taste receptors, bitter, sweet, and umami are shown to have a correlation between inactivation of taste receptors and feeding behavior. However, there are no strong evidences that support any vertebrates are missing the bitter taste receptor genes.\nThe sweet taste receptor is one of the taste receptors where the function has been lost. In mammals, the predominant sweet taste receptor is the Type 1 taste receptor Tas1r2/Tas1r3. Some mammalian species such as cats and vampire bats have shown inability to taste sweet. In these species, the cause of loss", "them their slightly bitter taste.", "common food group that contains naturally sour foods is fruit, such as lemon, grape, orange, tamarind, and sometimes melon. Also many fermented foods may have sour taste such as wine, vinegar or yogurt. Children in the US and UK show a greater enjoyment of sour flavors than adults, and sour candy is popular in North America including Cry Babies, Warheads, Lemon drops, Shock Tarts and sour versions of Skittles and Starburst. Many of these candies contain citric acid or malic acid. Saltiness The simplest receptor found in the mouth is the sodium chloride (salt) receptor. Saltiness is a taste produced", "of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people, but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters, some are so-called \"supertasters\" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. The variation in sensitivity is determined by two common alleles at the TAS2R38 locus. This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics.\nGustducin is made of three subunits. When it is activated by the GPCR, its subunits break apart and activate phosphodiesterase, a nearby enzyme, which in turn converts a precursor within the cell into", "is one of the more appetising members of the genus. It can taste sweet as well.", "appeal, there is no definitive scientific answer, both physiological and psychological factors are cited. Food manufacturers spend billions of dollars on research and development to create flavor profiles that trigger the human affinity for sugar, salt, and fat. Consumption results in pleasurable, likely addictive, effects in the brain. At the same time, massive marketing efforts are deployed, creating powerful brand loyalties that studies have shown will trump taste.\nIt is well-established that the poor eat more junk food overall than the more affluent, but the reasons for this are not clear. Few studies have focused on variations in food perception according", "the food is spicy enough) but not so great for people who want relatively bland foods. The downside to the concept is that the flavors could easily get \"muddled\" by selecting the wrong combinations of components.\nA food writer for Forbes Magazine who was born in Malaysia and specializes in writing about Asian cuisine, gave the chain a mixed review. Although she thought the individual components had great flavor, she believed that it is a big mistake for ShopHouse to allow the individual components to be mixed together in a single bowl and suggests that the food would taste better if", "occurs because of effects on taste buds that are mostly located in the tongue. Sometimes, only partial recovery of taste occurs. Common complaints are of food tasting too sweet or too bitter or of a continuous metallic taste. Complications Sores or ulcerations can become infected by virus, bacteria or fungus. Pain and loss of taste perception makes it more difficult to eat, which leads to weight loss. Ulcers may act as a site for local infection and a portal of entry for oral flora that, in some instances, may cause septicaemia (especially in immunosuppressed patients). Therefore, oral mucositis can be", "wet.\nSour flavor is cold and dry and cause dryness and coldness in the body as well. Vinegar and pickled vegetables and fruits preserved in vinegar, sour fruits or sour juices, verjuice, and Qarehqurut or black kashk (fabricated from the liquid yoghurt) are all cold and dry.\nSalty, bitter and spicy flavors which are usually used to give foods a special taste are warm and dry. Although spicy foods are warmer and dryer than bitter and salty foods respectively.\nSweet flavor is warm and wet and most food items (including main dishes and high-calorie food) are classified in this group and that's why", "smell. This further shows the importance of taste and the correlation between taste and any change in physiological state, whether it be good or bad. Because rats rely upon taste and pairing it with a reaction rather than relying on later responses that involve the gastrointestinal tract, taste avoidance is just as prevalent as taste aversion, though the two don't necessarily go hand in hand.", "and poisons, etc. The sense of taste is often confused with the \"sense\" of flavor, which is a combination of taste and smell perception. \n Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. There are five basic tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami. Other tastes such as calcium and free fatty acids may also be basic tastes but have yet to receive widespread acceptance. The inability to taste is called ageusia. Smell Smell or olfaction" ]

[ "If I had to take a guess, no expert, just had anatomy and physiology through college, I'd imagine it'd have something to do with the rods and cones in your eyes and the optic nerve. When you push on your eyes, you probably disrupt the innervation action of the rods and cones and it's just trying to adjust back. Just my guess!", "The mechanism by which your brain sees things is from the electrical signals sent from your eye. When you touch your eye in certain ways it also results in electrical signals being sent to your brain, and to a place that interprets the electrical signals it receives as what you call \"sight\"." ]

[ "eye strain from squinting in order to read, or itching in the eye, but there is normally little or no sensation of pain. It may cause luminous objects to appear as cylindrical pipes with the same intensity at all points.\nThe classic symptom of keratoconus is the perception of multiple \"ghost\" images, known as monocular polyopia. This effect is most clearly seen with a high contrast field, such as a point of light on a dark background. Instead of seeing just one point, a person with keratoconus sees many images of the point, spread out in a chaotic pattern. This pattern", "divided into countless small juxtaposed spots or points. Each point is individually stimulated by light or whiteness and reacts separately. The eye can receive many impressions at one time, and therefore side by side. § 5 The qualitative division of the activity is completely different from the two quantitative divisions. It occurs when color is presented to the eye. Schopenhauer described the way in which various points or places on the retina become fatigued from being overstimulated. After staring at a black figure on a white background, the overactive and excited retinal points become exhausted and do not react to", "of the retina (i.e., from one region of the retina verticals appear pink and horizontals appear greenish; from an adjacent region of the retina, verticals appear greenish and horizontals appear pink). Nevertheless, if a small region of the retina is exposed to the induction stimuli, and the test contours run through this region, the effect spreads along those test contours. Of course, if the induced area is in the fovea (central vision) and the eyes are allowed to move, then the effect will appear everywhere in the visual scene visited by the fovea.\nThe effect is also optimal when the thickness", "the eye where blood usually pools. Flashes of light, known as photopsia, and floaters are common symptoms. Persistent color patterns may also be perceived in the affected eye. Initially, these may be mistaken for psychological hallucinations, but are actually the result of both retinal detachment and foreign fluids mechanically interacting with the photoreceptors located on the retina.\nOne early warning sign of Coats' disease is yellow-eye in flash photography. Just as the red-eye effect is caused by a reflection off blood vessels in the back of a normal eye, an eye affected by Coats' will glow yellow in photographs as light", "feet that look like fidgeting (chorea), slower twisting movements of the upper body (athetosis), adoption of stiff and twisted postures (dystonia), occasional uncontrolled jerks (myoclonic jerks), and various rhythmic and non-rhythmic movements with attempts at coordinated action (tremors). Telangiectasia Prominent blood vessels (telangiectasia) over the white (sclera) of the eyes usually occur by the age of 5–8 years, but sometimes appear later or not at all. The absence of telangiectasia does not exclude the diagnosis of A–T. Potentially a cosmetic problem, the ocular telangiectasia do not bleed or itch, though they are sometimes misdiagnosed as chronic conjunctivitis. It is their", "in the\ninner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.\nThe response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles–Crawford effect. Color afterimage Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color – resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a", "color of objects observed by the eye, when under the influence of santonin, did not depend upon an elective action on the optic nerves, but rather to the yellow color which the drug itself takes when exposed to the air. Santonin colored by the air does not produce this effect, which only follows the white article. The air gives the yellow color to santonin, to passed urine containing it, and to the serum of the blood when drawn from a vein, and, according to Giovanni, it is owing to its direct action upon the aqueous humor, where it is carried", "should have started with an investigation of the effect, the given phenomenon, the changes in the eye, we can afterward investigate the external physical and chemical causes of those sensations.\nThe eye's reaction to external stimulus is an activity, not a passive response. It is the activity of the retina. When the eye's retina receives a full impression of light, or when whiteness appears, it is fully active. When light is absent, or when blackness appears, the retina is inactive. § 3 There are gradations to the intensity or strength of the retina's activity, or reaction to external stimulus. The undivided", "overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\nFor a person who tries to actively observe this closed-eye perception on a regular basis, there comes a point where if they look at a flat-shaded object with their eyes wide open, and try to actively look for this visual noise, they will become aware of it and see the random pointillistic disorganized motion as if it were a translucent overlay on top of what is actually being seen by their open eyes.\nWhen seen overlaid onto the physical world, this CEV noise does not obscure physical vision at all, and in fact is hard to", "may seem strange, dry eye can cause the eyes to water. This can happen because the eyes are irritated. One may experience excessive tearing in the same way as one would if something got into the eye. These reflex tears will not necessarily make the eyes feel better. This is because they are the watery type that are produced in response to injury, irritation, or emotion. They do not have the lubricating qualities necessary to prevent dry eye.\nBecause blinking coats the eye with tears, symptoms are worsened by activities in which the rate of blinking is reduced due to prolonged", "to understand how to create other desired reactions. Natural light usually comes from above, so strategies which place the key light below the face will appear to be unusual or unnatural. The brain adapts color perception in a way which makes color balance seem neutral on white clothing and faces. The eyes also adapt to brightness as they scan and usually perceive a full range of detail in most environments. Lighting a scene with a tonal range or color cast which is out of context with what would typically be expected will cause the viewer to notice the environment and", "can persist briefly after the rubbing stops and the eyes are opened, allowing the phosphenes to be seen on the visual scene. Hermann von Helmholtz and others have published drawings of their pressure phosphenes. One example of a pressure phosphene is demonstrated by gently pressing the side of one's eye and observing a colored ring of light on the opposite side, as detailed by Isaac Newton.\nAnother common phosphene is \"seeing stars\" from a sneeze, laughter, a heavy and deep cough, blowing of the nose, a blow on the head or low blood pressure (such as on standing up too quickly", "spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical \"red eye\" from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colors in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.", "back and forth while reading a book instead of slowly scanning their eyes across the page. Cause A lesion, which is an abnormality in tissue due to injury or disease, can disrupt the transmission of signals from the brain to the eye. Almost all conjugate gaze palsies originate from a lesion somewhere in the brain stem, usually the midbrain, or pons. These lesions can be caused by stroke, or conditions such as Koerber-Salus-Elschnig syndrome, Progressive supranuclear palsy, Olivopontocerebellar syndrome, or Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C. Mechanism The location of the lesion determines the type of palsy.\nNonselective horizontal gaze palsies are", "big eyes, the transparent feeling of pupils and the glares, or small reflections in the corners of the eyes are often exaggerated, regardless of surrounding lighting, although they are only present in living characters: the eyes of characters who have died are the colour of the iris, but darker. Sometimes this death effect is also used to indicate characters who are emotionless due to trauma or loss of conscious control because of possession (ghost, demon, zombie, magic, etc.). In characters with hair partially covering the face, the eyes that would otherwise be covered are often outlined to make them visible,", "more light than normal to reflect off the retina and out of the eye. Because of this, the pupillary reflex is much more pronounced in albino individuals, and this can emphasize the red eye effect in photographs. Selection for rare iris colors A study compared the frequency of eye color in commercial advertising models in Brazil and the UK, these countries were chosen because they have inverted frequencies of eye-coloration, with Brazil having an excess of brown and the UK an excess of light-colored eyes. Models are chosen for their attractiveness, and it was found that, in Brazil, models with", "per second. Stimuli that fill the entire visual field are more likely to cause seizures than those that appear in only a portion of the visual field. Stimuli perceived with both eyes are usually much more likely to cause seizures than stimuli seen with one eye only (which is why covering one eye may allow patients to avoid seizures when presented with visual challenges). Some patients are more sensitive with their eyes closed; others are more sensitive with their eyes open.\nSensitivity is increased by alcohol consumption, sleep deprivation, illness, and other forms of stress. Television Television has traditionally", "Red reflex The red reflex refers to the reddish-orange reflection of light from the back of the eye, or fundus, observed when using an ophthalmoscope or retinoscope. The reflex relies on the transparency of optical media (tear film, cornea, aqueous humor, crystalline lens, vitreous humor) and reflects off the fundus back through media into the aperture of the opthalmoscope. The red reflex is considered abnormal if there is any asymmetry between the eyes, dark spots, or white reflex (Leukocoria).\nGenerally it is a physical exam done on neonates and children by healthcare providers but occasionally occurs in flash photography", "black spot that can be seen on the compound eyes of such insects, which always seems to look directly at the observer, is called a pseudopupil. This occurs because the ommatidia which one observes \"head-on\" (along their optical axes) absorb the incident light, while those to one side reflect it.\nThere are some exceptions from the types mentioned above. Some insects have a so-called single lens compound eye, a transitional type which is something between a superposition type of the multi-lens compound eye and the single lens eye found in animals with simple eyes. Then there is the mysid shrimp, Dioptromysis", "not looking directly at them in the early stages when the spot is in or near the center. The scotoma area may expand to completely occupy one half of the visual area, or it may also be bilateral. It may occur as an isolated symptom without headache in acephalgic migraine.\nAs the scotoma area expands, some people perceive only a bright flickering area that obstructs normal vision, while others describe seeing various patterns. Some describe seeing one or more shimmering arcs of white or colored flashing lights. An arc of light may gradually enlarge, become more obvious, and may take the", "The blink reflex When a US is delivered to the cornea of the eye, sensory information is carried to the trigeminal nucleus and relayed both directly and indirectly (via reticular formation) to the accessory abducens and abducens motor nuclei (see Cranial nerve nucleus). Output from these nuclei control various eye muscles that work synergistically to produce an unconditioned blink response to corneal stimulation (reviewed, Christian & Thompson, 2003). Electromyogram (EMG) activity of the orbicularis oculi muscle, which controls eyelid closure, is considered to be the most prominent and sensitive component of blinking (Lavond et al., 1990) and is, thus,", "and point out that familiar objects, including letters on an eye chart, can be recognized even when they appear less than clear. Movement He thought that the manner of eye movement affected the sight. He suggested \"shifting\", or moving the eyes back and forth to get an illusion of objects \"swinging\" in the opposite direction. He believed that the smaller the area over which the \"swing\" was experienced, the greater was the benefit to sight. He also indicated that it was usually helpful to close the eyes and imagine something \"swinging\". By alternating actual and mental shifting over an image,", "in a near-vertical position. Eyes rolled to the point that the white of the eye is visible often indicates fear or anger.\nEar position, head height, and body language may change to reflect emotional status as well. For example, the clearest signal a horse sends is when both ears are flattened tightly back against the head, sometimes with eyes rolled so that the white of the eye shows, often indicative of pain or anger, frequently foreshadowing aggressive behavior that will soon follow. Sometimes ears laid back, especially when accompanied by a strongly swishing tail or stomping or pawing", "Pterygium (conjunctiva) Signs and symptoms Symptoms of pterygium include persistent redness, inflammation, foreign body sensation, tearing, dry and itchy eyes. In advanced cases the pterygium can affect vision as it invades the cornea with the potential of obscuring the optical center of the cornea and inducing astigmatism and corneal scarring. Many patients do complain of the cosmetic appearance of the eye either with some of the symptoms above or as their major complaint. Cause The exact cause is unknown, but it is associated with excessive exposure to wind, sunlight, or sand. Therefore, it is more likely to occur in populations", "the Trigeminal Nerve. The efferent arc occurs via the Facial Nerve. The reflex involves consensual blinking of both eyes in response to stimulation of one eye. This is due to the Facial Nerve's innervation of the muscles of facial expression, namely Orbicularis oculi, responsible for blinking. Thus, the corneal reflex effectively tests the proper functioning of both Cranial Nerves V and VII.", "lobe.\nA stimulus which elicits a positive image will usually trigger a negative afterimage quickly via the adaptation process. To experience this phenomenon, one can look at a bright source of light and then look away to a dark area, such as by closing the eyes. At first one should see a fading positive afterimage, likely followed by a negative afterimage that may last for much longer. It is also possible to see afterimages of random objects that are not bright, only these last for a split second and go unnoticed by most people.", "digits rather than a coherent display. (The same effect can occur if the display is moving with respect to the observer's point of regard.) People with nystagmus (involuntary eye movement) are much more likely to experience the effect and may find some multiplexed displays hard to read. It can also sometimes be provoked by chewing hard candy; this causes vibration of the user's eyes, leading to the break-up of the display.\nThe multiplexed nature of a display can also be revealed by observing it through a mechanical stroboscope, for example, a spinning slotted wheel.", "they see something green. Participants are usually told to ignore the location of the stimulus and base their response on the task-relevant color.\nParticipants typically react faster to red lights that appear on the right hand side of the screen by pressing the button on the right of their panel (congruent trials). Reaction times are typically slower when the red stimulus appears on the left hand side of the screen and the participant must push the button on the right of their panel (incongruent trials). The same, but vice versa, is true for the green stimuli.\nThis happens despite the fact that", "Bell's phenomenon Bell's phenomenon (also known as the palpebral oculogyric reflex) is a medical sign that allows observers to notice an upward and outward movement of the eye, when an attempt is made to close the eyes. The upward movement of the eye is present in the majority of the population, and is a defensive mechanism. The phenomenon is named after the Scottish anatomist, surgeon, and physiologist Charles Bell.\nBell's phenomenon is a normal defense reflex present in about 75% of the population, resulting in elevation of the globes when blinking or when threatened (e.g. when an attempt is made to", "fixational eye movement even when fixated at one point. The reason for this movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. So the eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image clearer.\nSaccades are the rapid movement of eyes that is used while scanning a visual scene. In our subjective impression, the eyes do not move smoothly across the printed page during reading." ]

[ "It has to include equipment, pay for employees (all cast, crew, and extras), fees, *food* on larger productions, constryucting sets, making costume,s all of the makeup artists, set design, sound guy, camera guy, lighting guy, dozens of other specific jobs, and yes, the actors.", "If it's a Jennifer lopez movie, 85% of that goes to her salary. The remainder is used for her make up. That's why all her movies are obscenely terrible.", "I work at W.B. Let me be the first to tell you that the idea of a movie REPORTING they spent say $5 million on a film is complete baloney. The tax system is so complicated it would make your head spin. Say they spent $5 million-- does that include tax credits for where the film was shot, who the movie hired, where they hired a certain amount of people, what company did they use to house the actors, did they lose money shipping the film oversees, what if India worked on the film-- who pays those taxes? What if they hedged the money they made against money they spent because they shot the film in Canada. \n\nBottom line- studios report how much they spent, lost, or made depending on what they want the books to show.", "The movie budget includes for the actors but also all the staff that is needed, equipment, supplies, costumes, stages & sets, etc.\n\nIf the movie is being financed by a major studio, it most likely is bound by union rules by the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), which it is now partnered with the American Federation of Radio and Television Artists (AFRTA) to form SAG-AFTRA.\n\nThere are standardized pay rates and benefits that actors must be paid, so this is figured in to the budget.\n\nThere are also guidelines for a movie that is being produced by an independent filmmaker with a low-budget (which is usually under $2.5 million) that uses actors that are members of SAG-AFTRA.", "If using Union actors/crew, then the budget must pay at least the minimum required daily rates. Any additional pay is negotiated in individual contracts. Often, actors (or directors) who really believe in a film will negotiate for 'back end' points (a share of the films profit) instead of their normal pay rate. This way, it allows for the film to be made more cheaply and with less risk, which means it's more likely to get picked up for distribution. But the actor avoids de-valuing themselves too. (Sandra Bullock and Tom Hanks are very savvy about this...)", "Yes, if its a 5 million dollar budget then it will most likely be a union show. This means that most if not all of the actors will be in SAG. SAG has minimum day rates for all performers. The bigger names in the cast will usually negotiate their rates through their agents and managers. Every crew member from the Director of Photography to the the production office to the lowly Production Assistants has a day rate that they are paid and if they are in a union its a set hourly rate, with overtime almost every day of production. Then theres cost for equipment rental location fees etc.", "There are minimums for films. I know that dude in Captain Phillips got the union minimum for a role of X size or stature at 80K. So some it goes to actors, though acting compensation can get weird with profit and revenue percentages or other things" ]

[ "back for a price around 90% of the original cost. On a $100 million film, a producer could make $10 million, minus fees to lawyers and middlemen.\nThis tactic favors big-budget films as the profit on more modestly budgeted films would be consumed by the legal and administrative costs.\nDespite its frequent use in the past, the above schemes are all but gone and are being replaced by more traditional production incentives.\nThe main production incentive is the German Federal Film Fund (DFFF). The DFFF is a grant given by the German Federal Commissioner for Culture and the Media. To receive the grant", "actual cost (amount spent during production to make the film) was still $129.6 million. Going over budget In the US film production system, producers are typically not allowed to exceed the initial budget. Exceptions have of course been made, one of the most notable examples being Titanic (1997). Director James Cameron ran aground with the budget and offered his fee back to the studio. In other countries, producers who exceed their budget tend to eat the cost by receiving less of their producer's fees. While the US system is profitable and can afford to go over", "go back budget-wise. As a filmmaker you are judged by that. And then there's also this concept I was unaware of called plateauing, where if you're a filmmaker who makes two movies in the same budget bracket, that becomes your thing. You are the guy for the $3 million movie, and then that's all you do. And so my agents wouldn't let me do the $1 million movie, because then that's it for you, you'll supposedly never get that bigger budget\".\nIn February 2015 the new production companies Blumhouse Productions and The Safran Company announced that the movie was already filmed", "of the film totaled an estimated US$90 million, not including distribution and marketing expenses. The total worldwide box office came to $10,365,000. Considering that typically half of the gross box office receipts go to the exhibitors and half to the filmmakers, Town & Country lost the studio at least $100 million, and probably much more if costs for distribution and marketing are considered, which average around $35–50 million for a studio picture such as this. The studio, having already spent in excess of $90 million, backed a limited distribution and marketing campaign in the $15–20 million range, bringing the total", "total of $38,741,732. Produced on a $32 million budget, the film performed average at the box office, as it barely recouped its budget.", "Productions and MGM. The film is reported to have earned $444,000 in the United States and Canada and $111,000 elsewhere, for an overall total of $555,000. Subtracting the film's reported budget of $382,000 from the cited gross derives a net profit on investment of $173,000.", "money of producing and transporting a film print) pays a fee per copy to help finance the digital systems of the theaters. A theater can purchase a film projector for as little as $10,000 (though projectors intended for commercial cinemas cost two to three times that; to which must be added the cost of a long-play system, which also costs around $10,000, making a total of around $30,000–$40,000) from which they could expect an average life of 30–40 years. By contrast, a digital cinema playback system—including server, media block, and projector—can cost two to three times as much, and would", "budget of $30 million, the film made less than $3.2 million domestically, making it a box office bomb. Critic Roger Ebert gave the film 1.5 stars out of 4, saying the film \"has a torturously constructed plot, but the solution to the mystery has been right there all along.\"", "$5 million budget.\nAccording to Fox records, the film needed to earn $9,700,000 in rentals to break even and made $22,925,000, meaning it made a profit.", "than movies from the studio's primary production line. Indicating the breadth of the budgetary range at a single studio, in 1921, when the average cost of a Hollywood feature was around $60,000, Universal spent approximately $34,000 on The Way Back, a five-reeler, and over $1 million on Foolish Wives, a top-of-the-line Super Jewel. The production of inexpensive films like The Way Back allowed the studios to derive maximum value from facilities and contracted staff in between a studio's more important productions, while also breaking in new personnel. \nBy 1927–28, at the end of the silent era, the production cost of", "$50,176.\nEven though the overall business done by the movie was strictly average, it managed to recover its production cost of Rs. 18 crore even before it was released, thanks to the sale of satellite TV rights and marketing tie-ups.", "off the debts of Carolco, as well as a $5 million salary for Mostow and a record $30 million salary for Schwarzenegger. The distribution rights were sold for $145 million, while the remaining $25 million would be covered by Vajna, Kassar, and Intermedia. Budget statements for the film put the final cost at $187.3 million (or $167.3 million excluding the production overhead), maintaining the film's title as the most expensive film ever made up to that point. Product placement deals, with companies such as PepsiCo and Toyota, helped regenerate profit. For example, the film prominently features the then-new Toyota Tundra", "Film Under $1 Million, Best Editing (Jozef G. Lenders) of a Feature Film Under $1 Million, and Best Leading Actress (Tanya Memme) and Actor (Corey Feldman) in a Feature Film Under $1 Million.", "cast-members were paid £17,500 apiece. Production Pre-production for the movie was a long process because funding was erratic, falling through in mid-1992 and leading to much uncertainty. Finally in early 1993, Working Title Films stepped in to close the gap. Nonetheless, another $1.2 million was cut just before production began in the summer of 1993, forcing the film to be made in just 36 days with a final budget of £2.7 million (appr. $4.4 million in 1994). The budget was so tight that extras had to wear their own wedding clothes, while Rowan Atkinson was retained as the Vicar for", "of the film's profits, a practice common for producers, directors and stars of live action films, but never before offered to artists on an animated feature); producer Gary Goldman recalled working 110-hour weeks during the final six months of production. Around 100 in-house staff worked on the film, with the labor-intensive cel painting farmed out to 45 people working from home. Many minor roles, including incidental and crowd voice work, were filled in by the in-house staff. The final cost of the film was $6.385 million. The producers, Bluth, Goldman and Pomeroy and the executive producers at Aurora mortgaged their", "The First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest Production The film was made by 20th Century Fox at the cost of $17 million and is sometimes shown on HBO. The video and DVD received limited release in New York and Los Angeles. Its domestic gross was just $5,491, making it one of the greatest flops in movie history.\nPo Bronson played a cameo role in the film as one of many tuba players living in the same building as the main character. The tentative title for this movie during test screenings was \"The Big Idea\".", "million against a production budget of $15 million, resulting in the film being a box office bomb.", "a budget of $20 million. However MGM was in financial difficulty and its bankers put a limit of $8 million on all films. Begelman and Foreman contacted Stewart Raffill whose film High Risk (1981) had impressed them. Raffill said he would have to rewrite it and make it more comic, and they agreed. \nMGM had a contract with Robert Urich to make a TV series and insisted on him being cast. John Foreman wanted Anjelica Huston, a personal friend, in the film. John Matuszak was cast because one of the financiers liked him.\n\"It wasn’t my concept,\" Rafill added. \"We", "million, making the film a considerable success against its modest $4 million budget.", "production budget is estimated at $12.5 million. In Spain, the film grossed €4.9 million ($5.5 million).", "you're losing as much money as we are,\" Aubrey told The New York Times in December 1969. Aubrey said, \"we have determined that we're not going to continue to produce on the basis of forty acres and acres and acres of standing sets. Young people who are the major movie audience today, refer to that as the plastic world and that is almost a deterrent in the business today.\"\nAubrey announced plans for faster and cheaper movies, none of which would have a budget above $1 million, but many of these inexpensive films bombed with critics and audiences. One", "fees paid to key cast and creative personnel) will be capped at 20% of the production budget.\nTo be eligible for the producer offset, feature films require a guaranteed cinema release and QAPE in excess of $1m. Minimum QAPE for documentaries is $250,000 per hour (no minimum total spend), television series $1 million (and $500,000 per hour), telemovies $1 million (and $800,000 per hour) and short form animation $250,000 (and $250,000 per quarter-hour). Screen Australia took over the certification process from the FFC in July 2008.\nNote: The incentive is officially classified as an offset by the Department of Communications, Information", "trying to make the second film of the franchise by using reused money and lowering the production budget. It was revealed on August 6 that they had investors, but that they would only finance the film if enough fan support was shown. A fundraising campaign on indiegogo.com was started with the goal of reaching $1.5 million within a month. The campaign offered perks for people who donated more than $10. Piers Ashworth wrote the script with filming planned to begin in early 2015 based on cast availability, and a possible release date for Fall 2015. Fans raised $50,000 in the", "production costs and shared in the gross dollars in all markets from theater to television. Limited partners received their return before the production company could defray any of their expenses. This is preferred by investors as it guarantees some return if the film fails or has budget overrun and from the producer's overhead. Nor can profits from a single film be used to cover losses on other films, but this makes the partnership somewhat risky.", "$1 billion, and the second-highest-grossing film of 2018. Deadline Hollywood estimated the net profit of the film to be $476.8 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media, placing it second on their list of 2018's \"Most Valuable Blockbusters\". Pre-sale tickets The film had the fourth-highest pre-sale tickets sold on Fandango, and became the top pre-seller for a superhero film and for a film released in February as well as the first quarter of a year. The first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales on the site were the largest", "films with \"little money but lots of substance and inventiveness\".\nThe name expresses the informal desire to show ten films, each less than ten minutes long, costing less than $10 to make.", "was perfectly good, but Friedkin felt he wanted more money, and more money for the budget. Our deal was, we could make any picture we wanted, as long as it was three million or under, which was a lot of money in those days. We could also produce a movie for someone else if it wasn’t more than $1.5 million. We didn’t even have to show them a script! It was a great deal, and I wish I could get one like it again. That kind of freedom is worth gold, I think. It was a shame.\nPeter Bart, a vice-president", "Tim and Eric's Billion Dollar Movie Plot Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim are two filmmakers who are given a record-setting $1 billion budget to make a movie. The funds are provided by Tommy Schlaaang and the Schlaaang Corporation. The two waste all of their money on the making of Bonjour, Diamond Jim, a three-minute film (based on a poem by \"personal shopper and spiritual guru\" Jim Joe Kelly [Zach Galifianakis], whom they paid $500,000 a week), plus expensive makeovers, 10-course lunches, real diamonds for Diamond Jim's suit, and a Johnny Depp impersonator. Because of this, the two leave Los Angeles", "The film's budget was $291,367.56 and it went on to gross $901,937.79 at the box office.", "million. Three production companies – Emmett/Furla Films, Herrick Entertainment, and Envision Entertainment – collaborated to finance the film. In addition, as part of the negative pickup deal with Universal, the film's producers—Berg, Aubrey, Spikings, Goldsman, Emmett, Wahlberg, Levinson, Norton Herrick, and Vitaly Grigoriants—contributed at least $1 million each to finance production costs. To avoid further costs, Berg chose to work for a minimum salary allowed under Directors Guild of America rules, $17,000 a week. He also convinced several cast and crew members to lower their asking prices. Casting Berg had discussed the project with Wahlberg, Taylor Kitsch, Emile Hirsch," ]

[ "While not universally true (especially in the case of Europe who gets to be called its own continent for purely cultural/political reasons) A continent is considered to be the primary landmass on its tectonic plate.\n\nIf you look at a map of tectonic plates: _URL_0_\n\nYou can clearly see that with a few notable exceptions such as Europe and India. In general continents occupy their own tectonic plate. \n\nSo then if you are a landmass that is part of a continent's tectonic plate but is not connected by land to that continent, than you would be an island. Although even this is a fairly tenuous definition.", "Here's a video by fellow redditor CGP Grey that talks about the definition of islands vs. continents and the differences between them.\r\r_URL_1_" ]

[ "exist on Earth.\nIslands are frequently grouped with a neighbouring continent to divide all the world's land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania. Definitions and application By convention, \"continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water.\" Several of the seven conventionally recognized continents are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. The criterion \"large\" leads to arbitrary classification: Greenland, with a surface area of 2,166,086", "square kilometres (836,330 sq mi) is considered the world's largest island, while Australia, at 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi) is deemed the smallest continent.\nEarth's major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, which is divided into a number of principal oceanic components by the continents and various geographic criteria. Extent The most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. In this sense the term continental Europe (sometimes referred to in Britain as \"the Continent\") is used to refer to mainland", "Islands (consisting of the island of Faro, Monteagudo and the San Martiño), the islands of Ons (consisting of the island of Ons and Onza), the archipelago Sálvora (comprises the islands of Sálvora, Vionta and Sagres) and other islands as Cortegada, Arosa, the Sisargas, or Malveiras, most of which belong to the National Park of the Atlantic Islands. There are also many smaller islands and islets. It is estimated that on the coast of Galicia there are 316 islands, islets and rocks. Mountains The main mountain ranges of the Galician Massif are Serra do Eixe, Serra da Lastra and Serra", "(with Central America being the third). When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Europe is treated as a subcontinent. Submerged continents Some areas of continental crust are largely covered by the sea and may be considered submerged continents. Notable examples are Zealandia, emerging from the sea primarily in New Zealand and New Caledonia, and the almost completely submerged Kerguelen Plateau in the southern Indian Ocean. Microcontinents Some islands lie on sections of continental crust that have rifted and drifted apart from a main continental landmass. While not considered continents because of their relatively small size, they may be considered", "Continent A continent is one of several very large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.\nGeologically, the continents largely correspond to areas of continental crust that are found on the continental plates. However, some areas of continental crust are regions covered with water not usually included in the list of continents. Zealandia is one such area (see submerged continents below). This type of landmass is only known to", "as the British Isles, Japan, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and the Malay Archipelago) has been referred to as the \"World Island\". The term may have been coined by Sir Halford John Mackinder in The Geographical Pivot of History.\nThe equivalent of the Old World had names in some of its ancient cultures, including Midgard in Germanic cosmology, and Oikoumene among the Greeks.", "is, by area, the world's largest island which is not a continent in its own right. Regions of Greenland Regions of Greenland Ecoregions of Greenland List of ecoregions in Greenland Counties of Greenland Counties of Greenland Demography of Greenland Demographics of Greenland Branches of the government of Greenland Government of Greenland Education in Greenland Education in Greenland", "Solentiname Islands History There is some confusion over what the archipelago's name means. Some hold that it is from a Nahuatl word that means \"covey of quail\", and others say that it comes from the Nahuatl word Celentinametl, which means \"place of many guests\". The latter opinion is found in the majority of sources. Geography The Solentiname Islands are tropical in every sense. They are covered in tropical tree species, transitional between wet and dry tropical, and are home to various colourful bird species, including various kinds of parrot and toucans; there are 76 species in all. The waters about", "geographical coordinates of the largest islands given. Only the major islands of each group are listed.", "They live on floating houses and are sustained through fishing and marine aquaculture (cultivating marine biota), plying the shallow waters for 200 species of fish and 450 different kinds of mollusks. Many of the islands have acquired their names as a result of interpretation of their unusual shapes. Such names include Voi Islet (elephant), Ga Choi Islet (fighting cock), Khi Islet (monkey), and Mai Nha Islet (roof). 989 of the islands have been given names. Birds and animals including bantams, antelopes, monkeys, and lizard also live on some of the islands.\nAlmost all these islands are as individual towers in a", "islands The Continent may sometimes refer to the continental part of Italy (excluding Sardinia, Sicily, etc.), the continental part of Spain (excluding the Balearic islands, the Canary Islands, Alboran, etc.), the continental part of France (excluding Corsica, etc.), the continental part of Portugal (excluding the Madeira and Azores islands), or the continental part of Greece (excluding the Ionian Islands, the Aegean Islands, and Crete). The term is used from the perspective of the island residents of each country to describe the continental portion of their country or the continent (or mainland) as a whole.\nContinental France is also known as l'Hexagone,", "However, today, they can only be found in Japan and China in the wild. Paleoendemism on Islands Islands offer classic examples of paleoendemism. For this purpose, an island is an area of habitat that is suitable for an organism surrounded on all sides by habitat that is unsuitable. Islands as harbors for endemic species are explained by the Theory of Island Biogeography. However, in order to be considered a paleoendemic on an island, the species must have had a widespread distribution previously, thus eliminating newly formed islands as potential refuges of paleo-endemics. Geographical Islands For example, on the Canary Islands,", "smaller area. Neoendemism refers to species that have recently arisen, such as through divergence and reproductive isolation or through hybridization and polyploidy in plants.\nEndemic types or species are especially likely to develop on geographically and biologically isolated areas such as islands and remote island groups, such as Hawaii, the Galápagos Islands, and Socotra; they can equally develop in biologically isolated areas such as the highlands of Ethiopia, or large bodies of water far from other lakes, like Lake Baikal. Hydrangea hirta is an example of an endemic species found in Japan.\nEndemics can easily become endangered or extinct if their restricted", "Island range An island range is a mountain range that exists in total or almost total isolation from a larger chain of ranges and sub-ranges. From a distance on the plains, these ranges appear as \"islands\" of higher ground. They are often described as islands of mountainous land because they exist in the \"sea\" of lower elevation and flatter prairie country; many examples are found in the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. Island ranges include the Big Snowy Mountains of east-central Montana, the Crazy Mountains of south-central Montana, or the Wichita Mountains of southwestern Oklahoma. Island ranges, due", "Majorca, Menorca, and Cabrera as the Gymnesian Islands (Illes Gimnèsies), and Ibiza and Formentera as the Pityusic Islands (Illes Pitiüses officially in Catalan), also referred to as the Pityuses (or sometimes informally in English as the Pine Islands). Many minor islands or islets are close to the biggest islands, such as Es Conills, Es Vedrà, Sa Conillera, Dragonera, S'Espalmador, S'Espardell, Ses Bledes, Santa Eulària, Plana, Foradada, Tagomago, Na Redona, Colom, L'Aire, etc.\nThe Balearic Front is a sea density regime north of the Balearic Islands on the shelf slope of the Balearic Islands, which is responsible for some of the surface-flow", "reefs that surface during low tide and submerge during high tide. There are 8,844 named islands according to estimates made by the government of Indonesia, with 922 of those are permanently inhabited. It comprises five main islands: Sumatra, Java, Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea; two major island groups (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands) and sixty smaller island groups. Four of the islands are shared with other countries: Borneo is shared with Malaysia and Brunei; Sebatik, located off the northeastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia; Timor is shared with East Timor; and the newly", "Gulf itself. The islands are mostly small, and many are best described as islets or emergent rocks. They number several hundred in total. Several submerged banks and shoals are also found within the archipelago. \nThe largest island in the group is Augustus Island which has an area of 190 square kilometres (73 sq mi). Another significant island is the 3 ha (7.4 acres) Booby Island, which is classified as an Important Bird Area and Jungulu Island found just off-shore from Augustus Island.\nOther islands in the group include Uwins Island, Coronation Island and Bigge Island.", "microcontinents. Madagascar, the largest example, is usually considered an island of Africa, but its divergent evolution has caused it to be referred to as \"the eighth continent\" from a biological perspective. Botanical continents \"Continents\" may be defined differently for specific purposes. The Biodiversity Information Standards organization has developed the World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions, used in many international plant databases. This scheme divides the world into nine \"botanical continents\". Some match the traditional geographical continents, but some differ significantly. Thus the Americas are divided between Northern America (Mexico northwards) and Southern America (Central America and the Caribbean southwards)", "Outline of Oceania The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to Oceania.\nOceania is a geographical, and geopolitical, region consisting of numerous lands—mostly islands in the Pacific Ocean and vicinity. The term is also sometimes used to denote a continent comprising Australia and proximate Pacific islands.\nThe boundaries of Oceania are defined in a number of ways. Most definitions include parts of Australasia such as Australia, New Zealand, and New Guinea, and parts of Maritime Southeast Asia. Ethnologically, the islands of Oceania are divided into the subregions of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Environment of Oceania Environment", "Description The islands of the archipelago have a collective land area of about 22 km². The largest islands, Hermite (or Hermit) and Trimouille have areas of 1022 ha and 522 ha respectively. They consist of limestone rock and sand. The rocky parts are dominated by Triodia hummock grassland with scattered shrubs, while the sandy areas support grasses, sedges and shrubs, mainly Acacia. Patches of mangroves grow in sheltered bays and channels of the archipelago, especially at Hermite Island. The climate is hot and arid with an annual average rainfall of about 320 mm. Birds The islands have been identified by BirdLife International as an", "High island In geology (and sometimes in archaeology), a high island or volcanic island is an island of volcanic origin. The term can be used to distinguish such islands from low islands, which are formed from sedimentation or the uplifting of coral reefs (which have often formed on sunken volcanos). Definition and origin There are a number of \"high islands\" which rise no more than a few feet above sea level, often classified as \"islets or rocks\", while some \"low islands\", such as Makatea, Nauru, Niue, Henderson and Banaba, as uplifted coral islands, rise several hundred feet above sea level.\nThe", "\"islands\")\nThere are 189 such islands, each with its own island council. (Except for Felivaru, Lhaviyani Atoll)", "variety of artists; and there is a diversity of wildlife. Geography The islands form a disparate archipelago. The largest islands are, from south to north, Islay, Jura, Mull, Rùm and Skye. Skye is the largest and most populous of all with an area of 1,656 km² (639 sq mi) and a population of just over 10,000.\nThe southern group are in Argyll, an area roughly corresponding with the heartlands of the ancient kingdom of Dál Riata and incorporated into the modern unitary council area of Argyll and Bute. The northern islands were part of the county of Inverness-shire and are now in the Highland", "are made up of continental rock, as distinct from the Lesser Antilles, which are mostly young volcanic or coral islands. Background The word Antilles originated in the period before the European colonization of the Americas, Antilia being one of those mysterious lands which figured on the medieval charts, sometimes as an archipelago, sometimes as continuous land of greater or lesser extent, its location fluctuating in mid-ocean between the Canary Islands and India.\nAfter the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus's expedition in what was later called the West Indies, the European powers realized that the dispersed lands constituted an extensive archipelago inhabiting", "to playback of the calls of the mainland birds. The island form was recognized as a separate species on the basis of differences from the mainland form in morphology, vocalisations, and genetics.\nThe Atlantic archipelagos of the Canaries, Azores, and Madeira have a volcanic origin and they have never been part of a continent. The formation of Madeira started in the Miocene and the island was substantially complete 700,000 years ago. In the distant past the major islands of these archipelagos were all colonised by Regulus species, which evolved on their respective islands isolated from mainland populations. The firecrest descendant evolved", "limestone islands, and large fragments of continental crust containing tall mountains and insular rivers. Each of the three archipelagos of the West Indies has a unique origin and geologic composition. Greater Antilles The Greater Antilles is geologically the oldest of the three archipelagos and includes both the largest islands (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico) and the tallest mountains (Pico Duarte, Blue Mountain, Pic la Selle, Pico Turquino) in the Caribbean. The islands of the Greater Antilles are composed of strata of different geological ages including Precambrian fragmented remains of the North American Plate (older than 541 million years), Jurassic", "Willis Islands Main Island The archipelago's largest island is called Main Island, so-named because at 1.7 mi (2.7 km) long and 1,800 ft (550 m) high, it is the principal island in the group. \nIts southwestern point is called Johannesen Point, originally \"All Johannesens Point,\" likely by DI personnel. Following a survey of the island in 1951–52, the South Georgia Survey (SGS) reported that the cumbersome name was seldom used locally. On that basis, the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee (UK-APC) recommended the present shortened form of the name. West and south of Main Island West of Main Island are several named rocks, groups of", "Island groups of the Philippines The geographical divisions of the Philippines are the three island groups of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Luzon and Mindanao are both named after the largest island in their respective groups, while the Visayas (also the Visayan Islands) are an archipelago.", "among the largest islands in the United States.", "two types of islands are often found in proximity to each other, especially among the islands of the South Pacific Ocean, where low islands are found on the fringing reefs that surround most high islands. Volcanic islands normally arise above a so-called hotspot. Habitability for humans The differences in geology and topography between high and low islands mean a lot in terms of habitability for humans: high islands above a certain size usually have fresh groundwater, while low islands often do not. This hampers human settlement on many low islands." ]

[ "Wikipedia's biggest issue is that their amazing service requires constant overhead. So donations keep it running. Have you ever been inside a server location. That shit is cold, and cold is expensive.", "Like PBS, it relies on donations for operations. No donations = no money to pay for operations.\n\nEven if you manage to get $1mil in your coffers, does that mean you can stop asking for donations? No. Servers and IT support still costs thousands per month. Staff personnel still costs tens of thousands a month.", "Yes, servers and network connections cost a lot of money and Wikipedia is not funded by ads. Part of the price you pay when you use a common service is paying for it. You can not give money, and then everything is Facebook - funded by people who want to control your opinions." ]

[ "that the reason it is able to give such a large percentage of monthly donations is because it relies on larger contributions from foundations, corporations, and major individual donors to support management and administrative costs. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Donna Karan, Time Warner Cable, and Maybelline are just a few of KCA's many corporate partners. The full list can be accessed here. Mobile Fundraising In Fall 2008, Keep a Child Alive launched a mobile donating campaign with Co-Founder and Global Ambassador Alicia Keys. Keys raised over $40,000 in micro-donations by asking concert goers to text ALIVE to 90999.", "of a contribution, or that posting information about a current hot topic on their Facebook page or Twitter feed means that they have made a difference. Fundraising capability The Internet has also made it easier for small donors to play a meaningful role in financing political campaigns. Previously, small-donor fundraising was prohibitively expensive, as costs of printing and postage ate up most of the money raised. Groups like MoveOn, however, have found that they can raise large amounts of money from small donors at minimal cost, with credit card transaction fees constituting their biggest expense. \"For the first time, you", "saw a 30 percent increase in the number of donors alone. Social Media Giving Day, therefore, serves as an opportunity for various political campaigns, non-profit organizations, and charity organizations to appeal to social media's users to donate towards their causes. These causes include animals, children, health and wellness, human rights, disaster relief, poverty and hunger. The non-profits that benefited from this holiday have increased ten-fold. Ethical Issues Many experts have warned that scams could take place during the holiday that can ultimately jeopardize the user's account on Twitter. Such scams, could be used to steal private information from the", "up 52% from the previous year. Legal aspects Donations are given without return consideration. This lack of return consideration means that, in common law, an agreement to make a donation is an \"imperfect contract void for want of consideration.\" Only when the donation is actually made does it acquire legal status as a transfer or property.\nIn politics, the law of some countries may prohibit or restrict the extent to which politicians may accept gifts or donations of large sums of money, especially from business or lobby groups (see campaign finance). Donations of money or property to qualifying charitable organizations", "a US$2 million in grant to Wikimedia.\nIn 2010, Google donated US$2 million to the foundation. The Stanton Foundation granted $1.2 million to fund the Public Policy Initiative, a pilot program for what would later become the Wikipedia Education Program (and the spinoff Wiki Education Foundation). Also in 2010, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation pledged a US$800,000 grant and all was funded during 2011.\nIn March 2011, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation authorized another US$3 million grant to continue to develop and maintain the foundation's mission. The grant was to be funded over three years with the first US$1 million funded", "donation of $5, $20, $50 or whatever you can to protect and sustain Wikipedia.\"\nUK customers: \"This year, please consider making a donation of £5, £20, £50 or whatever you can to protect and sustain Wikipedia.\"\nThis also applies to digital downloads where the price is not a round number and where the costs are the same.\n\"The ever popular method of simply swapping the $ sign for a £ sign sees a monthly subscription to Spotify priced at $9.99 in the US and £9.99 in the UK.\"\n Says UK consumer magazine Which?\nAt its launch, Microsoft Windows Vista had a suggested retail price", "that accept donations. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) with the Better Business Bureau (BBB) has regulations that can be found on their websites.\nThe United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) provides online information about avoiding charity fraud, such as fraudulent schemes that emerge in the wake of natural disasters, claiming to be providing disaster relief. The Internet Crime Complaint Center maintains a list of guidelines to avoid charity fraud when making a donation.\nIt is advised that people should follow certain guidelines when they donate and that they should consult a list such as the one on the BBB's website. This", "making political donations harder to track, and by making conflicts of interest harder to detect. The change allowed corporations to secretly donate up to $90,000 spread across the national and the eight state/territory branches of political parties without public disclosure of that funding. In 2007, the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library estimated this disclosure change will increase the number of non-disclosed political donations from 25% to 36%.\nSince 2006, the donations limit has increased by $200 or $300 each year so that by 2014 the threshold was $12,400, and $13,200 for 2016/17 (and applicable to the 2016 federal election). This meant that in", "Creator in 2012. Since 2011, SourceForge allows users to donate to hosted projects that opted to accept donations, which is enabled via PayPal.\nLarger donation campaigns also exist. In 2004 the Mozilla Foundation carried out a fundraising campaign to support the launch of the Firefox 1.0 web browser. It placed a two-page ad in the December 16 edition of The New York Times listing the names of the thousands who had donated.\nIn May 2019, GitHub, a Git-based software repository hosting, management and collaboration platform owned by Microsoft, launched a Sponsors program that allows people who support certain open source projects hosted", "be accessed on unofficial mirror websites at the time. WikiLeaks stated on its website that it would resume full operation once the operational costs were paid. WikiLeaks saw this as a kind of work stoppage \"to ensure that everyone who is involved stops normal work and actually spends time raising revenue\". While the organisation initially planned for funds to be secured by 6 January 2010, it was not until 3 February 2010 that WikiLeaks announced that its minimum fundraising goal had been achieved.\nThe Wau Holland Foundation helps to process donations to WikiLeaks. In July 2010, the Foundation stated that WikiLeaks", "donations in part \"to make under-the-table payments to PP leaders\". The donations in question appeared to contravene party financing laws on two counts: first, for exceeding the 60,000-euro limit for any one individual or company; second, many alleged donors were involved in the construction sector and were simultaneously being awarded government contracts. However, there were indications that measures had been taken to keep donations within the letter of the law.\nEl País published facsimiles of handwritten \"secret ledgers\" (purportedly in Bárcenas' hand) suggesting that Mariano Rajoy, the Prime Minister of Spain, María Dolores de Cospedal, the Secretary-General of the People's", "The page that marketers use a marketing or social media \"funnel\" to bring potential new paying members to is called a \"squeeze\" page. Donations Websites can also ask visitors to donate money to them. Popular donations services such as PayPal offer different options for both personal fundraising and decreased cost for charitable organizations. This may be done using a pre-determined amount or by letting visitors enter their own donation amount.", "user raise $25,000 to pay out-of-state tuition to a PhD program.\nGoFundMe targets social media platforms to create awareness for campaigns, and encourages individual users to promote their fundraiser on social media throughout a campaign. According to a 2018 report by GoFundMe based on past campaign data, a donor sharing a campaign on social media results in $15 of donations on average, while any share of a campaign on social media, regardless of whether the user donated to the campaign, results in $13 of donations on average. GoFundMe hired Daniel Pfeiffer in 2015 as the communications and policy chief. Pfeiffer previously", "donations are accepted, but the organization never calls people's homes to solicit contributions.", "accept donations and, once funded, plans to re-establish a presence on the web along with an education program.", "many allegations from current and former employees were substantiated.\" Criticism As a donor-advised fund, the Foundation allows donors to claim a tax benefit immediately but indefinitely defer when they transfer the assets. The fund also isn't legally required to distribute any assets, like family foundations are, so there is little pressure to move money. \nThe timing of prominent donations to the foundation has led to accusations of the Foundation being used as a tax loophole. Both Mark Zuckerberg and Nick Woodman donated near the same time as their companies' IPOs, and the founders of WhatsApp donated shortly after their company's", "the time its largest donation yet: a three-year, US$3 million grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.\nIn 2009, the foundation received four grants – the first grant was a US$890,000 Stanton Foundation grant which was aimed to help study and simplify user interface for first-time authors of Wikipedia. The second was a US$300,000 Ford Foundation grant, given in July 2009, for Wikimedia Commons that aimed to improve the interfaces and workflows for multimedia uploading on Wikimedia websites. In August 2009, the foundation received a US$500,000 grant from The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Lastly, in August 2009, the Omidyar Network committed", "National Newspaper Publishers Association. Assange said in 2010 that WikiLeaks' only revenue consists of donations, but it has considered other options including auctioning early access to documents. During September 2011, WikiLeaks began auctioning items on eBay to raise funds, and Assange told an audience at Sydney's Festival of Dangerous Ideas that the organisation might not be able to survive.\nOn 24 December 2009, WikiLeaks announced that it was experiencing a shortage of funds and suspended all access to its website except for a form to submit new material. Material that was previously published was no longer available, although some could still", "contributions during fundraising.\nA 501(c)(4) organization is not required to disclose their donors publicly, with the exception of organizations that make independent expenditures as of 2018. The former complete lack of disclosure led to extensive use of the 501(c)(4) provisions for organizations that are actively involved in lobbying, and has become controversial. Criticized as \"dark money\", spending from these organizations on political advertisements has exceeded spending from Super PACs. Spending by organizations that do not disclose their donors increased from less than $5.2 million in 2006 to well over $300 million during the 2012 election season.\nEvery organization, including a 501(c)(4) organization,", "donations are permitted under FEC laws. This decision will permit microdonations, and it may encourage more people to donate to campaigns. The decision may also encourage more people to attempt to hide their political donations behind the pseudonymity of Bitcoin.", "those who use it is to \"save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know.\" Awards Wikipedia won two major awards in May 2004. The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the \"community\" category. Wikipedia was", "the stated preferences of the original contributor. This process ensures that the intent of the contributor is met while also hiding that contributor's identity. Because contributions to a donor directed foundation are not required to be made public, their existence provides a way for individuals or corporations to make anonymous contributions.\nWhitney Ball, co-founder and executive director of the donor-advised fund Donors Trust, described donor-advised funds:\nA donor-advised fund begins with a donor contributing cash or assets to a public charity, which in turn creates a separate account for the donor, who may recommend disbursements from the fund to other public charities.", "the user receives no donations, then no charge is made. Payment processors collect 2.9% and $.30 from each GoFundMe transaction.\nGoFundMe is unique to crowdfunding in that they are not an incentive-based crowdfunding website. Although it does allow projects that are meant to fund other projects for musicians, inventors, etc., the business model is set up to allow for donations to personal causes and life events such as medical bills. GoFundMe also has a special section dedicated solely to users who are trying to raise money to cover their tuition costs. One of the most notable tuition projects involved helping a", "able to utilize these funds because they may never receive them. Because of this, there is concern from John Cassidy that the wealth of a few may be able to determine what organizations receive the most funding.\nIt was also noticed by Linsey McGoey that many current and past philanthropists amassed their fortunes by predatory business practices which enhanced the very social problems their philanthropy is intended to alleviate. Finally there are concerns of the existence of ulterior motives. These ulterior motives can range from business owners avoiding capital-gains taxes by donating their company's excess stock instead of selling it", "ruses employed by their writers to gain funds from the recipients.\nCharities such as Children International tell child sponsors not to release their mailing addresses because of the potential for being a target of begging letters. Instead, sponsors use Children International as a go between.", "that after phone and e-mail communications, Betsy Liley checked with senior management and said that although MEAC had been cleared to legally make donations anonymously, additional background information was required before a donation could be accepted, including an IRS Form 990. Schiller had submitted his resignation on January 24, before the recorded meeting, and announced a week before the video was released that he was leaving NPR for a position at the Aspen Institute, but he was immediately put on \"administrative leave\" by NPR. The next day NPR's CEO Vivian Schiller (who is not related) announced she was", "to ensure it does not receive unwanted donations. The organization does not accept money from governments, intergovernmental organizations, political parties or corporations in order to avoid their influence. However, Greenpeace does receive money from the National Postcode Lottery, the biggest government-sponsored lottery in the Netherlands\n\nDonations from foundations which are funded by political parties or receive most of their funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations are rejected. Foundation donations are also rejected if the foundations attach unreasonable conditions, restrictions or constraints on Greenpeace activities or if the donation would compromise the independence and aims of Greenpeace. Since in the mid-1990s the", "the organization must submit an application (available online). All volunteers and interns are given the opportunity to list their preferred programs and hours of availability. Donations Donating to USES is possible online. Donors that give at least one-thousand dollars annually are named members of the Harriet Tubman Society and their names can be featured on the USES website.", "When the deadline passed, they extended it to November 6, 2006, claiming that problems with PayPal made it impossible for people to donate money and that it was the only fair thing to do for Toby. It was later changed to Thanksgiving Day, 2006, because of the release of the book. In December 2006, the site announced that humor/games website bored.com had purchased the website, and therefore Toby had been saved. It is claimed that over $24,000 was collected by the website. Save Toby: Only YOU have the power to save Toby! The book was released in September", "online giving outpaced traditional methods in 2012. To keep pace with the growing popularity and requests by its customers for an online giving platform, Aplos Software expanded its fundraising functionality in January 2014 by partnering with WePay, an online payment portal, to add the ability for nonprofits to accept online donations." ]

[ "The passive type of jug won't filter out bacteria and other things that can make you sick. There is a thing called [LifeStraw](_URL_0_) that can do this, but it forces water through a filter as you use it. Something like a reverse osmosis system can make water safe, but that also involves forcing water through a membrane. These things can't be done with just gravity.", "jugs work by dripping water thru activated carbon. this material traps bad tasting molecules.\n\nconsumer water jugs do NOT filter out all chemical contaminants (like lead) or bacteria. so no you can't run nasty water thru it." ]

[ "water system is a playground merry-go-round attached to a water pump. The spinning motion pumps underground water into a 2,500-liter tank raised seven meters above ground. The water in the tank is easily dispensed by a tap valve. According to the manufacturer the pump can raise up to 1400 liters of water per hour from a depth of 40 meters. Excess water is diverted below ground again.\nThe storage tank has a four-sided advertising panel. Two sides are used to advertise products, thereby providing money for maintenance of the pump, and the other two sides are devoted to public health messages about topics", "in a circular hole near the right edge of the posterior wall, 85 centimetres from the bottom, brings water to the tank. It has been modernized to include a manual pump to force water to the tank.", "a small clay ball inside a hollow bamboo cane. With this device they could pump water up to a small holding tank.", "bring water from a underground source or river source to villages or cities. A quant is a tunnel that is just big enough that a single digger could travel through the tunnel and find the source of water as well as allow for water to travel through the duct system to farm land or villages for irrigation or drinking purposes. These tunnels had a gradual slope which used gravity to pull the water from either an aquifer or water well. This system was originally found in middle eastern areas and is still used today in places where surface water", "Portable water tank A portable water tank is a temporary collapsible tank designed for the reserve storage of water in firefighting, emergency relief, and military applications. These tanks can be either supported or unsupported. The supported tanks have a steel or aluminum frame and range in size from 600 to 5000 US gallons or larger by custom design. Portable water tanks are also unsupported such as self-supporting tanks (onion tanks), blivets and pillow or bladder tanks and are available in sizes ranging from 100 US gallons (380 L) up to 80,000 US gallons (300,000 L). Usage/Deployment It is primarily used in rural", "with a flexible tube coming out the side. A separate plastic bag hangs from attachment points on the outer bag. Seawater is poured into the inner bag from an opening in the ball's neck. Fresh water is taken out by the pilot using the side tube that leads to bottom of the inflatable ball. It was stated in magazine articles that on a good day 2.4 litres (2.5 US qt) of fresh water could be produced. On an overcast day, 1.4 litres (1.5 US qt) was produced. Similar sea water stills are included in some life raft survival kits, though manual reverse osmosis desalinators", "chamber empties. Springs Another means of pressurizing or propelling water used in some water guns is the use of metal springs. Though uncommon, there are blasters that utilize this technique. The Waterball series has a spring-based catapult mechanisms for launching balls of water out of its nozzle. The Water Warriors Steady Stream uses a spring-based mechanisms as a sort of water capacitor to allow this otherwise piston-based water gun to produce a constant stream of water so long as the user pumps quickly enough. Additionally, the Super Soaker Quick Blast employs a spring-based firing chamber to propel its stream", "fill a mikvah receptacle that met all other requirements.\nThere are also classical requirements for the manner in which the water can be stored and transported to the pool; the water must flow naturally to the mikveh from the source, which essentially means that it must be supplied by gravity or a natural pressure gradient, and the water cannot be pumped there by hand or carried. It was also forbidden for the water to pass through any vessel which could hold water within it or is capable of becoming impure (anything made of metal) (however pipes open to the air at", "(about 5 cm/2 inches thick), with a piece that can be removed for water filling and then reinserted to keep out debris and insects. Modern cisterns are manufactured of plastic (in Brazil with a characteristic bright blue color, round, in capacities of about 10,000 (2641 gallons) and 50,000 liters)(13,208 gallons). These cisterns differ from water tanks in the sense that they are not entirely enclosed and sealed with one form, rather they have a lid made of the same material as the cistern, which is removable by the user.\nTo keep a clean water supply, the cistern must be kept clean. It", "This might be accomplished in two ways: By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts.\nU.S. Army Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this", "of water.\nNow consider how you would do it if you had two buckets. You would fill the first bucket and then swap the second in under the running tap. You then have the length of time it takes for the second bucket to fill in order to empty the first into the paddling pool. When you return you can simply swap the buckets so that the first is now filling again, during which time you can empty the second into the pool. This can be repeated until the pool is full. It is clear to see that this technique will", "By liquefying it, and storing it in lead-lined iron vessels, having a jet with a very fine capillary canal, and fitted with a tap or a screw cap. The tap is turned on, and the cylinder placed in the amount of water required. The chlorine bubbles out, and in ten to fifteen minutes the water is absolutely safe. This method would be of use on a large scale, as for service water carts.\"\nMajor Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School, gave the first practical demonstration of this in 1910. This work became the basis for present", "enters the well bore through the perforations, the gas bubbles up the annulus (the space between the casing and the tubing) while the liquid moves down to the standing valve inlet. Once at the surface, the gas is collected through piping connected to the annulus. Water well pumpjacks Pumpjacks can also be used to drive what would now be considered old-fashioned hand-pumped water wells. The scale of the technology is frequently smaller than for an oil well, and can typically fit on top of an existing hand-pumped well head. The technology is simple, typically using a parallel-bar double-cam lift driven", "by the recirculating pump venturi apparatus so the air-water contact time begins again for these newly created bubbles. In non-recirculating skimmer designs, a skimmer has one inlet supplied by a pump that pulls water in from the aquarium and injects it with air into the skimmer and releasing the foam or air/water mix into the reaction chamber. With a recirculating design, the one inlet is usually driven by a separate feed pump, or in some cases may be gravity fed, to receive the dirty water to process, while the pump providing the foam or air/water mix into the reaction chamber", "Water scoop (hydropower) A water scoop is a simple hydropower machine–that is, a machine used to extract power from the flow of water. Unlike a water wheel it operates intermittently, like a seesaw: A container (a bucket or cup) at the end of a lever is filled with water in the upper position. The container side becomes heavier, and so the lever with the filled container moves downward, which may be used to operate a machine drive. In the lower position the container is emptied, and the lever moves back into the upward position. \nBecause of their inferior efficiency compared", "tap, it is necessary to \"break the vacuum\" (letting in the air in through any area in the apparatus, by removing the funnel for example), otherwise water goes up the apparatus from the aspirator. The vacuum flask prevents the water from going up the Büchner flask.", "water supply by means of a supply, which is a tube, usually of nominal 3/8 in (U.S.) or 10 or 12 mm diameter (Europe and Middle East), which connects the water supply to the fixture, sometimes through a flexible (braided) hose. For water closets, this tube usually ends in a flat neoprene washer that tightens against the connection, while for lavatories, the supply usually ends in a conical neoprene washer. Kitchen sinks, tubs and showers usually have supply tubes built onto their valves which then are soldered or 'fast jointed' directly onto the water supply pipes. Drains The actual", "with the help of Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman. The Total Equilibrium Tanks are completely filled with distilled water and a small amount of ordinary salt, to assist the hollow balls in remaining suspended in the centre of the liquid. In a second version, the 50/50 Tanks, only half the tank is filled with distilled water, with the result that the balls float half in and half out of the water. In addition, Koons conceived and fabricated five unique works for the Encased series (1983–1993/98), sculptures consisting of stacked sporting balls with their original cardboard packaging in glass display case.", "two-gallon tin cans inside could be filled with lake water using a valve made from a kitchen sink faucet. The cans acted as ballast tanks and helped maintain neutral buoyancy once the vessel dipped below the waves. A small pressurized oxygen tank allowed the sub to stay submerged up to 48 hours. The sub's operator navigated via a conning tower featuring clear celluloid windows on three sides. Hand-operated levers were used to raise and lower the diving fins and steer the rudder while a radiator petcock could be opened to regulate interior air pressure when necessary. The sub's entry hatch", "of plastic or glass which encloses a drain standpipe and a water return line (See fig 1, a). The surface water pours over the overflow, down the standpipe (See fig 1, b), through PVC piping, into the sump. After transiting the sump, water is pushed by a return water pump through the second hole and into the aquarium (See fig 1, c). Alternatively, standard non-drilled aquariums employ an external \"hang-on\" overflow that feeds water via continuous siphon to the sump (See fig 1 d). The tanks are usually constructed from either glass or acrylic. Acrylic has the advantage of", "which helps to conceal the diver's presence by masking the release of bubbles, by breaking them up to sizes which are less easily detected. A diffuser also reduces bubble noise. Loop drainage Many rebreathers have \"water traps\" in the counterlungs or scrubber casing, to stop large volumes of water from entering the scrubber media if the diver removes the mouthpiece underwater without closing the valve, or if the diver's lips get slack and let water leak in.\nSome rebreathers have manual pumps to remove water from the water traps, and a few of the passive addition SCRs automatically pump water out", "Once a filter has reached its limit, it will not allow contaminated water to be drunk. The LiveSaver bottle has been used by soldiers for drinking water as well as cleaning wounds.\nTo filter the water, one puts contaminated water in the back of the bottle, then screws the lid on. The lid has a built in pump which is operated manually with a hand; the pumping action forces the contaminated water through the nano-filter and safe drinking water collects in another chamber in the bottle. The drinker then opens the top of the bottle from which safe drinking water comes", "water flowed down a second pipe to a third tower which contained further cups on arms and was also activated by the mechanical power derived from the second water wheel. This final tower raised the water high enough to allow it to flow into the storage tanks at the Alcázar.", "in high-speed play action. The \"rolling action\" of the waterbag that is referred to a \"low skip profile\" on the water surface that again collapses on impact with the water surface or player's hand. This makes the waterbag less active and easier to catch. The waterbag is both fast in action and slow acting on impact. Safety issues Most waterballs currently available, while perfectly functional in water, are not designed to work well on a hard surface. This is particularly true with the new generation waterbag design.\nThe impact of a waterball can hurt, and some waterballs have marks left on", "400 to 100,000 litres (110 to 26,420 US gal), today modern technology has allowed modular and scalable applications to go into sizes of millions of litres or hundreds of thousands of US gallons.\nSmaller tanks, such as the plastic (208 litres (55 US gal)-barrel) are also used in some cases. Larger tanks are commonly used where there is no access to a centralised water supply. Companies recommend a 1,135 litres (300 US gal) tank for a house supporting two people (if compost toilets are placed) and if the region receives at least 762 mm (30.0 in) of precipitation a year. If it receives less (between 254–762 mm (10.0–30.0 in), 2 or", "density. The added weight makes this type of waterball skip and roll on water, rather than bounce. As a result, water absorbing high-performance waterballs travel shorter distances than sealed waterballs but they are easier to control and play with both in long and short range.\nA waterbag exchanges its fluid density and transforms and conforms its shape and fluid contents on impact with a surface or plain. On impact with a surface such as water, the waterbag dissipates its energy dynamically as it interacts with the water surface exchanging fluid contents. This changes and balances the bag's density, mass and shape", "to set up. However, since the jugs are free to drift across the lake, the jugs are easy to lose (especially if a fish is hooked) if a fisherman does not pay close attention to the jugs. Fixed Floating Jugs When fishing with fixed floating jugs, a fisherman will place the jug in one location and fix the jug to that location by one of the following two ways. The first is by tying the jug to a branch, stump, or another fixed object on the water. The second way is by attaching large weights (approximately one to three pounds", "the main tank's cold contents.\nThe water level in the condensate tank was controlled by a float valve which opened to replenish it from the fresh water tank as soon as the water level dropped to below 400 imperial gallons (1,820 litres) and automatically closed again as soon as that level was reached again. To provide for any malfunction in the water supply, a hand-operated stop cock was provided on the fresh water tank.\nThe condensing system proved to be extremely efficient and reduced water consumption by as much as 90% by using the same water up to eight times over. This", "by Super Soaker. It is designed so that water is pumped from the reservoir into an empty plastic container. As the water is pumped in, the air sitting inside becomes compressed. When the trigger is pulled, the valve opens and the compressed air forces the water out. The brand first used separate air pressure in 1991 on the Super Soaker 100 and has since used the technology in many other water guns. Spring-powered Super Soaker has made a few spring-powered water guns. They first made the Quick Blast in 2008. The Quick Blast was a triggerless gun which functioned similarly", "Faucet aerator A faucet aerator (or tap aerator) is often found at the tip of modern indoor water faucets. Aerators can be simply screwed onto the faucet head, creating a non-splashing stream and often delivering a mixture of water and air. Prevents splashing When a single stream of water hits a surface the water must go somewhere, and because the stream is uniform the water will tend to go mostly in the same direction. If a single stream hits a surface which is curved, then the stream will conform to the shape and be easily redirected with the force" ]

[ "Because only when you're passed out in a puddle of your own vomit can you silence the ennui and existential hum.\n\n\n Source: I'm Irish.", "For me it was because I didn't have much confidence at parties/it helped me socialize. I liked going to parties to meet people but didn't know how to meet people without drinking. I over drank because of the availability of alcohol and the length of drinking.", "Who has been giving you alcohol!? TO YOUR ROOM! NOW!", "If you're regularly throwing up, you're doing it wrong. Pace yourself, know your limits, and be sure to have a glass of water here and there. And definitely do not drink on an empty stomach", "Because my mum is at work on Christmas day and I'm stuck in the house with my mums husband who hates me.", "ages < 30: It's the \"cool\" thing to do.\n\nages > 30: Marriage." ]

[ "young girl crying with her makeup smeared as her sister looks at her from the doorway, and the caption, \"Who's following in your footsteps? Out of control drinking has consequences.\" The director of Rape Crisis Network Ireland said Diageo \"blames victims of sexual violence for the crimes that have been committed against them. The belief that drunk girls are 'asking for it' is one that needs to be strongly challenged as it is one that we know perpetrators use to select and target their victims knowing this cultural attitude will mean they get away with it. [...] This is a", "it to be demonstrated, is unknown. Another example might be the saying shit rolls downhill, a metaphor suggesting that trouble for a manager may be transferred to the subordinates. There are a number of anecdotes and jokes about such situations, as the imagery of these situations is considered to be funny. This is generally tied-in with the concept that disgusting and messy substances spilled onto someone else are humorous.\nFor someone to be described as shitfaced means that person is essentially incapacitated by alcoholic intoxication (i.e. in a thoroughly drunken state). Displeasure Shit can comfortably stand in for the terms bad", "or someone that makes everything else go wrong or the one detail that is wrong about something (and is thus the complete opposite of the American slang the shit); e.g., Ese man es la cagada (\"That dude is the shit\" i.e. a fuck up/fucks everything up), La cagada aqui es el tranque (\"Traffic jams are the shit here\" i.e. are fucked up, fuck this place/everything up).\nIn Mexico City it may be used ironically to refer to a fortunate outcome: Te cagaste (\"You really shat on yourself\") or an unfortunate outcome such as Estás cagado meaning \"you're fucked\".\nIn Chile and Cuba,", "riot every Saturday? They do it for the same reason that another generation drank too much, or smoked dope, or took hallucinogenic drugs, or behaved badly or rebelliously. Violence is their antisocial kick, their mind-altering experience, an adrenaline-induced euphoria that might be all the more powerful because it is generated by the body itself, with, I was convinced, many of the same addictive qualities that characterize synthetically-produced drugs.\nHe also suggests that crowds cannot be incited to violence against their will, contrary to the belief that otherwise pacific crowds can be stirred to violence by a persuasive leader. Buford also argues", "mierda\" (Let's pay attention and stop goofing off). It is also used in both countries to describe someone who is \"stuffy\" and unnecessarily formal. In Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic comemierda refers solely to a snobbish person, while in Panama it refers to someone who is both snobbish and mean and/or hypocritical.\nIn Peru, irse a la mierda means \"to be drunk as Hell.\" In Mexico, Cuba, Chile and also in Peru estar hecho mierda means to be very exhausted.\nIn northern Mexico and the southwestern United States (particularly California), the phrase mierda de toro(s) (literally \"shit from bull(s)\") is used", "as sucking on a lollipop or on other phallic symbols. The idea is that it gives young men and women the perception that every women should act like this. There is little respect shown in these videos with men slapping girls' buttocks and swiping credit cards through them.\nIt is believed that such portrayals have led to the increase in violence towards women because they are so common and have desensitized our society's perception towards violence. Hip hop uses these images because it sells and it is what the public consumes. Studies have shown that men who watched these videos are", "report physically hurting others as a result of their drinking. Almost 16% of binge drinkers report being taken advantage of sexually, and 8% report taking advantage of another person sexually as a result of alcohol within a one-year period. Heavy drinkers cause approximately 183,000 rapes and sexual assaults, 197,000 robberies, 661,000 aggravated assaults, and 1.7 million simple assaults each year. Binge drinking has been associated with high odds of divorce, spousal abuse, and poor job performance. Binge drinking can cause adverse effects on the body including effects on blood homeostasis and its circadian variation, cardiac rhythm, ischaemic heart disease, blood", "in motion, which is one of the main reasons an intoxicated person may vomit. The person has this feeling due to impairments in vision and equilibrioception. Diplopia (double vision) or polyplopia are common, as well as the symptoms of motion sickness and vertigo. Causes Ingesting a great deal of alcohol in a short amount of time causes alcohol to quickly enter the bloodstream.\nMixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\nThe dizzying effects of alcohol upset the", "may act as a cultural break time, providing the opportunity for antisocial behavior. Thus people are more likely to act violently when drunk because they do not consider that they will be held accountable for their behavior. Some forms of group sexual violence are also associated with drinking. In these settings, consuming alcohol is an act of group bonding, where inhibitions are collectively reduced and individual judgement ceded in favor of the group. Psychological factors There has been considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape. A", "drink drive after binge drinking. Another common risk is a blackout (alcohol-related amnesia), which can cause shame, guilt, embarrassment, harm to personal relationships, injury or death, and is also associated with the loss of personal belongings.\nExtreme binge drinking can lead to brain damage faster and more severely than chronic drinking (alcoholism). The neurotoxic insults are due to very large amounts of glutamate which are released and over-stimulate the brain as a binge finishes. This results in excitotoxicity, a process which damages or kills neurons (brain cells). Each binge drinking episode immediately insults the brain; repeat episodes result in accumulating harm.", "to whoever is having problems (You got arrested? Tough shit, man!) or as a way of expressing to someone that they need to stop complaining about something and cope with it instead (Billy: I got arrested because of you! Tommy: Tough shit, dude, you knew you might get arrested when you chose to come with me.) Note that in this case, as in many cases with the term, tough shit is often said as a way of pointing out someone's fault in his/her own current problem. It's also common to express annoyance by simply saying Shit.\nA shitload of something is", "more often said as pissed off, while piss drunk or pissed up is said to describe inebriation (though piss drunk is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states).\nOne of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interrogation or tag eh. The only usage of eh exclusive to Canada, according to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, is for \"ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed\" as in, \"It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike.\" In that case, eh? is used to confirm the attention of the", "Boys,\" took a tongue in cheek approach. Here, two friends complain about their rowdy reputations in town, each bemoaning various drunk-and-disorderly incidents they had been accused of. While each freely admit they indeed were responsible for such actions as fighting in taverns, stealing a municipal vehicle and rolling the truck over in the mayor's yard, physical violence against the boss and a brother-in-law (the latter for a failed football bet), and so forth, \"... other than that, we ain't nothin', just good ol' boys\" – meaning, that despite their reputations, they are not really that bad and that their actions", "feel bad about oneself; being humiliated or belittled in front of other people; being threatened with loss of custody of one's children; being confined or isolated from family or friends; being threatened with harm to oneself or someone one cares about; repeated shouting, inducing fear through intimidating words or gestures; controlling behavior; and the destruction of possessions.\" \nThere are certain types of psychological or emotional abuse that sex workers are more prone to such as denial of basic needs, forced drug or alcohol consumption, and being arrested for carrying condoms to name a few. Women working in prostitution are", "and us. At one point a character lifts his cowboy boot, daintily, so it won't be mussed by the pool of blood gathering at his feet ... The Coens have often used cruel violence to make their points – that's nothing new – but putting that violence to work in the service of allegedly deep themes isn't the same as actually getting your hands dirty. No Country for Old Men feels less like a breathing, thinking movie than an exercise. That may be partly because it's an adaptation of a book by a contemporary author who's usually spoken of in hushed, respectful,", "on the apparent conflict between the group's sexualized and often violent lyrics and their stated spiritual message. In a June 2010 interview with The Columbian's Alan Sculley, Bruce explained, \"[Sex and violence is] the stuff that people are talking about on the streets...to get attention, you have to speak their language. You have to interest them, gain their trust, talk to them and show you're one of them. You're a person from the street and speak of your experiences. Then at the end you can tell them God has helped me out like this and it might transfer over instead", "A lot of it is about expectations of me — as someone's girlfriend, as someone's friend, as someone in a band, as someone with a platform, as a woman. [...] Normally I would cross out the line [\"I wanna fuck all the people I meet\"]; I would have kept that to myself. But the performance and the lyrics and how abrasive they are — that was my point. I wasn't swearing because I think it's cool, or because I couldn't think of anything to say. I was doing it because that's what you do when you're angry, you curse and", "desire vengeance, sometimes leading them to torment others in return.\nAnxiety, depression and psychosomatic symptoms are common among both bullies and their victims. Among these participants alcohol and substance abuse are commonly seen later in life. It is known that people suffering from depression feel much better when they talk to others about it, but victims of bullying fear may not talk to others about their feelings in fear of being bullied, which can worsen their depression.\nIn the short term, being a bystander \"can produce feelings of anger, fear, guilt, and sadness.... Bystanders who witness repeated victimizations of peers can experience", "cagado (\"full of shit\") means \"stingy\" or \"miserly\". It can also mean \"depressed\" in some contexts (\"Está cagado porque la polola lo pateó.\" translates as \"He's depressed because his girlfriend dumped him.\"). Mierda Mierda is a noun meaning \"shit.\" However, phrases such as Vete a la mierda (literally: \"Go to (the) shit\") would translate as \"Go fuck yourself.\"\nIn Cuba, comemierda (shit-eater) refers to a clueless idiot, someone absurdly pretentious, or someone out of touch with his or her surroundings. Ex. \"que comemierderia\" (how stupid), \"comerán mierda?\" (are they stupid or what?) or \"vamos a prestar atención y dejar de comer", "a large quantity, especially something unpleasant or disgusting. The boss dumped a shitload of extra work for me this week.\nUp shit creek or especially Up shit creek without a paddle describes a situation in which one is in severe difficulties with no apparent means of solution (this is simply a profane version of the older saying \"up the creek without a paddle\", profanity added for emphasis or humor).\nShit happens means that bad happenings in life are inevitable. This is usually spoken with a sigh or a shrug, but can be spoken derisively to someone who complains too often about his", "inappropriate situations. It also serves as a comedic device because the actions suggested by \"sitting, drinking and eating\" are so plain and normal.\nFor a slapstick example, consider this scene from a mo lei tau film: a man is battered by others but is still able to stand upright. He bravely tells his friend he can take the beating, whereupon his friend replies: \"Wow! After being hit so badly, you can still talk? If that was me I'd be puking right now!\". The man promptly starts vomiting. The scene is hackneyed, but can be seen even to this day in, for", "bad people\". People believe in this in order to avoid feeling vulnerable to situations that they have no control over. However, this also leads to blaming the victim even in a tragic situation. When people hear someone died from a car accident, they decide that the driver was drunk at the time of the accident, and so they reassure themselves that an accident will never happen to them. Despite the fact there was no other information provided, people will automatically attribute that the accident was the driver's fault due to an internal factor (in this case, deciding to drive while", "word fuck in it. They said, 'We don't want kids to grow up too quickly.' But then you have Paris Hilton and the Pussycat Dolls taking their clothes off and gyrating up against womanizing, asshole men, and that's acceptable. You're thinking your kids are gonna grow up quicker because they heard the word fuck than from thinking they should be shoving their tits in people's faces?\nDJ Ron Slomowicz of About.com criticised the music video, saying it was \"mean-spirited\", it would \"alienate any sort of club fan base she might discover\", and that if a male \"had his friends beating up", "and the fear of rape.  Some scholars deem that comments and conduct of a harasser reduce women to sexual objects and force this perception upon his target.  Harassment may also teach women to be ashamed of their bodies and to associate their bodies with fear and humiliation through reflections of self-blame. A study published in 2010 reported that the experience of street harassment is directly related to a greater preoccupation with physical appearance and body shame, and is indirectly related to heightened fears of rape. Women who self-blame are likely to experience distressing symptoms in the form of body shame,", "punk after boy... Because we need to talk to each other. Communication and inclusion are key. We will never know if we don't break the code of silence... Because in every form of media we see ourselves slapped, decapitated, laughed at, objectified, raped, trivialized, pushed, ignored, stereotyped, kicked, scorned, molested, silenced, invalidated, knifed, shot, choked and killed. Because a safe space needs to be created for girls where we can open our eyes and reach out to each other without being threatened by this sexist society and our day to day bullshit.\"\nLike other third wave feminists, riot grrrls attempted", "brick shithouse is used in the United States to compliment a curvaceous woman, but in other English-speaking countries to compliment men with athletic physiques. This meaning originates from the observation that most shithouses are rather ramshackle affairs constructed of plywood or scrap sheets of steel.\nThe shitter is a slang term for a toilet, and can be used like the phrase ... down the toilet to suggest that something has been wasted. Example: \"This CD player quit working one friggin' week after I bought it, and I lost the receipt! Twenty bucks right down the shitter!\"\nShit on a shingle is U.S. military", "the same vein, things said and done under such circumstances are not taken seriously, but are forgiven or ignored upon return to the workplace. Consequently, there are sometimes frank and emotional displays between coworkers, regardless of rank, which may not occur in a normal workplace context. This phenomenon is called bureikō (無礼講) in Japanese.\nOn the other hand, it is generally regarded as unacceptable to pressure people into drinking alcohol or consuming more of it than they want. Participants may drink non-alcoholic beverages or leave a glass full to signal that they are not willing to drink any (more)", "place and fuck people up?' Just to fuck with them and then not say anything, like wait months and not say shit. Just let ‘em trip out, just let ‘em talk. Ignore it if it comes up in conversation. It was an experiment, like we totally experimented with this. Right now as we speak, it’s still going on. Kids are so outraged.\"", "women in the general population, which can lead to higher instances of psychiatric disorders and greater dependence on alcohol. Social effects Serious social problems arise from alcoholism; these dilemmas are caused by the pathological changes in the brain and the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Alcohol abuse is associated with an increased risk of committing criminal offences, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, burglary and assault. Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving", "written. Rinder described how it became \"relatively routine\" for people to be \"slapped, punched, kicked, pushed, shoved, thrown up against the wall\" in order to make them confess. He told the Tampa Bay Times that he and other people were made to continuously crawl around a conference room table with their trouser legs rolled up, getting kicked from behind if they stopped, which resulted in them suffering severely contused and abraded knees after days of such treatment. There was an escalation in the level of confessions demanded, such that they became \"more and more dramatic and over the top in" ]

[ "> These assets wouldn't simply evaporate into the air\n\nThat's exactly what they'd do. That's what it means for a bank to fail—it means that they simply do not have the assets to cover all their liabilities. You can have a million dollars in your account according to a ledger book or a computer screen. But if the bank doesn't have that money, they just don't have that money. \n\nSay you deposit your money in Bank X. Bank X loans that money out to people who want to buy Beanie Babies. It's 1998, and Bank X knows that Beanie Babies are worth a lot of money. So even though they've given out a lot of money, they get to take the Beanie Babies back if the people don't make their monthly payments. So whether it's cash or Beanie Babies, the bank is gonna get something that's worth a lot of money. \n\nBut wait. It's 2000 now. Nobody gives a shit about Beanie Babies anymore. Everyone wakes up and realizes they were way, way overpriced. Now they're worthless. And so are those loans Bank X gave out. The people who bought the Beanie Babies aren't going to keep paying every month for something they don't give a shit about. And the bank is more than welcome to take those Beanie Babies back, but what's that even going to get them? They're not worth anything. \n \nSo, now you go into Bank X to try to withdraw your money. But the problem is they already gave all that money to the people who wanted to buy Beanie Babies. They were hoping to make back that money and then some. But as we just discussed, that didn't happen. So now the money is just gone. Maybe the government will step in and try to save you because it was \"unfair.\" But that's another matter. The money is just gone, and if you want it back, you're gonna have to get it from somewhere else.", "The government tries to intervene, but in the end, if they can't recall enough loans and give enough savings back, they just kersplode and so does the money. Before the 30s the government didn't try to intervene, so that's why the economy collapsed so hard in the Great Depression (people just didn't trust banks anymore).\n\nThis is bad for obvious reasons so they've taken some approaches to prevent this (like the Federal Reserve coming around every once in a while to make sure they aren't stretching themselves thin) and just straight up insuring some larger banks like in the bailout. As well, all deposits with registered banks are protected up to $250k in case of bankruptcy by the FDIC, which shouldn't be a problem for 95% of Americans and the remaining 5% probably have financial advisors to invest the excess (which is a better idea anyways)." ]

[ "bank panic is a financial crisis that occurs when many banks suffer runs at the same time, as people suddenly try to convert their threatened deposits into cash or try to get out of their domestic banking system altogether. A systemic banking crisis is one where all or almost all of the banking capital in a country is wiped out. The resulting chain of bankruptcies can cause a long economic recession as domestic businesses and consumers are starved of capital as the domestic banking system shuts down. According to former U.S. Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke, the Great Depression", "Bank failure A bank failure occurs when a bank is unable to meet its obligations to its depositors or other creditors because it has become insolvent or too illiquid to meet its liabilities. More specifically, a bank usually fails economically when the market value of its assets declines to a value that is less than the market value of its liabilities. The insolvent bank either borrows from other solvent banks or sells its assets at a lower price than its market value to generate liquid money to pay its depositors on demand. The inability of the solvent banks to", "other words, when a bank goes bankrupt, the creditors should take the hit, not the taxpayers.\"\nThe New York Times editorial board wrote in December 2009: \"If we have learned anything over the last couple of years, it is that banks that are too big to fail pose too much of a risk to the economy. Any serious effort to reform the financial system must ensure that no such banks exist.\"\nPresident Barack Obama argued in January 2010 that depository banks should not be able to trade on their own accounts, which effectively brings back Glass-Steagall Act rules separating depository and investment", "Financial crisis Banking crisis When a bank suffers a sudden rush of withdrawals by depositors, this is called a bank run. Since banks lend out most of the cash they receive in deposits (see fractional-reserve banking), it is difficult for them to quickly pay back all deposits if these are suddenly demanded, so a run renders the bank insolvent, causing customers to lose their deposits, to the extent that they are not covered by deposit insurance. An event in which bank runs are widespread is called a systemic banking crisis or banking panic.\nExamples of bank runs include the run on", "call in its loans early, businesses might be forced to disrupt their production while individuals might need to sell their homes and/or vehicles, causing further losses to the larger economy. Even so, many if not most debtors would be unable to pay the bank in full on demand and would be forced to declare bankruptcy, possibly affecting other creditors in the process.\nA bank run can occur even when started by a false story. Even depositors who know the story is false will have an incentive to withdraw, if they suspect other depositors will believe the story. The story becomes a", "settle its debts.\nThe number of bank failures is tracked and published by the FDIC since 1934 and has decreased after a peak in 2010 due to the financial crisis of 2007–08.\nNo advance notice is given to the public when a bank fails. Under ideal circumstances, a bank failure can occur without customers losing access to their funds at any point. For example, in the 2008 failure of Washington Mutual the FDIC was able to broker a deal in which JP Morgan Chase bought the assets of Washington Mutual for $1.9 billion. Existing customers were immediately turned into JP Morgan Chase", "to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume.\" The authors also indicate that some forms of securitization are \"likely to vanish forever, having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions.\"\n\nEconomist Gary Gorton wrote in May 2009: \nUnlike the historical banking panics of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the current banking panic is a wholesale panic, not a retail panic. In the earlier episodes, depositors ran to their banks and demanded cash in exchange for their checking accounts. Unable to meet those demands, the banking system became insolvent. The current panic involved financial firms \"running\" on other", "reasons were substantial losses in investment banking, followed by bank runs. Bank runs occurred when a large number of customers lost confidence in their deposits (which were not insured) and rushed to withdraw their deposits. Runs destabilized many banks to the point where they faced bankruptcy. Between 1929 and 1933 40% of all banks (9,490 out of 23,697 banks) went bankrupt. Much of the Great Depression's economic damage was caused directly by bank runs.\nHoover had already considered a bank holiday to prevent further bank runs, but rejected the idea because he was afraid to trip a panic. Roosevelt acted as", "long before it is able to pay all the depositors. The bank will be able to pay the first depositors who demand their money back, but if all others attempt to withdraw too, the bank will go bankrupt and the last depositors will be left with nothing.\nThis means that even healthy banks are potentially vulnerable to panics, usually called bank runs. If a depositor expects all other depositors to withdraw their funds, then it is irrelevant whether the banks' long term loans are likely to be profitable; the only rational response for the depositor is to rush to", "the market value of customers of the failed banks is adversely affected at the date of the failure announcements. It is often feared that the spill over effects of a failure of one bank can quickly spread throughout the economy and possibly result in the failure of other banks, whether or not those banks were solvent at the time as the marginal depositors try to take out cash deposits from these banks to avoid from suffering losses. Thereby, the spill over effect of bank panic or systemic risk has a multiplier effect on all banks and financial institutions leading to", "bonds, precious metals or gemstones. When they transfer funds to another institution, it may be characterized as a capital flight. As a bank run progresses, it generates its own momentum: as more people withdraw cash, the likelihood of default increases, triggering further withdrawals. This can destabilize the bank to the point where it runs out of cash and thus faces sudden bankruptcy. To combat a bank run, a bank may limit how much cash each customer may withdraw, suspend withdrawals altogether, or promptly acquire more cash from other banks or from the central bank, besides other measures.\nA banking panic or", "when the party is warming up. Breaking up financial institutions that are \"too big to fail\" Regulators and central bankers have argued that certain systemically important institutions not be allowed to fail, due to concerns regarding widespread disruption of credit markets. Arguments for breaking-up large financial institutions Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Simon Johnson have argued that institutions that are \"too big to fail\" should be broken up, perhaps by splitting them into smaller regional institutions. Dr. Stiglitz argued that big banks are more prone to taking excessive risks due to the availability of support by the federal government should their", "a greater effect of bank failure in the economy. As a result, banking institutions are typically subjected to rigorous regulation, and bank failures are of major public policy concern in countries across the world. Bank failures in the U.S. In the U.S., deposits in savings and checking accounts are backed by the FDIC. Currently, each account owner is insured up to $250,000 in the event of a bank failure. When a bank fails, in addition to insuring the deposits, the FDIC acts as the receiver of the failed bank, taking control of the bank's assets and deciding how to", "the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, almost developed into a run on money funds: the redemptions caused a drop in demand for commercial paper, preventing companies from rolling over their short-term debt, potentially causing an acute liquidity crisis: if companies cannot issue new debt to repay maturing debt, and do not have cash on hand to pay it back, they will default on their obligations, and may have to file for bankruptcy. Thus there was concern that the run could cause extensive bankruptcies, a debt deflation spiral, and serious damage to the real economy, as in the Great Depression.\nThe", "that turned out to be unprofitable.\nOn Friday, September 19, 1991, during the savings and loan crisis, as a result of bank failure, the bank was shut down by the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. It was placed into receivership and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was named receiver. Almost all of the assets of the bank were sold to First Union.\nIn 2017, the bankruptcy case was finally closed.", "number of Congressmen and media members expressed outrage that taxpayer money was used to bail out banks.\n\nEconomist Gary Gorton wrote in May 2009: \nUnlike the historical banking panics of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the current banking panic is a wholesale panic, not a retail panic. In the earlier episodes, depositors ran to their banks and demanded cash in exchange for their checking accounts. Unable to meet those demands, the banking system became insolvent. The current panic involved financial firms \"running\" on other financial firms by not renewing sale and repurchase agreements (repo) or increasing the repo margin (\"haircut\"),", "cumulative and synchronized active destocking followed by reactive destocking, triggered by the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers. Said bankruptcy created a sudden peak in the Libor interest rate, causing the banks to recall credit and companies to start freeing up cash by active destocking, so reducing their stocks. When the customers of a company start active destocking it is experienced by said company as lower demand and said company will respond by doing reactive destocking. End markets also responded by going down, but slower and in most markets not so strongly. The drop in end market plus the active and reactive", "rescued in crises the way banks are, should be regulated like a bank.\" He referred to this lack of controls as \"malign neglect\".\nDuring 2008, three of the largest U.S. investment banks either went bankrupt (Lehman Brothers) or were sold at fire sale prices to other banks (Bear Stearns and Merrill Lynch). The investment banks were not subject to the more stringent regulations applied to depository banks. These failures exacerbated the instability in the global financial system. The remaining two investment banks, Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs, potentially facing failure, opted to become commercial banks, thereby subjecting themselves to more stringent", "and illiquid. This creates a problem, as they are not depositary institutions and do not have direct or indirect access to the support of their central bank in its role as lender of last resort. Therefore, during periods of market illiquidity, they could go bankrupt if unable to refinance their short-term liabilities. They were also highly leveraged. This meant that disruptions in credit markets would make them subject to rapid deleveraging, meaning they would have to pay off their debts by selling their long-term assets. A sell off of assets could cause further price declines of those assets and further", "by while banks collapsed. Friedman and Schwartz argued that, if the Fed had provided emergency lending to these key banks, or simply bought government bonds on the open market to provide liquidity and increase the quantity of money after the key banks fell, all the rest of the banks would not have fallen after the large ones did, and the money supply would not have fallen as far and as fast as it did.\nWith significantly less money to go around, businesses could not get new loans and could not even get their old loans renewed, forcing many to stop investing.", "according to bankruptcy law. If the total deposits exceed the assets remaining after more senior creditors are paid, all depositors will lose some or all of their initial deposits. However, most jurisdictions have deposit insurance that promises to make depositors whole up to a maximum insurable account level. In the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, there was a dramatic increase in the number of bank failures but not in the number of credit union failures, and in 2017, all depositors at failed credit unions were fully covered by deposit insurance, but depositors at a failed traditional bank were", "a bank run due to the inherent nature of banking. Banks serve as intermediaries between depositors and borrowers. Depositors want immediate access to their deposits, while borrowers are not able to pay on demand. This creates a fundamental fragility, as a bank's assets cannot be liquidated in the event of a crisis to pay all depositors. This tension makes the financial system susceptible to a sudden change in demand for money by depositors, resulting in a bank run. Diamond-Rajan Economists Douglas Diamond and Raghuram Rajan argued that banks purposefully adopt a fragile structure as a commitment device. Under this view,", "the total value of their assets, and, if the loss was sufficiently large, force them to declare a negative total value. Several banks in the autumn of 2008 were forced to accept buy-outs or mergers because it was believed that they were in this situation. This re-evaluation of total assets based on prevailing market prices is known as mark-to-market pricing. The term zombie bank was introduced to describe banks, which would have become bankrupt if their assets had been revalued at realistic levels. Toxic assets, by increasing the variance of banks' assets, can turn otherwise healthy institutions into zombies. Potentially", "to answer in terms of how they can regain their competitive edge.\nBreaking Banks: The Innovators, Rogues, and Strategists Rebooting Banking?, (2014) named for his radio show, has the central premise that the banking system is broken, and that banking innovators are fixing the system rather than breaking it down themselves. Jane Haskin of Banking Exchange wrote that “every banker should read this book” and that “After I read one of Brett King’s books, I am always uneasy because it makes me realize how fast banking is changing.”\nAugmented: Life In The Smart Lane (2016) is King's latest book. Following on from", "lend liquid money to the insolvent bank creates a bank panic among the depositors as more depositors try to take out cash deposits from the bank. As such, the bank is unable to fulfill the demands of all of its depositors on time. Also, a bank may be taken over by the regulating government agency if Shareholders Equity (i.e. capital ratios) are below the regulatory minimum.\nThe failure of a bank is generally considered to be of more importance than the failure of other types of business firms because of the interconnectedness and fragility of banking institutions. Research has shown that", "financial institutions, \"12 were at risk of failure within a period of a week or two\".\nThe Federal Reserve and the Treasury cooperated by pouring trillions into a financial system that had frozen up worldwide. They rescued many of the large financial corporations from bankruptcy – with the exception of Lehman Brothers, which went bankrupt – and took government control of insurance giant AIG, mortgage banks Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and both General Motors and Chrysler.\nIn October 2008, Bush sought, and Congress passed, the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (commonly referred to as the \"bank bailout\") with the goal", "mechanism was frozen and continued to be frozen into June 2009. According to the Brookings Institution, at that time the traditional banking system did not have the capital to close this gap: \"It would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume.\" The authors also indicate that some forms of securitization were \"likely to vanish forever, having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions\". While traditional banks raised their lending standards, it was the collapse of the shadow banking system that was the primary cause of the reduction in", "then they all lose the interest they could have earned, and some of them lose all their savings. Nonetheless, it is not obvious what any one depositor could do to prevent this mutual loss. Policy implications In practice, due to fractional reserve banking, banks faced with a bank run usually shut down and refuse to permit more withdrawals. This is called a suspension of convertibility, and engenders further panic in the financial system. While this may prevent some depositors who have a real need for cash from obtaining access to their money, it also prevents immediate bankruptcy, thus", "They ran out of the money needed to meet their immediate obligations and faced imminent collapse. Other banks found themselves in severe financial trouble. These banks began holding on to their money, and lending dried up, and the gears of the American financial system began grinding to a halt. Precursor, \"Subprime I\" Although most references to the Subprime Mortgage Crisis refer to events and conditions that led to the financial crisis and subsequent recession that began in 2008, a much smaller bubble and collapse occurred in the mid- to late-1990s, sometimes dubbed \"Subprime I\" or \"Subprime 1.0\". It ended in", "However, during a bank run or a generalized financial crisis, demands for withdrawal can exceed the bank's funding buffer, and the bank will be forced to raise additional reserves to avoid defaulting on its obligations. A bank can raise funds from additional borrowings (e.g., by borrowing in the interbank lending market or from the central bank), by selling assets, or by calling in short-term loans. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of reserves or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining reserves. Thus" ]

[ "The Apple debate has nothing to do with the government's right to get the information. They had a warrant from a judge, who has way more certainty than probable cause to believe that the phone was used by someone who committed a crime. They also had permission from the owner of the phone (the guy's employer) to access it.\n\nIt's about as clear as it can be that the government has a right to that phone. What's also clear is that if Apple had a way to get into the phone, they would have to provide that to the FBI. Since Apple didn't have a way to get in, they didn't have anything to give to the FBI. They also did not want to make a tool to bypass their own security measures (reasonably in my opinion, since there's no way to restrict the use of that tool to law enforcement officials with a warrant). The FBI wanted to force them to make such a thing. And whether or not the FBI could force that was being debated.\n\nThe most relevant law concerning this- the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) says that the FBI can't force Apple to do this. So the FBI tried to interpret a very old law, passed by the first Congress, as \"we can force anyone to do anything as long as we get a judge to sign off on it\". Apple, along with every other company in the country, was rather frightened of the idea that judges could make any one do any thing with just a signature and without a hearing. So they refused to comply." ]

[ "leak stated that Apple had been a part of the government's surveillance program since 2012, however, Apple per their spokesman at the time, \"had never heard of it\".\nAccording to The New York Times, Apple developed new encryption methods for its iOS operating system, versions 8 and later, \"so deep that Apple could no longer comply with government warrants asking for customer information to be extracted from devices.\" Throughout 2015, prosecutors advocated for the U.S. government to be able to compel decryption of iPhone contents.\nIn September 2015, Apple released a white paper detailing the security measures in its then-new iOS 9", "it acquires under the program.\" Congress Reactions to the global surveillance disclosures among members of the U.S. Congress initially were largely negative. Speaker of the House John Boehner and senators Dianne Feinstein and Bill Nelson called Snowden a traitor, and several senators and representatives joined them in calling for Snowden's arrest and prosecution. Arizona Senator John McCain criticized politicians who voted in favor of the PATRIOT Act but were outraged by the NSA spying on phone calls by saying, \"We passed the Patriot Act. We passed specific provisions of the act that allowed for this program to take place, to", "Media reports on January 10, 2006, indicated Tice was a source of the Times leak, which revealed that, under the direction of the White House and without requisite court orders, the NSA has been intercepting international communications to and from points within the United States.\nIn a letter dated December 18, 2005, to the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and to Senator Pat Roberts, Chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, he said he was prepared to testify about the SAP programs, under the provisions of the Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act. It", "agencies, Britain's GCHQ and Australia's DSD, as well as by large private telecommunications and Internet corporations, such as Verizon, Telstra, Google and Facebook.\nSnowden's disclosures of the NSA's surveillance activities are a continuation of news leaks which have been ongoing since the early 2000s. One year after the September 11, 2001, attacks, former U.S. intelligence official William Binney, was publicly critical of the NSA for spying on U.S. citizens.\nFurther disclosures followed. On 16 December 2005, The New York Times published a report under the headline \"Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts.\" In 2006, further evidence of the NSA's domestic", "news agencies in possession of documents leaked by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden, security expert Bruce Schneier said he doesn't \"believe the TAO catalog came from the Snowden documents. I think there's a second leaker out there.\"\nExploits described in the document are mostly targeted at devices manufactured by US companies, including Apple, Cisco, Dell, Juniper Networks, Maxtor, Seagate, and Western Digital, although there is nothing in the document that suggests that the companies were complicit. After Der Spiegel revealed that NSA has the ability to inject software onto iPhones using an ANT product called DROPOUTJEEP, Apple issued a statement denying", "National Counterterrorism Center director Nicholas Rasmussen told Congress that Snowden's disclosures had damaged U.S. intelligence capabilities. Rasmussen said the government knew of specific terrorists who, after learning from Snowden's leaks how the U.S. collected intelligence, had increased their security measures by using new types of encryption, changing email addresses, or abandoning prior methods of communicating.\nReflecting on the effect of his leaks, Snowden himself wrote in February 2015 that \"the biggest change has been in awareness. Before 2013, if you said the NSA was making records of everybody's phonecalls and the GCHQ was monitoring lawyers and journalists, people raised eyebrows and", "New York Times disclosed a separate program (see NSA warrantless surveillance controversy). In 2010, one of the people who had helped the IG in the ensuing investigation, NSA official Thomas Andrews Drake, was charged with espionage, part of the Obama administration's crackdown on whistleblowers and \"leaks\". The original charges against him were later dropped and he pleaded to a misdemeanor.\nThe result of the DoD IG complaint was a 2004 audit report that was released under FOIA in 2011. Although highly redacted, the report contained significant criticisms of Trailblazer, and included some relatively minor criticisms of ThinThread, for example, citing a", "batch of documents in its Vault 7 series, detailing the hacking techniques and tools all focusing on Apple products developed by the Embedded Development Branch (EDB) of the CIA. The leak also revealed the CIA had been targeting the iPhone since 2008, a year after the device was released. These EDB projects attacked Apple's firmware, meaning that the attack code would persist even if the device was rebooted. The \"Dark Matter\" archive included documents from 2009 and 2013. Apple issued a second statement assuring that based on an \"initial analysis, the alleged iPhone vulnerability affected iPhone 3G only and was", "Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present) Background Barton Gellman, a Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist who led The Washington Post's coverage of Snowden's disclosures, summarized the leaks as follows:\nTaken together, the revelations have brought to light a global surveillance system that cast off many of its historical restraints after the attacks of Sept. 11, 2001. Secret legal authorities empowered the NSA to sweep in the telephone, Internet and location records of whole populations.\n— The Washington Post\nThe disclosure revealed specific details of the NSA's close cooperation with U.S. federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in addition", "comprehensive review of the NSA warrantless surveillance program instituted under the Patriot Act, after Edward Snowden had released classified documents from the NSA. It includes reviews of classified information and briefings with officials from the Department of Justice, FBI, NSA, and CIA.\nThe report found two main problems with the NSA's surveillance program: that it \"lacks a viable legal foundation\" that there is, \"little evidence that […] NSA's bulk collection of telephone records actually have yielded material counterterrorism results that could not have been achieved without the NSA's Section 215 program.\"\nThe PCLOB report argued that the legal basis for NSA surveillance", "cell phone. According to TechRepublic, revelations from the NSA leaks \"rocked the IT world\" and had a \"chilling effect\". The three biggest impacts were seen as increased interest in encryption, business leaving U.S. companies, and a reconsideration of the safety of cloud technology. The Blackphone, which The New Yorker called \"a phone for the age of Snowden\"—described as \"a smartphone explicitly designed for security and privacy\", created by the makers of GeeksPhone, Silent Circle, and PGP, provided encryption for phone calls, emails, texts, and Internet browsing.\nSince Snowden's disclosures, Americans used the Internet less for things like email, online shopping and", "White House FBI files controversy Improper use of files issue \"Filegate\" began on June 5, 1996, when Republican Pennsylvania Congressman William F. Clinger, Jr., chair of the House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight, announced that the committee had found, during their ongoing \"Travelgate\" investigations, that FBI background reports on Travelgate figure Billy Dale had been delivered to the White House. The following day, the White House delivered to the committee hundreds of other such files related to White House employees of the Reagan Administration and George H. W. Bush Administration, for which Craig Livingstone, director of the White House's", "contractors, the use of the Espionage Act of 1917 to prosecute leakers, and his belief that had he used internal mechanisms to \"sound the alarm,\" his revelations \"would have been buried forever.\"\nIn December 2013, upon learning that a U.S. federal judge had ruled the collection of U.S. phone metadata conducted by the NSA as likely unconstitutional, Snowden said, \"I acted on my belief that the NSA's mass surveillance programs would not withstand a constitutional challenge, and that the American public deserved a chance to see these issues determined by open courts ... today, a secret program authorized by a secret", "claims. The White House denied reports that it had apologized to the British government, saying Spicer was merely \"pointing to public reports\" without endorsing them.\nOn April 12, 2017, The Guardian reported that GCHQ (and other European intelligence agencies) had intercepted communications between members of the Trump campaign team and Russian officials, and shared the intelligence with their US counterparts. The communications were obtained through \"incidental collection\" as part of routine surveillance of Russian intelligence assets, not from a targeted operation against Trump or his campaign.\nShortly after FBI James Comey publicly announced the counterintelligence investigation into Russian collusion, Robert Hannigan flew", "Reactions to global surveillance disclosures Fallout Shortly after the disclosures were published, President Obama asserted that the American public had no cause for concern because \"nobody is listening to your telephone calls\", and \"there is no spying on Americans\". Allegations of false testimony On June 21, 2013, the Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper issued an apology for giving erroneous testimony under oath to the United States Congress. Earlier in March that year, Clapper was asked by Senator Ron Wyden to clarify the alleged surveillance of U.S. citizens by the NSA:\nSenator Wyden: \"Does the NSA collect any type of", "it was never passed to acting director Thomas J. Pickard, his successor Robert Mueller, or the Central Intelligence Agency. In addition, the existence of the memo was not made known to President George W. Bush and his senior national security staff until May 2002. Mueller told Congress in a 2002 hearing that failure to act on the memo was due to deficits in the Bureau's analytical capabilities. Coleen Rowley (2002) The memo became the subject of another communiqué in 2002 when FBI agent Coleen Rowley took advantage of the federal Whistleblower Protection Act provisions to inform FBI Director Robert Mueller", "of surveillance that was responsible for the mass collection of information on American and foreign citizens.\nObama initially defended NSA mass surveillance programs when they were first leaked. He argued that NSA surveillance was transparent and claimed that the NSA is unable and had made no attempt to monitor the phone calls and emails of American citizens. Following Snowden's admittance to leaking classified documents regarding national surveillance, Obama attempted to ignore the issue of NSA surveillance. It was speculated that Obama did this to avoid complicating the Department of Justice investigation into Snowden.\nIn August 2013, Obama argued that his administration was", "Department of Justice (DOJ) had investigated the legal culpability of various intelligence agencies. Bamford submitted a FOIA request for resulting documents, and received most of their report on the NSA. The DOJ did not inform the NSA of the release because the investigation was ongoing, and the NSA was a possible target. The released papers were later to become the subject of threatened litigation, and their release prompted eventual rule changes that allowed for document reclassification. According to the NSA's history, \"the document, with some Justice redactions, contained a good deal of information about the NSA-GCHQ [Government Communications Headquarters, a", "check report seven months after the terminations, in what Clinger said was an improper effort to justify the firings. It was rapidly discovered that the White House had additionally gotten improper access to hundreds of other FBI background reports, many on former White House employees in Republican administrations; thus was born the Filegate controversy.\nThe Senator Al D'Amato-chaired Senate Special Whitewater Committee, which had begun the previous year, issued its findings in a majority report on June 18, 1996; it did not investigate Travelgate directly, but did say that \"[Hillary] Clinton, upon learning of [Vince] Foster's death, at least realized", "including a Congressman, although the Justice Department believed that the NSA had corrected its errors. In 2011, Obama signed a four-year extension of some provisions of the Patriot Act. In June 2013 the existence of PRISM, a clandestine mass electronic surveillance data mining program operated by the United States National Security Agency (NSA) since 2007, was leaked by NSA contractor Edward Snowden, who warned that the extent of mass data collection was far greater than the public knew. In the face of international outrage, U.S. government officials defended the PRISM surveillance program by asserting it could not be used on", "attempted to disclose NSA records regarding the 2010 cyber-attack on Google users in China. The NSA stated that revealing such information would make the US Government information systems vulnerable to attack. The NSA refused to confirm or deny the existence of the records, or the existence of any relationship between the NSA and Google.\nLeaked NSA documents obtained by The Guardian and The Washington Post in June 2013 included Google on the list of companies that cooperate with the NSA's PRISM surveillance program, which authorizes the government to secretly access data of non-US citizens hosted by American companies without a warrant.", "on the FBI–Apple encryption dispute, regarding attempts by the government to gain access to iPhones containing evidence in criminal investigations.\nAs of 2017, the conference has an estimated 40,000–43,000 attendees in the United States. Content The RSA Conference is an international conference series on IT security that takes place in the United States, Europe, Asia/Japan, and the United Arab Emirates. It also provides internet safety education for consumers and children, a security scholar program for IT security students, and operates award programs typically bestowed at conferences. For example, one award is the Innovation Sandbox contest, which involves ten startups that present", "several challenges to US export regulation of cryptography. After the source code for Philip Zimmermann's Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) encryption program found its way onto the Internet in June 1991, a complaint by RSA Security (then called RSA Data Security, Inc.) resulted in a lengthy criminal investigation of Zimmermann by the US Customs Service and the FBI, though no charges were ever filed. Daniel J. Bernstein, then a graduate student at UC Berkeley, brought a lawsuit against the US government challenging some aspects of the restrictions based on free speech grounds. The 1995 case Bernstein v. United States ultimately resulted", "posted on the website DC Leaks. Priebus appeared on Meet the Press on December 11, 2016, and discounted the CIA conclusions. Priebus said the FBI had investigated and found that RNC servers had not been hacked. Donald Trump Prior to his presidential run, Donald Trump made statements to Fox News in 2014 in which he agreed with an assessment by then FBI director James Comey about hacking against the U.S. by Russia and China. Trump was played a clip of Comey from 60 Minutes discussing the dangers of cyber attacks. Trump stated he agreed with the problem of cyber threats", "national security.)\nLeahy and Kennedy asserted that the procedures adopted for the NSA program, specifically the 45-day reapproval cycle was \"not good enough\" because the review group were executive branch appointees. Finally, they concluded that Congressional and Judicial oversight were fundamental and should not be unilaterally discarded.\nIn February 2008, the Bush administration backed a new version of FISA that would grant telecom companies retroactive immunity from lawsuits stemming from surveillance. On March 14, the House passed a bill that did not grant such immunity. Anonymity networks Edward Snowden copied and leaked thousands of classified NSA documents to journalists. The information revealed", "agency. Global surveillance From the documents leaked by ex-NSA contractor Edward Snowden, it became well known that various governments have been running programs to tap all kinds of communication at massive scales, including email. While the legality of this is still under question, it is certainly clear that the email of citizens with no ties to a terrorist organization have been intercepted and stored. Whistleblower and former National Security Agency (NSA) employee William Binney has reported that the NSA has collected over 20 trillion communications via interception, including many email communications, representing one aspect of the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy.\nA", "to meet Snowden. September The Guardian and The New York Times reported on secret documents leaked by Snowden showing that the NSA has been in \"collaboration with technology companies\" as part of \"an aggressive, multipronged effort\" to weaken the encryption used in commercial software, and GCHQ has a team dedicated to cracking \"Hotmail, Google, Yahoo and Facebook\" traffic.\nGermany's domestic security agency Bundesverfassungsschutz (BfV) systematically transfers the personal data of German residents to the NSA, CIA and seven other members of the United States Intelligence Community, in exchange for information and espionage software. Israel, Sweden and Italy are also cooperating with", "and all Democratic members of the committee. The memo states that the FBI \"may have relied on politically motivated or questionable sources\" to obtain a Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) warrant on Trump adviser Carter Page in October 2016, and in three subsequent renewals, during the early phases of the FBI's investigation into possible Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.\nAt the time President Trump asserted that the memo discredited the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. The FBI was asserted that \"material omissions of fact ... fundamentally impact the memo's accuracy.\" Irish", "about PRISM activities to Congress, \"provid[ing] an unprecedented degree of accountability and transparency.\" Democratic senators Udall and Wyden, who serve on the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, subsequently criticized the fact sheet as being inaccurate. NSA Director General Keith Alexander acknowledged the errors, stating that the fact sheet \"could have more precisely described\" the requirements governing the collection of e-mail and other internet content from US companies. The fact sheet was withdrawn from the NSA's website around June 26.\nIn a closed-doors Senate hearing around June 11, FBI Director Robert Mueller said that Snowden's leaks had caused \"significant harm to", "by the Church Committee, which discovered and criticized abuses of domestic spying by the National Security Agency (NSA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). This led to widespread congressional and public outcry, resulting in Congress passing FISA in 1978. FISA governs the way in which U.S. intelligence agencies may conduct wiretaps and the interception of communications in order to gather foreign intelligence. FISA established the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) and a FISC Court of Review which administer foreign intelligence related applications for access to business records, wiretaps, microphone \"bugging,\" physical searches and the use of" ]

[ "NASA requirements lean toward the 'overengineered' side (for good reason - if something goes wrong you can't replace it). The battery in your phone is more from the \"make it cheaper, they can always buy another battery\" school of engineering.\n\n(Just to clarify, I am not being cynical about phone/laptop batteries. Most people - me included - would rather not pay something like 100 times as much for a battery that is able to withstand operating on Mars and lasts several times longer.)", "The battery in your phone was primarily designed to be cheap, small, and as long lasting as possible likely in that order. This R & D was likely performed by some underpaid engineers in a corporate structure.\n\nOpportunity's battery is much larger and was designed to last as long as possible in space by a team of government funded engineers that could be considered among the brightest on the planet.", "I've not been able to find data on this, but one reason *could* be that they keep the battery cool. \n\n[Heat kills lithium ion batteries](_URL_0_) (table 3: after 1 year a 100% charged battery kept at 0 degrees C has 94% its capacity remaining, vs 65% when kept at 40 degrees C). \n\nYour cell phone / laptop (while being used) gets quite hot, while on Mars it's so damn cold you have a hard time keeping everything warm enough to even function.\n\nAnother factor could be that the rovers trickle charge their battery from solar panels, while cell-phones try to charge as fast as possible which makes the battery run hotter and itself reduces the lifetime of the battery.", "In addition to what's been mentioned, it depends to what voltage the lithium ion batteries are charged.\n\nIf a Li ion battery is charged to its max voltage every charge, then it takes longer to discharge, but wears out more quickly. However, if the same battery is only charged to 75% every time, then it will last for many more charge cycles.\n\nPut it another way, lets say your phone battery lasts for one full day on 100% charge. Use it every day and get ~2 years of use before the charge doesn't hold up well. OR, only charge it to 50% every day, so your phone dies at lunchtime every day, but you'll be able to charge it to 50% for 20 years! \n\nOne more option, and this is closer to what NASA does, make the battery twice as big and only charge it to 50%. Now your phone will last all day AND you can recharge it for 20 years!", "The Rover battery assembly includes two batteries each with its own controller which monitors the status and controls the performance of each cell. They have far outlasted even the designer's hopes: they were designed for a 90-day mission and expected to last up to 3 years.\n_URL_1_", "Quality of the product and a solar panel back-up. Imagine the difference between your car battery and a cellphone battery. One is bigger, they are designed for different tasks, and one is constantly being recharged.", "Your phone Battery didn't cost millions of dollars.", "Several reasons. Different battery design which increases the weight and volume but wears out slower. For the rover, weight is important but volume not so much. Most battery powered things are designed to minimize volume and weight at the expense of longevity.\n\nThe other important reason is the system is likely designed to keep charge within a small window of what is technically possible. Lithium ion batteries last ungodly amounts of charge cycles as long as the chage is kept in a range between roughly 30-70%. The same technique is used to greatly extend the life of the batteries in hybrid vehicles.", "The Opportunity didn't spend 60% of its time streaming porn.", "I don't buy /u/hangnail1961's response at all. They don't use any old battery for a mission like this. There's completely different requirements. It doesn't have to fit in your pocket, they can't ship back a defective battery from mars, and cost isn't much of a factor. They probably used a battery design that's extremely rugged. I doubt the battery designers wanted to be the ones that made the mission stop at day 91.\n\n\"90 days\" for a mission doesn't mean every component was designed for 90 days either. If that were the case, the mission would have probably lasted 45 days. To be 95% sure all components last 90 days you need to design each component for a much longer duration.", "Three main reasons I can think of:\n\n* Li-ion batteries last much, much longer in cold weather\n* Low charge and discharge rates are much easier on the battery\n* NASA has a huge budget and likely used the very best tech available", "Bigger, more expensive, better build with ideal enviroment and case protection million dollar NASA battery last longer than consumer 1700 mAh random-usb-charges, heat-induced-from-cpu/gpu-running-angry-birds-in-background and back-pocket-pressure, 4mm thick china-made-chemistry called phone battery. \n\n~10 times longer, in fact (li-ion fanatic here).", "Things are intended to be replaced so the demand for the item can continue and so can the business. I kinda think that many items could be made to last, but companies design them to break early.", "You don't have solar panels helping recharge your phone constantly." ]

[ "Once the batteries were depleted, it could only operate during the day. The batteries are lithium-thionyl chloride (LiSOCl2) and could provide 150 watt-hours. The batteries also allowed the health of the rover to be checked while enclosed in the cruise stage while en route to Mars.\n0.22 square meters of solar cells could produce a maximum of about 15 watts on Mars, depending on conditions. The cells were GaAs/Ge (Gallium Arsenide/Germanium) and capable of about 18 percent efficiency. They could survive down to about −140° Celsius (−220 °F).\nIts central processing unit (CPU) is an 80C85 with a 2 MHz clock, addressing 64 Kbytes", "Lithium ion battery will provide up to 3 hours and 10 minutes' battery life, depending on usage.\nThe HP Envy line of laptops and other products replaced the Voodoo Envy when HP and VoodooPC merged.", "the demand temporarily exceeds the MMRTG's steady electrical output levels. The MMRTG offers a 14-year operational lifetime, and it was provided to NASA by the US Department of Energy. Unlike solar panels, the MMRTG provides engineers with significant flexibility in operating the rover's instruments even at night and during dust storms, and through the winter season.\nEngineers redesigned the Mars 2020 rover wheels to be more robust than Curiosity's wheels, which have sustained some damage. The rover will have thicker, more durable aluminum wheels, with reduced width and a greater diameter (52.5 cm, 20.7 in) than Curiosity's 50 cm (20 in) wheels. The aluminum wheels", "two parts. In the first part, he tested battery life, stating \"the M9 posts a result that is a concerning regression from the M8\" and that \"battery life regresses around 18% when the battery is now 9% bigger.\" He also noted temperature concerns during web browsing, stating \"the M9 start to get warm in the hands, with skin temperatures of around 30 to 40 degrees Celsius, which is a bit concerning as I don’t recall the same being true for the M8.\" Additionally, the phone supports Qualcomm's Quick Charge 2.0, however, \"the charger in the box is a rather conventional", "solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to four hours per Martian day (sol). The rover needs about 100 watts to drive. Its power system includes two rechargeable lithium ion batteries weighing 7.15 kg (15.8 lb) each, that provide energy when the sun is not shining, especially at night. Over time, the batteries will degrade and will not be able to recharge to full capacity.\nFor comparison, the Mars Science Laboratory's power system is composed of a Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) produced by Boeing. The MMRTG is designed to provide 125W of electrical power at the start of the mission, falling", "have stated that the storage ROM for the phone isn’t stable enough for full customer reliability. Battery life The battery life span of the Meizu M9 is comparable to that of most modern smartphones. When fully charged, it can last up to a day with normal usage, and it can last up to two days with minimal usage. There is speculation that the Android 2.3 update will improve the Meizu M9's battery life.\nWith the Android 2.3 beta firmware, battery life can last up to two days with normal usage and three days with minimal usage. These durations are expected to", "from the ground and high overhead from orbit. They have even blown the dust off of the solar panels of the two Rovers on Mars, thereby greatly extending their lives. The twin Rovers were designed to last for 3 months, instead they lasted more than six years, and one is still going after 8 years. The pattern of the tracks have been shown to change every few months.\nA study that combined data from the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) and the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) found that some large dust devils on Mars have a diameter of", "(AA) and HR-4UTGA (AAA).\nSanyo introduced C- and D-sized Eneloop batteries with a minimum capacity of 2,700 mAh and 3,000 mAh respectively in 2009, along with a new universal charger. As these sizes were only available in Japan and Singapore, Sanyo offered adapter sleeves to fit AA batteries in devices that take C or D batteries. 3rd generation In October 2011 the batteries were again improved to retain up to 90% of their capacity after one year, 80% after three years and 70% after five years. The batteries can be recharged up to 1,800 times, rather than the 1,500 times of the previous", "between Earth and Mars, started on November 29, 2008 and communication with the rovers was not possible until December 13, 2008. Increased energy On February 6, 2009, a beneficial wind blew off some of the dust accumulated on the panels. This led to an increase in energy output to 240 watt-hours (860 kJ) per day. NASA officials stated that this increase in energy was to be used predominantly for driving.\nOn April 18, 2009 (sol 1879) and April 28, 2009 (sol 1889) energy output of the solar arrays were increased by cleaning events. The energy output of Spirit's solar arrays climbed from", "are held inside the Mars Exploration Rover; these batteries are power sources for the rover when the sun is not shining. (epically at night time). The rover can generate about 140 watts of power when fully illuminated and need about 100 watts for motion. The solar array system is attached to the rover and looks almost like wings, although they cannot be used for flight they are crucial for the system to function properly.\nKobe Boykins and his team allowed, the solar array system out lived its projected life expectancy by a more than a factor of 20. The Mar rover", "have even blown the dust off of the solar panels of the two Rovers on Mars, thereby greatly extending their lives. The twin Rovers were designed to last for 3 months, instead they have lasted more than five years and are still going. The pattern of the tracks have been shown to change every few months. A study that combined data from the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) and the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) found that some large dust devils on Mars have a diameter of 700 meters and last at least 26 minutes. Evidence for possible", "surface life on Mars. The level of 76 mGy per year measured by Curiosity is similar to levels inside the ISS. Cumulative effects Curiosity rover measured ionizing radiation levels of 76 mGy per year. This level of ionizing radiation is sterilizing for dormant life on the surface of Mars. It varies considerably in habitability depending on its orbital eccentricity and the tilt of its axis. If the surface life has been reanimated as recently as 450,000 years ago, then rovers on Mars could find dormant but still viable life at a depth of one meter below the surface, according to", "This version diverged from its 15-inch sibling with an anti-glare \"matte\" screen option (with the glossy finish standard) and a non user-removable lithium polymer battery. Instead of traditional round cells inside the casing, the lithium-ion polymer batteries are shaped and fitted into each laptop to maximally utilize space. Adaptive charging, which uses a chip to optimize the charge flow to reduce wear and tear, extends the battery's overall life. Battery life for the 17\" version is quoted at eight hours, with 80 percent of this charge remaining after 1,000 charge-discharge cycles.\nAt Apple's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 8, 2009, it", "would survive in dormant spore state only 18,000 years at the surface; at 2 meters —the greatest depth at which the ExoMars rover will be capable of reaching— survival time would be 90,000 to half a million years, depending on the type of rock.\nData collected by the Radiation assessment detector (RAD) instrument on board the Curiosity rover revealed that the absorbed dose measured is 76 mGy/year at the surface, and that \"ionizing radiation strongly influences chemical compositions and structures, especially for water, salts, and redox-sensitive components such as organic molecules.\" Regardless of the source of Martian organic compounds (meteoric,", "incapable of lasting one day of normal use. This has spawned the creation of pages dedicated to explaining how to optimize the battery life, and even an aftermarket extra large battery that enlarges the unit. In addition, there is a software error that causes a severely depleted battery to become unable to be charged in the phone. The OTA upgrade to Android 2.3.3 fixes this issue along with improving device battery life on the whole. Design The EVO's design is derived from its Windows Mobile-based brother, the HTC HD2, which also has a 4.3-inch (110 mm) multi-touch capacitive touchscreen, nearly the", "battery power, rather than a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) or solar power. The 2019 concept proposes four batteries, which would provide three times the needed energy for safety margin during its ≈22-day surface operations. The baseline is 7 days to complete its surface mission, the additional 14 days are for contingencies.\nRegardless of the power source, one of the limiting factors for the lifetime of the mission may be surviving radiation; the surface of Europa is estimated to experience 2.3 Mrad or 540 rem per day, whereas a typical Earth surface dose is about 0.14 rem/day. Radiation damaged the electronics", "be turned off between calculations, which did not prove to be the case. Advertisements suggested that the batteries would last \"about a year\" under normal use, but in reality the small button cell batteries and comparatively high power consumption meant a short battery life compared to the competition.", "a poll on its website, 70% of 9to5Mac visitors reported decreased battery life after updating to the new operating system. However, in an article featuring Twitter complaints of battery life, Daily Express wrote that \"honestly, this is to be expected. It happens every year, and it's completely normal. Major iOS releases will hammer the battery on your device much faster during the first few days of use\", with Forbes stating in an article that \"The days after you install a new version of iOS, your iDevice is busy doing all sorts of housekeeping. Practically all of your apps have updates,", "5% overnight, in contrast to the expectation they would decrease—the added power allowed the missions to continue beyond their expected lifetime. One theory is that wind currents in craters aid in cleaning events, and also if the rover is sloped, this is speculated to help remove dust.\nThe term started being used in 2004 as the Mars Exploration Rovers' (MER) solar panels started to benefit from these events. The rovers were expected to last about 90 sols (Martian days) on Mars, after which dust would cover their solar panels and reduce solar power to levels too low for the rovers to", "and produced 620 W of power at Mars. Power was also stored in two nickel-cadmium 30-A·h batteries.\nThe combined area of the four panels was 15 square meters (160 square feet), and they provided both regulated and unregulated direct current power; unregulated power was provided to the radio transmitter and the lander.\nTwo 30-amp-hour, nickel-cadmium, rechargeable batteries provided power when the spacecraft was not facing the Sun, and during launch, correction maneuvers and Mars occultation. Main findings By discovering many geological forms that are typically formed from large amounts of water, the images from the orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas", "being noticeable.\nHowever, Nissan stated in 2015 that thus far only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be replaced because of failures or problems, and then only because of externally inflicted damage. The vehicles that had already covered more than 200,000 km (124,274 mi), have no problems with the battery. Electric vehicle charging patents Qualcomm, Hyundai, Ford, and Mitsubishi are the top patent holders of the close to 800 electric vehicle charging patents filed between 2014 and 2017. A majority of patents on electric vehicle charging were filed in Japan between 2014 and 2017. It is followed by the US and then by", "power. A study on 16 different iBeacon vendors reports that battery life can range between 1–24 months. Apple's recommended setting of 100 ms advertising interval with a coin cell battery provides for 1–3 months of life, which increases to 2–3 years as advertising interval is increased to 900 ms.\nBattery consumption of the phones is a factor that must be taken into account when deploying beacon-enabled apps. A recent report has shown that\nolder phones tend to draw more battery in the vicinity of iBeacons, while the newer phones can be more efficient in the same environment. In addition to the", "13-inch and 8–9 hours on the 15- and 17-inch MacBook Pros. This was achieved through both greater power efficiency and adding more battery capacity. One reviewer reported about six hours of battery life through a continuous video battery stress test in the 15-inch and another, who called the battery life \"unbeatable\", reported nearer to eight in the 13-inch through their \"highly demanding battery drain test\".\nThunderbolt technology, Sandy Bridge dual core Intel Core i5 and i7 (on the 13-inch model) or quad-core i7 (on the 15- and 17-inch models) processors, and a high definition FaceTime camera were added on February 24,", "time, though the battery cover does not fit. The batteries take about 1.5 hours to charge and last for between four-and-a-half and seven hours depending on factors such as screen brightness settings, the use of WLAN, and volume levels. In March 2008, Sony released the Extended Life Battery Kit in Japan, which included a bulkier 2200 mAh battery with a fitting cover. In Japan, the kit was sold with a specific-colored cover matching the many PSP variations available. The North American kit released in December 2008 was supplied with two new covers; one black and one silver. Demos and emulation In", "the Sun.\nMRO has two rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries used to power the spacecraft when it is not facing the Sun. Each battery has an energy storage capacity of 50 ampere-hours (180 kC). The full range of the batteries cannot be used due to voltage constraints on the spacecraft, but allows the operators to extend the battery life—a valuable capability, given that battery drain is one of the most common causes of long-term satellite failure. Planners anticipate that only 40% of the batteries' capacities will be required during the lifetime of the spacecraft. Electronic systems MRO's main computer is a 133 MHz, 10.4 million transistor, 32-bit,", "conceptual Mars mission showed mass savings over traditional, passive- only cryogenic storage when mission durations are 5 days in LEO for oxygen, 8.5 days for methane and 64 days for hydrogen. Longer missions equate to greater mass savings. Cryogenic xenon saves mass over passive storage almost immediately. When power to run the ZBO is already available, the break-even mission durations are even shorter, e.g. about a month for hydrogen. The larger the tank, the fewer days in LEO when ZBO has reduced mass.\nIn addition to technical solutions to the challenge of excessive boil-off of cryogenic rocket propellants, system-level solutions have", "accuracy of 7 km (4.3 mi). The solar-powered rover would have needed to have a range of no less than 10 km (6.2 mi) and a lifetime of at least one Earth year. Rover The MAX-C rover would have relied on significant inheritance of MSL's Curiosity rover design, flight design, test design, test and handling hardware to minimize cost and risk. This solar-powered rover required a range of no less than 20 km (12 mi) and a lifetime of at least 500 Martian days (sols). Since many of the geologically interesting terrains on Mars expose stratified layers on slopes in craters, channels, and hillsides, it would", "updates as much as 60 percent smaller, and app launches up to twice as fast. Battery lifespan extender Similar to many laptops, iOS 13 has a feature to limit the battery charging percentage to 80%.\nThis feature allows leaving the mobile phone charging overnight without needing a timeclocked power outlet for preserving battery lifespan.\nKeeping the battery percentage more centered instead of complete charges and discharges reduces strain onto the battery. This reduces the battery aging of the lithium-ion battery and extends its lifespan, which is a severe issue of mobile phones with non-replaceable batteries. Haptics iOS 13 introduced a new Core Haptics", "panoramas of the surrounding region. Research on data from Mars orbiters identified interesting minerals on the outcrop. Some communication and difficulties the previous month delayed investigating these rocks, but on the positive side, the wait, along with a cleaning event over January 1, allowed for more electrical power to be available. The rover is tilted towards the Sun to help it get more power, and it is expected that it can remain active during the Martian winter. Pinnacle Island On January 17, NASA reported that a rock, named \"Pinnacle Island\", that was not in a rover image taken on Sol", "operate. However, power levels went back up due to the cleaning events caused by the winds in the Martian atmosphere. Periodic cleaning events have allowed the MERs to operate far longer than the planned 3 months. The Spirit rover finally ceased operation in early 2010, and the Opportunity rover remained active until mid 2018, more than 14 years after landing.\nCleaning events can either be rapid, such as overnight, or over many days where solar power slowly goes up. For example, with the MER-A Spirit rover, on 18 and 28 April 2009, the power output of the solar arrays was increased" ]

[ "Navigating at night is hard. You can't really see anything, especially not distant landmarks.\n\nOnce upon a time, the most reliable \"landmark\" was the moon. Sure, the moon moves in the sky throughout the night, but if you just wanted to forage by covering a large area, following the moon (without moving higher up the atmosphere) is a good rule of thumb.\n\nBut now we have artificial lights. Insects think they are the moon, and fly towards them." ]

[ "and water boatmen. Occasionally diurnal species such as dragonflies, yellowjacket wasps, and hover flies will also visit.\nThe reason insects and especially particular families of insect (e.g. moths), are attracted to light is uncertain . The most accepted theory is that moth migrate using the moon and stars as navigational aids and that the placement of a closer than the moon light causes subtended angles of light at the insects eye to alter so rapidly that it has to fly in a spiral to reduce the angular change -- this resulting in the insect flying into the light. Yet the reason", "certain insects. Light sources may include fluorescent lamps, mercury-vapor lamps, black lights, or light-emitting diodes.\n Designs differ according to the behavior of the insects being targeted. Light traps are widely used to survey nocturnal moths. Total species richness and abundance of trapped moths may be influenced by several factors such as night temperature, humidity and lamp type. Grasshoppers and some beetles are attracted to lights at a long range but are repelled by it at short range. Farrow's light trap has a large base so that it captures insects that may otherwise fly away from regular light traps. Light", "The group then realize that the bugs are blind and they use sound to track their victims, as the wasps did not attack them. They use a radio to lure a bug in a storage closet and milk it to identify the contents of its venom. Leechee analyses the venom and realizes that it contains sedatives and some proteins. They decide to go to the nearest military airbase at Gibson the next day and decide to camp for the night in the same building. They also see the bug hive, which is emitting red colored gas. The next day, the", "turns its light on and off in a circadian rhythm.\nFireflies use light to attract mates. Two systems are involved according to species; in one, females emit light from their abdomens to attract males; in the other, flying males emit signals to which the sometimes sedentary females respond. Click beetles emit an orange light from the abdomen when flying and a green light from the thorax when they are disturbed or moving about on the ground. The former is probably a sexual attractant but the latter may be defensive. Larvae of the click beetle Pyrophorus nyctophanus live in the surface layers", "reduce their sensitivity.\nThis fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above). Multiple lenses Some marine organisms bear more than one lens; for instance the copepod Pontella has three. The outer has a parabolic surface, countering the effects of spherical aberration while allowing a sharp image to be formed. Another copepod, Copilia, has two lenses in each eye, arranged like those in a telescope. Such", "have been captured and kept in darkness to shift their internal clocks and observing changes in the directions chosen by them. Some species appear to make corrections while it has not been demonstrated in others.\nMost insects are capable of sensing polarized light and they are able to use the polarization of the sky when the sun is occluded by clouds. The orientation mechanisms of nocturnal moths and other insects that migrate have not been well studied, however magnetic cues have been suggested in short distance fliers.\nRecent studies suggest that migratory butterflies may be sensitive to the Earth's magnetic field on", "and they also harvested fewer seeds from these lit patches. This study also hypothesizes that artificial light may alter the movement of mice because of predation risks. Bats are another animal that are greatly affected by light pollution. The presence of artificial lights is associated with a delayed emergence of bats from their dwellings and less time spent emerged. This alteration in foraging behaviour causes bats to miss the most optimal hunting time for insects. According to this study, as little as one hour of artificial light exposure after dusk disrupts the bats foraging behaviour, as well as growth rates.\nLight", "Scarabaeus satyrus Navigation In a study by Marie Dacke published in the journal Current Biology, it is reported that researchers have found that beetles of this species use the bright glow from the Milky Way to navigate during night-time operations. Vertebrates such as humans, birds and seals are known to navigate in this way, but this could be the first insect found to do the same. Previous experiments showed that these beetles are able to steer by light from the Sun, the Moon, and polarised light emanating from these light sources. It was their ability to stay on course on", "lighting. Bats that that are fast-moving are often at an advantage with insects being drawn to light; they are fast enough to escape any predators also attracted to the light, leaving slow-moving bats at a disadvantage. Another example is harbor seals eating juvenile salmon that moved down a river lit by nearby artificial lighting. Once the lights were turned off, predation levels decreased. Many diurnal prey species forced into being nocturnal are susceptible to nocturnal predators, and those species with poor nocturnal eyesight often bear the brunt of the cost. Spatial disturbance The increasing amount of habitat destruction worldwide as", "patterns of pest occurrence. This information may then be used in other pest management approaches.\nThe trap mechanism or bait can vary widely. Flies and wasps are attracted by proteins. Mosquitoes and many other insects are attracted by bright colors, carbon dioxide, lactic acid, floral or fruity fragrances, warmth, moisture and pheromones. Synthetic attractants like methyl eugenol are very effective with tephritid flies. Trap types Insect traps vary widely in shape, size, and construction, often reflecting the behavior or ecology of the target species. Some common varieties are described below Light traps Light traps, with or without ultraviolet light, attract", "species, due to histamines their caterpillar makes.\nThe insects advertise these defenses with aposematic bright coloration, unusual postures, odours, or, in adults, ultrasonic vibrations. Some mimic moths that are poisonous or wasps that sting. The ultrasound signals help nocturnal predators to learn to avoid the moths, and for some species can jam bat echolocation. Behavior and life cycle Many of the caterpillars and adults are active during the daytime; however, most species of this taxa are night-flying. Moths are attracted by light, but there is one species, Borearctia menetriesii, that never comes to the light. Basking to accelerate digestion is common", "to alterations in the seasonal behaviour of species. Climate change was causing bees to emerge at different times in the year when flowering plants were not available. Artificial lighting at night In June 2018, the Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (de) released an article that discusses a possible link between the sharp decline in flying insects and high levels of light pollution. Many studies suggest that artificial light at night has negative impacts on insects, and scientists should therefore pay greater attention to this factor when exploring the causes of insect population decline. Conservation and restoration Efforts are", "scent to attract insects to the trap. Other designs rely on the natural carbon dioxide or scents emitted by people, pets, or livestock to attract pests, and simply collect flying insects as they wander close enough to be sucked in. In addition, the continuous breeze produced by a common electric fan has been found to discourage mosquitos from landing and biting, even without trapping or killing the insects. Bug zapper A bug zapper electric grid (fly zapper) kills insects by electrocution from high voltage on adjacent metallic grids. Bug zappers are generally small appliances intended for use in", "causing the organism to swim toward a light source. Phototaxis in insects Positive phototaxis can be found in many flying insects such as moths, grasshoppers, and flies. Drosophila melanogaster has been studied extensively for its innate positive phototactic response to light sources, using controlled experiments to help understand the connection between airborne locomotion toward a light source. This innate response is common among insects that fly primarily during the night utilizing transverse orientation vis-à-vis the light of the moon for orientation. Artificial lighting in cities and populated areas results in a more pronounced positive response compared to that with the", "not as used to the artificial lighting. Insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the heat or electrical current. Some species of frogs are blinded by the quick changes in light, while nocturnal migratory birds may be disoriented, causing them to lose direction, tire out, or be captured by predators. Sea turtles are particularly affected by this, adding to a number of threats to the different endangered species. Adults are likely to stay away from artificially lit beaches that they might prefer to lay eggs on, as there is", "feed. The adult bugs have been shown to be unpalatable to some species of birds thanks to this chemical defense, which could explain their warning coloration. As glucosinolates are often used by crucifers to reduce insect herbivory, their sequestration could also reduce attack rates by insect predators. Circulation Like all insects, harlequin bugs have an open circulatory system. Blood is pumped to the head (anteriorly) through the dorsal blood vessel and posteriorly through the ventral body cavity. To map out the circulation of blood in these insects, Craig et al. injected radioactive phosphorus into the posterior end of the heart", "behaviour by failing to flash when placed under artificial light and males never flashed in response to these females. However, it is not only insects that are affected by light pollution. Male green frogs made less calls and moved more often when in the presence of artificial light. According to Baker and Richardson (2006), these behavioural changes negatively affect breeding success.\nAnother consequence of light pollution is the disruption of foraging behaviour in wildlife, such as where and when they forage or hunt. Beach mice used foraging patches near sodium vapor lights or yellow bug lights less often than non-lit patches", "integrating internal cues from vestibular signals and motor efferent copy\". Effects of human activity Neonicotinoid pesticides may impair the ability of bees to navigate. Bees exposed to low levels of thiamethoxam were less likely to return to their colony, to an extent sufficient to compromise a colony's survival.\nLight pollution attracts and disorients photophilic animals, those that follow light. For example, hatchling sea turtles follow bright light, particularly bluish light, altering their navigation. Disrupted navigation in moths can easily be observed around bright lamps on summer nights. Insects gather around these lamps at high densities instead of navigating naturally.", "the insects are often seen swarming around ash trees at this time.\nThe adults are black and do not sting, like other sawfly species. Sawflies receive their name because the females have a structure that resembles a saw on the tip of their abdomen. Predators and control Parasitic wasps are known to eat the larvae. Two red-eyed vireo were witnessed bashing the larvae against a twig up to eighteen times, and then consuming them with multiple swallows without any noise. Other birds observed consuming the larvae in the study were a rose-breasted grosbeak, an English sparrow, and two catbirds.\nA hose or", "or dark spots at the larger end. Food and feeding The restless flycatcher feeds on insects, as well as other invertebrates such as spiders and centipedes and will feed alone or in pairs. It often hovers with its head and tail pointed downwards as it picks insects off from leaves, and it rarely goes to the ground, preferring to hunt insects from mid-canopy.", "bugs in England and Sweden, and bug agaric was an old alternative name for the species. French mycologist Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly-killing properties in his work Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France (1784), and proposed a new binomial name Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus because of this. One compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein (1,3-Di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), which attracts insects.\nIt has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.\nAn alternative derivation proposes that the term fly- refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting", "effectiveness.\nFlypaper is often impregnated with a slightly odorous chemical to attract more flies. The attractiveness of flypaper to other insects (such as mosquitos and biting midges) is sometimes enhanced by shining a small portable electric light on the sticky surface. Bug vacuum A bug vacuum (bug vac or aspirator) is a type of small but powerful portable vacuum cleaner, usually with internal batteries. The motor starts quickly and generates strong suction, trapping the flying insect inside the device. The insect may be captured on an adhesive internal surface, or simply held inside the device until it dehydrates", "resulting in a massive emergence. This is thought to enable a higher probability of finding a mate. The mayflies can be attracted to human lighting at night, resulting in swarms at gas stations, etc. In some cases, car lights attract swarms on bridges, which can result in the road becoming slippery. In some cases, the hatch shows up on weather radar. The hatching is not strictly simultaneous in a region, but does exhibit a notable peak emergence", "number of insect species. For example, Tsetse flies, a vector of African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), are attracted to blue colors. Flies can therefore be lured in and killed by blue fabric traps imbued with pesticides. Scientists believe that flies are attracted to these blue fabrics because blue colors are similar to the color of the ground under a shady tree. Since flies must seek out cool places in the heat of the day, blue colors are more attractive. Exploitation of visual cues has also been used for the control of aphids and whiteflies. Many aphid species show a strong preference", "pond. They are also typically seen flying over heath land. Their bright yellow and black stripes make them easy to identify, even from a fair distance away. They feed mainly on insects ranging from small prey such as midges to flies, butterflies and even bumblebees. This strikingly-coloured insect is incredibly aerobatic and they sometimes fly very high up into the sky.", "way. Dust Bugs These bugs give the illusion of sand floating around. They can consume large volumes of water at a rapid rate considering they are such small entities. They seem to be intelligent creatures and are passive and helpful unless provoked, in which case they can be extremely lethal. They fly around in \"swarms\" and will attack together. They were the first species to be encountered in the Destiny expedition, though they were initially dismissed as a hallucination suffered by Matthew Scott. The creatures appeared to develop a rapport with Scott and aided him in his quest for Lime", "after the bug reaches the adult stage following the final molt. Ecological significance Wheel bugs are highly regarded by organic gardeners because they consume a variety of insects and their presence indicates a healthy, pesticide-free ecosystem. \"They're the lion or the eagle of your food web,\" Dr. Michael J. Raupp, an entomologist at the University of Maryland, notes. \"They sit on top. When you have these big, ferocious predators in your landscape, that tells me that this is a very healthy landscape, because all these other levels in your food web are intact.\"\nThough wheel bugs are a welcome agent of", "limbs and hind quarters in what resembles a fighting stance. If agitation continues, L. americanus will use its fore limbs to latch onto the source of the agitation and attempt to deliver a painful bite. Also known as the \"electric-light bug\", it may be attracted by electric lights while flying at night. L. americanus is differentiated from a similar insect, Benacus griseus, by grooves found on its fore femora to accommodate the tibiae when folded tightly.\nEggs are laid on vegetation located at the water's edge and may be guarded by an adult. The young nymphs then hatch about two weeks", "to light and dark, though incapable of forming images. Some have refracting superposition compound eyes: these combine the output of many elements of their compound eyes to provide enough light for each retinal photoreceptor. Their ability to fly by night enables them to avoid many predators, and to exploit flowers that produce nectar only or also at night. Predators, parasites and pathogens Vertebrate predators of bees include bee-eaters, shrikes and flycatchers, which make short sallies to catch insects in flight. Swifts and swallows fly almost continually, catching insects as they go. The honey buzzard attacks bees' nests and eats the", "in sunshine, they normally avoid shaded places such as barns, and are inactive at night.\nAttack patterns vary with species; clegs fly silently and prefer to bite humans on the wrist or bare leg; large species of Tabanus buzz loudly, fly low, and bite ankles, legs, or backs of knees; Chrysops flies somewhat higher, bites the back of the neck, and has a high buzzing note. The striped hides of zebras may have evolved to reduce their attractiveness to horse-flies and tsetse flies than either plain dark or plain white hides. The closer together the stripes, the fewer flies are visually" ]

[ "Because every state has a different tax rate on goods, so that would make putting tax into the price a little difficult", "It's a principle of transparency, letting the citizen know exactly what they are paying for the product and how much they are paying in taxes, which is something important as transparency goes for the government.\n\nHere in Brazil everything is pretaxed, so when you pay R$ 3,09 (3.09 to some) for a liter of gas, you have no idea how much of that is in taxes. Lately people have spun a great movement for commerce to at least display separately the amount due in taxes in the price tags. And I believe that's important because more than 50% of that R$ 3,09 is taxes, so when you get shitty services from the government, you know exactly how much they are stealing from you.", "Can anyone give the arguments for and against unifying sales tax across the US?\n\nI know in Australia, GST is 10% nationwide for most items (I think some things are tax free, and are indicated as such), so tax is included in the final price and not really thought of. So a $7 Subway is exactly $7 in WA and exactly $7 in NSW. ($6.36 item and $0.63 GST, but we just see it s $7)\n\n(And please excuse me if I've been ignorant and not seen the really obvious answer!)", "It also allows companies to advertise an item at the same price nationwide (regardless of the varying state taxes), and not have to worry about the actual final price." ]

[ "of price and vice versa. In both cases, the consumers pay more for the good and while the sellers initially receive more money, after the tax is accounted for, they are left with less money than if there were no tax imposed. \nThe tax both raises the price the customers buy the good for and lowers the price the producers are effectively selling the good for. The difference between the two prices remains the same no matter who bears most of the burden of the tax. But imposing a tax always impacts both the buyer and the seller. Example The", "once, at the retail level, on any particular goods. Nearly all jurisdictions provide numerous categories of goods and services that are exempt from sales tax, or taxed at a reduced rate. Purchase of goods for further manufacture or for resale is uniformly exempt from sales tax. Most jurisdictions exempt food sold in grocery stores, prescription medications, and many agricultural supplies. Generally cash discounts, including coupons, are not included in the price used in computing tax.\nSales taxes, including those imposed by local governments, are generally administered at the state level. States imposing sales tax require retail sellers to register with the", "seller. If the product has an elastic demand, a greater portion of the tax will be absorbed by the seller. This is because goods with elastic demand cause a large decline in quantity demanded for a small increase in price. Therefore, in order to stabilize sales, the seller absorbs more of the additional tax burden. For example, the seller might drop the price of the product to $0.70 so that, after adding in the tax, the buyer pays a total of $1.20, or $0.20 more than he did before the $0.50 tax was imposed. In this example, the buyer has", "value without having paid any tax on it. According to the Congressional Budget Office, this exemption costs the federal government $715 billion a year. Sales tax Sales taxes are taxes placed on the sale or lease of goods and services in the United States. While no national general sales tax exists, the federal government levies several national selective sales taxes. States also may levy selective sales taxes on the sale or lease of particular goods or services. States may also delegate to local governments the authority to impose additional general or selective sales taxes. Education Economist Gary Becker has described", "which reduce a person's available money before they can make purchases). The equivalent assessed tax rate is 30% if the FairTax is applied to the pre-tax price of a good like traditional U.S. state sales taxes (sometimes called tax-exclusive; this rate is not directly comparable with existing income and employment taxes). After the first year of implementation, this tax rate would be automatically adjusted annually using a formula specified in the legislation that reflects actual federal receipts in the previous fiscal year. Effective tax rate A household's effective tax rate on consumption would vary with the annual expenditures on", "= $2.40 and the burden paid by sellers equals $0.20 x 80 = $1.60. Ad valorem tax impact Similarly the effect can be broken down into three steps. \nFirst, the tax again affects the sellers. The quantity demanded at a given price remains unchanged and therefore the demand curve stays the same. The seller has to again deal with more expensive production but the effect is different for each price level. Since the tax is a certain percentage of the price, with increasing price, the tax grows as well. The supply curve shifts upward but the new supply curve is", "comes to state sales taxes, it is time to address the area where federally mandated prejudice is most egregious — the policy towards Internet sales, the decades-old inequity between online sales and in-person sales as outdated and unfair.\"\nHanns Kuttner, Hudson Institute:\n\"Current policy gives remote sellers a price advantage, allowing them to sell their goods and services without collecting the sales tax owed by the purchaser. This price difference functions like a subsidy. It distorts the allocation between the two forms of selling. The subsidy from not collecting tax due means a larger share of sales will take place remotely than", "Effect of taxes and subsidies on price Specific tax impact The effect of a specific tax can be divided into three steps. \nFirst, in the case of a specific tax, the immediate impact of the tax hits the sellers. The demand for a good is the same for a given price level so the demand curve does not change. On the other hand, the tax makes the good in fact more expensive to produce for the seller. This means that the business is less profitable for a given price level and the supply curve shifts upwards. \nSecond, the higher cost", "Ad valorem tax Sales tax A sales tax is a consumption tax charged at the point of purchase for certain goods and services. The tax is usually set as a percentage by the government charging the tax. There is usually a list of exemptions. The tax can be included in the price (tax-inclusive) or added at the point of sale (tax-exclusive).\nIdeally, a sales tax is fair, has a high compliance rate, is difficult to avoid, is charged every time an item is sold retail, and is simple to calculate and simple to collect. A conventional or retail sales tax attempts", "sales taxes are fully shifted to retail prices.\nDonald Bruce, William Fox, and M. H. Tuttle also discuss tax revenues through sales tax in their article \"Tax Base Elasticities: A Multi-State Analysis of Long-Run and Short-Run Dynamics\". In this article, they look at how personal state revenues and sales tax bases elasticities change for the short and long term in an attempt to determine the difference between them. With this information, the authors believe that states can both enhance and customize their tax structures, which can be used for careful resource planning. They found that for state personal income tax bases as", "30% traditional U.S. sales tax ($23 on top of every $77 spent—$100 total, or $30 on top of every $100 spent—$130 total). After the first year of implementation, this rate is automatically adjusted annually using a predefined formula reflecting actual federal receipts in the previous fiscal year.\nThe effective tax rate for any household would be variable due to the fixed monthly tax rebate that are used to rebate taxes paid on purchases up to the poverty level. The tax would be levied on all U.S. retail sales for personal consumption on new goods and services. Critics argue that the sales", "price reduces the number of units that are made. The price increase is how the maker passes along some part of the tax to consumers. However, if the revenue from LVT is used to reduce other taxes or to provide valuable public investment, it can cause land prices to rise as a result of higher productivity, by more than the amount that LVT removed.\nLand tax incidence rests completely upon landlords, although business sectors that provide services to landlords are indirectly impacted. In some economies, 80 percent of bank lending finances real estate, with a large portion of that for land.", "In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them. Marketing mix The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. It consists of four basic elements called the \"four Ps\". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching", "sales tax in Louisiana. Louisiana citizens, whose state has one of the highest average combined sales tax rate in the nation, now pay, on average, 9% in state and local sales and use tax for Amazon purchases.\nAct 22, passed in on March 14, 2016 requires online retailers to collect sales taxes on online purchases. Maine On April 1, 2017, Amazon started collecting 5.5% sales tax in Maine following pressure from State officials. Maryland On October 1, 2014, Amazon started collecting sales tax in Maryland ahead of a planned opening of a new distribution center in Southeast Baltimore. Maryland does not", "List price United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the list price is referred to as a recommended retail price or RRP.\nIn 1998, the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry prohibited the placing of RRP on electrical goods, but it was lifted by the Competition Commission in February 2012. United States In the United States, the list price is referred to as the manufacturer's suggested retail price or MSRP.\nUnder earlier US state Fair Trade statutes, the manufacturer was able to impose a fixed price for items. The fixed prices could offer some price protection to small merchants in competition against", "Price on application Price on application (sometimes price on asking), more commonly abbreviated as POA, is a term often seen on price lists, classified advertisements and is commonly used with regard to real estate prices. It means the seller or selling agent must be contacted in order to obtain the price. Real estate and classified advertisement Prices can be deliberately concealed in an attempt to prevent potential buyers from spotting (usually downward) trends in price that could tempt them into waiting for further price decreases before submitting an offer.\nIn the case of real estate an owner may, for whatever reason,", "tax rate defined in the legislation would not be revenue neutral (that is, it would collect less for the government than the current tax system), and thus would increase the budget deficit, unless government spending were equally reduced. Sales tax rate During the first year of implementation, the FairTax legislation would apply a 23% federal retail sales tax on the total transaction value of a purchase; in other words, consumers pay to the government 23 cents of every dollar spent in total (sometimes called tax-inclusive, and presented this way to provide a direct comparison with individual income and employment taxes", "and pay to that other state the sales tax based on the tax rates of that other state. Proponents argued that the measure would redress an unfair economic advantage enjoyed by online sellers over local businesses, arising from the fact that the former were often not required to collect sales taxes from their customers. Opponents maintained that it would be unfair to require interstate merchants to collect sales taxes in jurisdictions where they had no physical presence, and thus derived no benefit from the taxes; and that the variety and complexity of state and local sales taxes would place a", "Sales Taxes\" tests the premise that sales taxes on the state and local level are fully shifted to the consumers. He examines clothing prices before and after World War II. He recognizes that monetary policy is important to determine the response of nominal prices under a national sales tax and points to possible differences in taxes applied at the local level as to taxes applied at a national level. Poterba finds evidence reinforcing the idea that sales taxes are fully forward shifted, which raises the consumer prices to match the tax increase. His study coincides with the original hypothesis that retail", "they would have massive confusion and complication as to what is taxed by the state and what is taxed by the federal government. In addition, sales taxes have long exempted all but a few services because of the enormous difficulty in taxing intangibles—Bartlett suggests that the state may not have sufficient incentive to enforce the tax. University of Michigan economist Joel Slemrod argues that states would face significant issues in enforcing the tax. \"Even at an average rate of around five percent, state sales taxes are difficult to administer.\" University of Virginia School of Law professor George Yin states", "amount of the tax. In order for them to supply a given quantity of the good, the market price needs to be higher by the amount of tax so that it will compensate for it. \nLast, after the shift of the supply curve is taken into account, the difference between the initial and after-tax equlibrium can be observed. The growth of market price is determined by the price elasticities of demand and supply. In the case of demand being more elastic than supply, the incidence of the tax falls more heavily on sellers and the consumers feel a smaller growth", "Some states do attempt to charge consumers an identical per-transaction use tax instead, but compliance is relatively low due to the difficulty of enforcement. The June 2018 decision South Dakota v. Wayfair reversed this interpretation of the Commerce Clause, allowing states to collect sales tax from out-of-state merchants when the consumer is in the state.\nSeveral state constitutions impose limitations on sales tax. These limitations restrict or prohibit the taxing of certain items, such as food. By jurisdiction Sales tax rates and what is taxed vary by jurisdiction. The following table compares taxes on selected classes of goods in the", "Invoice price Trade price or Wholesale price Sometimes invoice price is used to indicate the trade or wholesale price although they are not the same. The wholesale or trade price is the price at which goods are sold to shops by the people who produce them, rather than the price which the customer usually pays in the shop.\nSimplified it could be called the cost of a good sold by a wholesaler. The wholesaler will usually charge a price somewhat higher than he or she paid to the producer, and the retailer who purchases the goods from the wholesaler will increase", "tax was viewed as fairer by 52% of Republicans, 44% of Democrats, and 49% of unaffiliateds. President Barack Obama did not support the bill, arguing for more progressive changes to the income and payroll tax systems. President Donald Trump has proposed to lower overall income taxation and reduce the number of tax brackets from seven to three. Tax rate The sales tax rate, as defined in the legislation for the first year, is 23% of the total payment including the tax ($23 of every $100 spent in total—calculated similar to income taxes). This would be equivalent to a", "to control. According to the GAO, 80% of state tax officials opposed a national sales tax as an intrusion on their tax base. Opponents also raise concerns of legal tax avoidance by spending and consuming outside of the U.S. (imported goods would be subject to collection by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection).\nEconomists from the University of Tennessee concluded that while there would be many desirable macroeconomic effects, adoption of a national retail sales tax would also have serious effects on state and local government finances. Economist Bruce Bartlett stated that if the states did not conform to the FairTax,", "illustrated on a standard supply and demand diagram. Without a tax, the equilibrium price will be at Pe and the equilibrium quantity will be at Qe.\nAfter a tax is imposed, the price consumers pay will shift to Pc and the price producers receive will shift to Pp. The consumers' price will be equal to the producers' price plus the cost of the tax. Since consumers will buy less at the higher consumer price (Pc) and producers will sell less at a lower producer price (Pp), the quantity sold will fall from Qe to Qt.", "a value added tax applies to purchases of goods and services on each level of exchange until it reaches the ultimate consumer. In the US, most states tax purchases of goods with a sales tax.", "tax rate, which is done by between one and two thousand taxpayers per year.\nThe state imposes a 6.25% sales tax on retail sales of tangible personal property—except for groceries, clothing (up to $175.00), and periodicals. The sales tax is charged on clothing that costs more than $175.00, for the amount exceeding $175.00. Massachusetts also charges a use tax when goods are bought from other states and the vendor does not remit Massachusetts sales tax; taxpayers report and pay this on their income tax forms or dedicated forms, though there are \"safe harbor\" amounts that can be paid without tallying up", "additional local sales tax. Except during the 2001 recession (March–November 2001), when monthly sales tax collections were flat, collections have trended higher as the economy has grown and two rate increases have been enacted. If there had been no change in sales tax rates or in the economy, the total sales tax collections for 2003 whould have been $1,797 million, compared to $805.3 million in 1990. However, they instead amounted to $1,630 million an inflation adjusted reduction of 10%. The state sales tax is a combined destination-based tax, meaning a single tax is applied that includes state, county, and local taxes, and the", "not parallel to the original one.\nSecond, the tax raises the production cost similarly as the specific tax but the amount of tax varies with price level. The upward shift of the supply curve is accompanied by a pivot upwards and to the left of the original supply curve. The vertical distance between the two supply curves is equal to the amount of tax in per cent. The effective price to the sellers is again lower by the amount of the tax and they will supply the good as if the price were lower by the amount of tax. \nLast, the" ]

[ "Probably because the keg has been better handled than the cases of beer have, and because bottles are not actually the best packages for beer. Light passes through the glass and can cause skunking, and oxygen can sneak in through the plastic seal in the crown, causing staling. Kegs are generally stored cold, and of course are completely opaque and are much more resistant to oxygen ingress.", "Bottled beer is generally pasteurized (treated with high heat to kill germs) while draught beer from a keg has not. The heat can change the flavor slightly.\n\nAlso, since most of taste is smell, drinking from an open glass rather than a bottle gives you a bigger experience of the flavor." ]

[ "type of hops and even the time at which they are added are crucial factors in the taste of particular beers. Once all the wort is in the copper, boiling proceeds to extract the bitter flavours from the hops for an hour or so.\nThe spent hops are removed from the bitter liquor by decanting or 'casting' it into the hop back, a vessel on the ground floor beneath the coppers. The spent hops settle out and the liquor is strained through them.\nA non-gravity process now takes place, where the liquor is pumped back up the tower to coolers in the", "surface area for wraparound designs and decorations.\nThe perception that bottles lead to a taste that is superior to canned beer is outdated, as most aluminum cans are lined with a polymer coating that protects the beer from the problematic metal. However, since drinking directly from a can may still result in a metallic taste, most craft brewers recommend pouring beer into a glass prior to consumption. In June 2014, the BA estimated 3% of craft beer is sold in cans, 60% is sold in bottles, and kegs represent the remainder of the market. Brewpub Brewpub is an abbreviated term combining", "beers are due to reactive oxygen species. These may come in the form of oxygen free radicals, for example, which can change the chemical structures of compounds in beer that give them their taste. Oxygen radicals can cause increased concentrations of aldehydes from the Strecker degradation reactions of amino acids in beer.\nBeer is unique when compared to other alcoholic drinks because it is unstable in the final package. There are many variables and chemical compounds that affect the flavor of beer during the production steps, but also during the storage of beer. Beer will develop an off-flavor during storage because", "This less soluble gas gives the beer a different and flatter texture. In beer terms, the mouthfeel is smooth, not bubbly like beers with normal carbonation. Nitro beer could taste less acidic than normal beer. Storage and degradation A particular problem with beer is that, unlike wine, its quality tends to deteriorate as it ages. A cat urine smell and flavor called ribes, named for the genus of the black currant, tends to develop and peak. A cardboard smell then dominates which is due to the release of 2-Nonenal. In general, chemists believe that the \"off-flavors\" that come from old", "and a less carbonated taste. This makes the beer feel smooth on the palate and gives a foamy appearance. Premixed bottled gas for creamy beers is usually 75% nitrogen and 25% CO₂. This premixed gas which only works well with creamy beers is often referred to as Guinness Gas, Beer Gas, or Aligal. Using \"Beer Gas\" with other beer styles can cause the last 5% to 10% of the beer in each keg to taste very flat and lifeless. Keykeg Since the 2000s, a number of brewers and outlets have been introducing a variation on keg dispense. Keykegs deliver the", "temperature that would make other beers seem harsh. Where harsher flavours do exist in beer (most notably in those brewed in Yorkshire), these are traditionally mitigated by serving the beer through a hand pump fitted with a sparkler, a device that mixes air with the beer, oxidising it slightly and softening the flavour. Cask ale Cask beer is the traditional method of service, via a hand pump or by gravity straight from the cask on stillage. Cask conditioned beer is unfiltered, unpasteurized and lacking artificial carbonation (the bubbles are produced by the ongoing fermentation), giving it a limited shelf-life. This", "those used in refrigerated display cases significantly damages the taste of beer, yielding a taste that is often described as \"skunky\". This is the result of the essential hop oils spoiling due to UV exposure.\nThe second Corona brand is Corona Light, the first light beer produced by this brewer. Corona Light has 3.4% alcohol by volume, 99 calories (0.41 kJ), per 355 ml (12.0 U.S. fl oz; 12.5 imp fl oz) bottle. Victoria Victoria is a 4% abv Vienna lager first brewed in Toluca, México, in 1865 by Compañía Toluca y México. Grupo Modelo bought out Compañía Toluca y México in 1935.\nIt is generally sold in", "of checking the color and the alcohol content of the beer. Orval is about 6.7 percent alcohol.\nThe show flashes back to the Delirium Café where Zane says that trappist beers are non-pasteurized so they contain active yeast which keeps the beer fermenting. For this kind of beer, it is important not to drink the entire bottle. The yeast will settle to the bottom while the drinkable piece remains on top. As a result of the constant fermentation, Zane ends up drinking a beer with 11.3 percent alcohol. He goes on to say that most American beers are clearer and milder", "but relatively unintoxicating beverage suitable for lunchtime drinking by manual workers. But in reality, mild was probably not hopped differently from other beers of the day, since the term 'mild' referred primarily to a lack of the sour tang contributed by age, and not a lack of hop character or alcoholic strength,\nOnce sold in every pub, mild experienced a catastrophic fall in popularity after the 1960s and was in danger of completely disappearing from many parts of the United Kingdom. However, in recent years the explosion of microbreweries has led to a partial recovery, and an increasing number of mild", "type of draught beer sold in British pubs and has been described as \"the national drink of England\". In Scotland, bitter is known as either \"light\" or \"heavy\" depending on the strength, colour and body. \nBitter is traditionally cask conditioned and either dispensed by gravity through a tap in the cask or by a beer engine, although in recent decades, bitter has also been pasteurised and carbonated, or sold in bottles or cans, which affects the flavour. Despite the myth, bitter should not be served warm, but at \"cellar temperature\" of 11° to 14° Celsius. The popularity of craft brewing", "size of the original facility and includes a tap house (tasting room) with a full view of the brewhouse. The tap house bar serves most beer by the glass, although a select few, including \"corked-and-caged\" beers, are sold by the bottle. Most of Tröegs' beers are available \"to go\"—as 4-packs, 6-packs, cases, growlers, and, most recently, as \"crowlers\" (32-US-fluid-ounce (950 ml) aluminum cans filled from a tap and then sealed; a portmanteau of \"can\" and \"growler\"). However, a few bottled beers have been available for consumption only in the tap room. The tap room also features an upscale \"snack bar.\"\nEvery year,", "flavor and alcohol. The technique is based on that used to make Eisbock, but the two styles share no stylistic similarities (apart from both being lagers) otherwise. Dry beer, a Japanese style based on pale lager, is also brewed by some American companies. In dry beer, the yeast is encouraged to consume more fermentables, resulting in a crisper finish and an unusually subtle hop flavor.\nMalt liquor is a high-ABV pale lager. It has often incited controversy due to its alcohol content, larger-sized containers, low prices, and advertising that frequently targets inner city neighborhoods. Distribution Beer distribution in America is divided", "to take away the fizziness and act as a sweetener, in Limburg it is referred to as a \"half om\". Glassware Belgian \"special\" beers (stronger or bottled beers) are often served in elaborate branded beer glassware. Unless the bar is out of the specific glass that goes with that beer it is more often than not served in its own glass. Most bartenders or waitresses will apologize if the beer comes in a different glass.\nOne of the more common types is the tulip glass.\nA tulip glass not only helps trap the aroma, but also aids in maintaining large heads, creating", "accent the hops in a pale beer, such as a pale ale. It is not used for dark beers such as stout. A degree of sulphate ions in the water is also appropriate for emulation of the Czech Pilsener style, and sulphate ions are also distinctive of Dortmunder Export.\nIntroducing magnesium sulphate into the brewing water, or \"liquor\", creates a rounder, fuller taste that enhances other flavours in the beer. However, excessive dosage must be avoided to prevent undesirable consequences, which could include a laxative effect. Double dropping Double dropping, also known as the dropping system is a brewing method used", "hop and fruit aroma, a golden color and a taste full of hops and fruit. Good bitterness and underlying malt add to the flavor, with a long, hoppily-bitter finish.\nBryncelyn's beers are usually available only at the Wern Fawr Inn, but can be purchased for take-away in polypins and frequently appear at beer festivals in Wales.", "flavor.\" Writing for The Baltimore Sun, another reviewer praised the beer's \"smooth finish and citrus notes\". xoJane's reviewer questioned Rogue's \"gimmicky\" beers in its lineup, but concluded its \"sweet and bready and kinda pineapple-y\" taste was reminiscent of a Belgian single. A review from the website Flavor 574 described the beer as having a funky flavor. Details magazine included the brew on their \"Best Weird Brews of Summer\" list in 2013; and Gayot Guides lists it among its top ten weird beers, profiling it as \"reminiscent of a Belgian saison, with a hazy orangish hue and flavors of bready malt,", "themselves at home or purchase it from neighbourhood producers or street sellers. Its taste is initially sweet, somewhat like root beer, but changes to a prolonged, but not astringent bitter aftertaste. To many, it is an acquired taste, and has been known to cause an initial laxative reaction unexpected to many first-time drinkers.", "beer or \"steam beer\", which has similar origins due to the lack of refrigeration.) This kept overhead costs down and made it inexpensive to purchase, so it was very popular among working-class people. While some evidence points to the use of sour mashing, the latest research demonstrates that the sour taste once attributed to this historical style was largely based on myth. Extensive contemporaneous brewing records from Louisville breweries indicate that no sour mashing, acid rests, or extensive conditioning were part of the brew process.\nAs of 2014, this style is not generally available, though there are occasional attempts at revival.", "drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.\nThe use of hops in beer was written of in 822 by the Carolingian Abbot Adalard of Corbie. Flavoring beer with hops was known at least since the 9th century, but was only gradually adopted because of difficulties in establishing the right proportions of ingredients. Before that, gruit, a mix of various herbs, had been used, but did not have the same preserving properties as hops. Beer flavored without it was often spoiled soon after preparation and could not be exported. The only", "Miller. Although these men, craft brewers themselves, initially re-created the full-bodied beers of their homeland, many Americans had not developed a taste for the malt-heavy style. They needed a domestic ingredient that would make the beers more effervescent, bubbly and lighter. Rice and corn did that – it was a desired flavor, not inexpensive filler.\" Hops Hops contribute bitterness, flavour and aroma to a beer in different ways depending on when they are added during the brewing process. How much hop bitterness and aroma is appropriate varies between beer styles. There are many varieties of hops, some of which are", "on the top of the bar.\nA pump clip is usually attached to the handle giving the name and sometimes the brewery, beer type and alcoholic strength of the beer being served through that handpump.\nThe handle of a handpump is often used as a symbol of cask ale. This style of beer has continued fermentation and uses porous and non-porous pegs, called spiles, to respectively release and retain the gases generated by fermentation and thus achieve the optimum level of carbonation in the beer.\nIn the 1970s many breweries were keen to replace cask conditioned ale with keg versions for financial", "for authenticity in terms of what people eat and drink; a rebellion against artificial ingredients… Craft beer fits right into it because craft beer speaks of traditional values and for real beer. Craft beer is taking off now because people want bigger, more flavorful beers. They’re tired of drinking the same old generic lager, lager, lager that their fathers and their grandfathers used to drink.” Beer Gilroy beers are brewed using a combination of three types of malted barley; pale malt for the base, and crystal and black malts for colour and flavour. The beers are naturally carbonated and contain", "flavor\", but by the late 20th century, the style's flavor had likely evolved to include less hop flavor and bitterness. Modern recreations of this style tend to focus on smoky flavor resulting from the oak-smoked malt, described as \"somewhat acrid to semi-sweet\", but literature from the 1960s states that a significant proportion of the beer's unique flavors are produced by its malting and brewing process and special strains of brewer's yeast that were used in its production. The flavor may also contain a mild wheat graininess noticeable in the background.\nHistorically, Grodziskie was made with alcohol levels of around", "a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle", "people have their favorites, because each brewer has his/her own recipes. Process First wood is chopped, the fire started to cook the water and barley to temp, it is cooled over copper, then the wort is distributed to the brewers' private cellars, where the fermentation takes place. The method used is bottom fermenting yeast and lagering. About two weeks later the beer is brought to these home pubs where it is tapped directly from the lagering tank. It is then sold in the brewer's house, which effectively becomes a pub until all the beer has been drunk. The pub that", "Pilsner. Other ingredients Fruits and spices are key ingredients in some beer styles. While fruit beers and herb beers are often listed as style categories unto themselves, fruits and spices are sometimes used to contribute to the flavour and aroma profile of other styles. Vegetables have also been used in beers. Honey, molasses, candy sugar, or other fermentable sugars may be added to impart their distinct flavours to a beer. While not an ingredient per se, some brewers have experimented with ageing their beer in barrels previously used for bourbon or other distilled spirits, imparting the flavour of both the", "way a beer tastes, as it is the main ingredient. The ion varieties present in water can affect the metabolic pathways of yeast, and thus the metabolites one can taste. For example, calcium and iron are essential in small amounts for yeast to survive, because these metals are usually required cofactors for yeast enzymes. Carbonation In aerobic conditions, yeast turns sugars into pyruvate then converts pyruvate into water and carbon dioxide. This process can carbonate beers. In commercial production, the yeast works in anaerobic conditions to convert pyruvate into ethanol, and does not carbonate beer. Beer is carbonated with pressurized", "or sealed, but instead poured into unlabeled used bottles. The spirit can be bought wholesale from a brewer or by the glass at boutiques and bars. Although not professionally advertised, the drink is very popular. This is partially due to its price, which is lower than that of other professionally bottled or imported drinks. Its relative cheapness makes it a drink associated more with the poor, but even those who can afford better quality are said to consume the spirit in secret.\nThe potency of the liquor heavily affects the bodily senses, providing a feeling likened to that of a knockout", "juices and berry juices are all high in tannins. Sometimes tannins are even added to juices and ciders to create a more astringent feel to the taste. Beer In addition to the alpha acids extracted from hops to provide bitterness in beer, condensed tannins are also present. These originate both from the malt and hops. Especially in Germany, trained brewmasters consider the presence of tannins as a flaw. In some styles, the presence of this astringency is acceptable or even desired, as, for example, in a Flanders red ale.\nIn lager type beers, the tannins can form a precipitate with specific", "Bartending terminology Garnish \"With a twist\" signals the bartender to add a \"twist\" of the zest of a citrus fruit (bar choice, if unspecified) to the cocktail. Often, the bartender will hang the rind of the citrus on the glass as a garnish (see martini photo above). Details Cocktails are generally served chilled, although some (e.g., margaritas) may be served either with or without ice, and this must be specified. Cocktails can be served \"frozen\", which is with crushed ice instead of cubes.\nUnmixed liquors may be served either neat, up, or on the rocks, with differing conventions. High-quality whisky and" ]

[ "Let me tell you about a man...a great man...a man who helped the underdogs...a man who traveled by many forms...a man who loved his nieces and nephew. A man who left this world too early. \n\nThat mans name was John Candy.", "Kids these days...\n\nಠ_ಠ\n\nJamaica did bobsled in the Olympics before... despite massive opposition they came in last" ]

[ "Jamaica national bobsleigh team Beginnings The team, consisting of Devon Harris, Dudley Stokes, Michael White, Freddy Powell, and last minute replacement Chris Stokes, debuted at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta. The team was coached by Howard Siler, an Olympic bobsledder for the United States in 1972 and 1980. They quickly became very popular, largely because of their status as the ultimate \"underdog\" story of the games. Alongside the novelty of a tropical country competing in a cold-weather sport, the team had very little experience going down a bobsled track, and borrowed spare sleds from other countries", "Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway. There, the Jamaican four sled stunned many of their critics by finishing in 14th place, ahead of the United States, Russia, Australia, and France.\nIn 2000, the Jamaican bobsleigh team won the gold medal at the World Push Championships in Monaco.\nAt the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, the 2-man team of Winston Watts (pilot) and Lascelles Brown (brakeman) set the Park City bobsled track record and the Olympic record for the push-start segment of the 2-man race at 4.78 seconds. Jamaica failed to qualify for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, or", "the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada. They did, however, qualify for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia as a two-man bobsled.\nJamaica also competed in women's bobsleigh, with a crew of two, consisting of pilot Porscha Morgan and Wycombe Cole on brakes, winning World Push Championship titles in 2000 and 2001. They achieved the fastest push times in all runs, resulting in a landslide victory. These women initiated the Jamaican women bobsleigh team/program and were seen as contenders in the sport. However, the women's programme suffered a setback because of lack of funding, and brakeman Wynsome Cole suffered injuries", "Ramgeet, and Barrington Harvey. Also, there are hundreds of Jamaicans who are employed in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom as exercise riders and groomers.\nRace car driving is also a popular sport in Jamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across the country.\nThe Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well-established teams. Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively. Netball is also very popular on the island, with the Jamaica national", "the only country to achieve this feat other than the American teams of 1984 and 1988. This made Jamaicans characterize this Olympic games as the \"JAlympics\".\nJamaica's last medal of the games came in the women's 4 x 400 m relay. The team of Shericka Williams, Shereefa Lloyd, Rosemarie Whyte and Novlene Williams claimed bronze. This finally gave Jamaica a medal tally of 6 golds, 3 silvers and 2 bronzes, smashing the previous national record that was set in 1952, and finishing 13th in the medal table of all sports. In athletics, Jamaica placed third in the overall medal count. Late", "itself. The bobsled competition in the film consists of three individual runs held on three consecutive days, whereas in reality the Olympic bobsled competition consists of four runs - two runs a day held over two consecutive days.\nIn the film, the Jamaicans are regarded as unwelcome outsiders to the Games by other countries (particularly East Germany) and ridiculed. In reality, the Jamaicans were treated as equals and there was no real animosity between the team and their competitors; in fact, the Jamaicans were aided by the United States team who lent them one of their backup sleds so they could", "now one of the world's top sprinters and an Olympic silver medallist. Francis also coaches 100 m Olympic Champion Shelly-Ann Fraser, Olympic 400 m silver medallist Shericka Williams and 400 m hurdles Olympic Gold medalist Melaine Walker. Francis has also influenced the careers of Ainsley Waugh and Germaine Mason. Jamaica's recent successes are thanks to home-based coaches like Stephen Francis.\nA few years ago, the Jamaican Amateur Athletic Association (JAAA) built the High Performance Training Centre in UTech, to try to get athletes to stay in Jamaica. Since then there are several high-profile athletes from all over the Caribbean training there,", "Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, California, because the bobsled race was not held for economic reasons (for the only time in the history of the Winter Olympic Games).\nBut it was during the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck that Monti performed the best-known act of his sporting career. Realizing that British bobsledders Tony Nash and Robin Dixon had broken a bolt on their sled, Monti lent them the bolt off his sled. The Britons won the gold medal in the 2-man bobsled, while Monti and his teammate took the bronze medal. Answering critics from the home press, Monti told them \"Nash", "to have done so). Kelly Holmes was one of the success stories of the 2004 Summer Olympics having won multiple gold medals and still holding numerous British records in distance running. Other notable British people of Jamaican origin who have successfully competed in the Olympic Games include Colin Jackson, and Tasha Danvers. Besides athletics and gymnastics, British Jamaicans have also become heavily associated with the sport of boxing. Frank Bruno is one of the more notable individuals, he won 40 out of 45 of his contests and held the title of WBC Heavyweight Championship in the mid-1990s. Chris", "the Canadian Bobsleigh Team in the fall of 2013, earning a spot as the top brakeman on the 2014 Canadian Olympic team. Heather and Kaillie Humphries repeated as Olympic gold medallists at the 2014 Sochi Olympics, pulling ahead of rival USA 1, piloted by Elana Meyers and braked by Lauryn Williams, on the final run of the four-heat competition. The pair became only the third Canadian Winter Olympians to repeat as gold medalists in a non-team sport and the only female gold medalists from the Vancouver Olympics to repeat as gold medalists in Sochi. Humphries and Moyse were also selected", "in national competitions (most notably the VMBS Girls and Boys Athletics Championships) and international meets (most notably the Penn Relays). In Jamaica it is not uncommon for young athletes to attain press coverage and national fame long before they arrive on the international athletics stage.\nOver the past six decades Jamaica has produced dozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World Champion Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58s, and 200m for men at 19.19s. Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters include Arthur Wint, the first Jamaican Olympic gold medalist; Donald Quarrie, Elaine Thompson double Olympic champion", "has also won Olympic gold in the 4×400 meters relay at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the 2008 Summer Olympics, and the 2012 Summer Olympics. She was the best 400m runner in the world for a decade, ranking No. 1 in the world from 2005-2009 and again in 2012.\nSeveral Jamaican-Americans, including Jeff Cunningham, Robin Fraser and Mark Chung, have played for the United States national soccer team.\nThere have also been many Jamaican-American NBA Players including Patrick Ewing, Patrick Ewing Jr., Tristan Thompson, Roy Hibbert, and Omari Johnson.\nNotable Jamaican-American NFL football players includes Patrick Chung, Atari Bigby, Nevin Lawson, Orlando", "Federation because of his background as a Navy SEAL. His first experience in a bobsleigh was at a driving school in Calgary, Alberta, Canada in November 1992. He earned qualification for the 1994 Winter Olympics, held in Lillehammer Norway, by scoring 38 points across two international competitions held in Calgary, to earn above the minimum standard of 20 points, and by taking part in five international competitions. His results included a tenth-place finish in an Americas Cup Division race.\nHe was selected to represent American Samoa at the 1994 Winter Olympics as part of a two-man bobsleigh team alongside brakeman", "Jeffrey Jost Jeffrey Jost (sometimes listed as Jeff Jost) is an American bobsledder who competed from the late 1970s to the mid-1980s. He is best known for being the first Bobsleigh World Cup champion in the four-man event (though unofficial) in 1984-85.\nCompeting in two Winter Olympics, Jost earned his best finish of fifth in the four-man event at Sarajevo in 1984.", "Jan Kobián Jan Kobián (born October 28, 1970 in Prague) is a Czech bobsledder who has competed since 1992. Competing in five Winter Olympics, he earned his best finish of eighth in the two-man event at Nagano in 1998.\nKobián's best finish at the FIBT World Championships was 11th in the four-man event at Calgary in 2005.", "Boldon with a serious hip injury, and he was a shadow of his former self as a sprinter. In 2004 at the Athens Olympic Games, he failed to advance out of the first round of the 100 m heats but captained his country's 4 x 100 m relay team to their first-ever Olympic final, where they finished seventh.\nBoldon is the eighth person to win a medal for Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics and currently has the third most wind-legal sub-10 second 100 m performances in history with 28, behind former training partner Maurice Greene, who has 52, and Jamaica's former 100 m World", "Olympics, she became the first Bahraini athlete to win an Olympic gold medal by winning the 3000m steeplechase with a time of 8:59.75 making her the second fastest within the event of all time.\nOn 27 August 2016, at the Paris stage of the 2016 IAAF Diamond League, Jebet smashed the existing 3000 metres steeplechase world record running at 8:52.78, more than six seconds faster than the old record.\nWhile her change in eligibility offends many Kenyans, who have accused her of disloyalty, she benefits financially far better than Kenyan athletes. For her Olympic gold medal, she is reported to be", "Shane McKenzie Shane McKenzie (born in Adelaide, South Australia) is an Australian bobsleigh athlete. He represented Australia at the Winter Olympics in 2006.\nMcKenzie first started the in sport of Bobsleigh in 2003 when he was recruited by top Australian professional sprinter, Robin Calleja who encouraged McKenzie to join him on the European Circuit.\nAfter he was runner-up in the Under 20 Australian 100m title, McKenzie represented Australia at the 1992 World Junior Athletics Championships in Seoul, Korea.\nHe has been a professional sprinter competing regularly in South Australian Athletic League, Victorian Athletic League, Tasmanian Athletic League and New South Wales Athletic League", "parade in Brooklyn annually and dress in lavish and colorful costumes during the Brooklyn celebration along Eastern Parkway. Sports A number of Jamaican Americans have excelled in international competition and carried home many trophies. Donald Quarrie won the 200 and the 4 × 100 meters relay Olympic Gold Medal. Merlene Ottey won the 200 and the 4 × 100 meters relay. George Headley, who was born in Panama in 1909, transported to Cuba, grew up in Jamaica. and lived in the United States. Sanya Richards-Ross won gold in the 400 metres after finishing third at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Richards-Ross", "great sprinting tradition. These two men are regarded as the pioneers of Jamaican athletics. In the 400 m final McKenley ran out of steam in the last 100 m and Wint passed him to become Jamaica's first Olympic Gold Medallist. Wint narrowly missed out on a Gold in the 800 m but still went home a hero. 1950s In the 1952 Helsinki Olympics, Jamaican heroes Arthur Wint and Herb Mckenley were back along with George Rhoden and Leslie Laing. Together these four made up the gold medal winning 4x400 m relay team becoming the only team other than the Americans", "at the Jamaican National Championships and was seventh in the 100 m at the 2008 Central American and Caribbean Championships in Athletics.\nDriven on by the success of Jamaica at the 2008 Summer Olympics, he competed extensively in the 2009 outdoor season. He was fifth at the Jamaican Championships and took the 100 m silver medal at the 2009 Central American and Caribbean Championships in Athletics with a significant personal best of 10.08 seconds. He also led off the Jamaican relay team which finished as runners-up. He was selected as a first heat relay runner at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics and received", "Sport in Jamaica Athletics Jamaica is one of the leading countries in sprinting with the current world record holder for 100m and 200m, Usain Bolt and the former 100m world record holder, Asafa Powell, both originating from the island, as does Yohan Blake, silver medalist at the 2012 London Olympics in the 100m and 200m. Also, a team of four Jamaicans, Bolt included (Powell being absent in Daegu 2011 due to injury), won the gold and broke the World Record in the 2008 Beijing Olympics and the 2011 IAAF World Athletics Championships, their new personal best is 37.04, from 37.10", "Lerone Clarke Early career Like multiple Olympic champion Usain Bolt and former Jamaican sprinter Michael Green, Clarke is a former student of William Knibb Memorial High School. He attended Lincoln University of Missouri in the United States and competed for their Blue Tigers athletic team in 2002 and 2003.\nHis first international appearance for Jamaica came at the 2002 NACAC Under-25 Championships in Athletics, where he led off the Jamaican 4×100 metres relay team to take the bronze medal. He set a personal best of 10.24 seconds at the 2005 Central American and Caribbean Championships in Athletics, coming sixth in the 100 m", "Kerron Stewart had looked impressive in the earlier rounds, but in the final, Shelly-Ann Fraser finished well ahead of the field with Stewart and Sherone Simpson getting joint silver medals after recording identical times. This made Jamaica the first country to get a clean sweep of the medals in the women's 100 m at the Olympic Games.\nOn Tuesday, 19 August, Shericka Williams won silver in the women's 400 m by passing the favourite Sanya Richards (who herself is Jamaican- born), on the home straight. This medal gave Jamaica a tally of 2 golds, 3 silvers and no bronzes. However, there", "the 2015 Pan American Games in Toronto. Moreover, she managed to add a silver to her Pan American Games career tally in the individual sprint race, with the gold going to her teammate Sullivan.\nIn 2016, she was officially named to Canada's 2016 Olympic team.\nO'Brien claimed 5th place at the 2017 World Championships (in the team sprint, with Amelia Walsh), and silver in the 2017 World Cup in L.A. She is the current Canadian record holder in the 500m time trial and in the team sprint.", "at the 4-man event held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He was at the 2006 Winter Olympics, but did not run in either competition. Jones is now part of the United States Olympic Committee and is widely considered as the most decorated bobsledder in U.S. history. Personal life Jones is married to his wife, Cheri Alou, and currently resides in Atlanta, Georgia. Jones and his wife Cheri also have twins, Roman and Marissa, who reside with them in Atlanta, Georgia. His nephew, Brad Stinson, Jr., also graduated from Duke University in 2012. Jones currently works as a Technology Director for Omnicom", "Faith. Bobsleigh In 2008 Jason took part in a project to qualify four athletes from diverse sports in the British 2 Man Bobsleigh Championships, after just two weeks of training. Along with World Champion track cyclist Craig MacLean, Rugby World Cup winner Dan Luger and Commonwealth Decathlon champion Dean Macey, he attempted to complete two runs down the course at Cesana Pariol in Italy (site of the 2006 Winter Olympics) to gain qualification to the finals. Selected as pusher for driver Macey, he succeeded in finishing in sixth place overall, as well as being the highest placed novice pair. The", "Will Alstergren (bobsleigh) Will Alstergren was the captain of the Australian bobsled team in 2002. His team met the International Olympic Committee qualifying standards for the 2002 Winter Olympics, but the Australian Olympic Committee used higher standards and did not send them to compete. Alstergren said \"We also beat half the teams currently in Salt Lake City, but unfortunately we couldn't meet the very high standard of the AOC\".", "'Triple-Double' (retaining his 100m and 200m titles from the 2008 Beijing Olympics at the 2012 London Olympics and 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics). Cricket Cricket is one of the most popular sports in Jamaica. The Jamaica national cricket team has won ten Regional Four Day Competitions and seven WICB Cups. Jamaicans also play for the West Indies cricket team, which won the 1975 and 1979 Cricket World Cup. Jamaica has produced some of the world's most famous cricketers, including George Headley, Courtney Walsh, Chris Gayle and Michael Holding. Association football Association football is a very popular sport in Jamaica, and", "Ana María Porras Ana María Porras (born 21 September 1991) is a Costa Rican track and field athlete who competes in the heptathlon and hurdling events. She is the Costa Rican record holder in the long jump (5.95 m) and the heptathlon (4954 points).\nShe has been highly successful at regional level, winning seven gold medals at the Central American Championships in Athletics across various events from 2007 to 2015. She won medals in three events at the 2013 Central American Games, including two golds. She is the heptathlon meet record holder at both the Central American Games and Championships. In" ]

[ "Sort of. It's called [Mithridatism](_URL_0_), after a Roman-era king of Pontus (northern modern Turkey). But you can only do it with certain poisons; others just build up in your body until they kill you.", "No, not really.\n\n\"Immunity\" to toxins doesn't really happen. You can become more tolerant, but there will always be a deadly dose. There are even deadly doses of things we wouldn't normally consider toxic, like water.", "Yes. I personally have built an immunity to iocane powder. Very useful in situations like when short, mad Sicilians kidnap your True Love.", "I pretty much agree with everyone here. The biology of how it works (in a nutshell) is this:\n\nSeveral organs are tasked with clearing poisons from the body, but the main one is probably the liver. (Let's just talk about the liver for simplicity.)\n\nYour liver cells have receptors (sort of \"feelers\") on their surface to detect certain toxins. When they are detected, the liver cells respond by producing enzymes designed to break down that particular toxin. If the liver is constantly being exposed to a toxin (like alcohol), it will constantly have a supply of the enzymes that get rid of it on hand. If that's the case, you will need more alcohol to have the same effect. That's what tolerance is.\n\nOver time, though the cells become overworked, and exhausted, and die. Liver cells are also particularly sensitive to the toxic effects of alcohol. So in the long run you can generally sustain your ability to drink alcohol longer than you can sustain your ability to rid your body of it. Most toxins have a similar critical point. \n\nNow the question of natural vs man-made toxins is interesting, but the answer is that it doesn't necessarily matter. The human body only has so many vulnerabilities that poisons can exploit. Don't get me wrong, there are plenty, but not infinitely many. Nature has done a pretty thorough job of devising ways to kill us. I'm not sure humans have invented a totally novel toxin, so much as tweaked and improved existing natural ones, like \" here's a version of venom that does the same thing, just much faster! It kills you long before your body can mount a defense.\" So, in those cases can you develop immunity? Theoretically? Sure. But in practice... that'd be hard to do" ]

[ "effective as a poison, though moves to ban it over concerns about its toxicity have made it unavailable in some areas.\nTreatment for wild felids, however, is difficult for this parasite, as detection is the best way to find which individuals have the parasite. This can be difficult as infected species are hard to detect. Once detected, the infected individuals would have to be removed from the population, in order to lower the risk of continual exposure to the parasites.\nA primary method that has been used to lower the amount of infection is removal through hunting. Removal can", "Artificial induction of immunity Artificial induction of immunity is the artificial induction of immunity to specific diseases – making people immune to disease by means other than waiting for them to catch the disease. The purpose is to reduce the risk of death and suffering.\nImmunity against infections that can cause serious illness is generally beneficial. Since Pasteur provided support for a germ theory of infectious disease, we have increasingly induced immunity against a widening range of diseases to prevent the associated risks from the wild infections. It is hoped that further understanding of the molecular basis of immunity will", "their greater resolving power in the 20th century. Toxoids Some diseases, such as tetanus, cause disease not by bacterial growth but by bacterial production of a toxin. Tetanus toxin is so lethal that humans cannot develop immunity to a natural infection, as the amount of toxin and time required to kill a person is much less than is required by the immune system to recognize the toxin and produce antibodies against it. However the tetanus toxin is easily denatured losing its ability to produce disease, but leaving it able to induce immunity to tetanus when injected into subjects. The denatured", "act by binding to and neutralizing venoms.\nAlthough individuals can vary in their physiopathological response and sensitivity to animal venoms, there is no natural immunity to them in humans. Some ophiophagic animals are immune to the venoms produced by some species of venomous snakes, by the presence of antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic factors in their blood.\nIt is quite possible to immunize a person directly with small and graded doses of venom rather than an animal. According to the Greek history, King Mithridates did this in order to protect himself against attempts of poisoning, therefore this procedure is often called mithridatism. However, unlike", "obtained from the blood, it is purified and injected into a human or other animal, inducing temporary passive immunity. To prevent serum sickness, it is often best to use an antitoxin obtained from the same species (e.g. use human antitoxin to treat humans). History of antitoxin Antitoxins to diphtheria and tetanus toxins were produced by Emil Adolf von Behring and his colleagues from 1890 onwards. The use of diphtheria antitoxin for the treatment of diphtheria was regarded by The Lancet as the \"most important advance of the [19th] Century in the medical treatment of acute infectious disease\".\nIn 1888, Behring was", "An exception to this can be in advanced analyses for acute poisoning.", "through the skin and lungs. Hydrofluoric acid is a notorious contact poison, in addition to its corrosive damage. Naturally occurring sour gas is a notorious, fast-acting atmospheric poison (as released by volcanic activity or drilling rigs). Plant-based contact irritants, such as that possessed by poison ivy or poison oak, are often classed as allergens rather than poisons; the effect of an allergen being not a poison as such, but to turn the body's natural defenses against itself. Poison can also enter the body through faulty medical implants, or by injection (which is the basis of lethal injection in the context", "there are antidotes to cyanide poisoning, their effectiveness is controversial and the rapid action of the poison limits the time in which they can be used. Its effectiveness varies because of bait shyness. Cholecalciferol Cholecalciferol naturally occurs as vitamin D₃ in many foods, including fish. It was developed as a poison to control rats and mice in the 1980s. It works by leaching calcium from the bones of the poisoned animal into its bloodstream, leading to organ failure. Cholecalciferol will reduce populations of possums and rats, but not stoats, since it does not bioaccumulate in animals. It breaks down readily", "containing working TK and HGPRT. Many useful refinements to the scheme are made possible by poisons that kill cells, but to which they are immune if they lack one of these genes. Thus, a cell lacking TK is resistant to bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) and a cell lacking HGPRT is resistant to 6-thioguanine (6-TG) and 8-azaguanine. Thus, selection with one of the latter two drugs, followed by HAT medium, will yield revertant colonies. Applications HAT medium is often used for preparation of monoclonal antibodies. This process is called hybridoma technology. Laboratory animals (e.g., mice) are first exposed to an antigen against which", "order of magnitude greater than the ED50. An alternative classification distinguishes between lethal substances that provide a therapeutic value and those that do not. Poisoning Poisoning can be either acute or chronic, and caused by a variety of natural or synthetic substances. Substances that destroy tissue but do not absorb, such as lye, are classified as corrosives rather than poisons. Acute Acute poisoning is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a short period of time. Symptoms develop in close relation to the exposure. Absorption of a poison is necessary for systemic poisoning. Furthermore, many common household medications", "depolymerization process (TDP) does not.\nThe process breaks down almost all materials that are fed into it. TDP even efficiently breaks down many types of hazardous materials, such as poisons and difficult-to-destroy biological agents such as prions. Advantages The process can break down organic poisons, due to breaking chemical bonds and destroying the molecular shape needed for the poison's activity. It is likely to be highly effective at killing pathogens, including prions. It can also safely remove heavy metals from the samples by converting them from their ionized or organometallic forms to their stable oxides which can be safely separated from", "than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.\nA deadly poison, ricin, comes from seeds of the castor bean. Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds,\nthough only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by animals.\nIn addition, seeds containing amygdalin – apple, apricot, bitter almond, peach, plum, cherry, quince, and others – when consumed in sufficient amounts, may cause cyanide poisoning.\nOther seeds that contain poisons include annona, cotton, custard apple, datura, uncooked durian, golden chain, horse-chestnut, larkspur, locoweed, lychee, nectarine, rambutan, rosary pea, sour sop, sugar apple, wisteria, and yew.", "large-scale production as of 2013. In the future it might be possible to artificially design antibodies to fit specific antigens, then produce them in large quantities to induce temporary immunity in people in advance of exposure to a specific pathogen, such as a bacterium, a virus, or a prion. At present, the science to understand this process is available but not the technology to perform it.", "translate to improved clinical practice in the future. Variolation and smallpox The earliest recorded artificial induction of immunity in humans was by variolation or inoculation, which is the controlled infection of a subject with a less lethal natural form of smallpox (known as Variola Minor) to make him or her immune to re-infection with the more lethal natural form, Variola Major. This was practiced in ancient times in China and India, and imported into Europe, via Turkey, around 1720 by Lady Montagu and perhaps others. From England, the technique spread rapidly to the Colonies, and was also spread by", "antigens. Conjugation is the attachment to the antigen of another substance which also generates an immune response, thus amplifying the overall response and causing a more robust immune memory to the antigen. For example, a toxoid might be attached to a polysaccharide from the capsule of the bacteria responsible for most lobar pneumonia. Temporarily induced immunity Temporary immunity to a specific infection can be induced in a subject by providing the subject with externally produced immune molecules, known as antibodies or immunoglobulins. This was first performed (and is still sometimes performed) by taking blood from a subject who is already", "Human poisoning often occurs in isolated cases, but may also occur in epidemics. Many cases of poisoning are the result of using ethylene glycol as a cheap substitute for alcohol or intentional ingestions in suicide attempts. Less commonly it has been used as a means of homicide. Children or animals may be exposed by accidental ingestion; children and animals often consume large amounts due to ethylene glycol having a sweet taste. In the United States there were 5816 cases reported to poison centers in 2002. Additionally, ethylene glycol was the most common chemical responsible for deaths reported by US poison", "are poisons. Common catalyst poisons include the following: carbon monoxide, halide, cyanide, sulfide, sulfite, and phosphite and organic molecules such as nitriles, nitros, oximes and nitrogen-containing heterocycles. Agents vary their catalytic properties because of the nature of the transition metal. Benefits of selective poisoning Usually, catalyst poisoning is undesirable as it leads to a loss of usefulness of expensive noble metals or their complexes. However, poisoning of catalysts can be used to improve selectivity of reactions. Poisoning can allow for selective intermediates to be isolated and final products with desirable stereochemistry to be achieved. Palladium catalyst Poisoning of palladium and", "Theobroma cacao can be incidentally fatal nevertheless. Many omnivores, including humans, readily consume edible fungi, and thus many fungi have evolved to become decisively inedible, in this case as a direct defense. Chronic Chronic poisoning is long-term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur immediately or after each exposure. The patient gradually becomes ill, or becomes ill after a long latent period. Chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following exposure to poisons that bioaccumulate, or are biomagnified, such as mercury, gadolinium, and lead. Epidemiology In 2010, poisoning resulted in about 180,000 deaths down from 200,000 in", "accidental, involve children, and usually do not result in any type of medical treatment. POISINDEX, a major source for poison control centers, says a 50 lb (23 kg) child would have to eat 500 bracts (poinsettia leaves) to accumulate levels of toxins found to be harmful in experiments. An Ohio State University study showed no problems even with extremely large doses.", "is possible that they can be changed to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents in the hands of terrorists pose serious threats to states’ security because they can be easily spread through the air, through water, and through food. Biological agents can also be difficult to detect and often do not cause illness for several hours to several days. A prominent example of a bioterrorist attack on the United States is the September 2001 anthrax attacks. On September 18,", "poisoning It is specifically only used for radioactive caesium poisoning when the caesium has entered the body either by swallowing or breathing it in.", "trends, and real reform or consumer protection is obstructed by the powerful connections that offending corporations have with the government.\nIf the poison is such that it acts slowly and insidiously, perhaps over a long period of years (and several such will be considered in later chapters), then we poor consumers must be test animals all our lives; and when, in the end, the experiment kills us a year or ten years sooner than otherwise we would have died, no conclusions can be drawn and a hundred million others are available for further tests.\nThe authors develop ideas such as synergy effects,", "by the ELISA detection method. On the contrary, lower temperatures and low heat durations have commonly failed to inactivate the virus.\nAnother method that has been tested is cross protection. Cross protection is a type of induced resistance that is developed among plants against viruses. During this event, a prior infection with one virus may offer protection against another closely related viruses. This technique has been tested on Johnathon apples. Healthy strains of the Johnathon apples were infected with a mild strain of ApMV and then further exposed to viral infections by moderate and severe strains. The trees infected with the", "immune, isolating the fraction of the blood which contains antibodies (known as the serum), and injecting this serum into the person for whom immunity is desired. This is known as passive immunity, and the serum that is isolated from one subject and injected into another is sometimes called antiserum. Antiserum from other mammals, notably horses, has been used in humans with generally good and often life-saving results, but there is some risk of anaphylactic shock and even death from this procedure because the human body sometimes recognizes antibodies from other animals as foreign proteins.\nPassive immunity is temporary, because the antibodies", "a vaccination against disease which must only produce a latent immunity that can be roused in case of infection, in order to neutralize a sudden and large dose of venom requires maintaining a high level of circulating antibody (a hyperimmunized state), through repeated venom injections (typically every 21 days). The long-term health effects of this process have not been studied. Further, cytotoxic venom components can cause pain and scarring at the immunization site. Finally, the resistance is specific to the used particular venom; maintaining resistance to a variety of venom requires multiple monthly venom injections. Thus, there is no practical", "important enzyme of the nervous system, and these chemical groups kill pests and potentially injure or kill humans by inhibiting cholinesterase. If one has had a baseline test and later suspects a poisoning, one can identify the extent of the problem by comparison of the current cholinesterase level with the baseline level. Prevention Accidental poisonings can be avoided by proper labeling and storage of containers. When handling or applying pesticides, exposure can be significantly reduced by protecting certain parts of the body where the skin shows increased absorption, such as the scrotal region, underarms, face, scalp, and hands. Safety", "in amatoxin poisoning cases. In a trial of one of the flavolignans silybin, in 60 patients poisoned by amatoxin-containing Amanita species, there were no deaths. (see Der Marderosian & Liberti 1988 and Foster 1991 for a summary of this work).", "123). Other nAChR antagonists may serve as effective antidotes for this particular type of poisoning, as they would block nAChR to prevent the acetylcholine agonist from binding to the acetylcholine receptors.", "mice that can protect against potentially fatal venom doses. .\nLikewise, injecting mice with a small dose of bee venom conferred immunity to a much larger, fatal dose, Stanford researchers Stephen Galli, Thomas Marichal, and Philipp Starkl found. \"Our findings support the hypothesis that this kind of venom-specific, IgE-associated, adaptive immune response developed, at least in evolutionary terms, to protect the host against potentially toxic amounts of venom, such as would happen if the animal encountered a whole nest of bees, or in the event of a snakebite,\" Galli explained.\nThe 2011 play The How and the Why by Sarah", "the patient again because it will be recognized by the body. If the vaccine or gene therapy fails in clinical trials, the virus can’t be used again in the patient for a different vaccine or gene therapy in the future. Pre-existing immunity against the viral vector could also be present in the patient rendering the therapy ineffective for that patient. It is possible to counteract pre-existing immunity when using a viral vector for vaccination by priming with a non-viral DNA vaccine, but this method presents another expense and obstacle in the vaccine distribution process. Pre-existing immunity may also be challenged" ]

[ "I think the best way to explain this is through an analogy. Imagine you have two tanks of water. One has a lot of water and the other is empty. If you were to connect a pipe running from the bottom of one tank to the bottom of the other, water would flow through the pipe until both tanks have the same level of water. If you were to put a water wheel in the path of the water flowing through the pipe, you could use the flow of the water to do work.\n\nBatteries work the same way. They create a \"potential difference\" between the terminals. This is a fancy way of saying one terminal has a lot more electrons than the other, just like the tank with more water. If you were to connect the terminals with a \"pipe\" (or in this case a wire) that would allow electrons to flow to the terminal with little electrons, they would. We can also use that flow of electrons to do work for us as they go from one terminal to another, such as power a screen.\n\nWe can estimate how much energy is left in a battery the same way we can estimate how much more water is left in the full tank. As the amount of water-difference between the tanks decreases, so will the speed at which the water flows through the pipe and consequently the speed at which the water wheel spins. Similarly, as the amount of potential-difference between the terminals of a battery decreases, so does the current of electrons and consequently, the amount of work that current can do. Devices can measure that decrease in work and use that to estimate the amount of potential difference left in the battery", "The Voltage of a battery depends on the charge. A five voltage battery may start with 5.1 Volt and slowly go down. When you're at 4.9 volt you'll know the battery is rather empty.\n\nI'm not sure if that is the case for all modern Rechargeable batteries. They might have special measuring and charging chips included." ]

[ "Battery pack Calculating state of charge SOC, or state of charge, is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for a battery. SOC cannot be determined by a simple voltage measurement, because the terminal voltage of a battery may stay substantially constant until it is completely discharged. In some types of battery, electrolyte specific gravity may be related to state of charge but this is not measurable on typical battery pack cells, and is not related to state of charge on most battery types. Most SOC methods take into account voltage and current as well as temperature and", "can be misleading. To avoid this confusion, researchers sometimes use cumulative discharge defined as which total amount of charge (Ah) delivered by the battery during its entire life or equivalent full cycles, which represents the summation of the partial cycles as a fractions of a full charge-discharge cycle. Battery degradation during the storage is affected by temperature and battery state of charge (SOC) and a combination of full charge (100% SOC) and high temperature (usually > 50 °C) can result in sharp capacity drop and gas generation.\nMultiplying the battery cumulative discharge (in Ah) by the rated nominal Voltage gives the total", "the same unit as the charge or discharge current. The C-rate is never negative, so whether it describes a charging or discharging process depends on the context.\nFor example, for a battery with a capacity of 500 mAh, a discharge rate of 5000 mA (i.e., 5 A) corresponds to a C-rate of 10 (per hour), meaning that such a current can discharge 10 such batteries in one hour. Likewise, for the same battery a charge current of 250 mA corresponds to a C-rate of 1/2 (per hour), meaning that this current will increase the state of charge of this battery by 50% in one hour.\nSince", "change in battery state of discharge is captured using built-in battery voltage sensors. The first challenging idea is to convert battery voltage readings into power consumption. This is determined by state of discharge (which is total consumed energy by battery) variation within a testing interval captured by voltage sensors that will eventually drive the following equation.\n (10)\nWhere E is the rated battery energy capacity and SOD (Vi) is the battery state of discharge at voltage Vi and P is the average power consumption in the time interval t1 and t2. The state of discharge can be estimated using look up", "State of charge State of charge (SoC) is the level of charge of an electric battery relative to its capacity. The units of SoC are percentage points (0% = empty; 100% = full). An alternate form of the same measure is the depth of discharge (DoD), the inverse of SoC (100% = empty; 0% = full). SoC is normally used when discussing the current state of a battery in use, while DoD is most often seen when discussing the lifetime of the battery after repeated use.\nIn a battery electric vehicle (BEV), hybrid vehicle (HV), or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV),", "a charge cycle means using all the battery's capacity, but not necessarily by discharging it from 100% to 0%: \"You complete one charge cycle when you’ve used (discharged) an amount that equals 100% of your battery’s capacity — but not necessarily all from one charge. For instance, you might use 75% of your battery’s capacity one day, then recharge it fully overnight. If you use 25% the next day, you will have discharged a total of 100%, and the two days will add up to one charge cycle.\"", "interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called \"interface charge\", spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.\nIf a battery has been completely discharged (e.g. the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. The battery voltage may rise to be close to the charger voltage so that the charging current decreases significantly. After a few hours", "table where the relationship between present voltage and SOD is captured. Determining the energy is also an issue because the energy is changing as the battery gets old. The new batteries have the total energy written on their back but the value can’t be true for all time. It can estimate the energy at highest and lowest discharge rate to decrease the error. The internal resistance also has significant impact on the discharged current. To decrease the effect of internal resistance all the phone components can be switched to their lowest power modes to minimize the discharge current when taking", "stage. This phase occurs when an IUoU charger is connected to a deeply discharged battery. The charger provides a constant current, typically the maximum current that the charger is capable of producing. As a result of the current, the battery absorbs the charge and its voltage rises. The charger limits the maximum voltage to Uₘₐₓ, a constant or temperature-dependent maximum, typically around 2.4 V per cell. Once the Uₘₐₓ voltage is reached, typically when the battery is charged to 70–80% of its capacity, the charger enters the Uo-phase. In case of a battery that is more than 80% full, this", "bin (Annex II) to indicate that the battery should not go in the bin. This symbol size is specified as a percent of battery area on its largest side (3%), except for cylindrical batteries, where the symbol should be 1.5% of total surface area. Penalties Member states will set up measures for \"effective, proportionate, and dissuasive\" penalties for actions not comporting to the battery Directive and apprise the European Commission of these measures and any changes (Art. 25). In practice In practice, manufacturers of batteries need to make sure they have applied the legal framework to their company. This means", "In-cell charge control In-Cell Charge Control or I-C3 is a method for very rapid charging of a Nickel-metal hydride battery, patented by Rayovac. Batteries using this technology are commonly sold as \"15-minute rechargeables\".\nThe charge control consists of a pressure switch built into the cell, which disconnects the charging current when the internal cell pressure rises above a certain limit (usually 200 to 300 psi or 1.4 to 2.1 MPa). This prevents overcharging and damage to the cell.", "the battery voltage might rise to a value near that of the charger voltage; this causes the charging current to decrease significantly. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the volume of the electrode and electrolyte; this leads to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start the car. As long as the charging voltage stays below the gassing voltage (about 14.4 volts in a normal lead–acid battery), battery damage is unlikely, and in time the battery should return to a nominally charged state. Valve regulated (VRLA) In a valve", "at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte, are initially affected. With time, the charge stored in the chemicals at the interface, often called \"interface charge\" or \"surface charge\", spreads by diffusion of these chemicals throughout the volume of the active material.\nConsider a battery that has been completely discharged (such as occurs when leaving the car lights on overnight, a current draw of about 6 amps). If it then is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, the battery plates charge only near the interface between the plates and the electrolyte. In this case", "at this voltage, some manufacturers such as Varta made 8.4 volt batteries with seven cells for more critical applications. Charging Ni–Cd batteries can be charged at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, an \"overnight\" charge, might consist of", "a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed. Voltages for common usage IUoU battery charging is a three-stage charging procedure for lead-acid batteries. A lead-acid battery's nominal voltage is 2 V for each cell. For a single cell, the voltage can range from 1.8 V loaded at full discharge, to 2.10 V in an open circuit at full charge. Float voltage varies depending on battery type (i.e. flooded cells, gelled electrolyte, absorbed glass mat), and ranges from 1.8 V to 2.27 V. Equalization voltage, and charging voltage for sulfated cells, can range from 2.67 V to almost 3 V. (only until a charge current", "know your generation capacity (as to not under or oversize your battery bank), the type of batteries used, their individual capacity (Ah), the discharge rate allowable per cycle (%), the size of loads (W or Wh), how long they will be run, and how many days or hours of storage you want to build. Battery sizing calculators are available online to simplify this process. Additionally, battery balancers, sensors that can read and recalibrate the available capacity, or state of charge, between different battery cells, can be added to extend the life of your battery system as to prohibit voltage offset", "conventional devices each increment of charge is absorbed by a single or a small number of particles until they are charged, then moves on. By distributing charge/discharge circuitry throughout the electrode, heating and degradation could be reduced while allowing much greater power density.\nIn 2014, researchers at Qnovo developed software for a smartphone and a computer chip capable of speeding up re-charge time by a factor of 3-6, while also increasing cycle durability. The technology is able to understand how the battery needs to be charged most effectively, while avoiding the formation of dendrites. Durability In 2014, independent researchers from Canada", "a relatively short time. The Uₒ-phase is concluded when the charge current goes below a threshold Iₘᵢₙ, after which the U-phase is entered. This happens when the battery is charged to around 95% of its capacity. Some manufacturers follow this stage by a second constant-current stage (with a gradually increasing voltage) before continuing with the U-phase. The voltage Uₒ may be the same as Uₘₐₓ in the previous stage, or it may be taken slightly higher.\nStage 3 is called the U-phase or float charge state, the voltage is reduced to a value that is safe to be applied for long", "Peukert's law Batteries Manufacturers specify the capacity of a battery at a specified discharge rate. For example, a battery might be rated at 100 A·h when discharged at a rate that will fully discharge the battery in 20 hours (at 5 amperes for this example). If discharged at a faster rate the delivered capacity is less. Peukert's law describes a power relationship between the discharge current (normalized to some base rated current) and delivered capacity (normalized to the rated capacity) over some specified range of discharge currents. If Peukert's constant , the exponent, were equal to unity, the delivered capacity", "typically require the charger to carefully monitor battery parameters such as terminal voltage and temperature to prevent overcharging and so damage to the cells. Such high charging rates are possible only with some battery types. Others will be damaged or possibly overheat or catch fire. Some batteries may even explode. For example, an automobile SLI (starting, lighting, ignition) lead-acid battery carries several risks of explosion. Simple charger A simple charger works by supplying a constant DC or pulsed DC power source to a battery being charged. A simple charger typically does not alter its output based on charging time or", "if the battery could hold its charge after it is unplugged, which would clarify whether it is really a new battery technology, or simply a capacitor. Braga responded to critics, saying \"Data is data, and we have similar data from many different cells, in four different instruments, different labs, glove box. And at the end of the day, the LEDs are lit for days with a very small amount of active material after having cycled for more than 23,000 times\". Comparison with lithium-ion batteries Braga and Goodenough stated they expect the battery to have an energy density many times higher", "the unit of the C-rate is typically implied, some care is required when using it to avoid confusing it with the battery's capacity to store a charge, which in the SI has unit coulomb with unit symbol C.\nIf both the (dis)charge current and the battery capacity in the C-rate ratio is multiplied by the battery voltage, the C-rate becomes a ratio of the (dis)charge power to the battery's energy capacity. For example, when the 100 kWh battery in a Tesla Model S P100D is undergoing supercharging at 120 kW the C-rate is 1.2 (per hour) and when that battery delivers its maximum", "C/2 to cell voltage = 1.9 V. One manufacturer recommends charging at a constant current of C/4 to C until cell voltage reaches 1.9V, then continuing to charge at a constant voltage of 1.9V until charge current declines to C/40.\nMaximum charge time is given variously as ​2 ¹⁄₂ hours and 3 hours. Once charged, continuous trickle charging is not recommended, as recombination is not provided for, and excess hydrogen will eventually vent, adversely affecting battery cycle life. A typical charger for NiZn batteries specifically does not trickle charge after the battery is fully charged, but shuts off.", "not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\nBattery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the weakest cell, so that each", "the fiber to its original deflected position.\nThe charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging electrode. Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.\nUnits with larger ranges are made by adding a capacitor attached between the electrode and the case. The capacitor stores a", "are, however, 10 times larger than conventional batteries for a given charge. On the other hand, it has been shown that the amount of charge stored in the dielectric \nlayer of the thin film capacitor can be equal to, or can even exceed, the amount of charge stored on its plates.\nIn car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand. Also, for a flash tube, a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage. Digital memory In the 1930s, John Atanasoff applied the principle of energy storage in capacitors to construct dynamic digital memories for", "such as volume expansion and power density. Limitations of current battery technology A battery’s ability to store charge is dependent on its energy density and power density. It is important that charge can remain stored and that a maximum amount of charge can be stored within a battery. Cycling and volume expansion are also important considerations as well. While many other types of batteries exist, current battery technology is based on lithium-ion intercalation technology for its high power and energy densities, long cycle life and no memory effects. These characteristics have led lithium-ion batteries to be preferred over other battery", "Battery charger A battery charger, or recharger, is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or rechargeable battery by forcing an electric current through it.\nThe charging protocol (how much voltage or current for how long, and what to do when charging is complete, for instance) depends on the size and type of the battery being charged. Some battery types have high tolerance for overcharging (i.e., continued charging after the battery has been fully charged) and can be recharged by connection to a constant voltage source or a constant current source, depending on battery type. Simple chargers of", "may happen immediately once the charger is switched on. Some chargers may keep the voltage at Uₘₐₓ for some time and allow the current to drop to 80% of the constant-current value, before proceeding to the next stage.\nStage 2 is called the Uₒ-phase, constant-voltage boost stage, absorption stage, or topping charge. In this stage, the battery is continued being charged at a constant (over)voltage Uₒ, but the charge current is decreasing. The decrease is imposed by the battery. The voltage in the Uₒ-phase is too high to be applied indefinitely (hence, overvoltage), but it allows charging the battery fully in", "Charge cycle A charge cycle is the process of charging a rechargeable battery and discharging it as required into a load. The term is typically used to specify a battery's expected life, as the number of charge cycles affects life more than the mere passage of time. Discharging the battery fully before recharging may be called \"deep discharge\"; partially discharging then recharging may be called \"shallow discharge\".\nIn general, number of cycles for a rechargeable battery indicates how many times it can undergo the process of complete charging and discharging until failure or it starting to lose capacity.\nApple Inc. clarifies that" ]

[ "From what I understand, our bodies defenses against hypothermia is to shiver. This involves involuntary muscle contractions to generate heat. These muscles contractions still can cause muscle soreness just like working out.", "Many athletes actually use a cold bath post workout to *alleviate* soreness. The idea is that the cold constricts blood vessels and reduces swelling, then afterwards the blood can flow back and speed recovery. This is especially popular amongst competitive cyclists. \n\nIf your muscles are sore after cold exposure, maybe they're just stiff and lacking blood flow. I've noticed it's hard to pedal after a dip in a cool lake midway through a ride. As the muscles rewarm, they regain their mobility.", "You probably just contract all your muscles as you hit the water, same as being hit by a car and feeling sore.\n\nSource: am hit by car once" ]

[ "intensity exercise while immersed or submersed. Exposure Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go", "Cold shock response Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water.\nIn animals, cold shock response is perhaps the most common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body. For people with existing cardiovascular disease, the additional workload can result in cardiac", "cold water, triggers a response called the diving reflex. This firstly has the result of shutting down the airways against the influx of water. The metabolic rate slows right down. This is coupled with intense vasoconstriction of the arteries to the limbs and abdominal viscera. This reserves the oxygen that is in blood and lungs at the beginning of the dive almost exclusively for the heart and the brain. The diving reflex is an often-used response in animals that routinely need to dive, such as penguins, seals and whales. It is also more effective in very young infants and", "ice was still floating. The German soldiers beat the prisoners and forced them into the water.\nKovačević says that such bathing Sundays were something that happened often: \"Bathing Sundays always ended with large and small tragedies. Many were so frozen stiff that they could not manage to get their clothes on, and so others had to dress them. It often happened that almost half of the prisoners had to be carried back to camp after bathing. And the Gypsies that had managed to resist both starvation and beatings were broken here. One after another, they had to be carried unconscious back", "Exposure Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives", "energetic, active and brisk. Swimmers who suffer from rheumatism, fibromyalgia or asthma report that winter swimming relieves pain.\nExercise in extreme cold promotes weight loss, since more fat is used to insulate the body from the low temperatures\nThere are indications that winter swimmers do not contract diseases as often as the general population. The incidence of infectious diseases affecting the upper respiratory tract is 40% lower among winter swimmers when compared to a control group. Short term exposure of the whole body to cold water produces oxidative stress, which makes winter swimmers develop improved antioxidative protection.", "50 ft (15 m) or more, and surprisingly cold, so swimming in quarry lakes is generally not recommended. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmer's muscles to suddenly weaken; it can also cause shock and even hypothermia. Though quarry water is often very clear, submerged quarry stones and abandoned equipment make diving into these quarries extremely dangerous. Several people drown in quarries each year. However, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites.\nSuch lakes, even lakes within active quarries, can provide important habitat for animals.", "water or the foil. The tow rope can get tangled around the skier or equipment, creating a hazardous condition. After a fall the skier remains strapped to the board; while it will turn upright quickly, there is always the possibility of drowning.", "patient couldn't take showers, and panicked when it rained. 'The fear of being killed is a terrifying experience', he said\". Keller also gave a full description in 2007 in testimony before the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence on the practice:\nThe CIA's Office of Medical Services noted in a 2003 memo that \"for reasons of physical fatigue or psychological resignation, the subject may simply give up, allowing excessive filling of the airways and loss of consciousness\".\nIn an open letter in 2007 to U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales, Human Rights Watch asserted that waterboarding can cause the sort of \"severe pain\"", "sports.\nOthers believe the incidence of concussions among synchronized swimmers is much higher, especially among the sport's elite athletes. \"I would say 100 percent of my athletes will get a concussion at some point,\" said Myriam Glez, chief executive of U.S.A. Synchro, the sport's national organizing body. \"It might be minor, might be more serious, but at some point or another, they will get hit.\"\nSynchronised swimmers often suffer from tendon injuries, as the sport tends to cause muscle imbalances. Common joint injuries include the rotator cuff and the knees.", "consequently cardiac arrest. The cold shock response and cardiac arrest are the most common causes of death related to cold water immersion.\nWinter swimming isn't dangerous for healthy persons, but should be avoided by individuals with heart or respiratory diseases, obesity, high blood pressure and arrhythmia, as well as children and the elderly. Through conditioning, experienced winter swimmers have a greater resistance to effects of the cold shock response.\nHypothermia poses a smaller risk. According to Tucker and Dugas, it takes more than approximately 30 minutes even in 0 °C water until the body temperature drops low enough for hypothermia to occur. Many", "Knee effusion Signs and symptoms Signs and symptoms of water on the knee depend on the cause of excess synovial fluid build-up in the knee joint. These may include: Pain Osteoarthritis knee pain usually occurs while the joint is bearing weight, so the pain typically subsides with rest; some patients suffer severe pain, while others report no discomfort. Even if one knee is much larger than the other, pain is not guaranteed. Swelling One knee may appear larger than the other. Puffiness around the bony parts of the knee appear prominent when compared with the other knee. Stiffness When the", "crazy. But for me, skishing is to surfcasting, as a hurricane is to a windy day.\nTo be immersed in the element that holds your quarry, bass sometimes swimming so close to you that you can kick them, feeling the raw power of a big bass pull you around, wrestling one on one with a big fish in their element is unreal. They don't give up when they're still in the water, and you can't lift a big bass out of the water when you're swimming, so it can become a friggen wrestling match until you get your hook out if", "fatal if a helmet is not worn to protect against severe head trauma. Accidents are rare but there is a risk of injury from collisions, particularly during hockey games or in pair skating.\nA significant danger when skating outdoors on a frozen body of water, is falling through the ice into the freezing water underneath. Death can result from shock, hypothermia or drowning. It is often difficult or impossible for the skater to climb out of the water, due to the weight of their ice skates and thick winter clothing, and the ice repeatedly breaking as they struggle to get back", "onto the surface. Also, if the skater becomes disoriented under the water, they might not be able to find the hole in the ice through which they have fallen. Although this can prove fatal, it is also possible for the rapid cooling to produce a condition in which a person can be revived up to hours after falling into the water.", "was still able to do some bike and run training. On Monday she tried a four-kilometre swim, her first hard swim since the crash; this produced pain in her pectoral muscle, which worsened over subsequent training sessions. On Tuesday she tried another swim session: after 1 km she had to stop, and again had to be lifted out of the pool by Lowe. She later wote, \"I was 'crying into my goggles', and described the pain as 'unbearable'\", adding, \"I was convinced I'd broken my rib. Every breath hurt and I couldn't move my arm properly.\" The previous day Mike Leahy", "plunge on New Year's Day as well as regular swims in the Atlantic Ocean every Sunday from November to April. Health risks Winter swimming can be dangerous to people who are not used to swimming in very cold water. After submersion in cold water the cold shock response will occur, causing an uncontrollable gasp for air. This is followed by hyperventilation, a longer period of more rapid breathing. The gasp for air can cause a person to ingest water, which leads to drowning. As blood in the limbs is cooled and returns to the heart, this can cause fibrillation and", "for two minutes and then it would be easier. After two minutes I was numb. Afterwards I was shivering for two hours in the hot California sun with a warm up jacket on.\n— Karyn Marshall, 2011\nOne report suggested that if ice water is circulating, it's even colder such that the water will be colder than measured by a thermometer, and that athletes should avoid overexposure. Physical therapist Nikki Kimball explained a way to make the bath more endurable:\nOver those years, I've discovered tricks to make the ice bath experience more tolerable. First, I fill my tub with two to three bags", "Swimming injuries Swimming injuries have many different causes, which can occur immediate or can occur as the result of a long-term swimming career. Some ways that swimmers can increase the risk of an injury are by overuse of a specific part of the body, lacking crucial flexibility and strength, etc. These injuries, like swimmer’s shoulder and breaststroker’s knee, cause pain to the swimmer in certain regions that permit necessary movement for the required precise technique. Although these injuries can halt a professional swimmer’s career, many can be treated and some can even be prevented. There are different procedures and exercises", "not the major problem in the early stages of exposure as other stresses are more immediately life-threatening.\nCold shock response is the initial reaction to immersion in cold water. It generally starts with a gasp reflex in response to sudden and rapid chilling of the skin, and if the head is immersed there is a risk of inhaling water and drowning. This is followed by a reflexive hyperventilation, with a risk of panic and fainting if not controlled. Cold induced vasoconstriction causes the heart to work harder and the additional work can overload a weak heart, with a possible consequence of", "said injuries are rare \"because participants rely not on what they can't control – wheels or the icy surfaces of snowboarding and skiing – but their own hands and feet,\" but Lanier Johnson, executive director of the American Sports Medicine Institute, noted that many of the injuries are not reported. Impact Initially featured in films of French director/producer Luc Besson, parkour was first introduced to the British public by the BBC One TV channel trailer Rush Hour in April 2002. It featured David Belle leaping across London's rooftops from his office to home, in an attempt to catch his favourite BBC programme,", "enough time for recovery or running with improper form can lead to many of the above. Runners generally attempt to minimize these injuries by warming up before exercise, focusing on proper running form, performing strength training exercises, eating a well balanced diet, allowing time for recovery, and \"icing\" (applying ice to sore muscles or taking an ice bath).\nSome runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The problem with running on concrete is that the body adjusts to this flat surface running, and some of the muscles will become weaker, along with the added impact of running on", "are unable to catch water. Because of a lack of trunk control, they are unstable in the water and have hip drag. As they have no leg mobility, their legs drag. They normally swim the backstroke as they lack head control to breathe effectively for the freestyle. They start in the water, sometimes with assistance for initial propulsion.\nFor swimming with the most severe disabilities at the 1984 Summer Paralympics, floating devices and a swimming coach in the water swimming next to the Paralympic competitor were allowed. A study of was done comparing the performance of athletics", "Guinness Book of Records , simultaneously holding the Highest Cliff Jump record for the same jump. Health implications Some research suggests that the impact associated with high diving could have negative effects on the joints and muscles of athletes. To avoid injury to their arms upon impact with the water, divers from significant heights may enter the water feet first.", "arrest. Inhalation of water (and thus drowning) may result from hyperventilation. Some people are much better able to survive swimming in very cold water due to body or mental conditioning.\nHypothermia from exposure to cold water is not as sudden as is often believed. A person who survives the initial minute of trauma (after falling into icy water), can survive for at least thirty minutes provided they don't drown. However, the ability to perform useful work (for example to save oneself) declines substantially after ten minutes (as the body protectively cuts off blood flow to \"non-essential\" muscles). Cold shock response", ", since the pressure in the water layer increases with V and lifts the skate (aquaplaning). As a result the sum of the water-layer friction and the ploughing friction only increases slightly with V, making skating at high speeds (>90 km/h) possible. Inherent safety risks A person's ability to ice skate depends on the roughness of the ice, the design of the ice skate, and the skill and experience of the skater. While serious injury is rare, a number of short track speed skaters have been paralysed after a heavy fall when they collided with the boarding. A fall can be", "of orifice injuries. These injuries are typical of the kinds of injuries that waterskiers experience as a result of falling into the water at speed. Such injuries can occur from simply falling in the water at speed or they can occur from the output end of the pump jet. A rider who falls (or is ejected) off the back can land directly in the path of the PWC's high-pressure jet of water. Unless a rider is appropriately dressed in garments made out of a strong, thick substance like neoprene (as is commonly found in wetsuits), the jet may penetrate any", "in his last nine games. Giguère's mother died in late February 2013.\nGiguère suffers from a rare gastric condition that causes his body to take in too much air when he drinks fluids. As a result, his body has difficulty absorbing water, leading to severe dehydration when he sweats. He would drink from a water bottle fitted with a straw while playing hockey.", "to sweating during a game. Shires, who had played football in high school, had familiarity with the issue and found the problem interesting, and brought the matter to the attention of Dr. Cade. They, along with Jim Free and Alex de Quesada (two other postdoctoral fellows working in the nephrology lab under Cade), began research on dehydration during physical exertion. During freshman football practice that year, the researchers collected and tested sweat samples. Their testing revealed that each player lost 2.5 to 4.2 liters, or up to 9 pounds, during each practice session.\nUnder Cade, the team's research ultimately led", "condition, displacing his spine three-quarters of an inch and pinching a bundle of nerves. He lived with the injury and the resulting pain for years while resisting an operation to fuse his spine.\"\nHe was not exposed to water skiing until 1955. In Florida while recovering from a fusion operation on his back, Blair was inspired to try water skiing when he saw skiers at the Lyle Lee Ski School in Fort Lauderdale. It wasn't long before they convinced him to try waterskiing himself. He fell in love with it, and he and his family returned to New Jersey" ]

[ "Our brains like familiar things. Something we already have seen is easier to get into than something brand new because it requires less attention and effort from our brain. It's also sometimes good watching a TV show knowing the ending (eg Black Mirror, Lost) as we can pick up on foreshadowing or minor details.", "to relive the emotions felt the first viewing. sometimes a person feels sad but cannot cry so watches a sad movie to bring it on. likewise, you need a good laugh to bring you out of a funk.", "It's a matter of taste. Not everybody does like watching the same thing over and over again. I don't. I can't stand watching the same film twice because I already know what's going to happen. Some people do. We like what we like.", "Well it's a loaded question to begin with. Frankly, I can't stand rewatching a movie or show I've seen before." ]

[ "depend on well-established conventions may in the end exert a larger claim on our attention than their more pretentiously publicized rivals.... Convenient to turn on, easy to flick off, movies made for TV approximate the conditions under which all movies used to be chanced by audiences years ago...when at least half the pleasure of moviegoing derived precisely from the fact that no sense of cultural occasion was attached to that simple, inexpensive act.\nWhile many TV films of the 1970s were action-oriented genre pictures of a type familiar from contemporary cinematic B production, the small screen also saw a revival of", "At the Movies (1982 TV program) Background For At the Movies, Siskel and Ebert adopted the same format they had used in their previous series, Sneak Previews: two critics from opposing newspapers view clips from the week's new movies, discuss them, then pass judgment expressed in thumbs up (to approve) or thumbs down (not worth seeing). During this run, they would adopt several elements that would make the show lively. For example, they would bring on an animal called \"Spot the Wonder Dog\" to help lead into a segment called \"The Dog of the Week,\" covering the week's worst movie.", "from scene to scene that reference films/tv shows you’d rather being watching than this movie.\"", "the screens back together, the way you put memories together. I'm not the best director in the world, but I had an idea that I thought would be amazing to inspire people, like a dream of one day this being the way people watch movies. You know, Tarantino doing a movie like this or a horror movie like this, animation, 3-D ... in this form that surrounds you. People want to go back and see it more and more because they missed something to their left or to their right, and it feels more like the experience of life. Reviews", "centered the show around a theme. This year, he christened the show with the theme \"Togetherness of Moviegoing\" commenting, \"The thing that's kind of wonderful about movies is that you watch them with other people. The only other areas where you do that, when you think about it, are religion and sports.\" He concluded by noting that the movie theater is \"a wonderful place where you come together to laugh, to cry.\" In tandem with the theme, actress Winona Ryder presented a montage featuring film clips from Matinee, Casablanca, and A Streetcar Named Desire depicting audiences inside a movie theater.\nSeveral", "strong desire for what they see on screen, but why \"our culture is so obsessed with movie stars.\"", "(to allow for more variety and more show times), upgrading sound systems and installing more amenities and higher-quality food and drink. The growing popularity of high-definition television sets, along with HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc players may also contribute to the decline in cinema attendance, although there seems to be little evidence of this at the moment. Movie theater culture in U.S. Movie theaters are associated with dating, popcorn and expensive treats. Intimacy Sometimes couples go to a movie theater for the additional reason that it provides the possibility of intimacy, where the dark provides some privacy (with additional privacy", "reels of movies, became the basis for Mulvey's assertion that even the linear experience of a cinematic viewing has always exhibited a modicum of stillness. Thus, until a fan could adequately control a film to fulfill his or her own viewing desires, Mulvey notes that \"the desire to possess and hold the elusive image led to repeated viewing, a return to the cinema to watch the same film over and over again.\" However, with digital technology, spectators can now pause films at any given moment, replay their favorite scenes, and even skip the scenes they do not desire to watch.", "\"filmmakers were content to just have the two big stars together on screen, giving them dialogue from other movies and pushing towards some ridiculous adventure climax\".", "news and came up with the idea of cutting between people watching the same TV programmes.\nFarah Ramzan Golant, the boss of All3Media, said: \"Everyone loves watching TV and talking about TV. But the show isn't really about TV. The show is about people's lives, their relationships, their living rooms and the way children and parents talk about TV. It's near real-time because you're watching what happened in the seven days before. That's quite priceless. It captures a cultural response to something that's happening in the world. Gogglebox shows TV in people's living rooms is alive and well and thriving. It", "feel I've got a lot to say with film. The camera can go to impossible places. It can re-articulate time. Films from other epochs allow you to go back in time. But so much of contemporary life is also envisioned through film and TV. We remember people we've never met because we've seen them on a screen.\" Awards and nominations In 2008, Islam was nominated for the 2008 Turner Prize.", "something to watch from what is available, flipping around, not until they find \"something they like\" - because television programming is in fact very rarely satisfying, and viewers rarely watch anything they actually like - but until they find something that doesn't offend them enough to make them flip to the next channel. (Viewers almost never turn off the set as a result of finding nothing tolerable and judging every program available boring or otherwise objectionable. Viewers commonly watch programs they describe later as unbearable, everything else on being even more intolerable. A more common response to a whole spectrum", "early 1980s, where \"if you don't like one particular character or circumstance, just wait — something completely different is just around the corner\". He summarized that it's \"the perfect pick up film — a movie you can catch in snatches while it plays on some pay cable channel. No matter what point you come in on the story, no matter what sort of scene is playing out before you, the lack of continuity and context actually allows you to take pleasure in the individual moment, and if so inclined, to stick around for another exciting sample in just a few", "even in song sequences. Each and every scene in the movie was narrated with precision and the director should be commended for running the movie with perfection. You can watch the film with the whole family because of entertainment values. Definitely the film will give you a relief after a stressful day.\" Oneindia Entertainment gave a review stating \"Though the story has the shades of old films, Vamsi has scripted a tight screenplay and he has narrated every scene with precision. You can watch the film with a family because of the entertainment values. Dil Raju is once again back", "film that is beyond imagining, and only observation could have created it.\" He concluded: \"This is a painful movie to watch. But it is also exhilarating, as all good movies are, because we are watching the director and actors venturing beyond any conventional idea of what a modern movie can be about. Here there is no plot, no characters to identify with, no hope. But there is care: The filmmakers care enough about these people to observe them very closely, to note how they look and sound and what they feel.\"\nJulie Burchill attacked the film in The Sunday Times, saying", "are increasingly marketing themselves as 'destination' venues for an evening's entertainment, somewhere to spend an entire evening, rather than just a couple of hours. As exhibition admissions have plateau'd in recent years due to the explosion in VOD, tablet and mobile content technology, this new revenue stream has been a surprise and welcome addition to the cinema industry, though the US studios have been cautious in embracing the change as yet.\nThe thrill of Live broadcasts means they are generally regarded as more popular than recorded events, but there are exceptions; artists with a loyal cult or teenage following tend", "possible to make people still feel they're watching a movie. After all, the house is also a character in the story.\nThe film was entirely funded by the Film Fund of the Film Finance Corporation. Armstrong made the movie straight after Fires Within and enjoyed it much more because the Hollywood film had been such a bad experience. Awards and reception The film opened in Melbourne on 8 October 1992 at Greater Union Pitt Centre, Academy Twin and GU Mosman, and the same day in Melbourne at Village Rivoli Twin and Forest Hill Showcase.\nLisa Harrow won the Australian Film Institute Award", "audience for such stuff, but little enthusiasm or loyalty. Adult moviegoers are being ignored almost completely during all but the last two or three months of each year, while even the kids who march off to the multiplexes each weekend know they're getting moldy servings of same-old, rather than entertainments that feed their appetite for surprise and delight.\" Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle was one of the few critics who gave the film a positive review, writing: \"It's a crude, obvious comedy, which occasionally clunks, but it's often very funny, as well as being a really shrewd bit", "be attributed to ways in which the genre has been re-shaped and improved over the years, but some are the result of the studio's validated belief that viewers would be willing to ignore bad acting and pedestrian directing in order to experience singing, dancing, and talking on the silver screen.\" Sequels Three more movies were later made by MGM with similar titles, Broadway Melody of 1936, Broadway Melody of 1938, and Broadway Melody of 1940. Although not direct sequels in the traditional sense, they all had the same basic premise of a group of people putting on a show (the", "of the Los Angeles Times says the show \"takes its cues more from the movies than from life ... Still, for all the unlikely things [the creators] make happen in order to get their characters into place, and the dogged refusal of a couple of those characters to become interesting at all, the show gathers steam as it goes on.\" The Wall Street Journal's Nancy Dewolf Smith considers the series \"like a bag of unpolished stones ... Despite striking performances even in many of the smaller roles, the actors sometimes are made to symbolize very modern obsessions, e.g., with", "relationship between movies watched at home versus at the movie theater was in a five to one ratio and 75% of respondents said their preferred way of watching a movie was at home, versus 21% who said they preferred to go to a theater. In 2014, it was reported that the practice of releasing a film in theaters and via on-demand steaming on the same day (for selected films) and the rise in popularity of the Netflix streaming service has led to concerns in the movie theater industry. Another source of competition is television, which has \"...stolen a lot of", "still doesn't get it right.\" Rajyasree Sen of Live Mint in her review said, \"This is not high entertainment from any angle, but it’s a show worth watching simply because it’s such a pleasant change to hear happy and inspiring real-life stories about people making a difference. \" She encouraged readers to tune in and watch it.", "stage version was superior, writing that many of the story's new additions for the screen made the film \"a long one and at times a ponderous thing, the more so the further from the play the screen version strays\".\nReviewing the film in 2010, James Berardinelli wrote that it \"hasn't fared as well as the director's better, more timeless offerings\" due to the dated nature of screwball comedies and the \"innocence permeating the movie that doesn't play as well during an era when audiences value darkness in even the lightest of comedies. Still, You Can't Take it with You provides a", "prove popular with parents of young children.\nTime stated that direct to video no longer means \"not good enough for theaters\" where children's films are concerned and noted that Blue's Big Musical Movie spun the popular children's television series into a \"full-length extravaganza\".\nIn Doug Pratt's DVD: Movies, Television, Music, Art, Adult, and More!, author Pratt observes that even though designed for toddlers, Steven Burns, as the only human in the cast, delivered a \"remarkable and consistent performance\" while speaking directly to the camera in addressing his young viewers, speaking slowly and clearly without being condescending or patronizing.\nReview Corner wrote that the", "occasionally telecast Movie Specials on other days of the week as well, among them Fiddler on the Roof, and Godspell (which was shown on network television as a Thanksgiving season special in 1974). Method of presenting films throughout the 1960s Beginning in 1965, The ABC Sunday Night Movie used a rather unusual method of presenting the films that movie series on other networks did not use. Except on rare occasions, such as the aforementioned Movie Specials, or films which already had a pre-credits sequence that led directly into the main title and so could not be altered, the opening credits", "roles. However, he found the movie to be often \"ploddingly dull\" and the songs the \"best part of the show.\"", "tempo was of paramount importance...I had to direct one or two of the shows for television to set the pattern of how these things should be made.\" Rafelson had said that \"of the first 32 shows, 29 were directed by people who had never directed before, including me. So the idea of using new directors not perhaps too encumbered by traditional ways of thinking was initiated on that series and just continued on the movies we made later.\" He has cited the series' \"radically different way of cutting and doing a half hour comedy because there were interviews that were", "vastly more realistic than most of the action movies that are happening out there... I think one of the things about being a director is, you should always try to re-create within yourself the kind of emotions you had watching film when you were very young. The kind of action movies that I always liked, the kind of comic books I always liked, were the serious ones. The characters were very realistic within the framework of the drama, and that kind of action movie interests me a lot more than the super-heroes. And so in that sense, maybe I'm slightly", "acts like you already know all the characters and are just happy to have fresh dialogue. It's as if the deeper issues have been settled in previous episodes. And yet, also like a sitcom, it's kind of fun as it slides past. Here is a movie that was born to play on television.\" Vitale again tried to get it turned into a TV series, but it wasn't until after Will & Grace had become a hit that television executives would finally take him seriously. Production The show wound up at the Axelrod/Widdoes production company, which had previously produced another", "and locations for filming. Many times it was promised that the film would be shown around the country, enticing the viewers to come and visit the places they saw. The film would then be returned to the Chamber after its run. They often filmed the same characters in the same story over and over, only changing the cast in each city. Sometimes the title would change leading people to think their particular film was unique. These itinerant films were popular in the silent era, but in some cases they were still operating into the 1970s. Several people made careers out" ]

[ "It's like a protest vote. I live in Nevada where we are allowed to vote \"none of the above.\"\n\nIf \"none of the above\" wins, the candidate with the most votes still wins. It doesn't affect anything here.", "Abstain is a different thing from simply \"not voting.\"\n\nIf I don't vote, it could mean any number of things. Maybe I don't care enough about the election, maybe I was busy and didn't make it to the polls, maybe I forgot which day it was.\n\n\"Abstain\" means \"I don't like any of these options enough to vote for one.\" So it sends a clearer message than simply not voting - the person is clearly interested enough to vote and is choosing not to." ]

[ "responsibility to God and to the Government. Many Witnesses do not vote, while taking care to preserve neutrality and not compromise their faith. The law can also allow people to give a valid reason for why they did not vote.\nAnother argument against compulsory voting, prevalent among legal scholars in the United States, is that it is essentially a compelled speech act, which violates freedom of speech because the freedom to speak necessarily includes the freedom not to speak.\nSome do not support the idea of voters being compelled to vote for candidates they have no interest in or knowledge of.", "(e.g. in many U.S. states) the denial of the right to vote is automatic upon a felony conviction; in other cases (e.g. France and Germany) deprivation of the vote is meted out separately, and often limited to perpetrators of specific crimes such as those against the electoral system or corruption of public officials. In the Republic of Ireland, prisoners are allowed the right to vote, following the Hirst v UK (No2) ruling, which was granted in 2006. Canada allowed only prisoners serving a term of less than 2 years the right to vote, but this was found to be unconstitutional", "and take any steps which appear expedient, in order that the vote of the population may be at the same time a striking manifestation of its sentiments towards France and towards the Emperor.\"\nIn addition to all the other pressure, the local police authorities openly declared that lists of the proscrits would be made out, and that those who abstained from voting would be punished as soon as they became French subjects. The same authorities received orders from headquarters at Nice to collect the peasants on the day of voting and march them into town, with drums beating, and French flags", "introduce compulsory voting, in 1892 for men and 1949 for women. Eligible voters who fail to cast a ballot \"face a moderate fine or, if they fail to vote in at least four elections, they can lose the right to vote for 10 years.\"\nThe European Court of Human Rights, in the 1971 case of X v Austria, ruled that \"mandatory voting does not violate fundamental freedoms, because only attendance at a polling station – and not voting itself – is compulsory, while the voters also have the option of casting a blank or spoiled ballot paper.\" Freedom of religion Freedom", "up to 50 of the 65 members of parliament, was restricted based on education requirements, which in practice led to an overwhelming white vote. Voting on the \"B\" roll had universal suffrage, but only appointed 15 members of parliament.\nIn the 20th century, many countries other than the US placed voting restrictions on illiterate people, including: Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru. Criminality Some countries restrict the voting rights of convicted criminals. Some countries, and some U.S. states, also deny the right to vote to those convicted of serious crimes even after they are released from prison. In some cases", "be entitled to vote. It also empowers the legislature to exclude people from voting because of mental incompetence (though in Doe v. Rowe Federal District Court Judge George Singal found it unconstitutional to deny a person the right to vote solely because of the existence of a mental illness) or commitment to a jail or prison. It also allows the legislature to lessen these requirements for presidential elections.\nThe article also establishes the time, place, and manner of elections, in addition to the necessity of a vote of the resident electors for increases in property taxes above certain thresholds on", "but retained it for local government elections for several decades. Today these laws have largely been abolished, although the homeless may not be able to register because they lack regular addresses.\nIn the United Kingdom, until the House of Lords Act 1999, peers who were members of the House of Lords were excluded from voting for the House of Commons because they were not commoners. Although there is nothing to prevent the monarch from voting it is considered unconstitutional for the monarch to vote in an election.\nThroughout the 19th and 20th centuries, many nations made voters pay on to elect officials,", "in 2004-2006. In 2010, the UK government announced that it would introduce legislation to comply with the ruling, giving some prisoners the right to vote, a move which caused much anger among Conservative and Labour MPs, who eventually rejected the ruling in the House of Commons.", "percentages of people turning out to vote where voting is voluntary.\nHistorically in the United States, the southern states of the former Confederacy passed new constitutions and laws at the turn of the century that created barriers to voter registration, such as poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and complicated record keeping requirements. In practice, in their system of Jim Crow, these elements were used to disenfranchise most African Americans and many poor whites from voting, excluding thousands of people in each state from the political system. The minority of white Democrats in these states controlled the political process and elections,", "the United States, protest votes are often made in order to indicate dissatisfaction with the slate of candidates presented on a particular ballot or to highlight the inadequacies of a particular voting procedure. Since most states' electoral systems do not provide for blank balloting or a choice of \"None of the Above\", most protest votes take the form of a clearly non-serious candidate's name entered as a write-in vote. Mickey Mouse is often selected for this purpose. As an election supervisor in Georgia observed, \"If [Mickey Mouse] doesn’t get votes in our election, it’s a bad election.\" The earliest known", "United States v. Reese Results Due to this ruling, states began to develop means to exclude blacks from voting while keeping within the constraints of the 14th Amendment. They adopted such devices as poll taxes (which many poor black and white sharecroppers, who lived on credit, did not have ready cash to pay); literacy tests, subjectively administered by white election officials, who tended in practice to exclude even educated blacks which is often very rare; grandfather clauses, which admitted voters whose grandfathers had voted as of a certain date, which also excluded blacks; and more restrictive residency requirements, which disqualified", "voting\", under suspicion of being black or free men of color (and thereby ineligible for voting). They were acquitted, presumably by demonstrating to the court's satisfaction that they had no appreciable black ancestry. Standards were not as strict as under the later laws of the \"one drop rule\" of the 20th century. As in some other cases, this was chiefly determined by people testifying as to how the men were perceived by the community and whether they had \"acted white\" by voting, serving in the militia, or undertaking other common citizens' obligations available to white men.\nLaw was involved not only", "of Mohammed Bouyeri). The United Kingdom has not respected this Court opinion, although it is a signatory to the Convention (see below). United Kingdom The United Kingdom suspends suffrage of some but not all prisoners. For example, civil prisoners sentenced for nonpayment of fines can vote. Prior to the judgment in Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2), convicted prisoners had the right to vote in law but without assistance by prison authorities, voting was unavailable to them. In Hirst, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that First Protocol Article 3 requires Member States to proactively support voting by authorized", "to Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which proclaims that States in which adult male citizens are denied the right to vote for any reason other than \"participation in rebellion, or other crime\" will suffer a reduction in the basis of their representation in Congress. Based on this language, the Court found that this amounted to an \"affirmative sanction\" of the practice of felon disenfranchisement, and the 14th Amendment could not prohibit in one section that which is expressly authorized in another.\nBut, critics of the practice argue that Section 2 of the 14th Amendment allows,", "introducing this ill-informed electorate. Anti-suffragists did not see voting as a \"right,\" but as a \"duty\" and that women already had their own unique responsibilities and duties in the domestic sphere. Also, since Antis believed that governments had authority due to \"force,\" women wouldn't be able to \"enforce the laws they may enact.\"\nAnti-suffragists, such as Josephine Dodge, argued that giving women the right to vote would overburden them and undermine their privileged status. They saw participation in the private sphere as essential to a woman's role and thought that giving them public duties would prevent them from fulfilling their primary", "whites could not pay in order to register to vote; they were effectively excluded from the political process. These requirements, with additions in legislation of 1892, resulted in a 90% reduction in the number of blacks who voted. In every county whites allowed a handful of prominent black ministers and local leaders to vote.\nAs only voters could serve on juries, disenfranchisement meant blacks could not serve on juries, and they lost all chance at local and state offices, as well as representation in Congress. When these provisions survived a Supreme Court challenge in 1898 in Williams v. Mississippi, other southern", "of the election.\nIn Reynolds v. Sims, the Court ruled that the right to vote is a \"fundamental right,\" establishing a strict scrutiny test. Further, the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees \"equal protection of the laws\" to all persons. However, Section 2 of this Amendment allows states to remove voting privileges from anyone who has participated in \"rebellion or other crime.\" A 1972 Supreme Court ruling found that this article applied to disenfranchisement of ex-felons. The Civic Participation and Rehabilitation Act, allowing for ex-felons to vote, has been introduced at the beginning of every legislative session since 1994, but has never made it", "causes is restrictive voting laws but they call this system of laws regulating the electorate. The Constitution gives states the power to make decisions regarding restrictive voting laws. In 2008 the Supreme Court made a crucial decision regarding Indiana's voter ID law in saying that it does not violate the constitution. Since then almost half of the states have passed restrictive voting laws. These laws contribute to Barbour and Wrights idea of the rational nonvoter. This is someone who does not vote because the benefits of them not voting outweighs the cost to vote. These laws add to the “cost”", "since it is derived from voter registration laws\", the case should be dropped. Judge Snepp however refuted that point, as he claimed that blacks could register to vote as they pleased. The defendants' lawyers saw this as a systematic attempt to stop blacks from being able to register to vote. At the time, black voters had to take voter tests, unlike their white counterparts, implying an unfair situation. Similarly, the prosecutor's office decided to appoint no black or Jewish jurors, with a near deaf old black lady as the lone exception. Since the defense had to waste all their challenges", "banned from voting. Both Southern and Northern Republicans also wanted to continue to deny the vote temporarily to Southerners disfranchised for support of the Confederacy, and they were concerned that a sweeping endorsement of suffrage would enfranchise this group.\nA House and Senate conference committee proposed the amendment's final text, which banned voter restriction only on the basis of \"race, color, or previous condition of servitude\". To attract the broadest possible base of support, the amendment made no mention of poll taxes or other measures to block voting, and did not guarantee the right of blacks to hold office. This compromise", "allow for a fair vote. However the two sides could not agree on the means by which to guarantee a fair election and, as such, the distrust grew between the two sides.\nWith election day coming fast, both sides had damning rumors swirling around their base. The Quakers believed that the Anglicans were going to attack the polls with a large number of vigilantes, which they were, as a few dozen sailors had been hired. On the other hand, the Anglicans believed that the Quakers were upping their effort to obstruct the voting officials by bringing even more Germans, which they", "and forms of voter suppression vary among jurisdictions. At the founding of the country, the right to vote in most states was limited to property-owning white males. Over time, the right to vote was formally granted to racial minorities, women, and youth. During the later 19th and early 20th centuries, Southern states passed Jim Crow laws to suppress poor and racial minority voters – such laws included poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses. Most of these voter suppression tactics were made illegal after the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In 2013, discriminatory voter ID laws arose", "only six ratifying states allowed any form of popular vote specifically for Presidential electors. In most states only white men, and in many only those who owned property, could vote. Free black men could vote in four Northern states, and women could vote in New Jersey until 1807. In some states, there was a nominal religious test for voting. For example, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, the Congregational Church was established, supported by taxes. Though such tests and establishments were outlawed by the new federal Constitution, the constitution did not give the courts power to eliminate unconstitutional laws (Marbury", "descendants.\nAdditionally, he points out that even if voting counts as voluntarily taking ownership, only about one sixth of Americans (at that time, when slavery had just ended and women could not vote) had historically been allowed to vote. Even then, only those who voted for an American politician could be said to have consented to the Constitution, not those who voted against, and only for the span of time he voted for (every two years, for example).\nEven voting, Spooner argues, is not consensual itself, because each potential voter is faced with the choice of either voting, which makes him a", "in this State\".\nThis was supported by the minutiae of the proceedings, where delegates repeatedly claim that they do not wish to disenfranchise \"whites\", but \"blacks\".\nThe appellants did not contend that it was so. However, they claimed that this openly acknowledged purpose was accompanied by an unspoken purpose of disenfranchising \"poor whites\". The true object, they claimed, was for the ruling party, the Southern Democrats, to prohibit the Populists and the Republicans to threaten their position, by disenfranchising such groups of voters who were more inclined to vote for those parties. However, since they needed the \"white votes\" in order to", "no sense in talking about equal rights in a monarchy, and fearing the change would endanger the traditions of the royal house.\nA surprising amount of opposition to the law arose at the end of May. Parts of the Social Liberal Youth, Enhedslisten and republican circles advocate a blank vote, effectively having the same effect as a no vote. Others argued a blank vote because it would improve possibilities for a future in-depth constitutional reform. Some people argued for drawing an extra \"Republic\" box on the ballot or writing the words \"Republic Now!\" on it, which would render a spoilt vote.\nAccording", "the Enforcement Act of 1870, which enforced the “Right of Citizens of the United States to vote in the several States of this Union, and for other Purposes.\" In furtherance of its chief end of assuring the right of African American to vote, it provided that it should be a misdemeanor for any \"person or officer\" wrongfully to fail in a duty imposed on him by State law to perform or permit performance of acts necessary to registering or voting. In the course of passage through Congress several sections were added which had a larger purpose. One of them was", "most cases, cannot vote. However, throughout the 19th century, many states did allow immigrants to vote after they had declared their intention to become citizens. This was primarily because these new states were populated in large part by immigrants who had not yet attained citizenship. Throughout U.S. history, non-citizens have been allowed to vote in 40 U.S. states and territories. As of 2005, non-citizens are allowed to vote in seven jurisdictions in the United States: Chicago and six towns in Montgomery County, Maryland.\nIn 2009, the phrase \"taxation without representation\" was also used in the Tea Party protests, where protesters were", "three years, and required a certain minimum income. He declared to the Assembly: \"Our goal is not to exclude the poor from voting, but to exclude the vile multitude, those who have handed over the liberty of so many republics to so many tyrants over the years.\" The law was approved, removing one-third of the voters in France from the voting lists. Thiers did not foresee that Louis-Napoleon, elected by universal suffrage, would later use this law as a weapon against the Assembly to reinforce his own rule. When a friend of Louis-Napoleon asked him if he wasn't", "for a petition.\nIn 1997, the then government considered the possibility of using Article 27 on legislation for the X-case judgment, on the basis that the extra mandate of a popular vote would have forestalled complaints from anti-abortion campaigners if the Oireachtas had legislated in the normal manner. The proposal was criticised as a misuse of the ordinary-referendum provision, which was intended to allow a group opposed to a bill to petition the President, rather than a government supporting a bill to do so. The idea was ultimately dropped because the minimum-turnout condition would have meant that a bill passed by" ]

[ "It wasn't that they were mad at each other, although if you spend enough time with someone they can start to bother you, right? But you can still love someone who bothers you, right? So it wasn't really about that at all...\n\nRemember that toy you used to have when you were three, and how you got bigger and smarter and didn't need it anymore, how it seems like a baby toy now, compared to the toys you have now?\n\nThat's what's called \"outgrowing.\" At some point, you get used to most of the things in life that were once fascinating to you. But it's not sad when it happens, because you grew, which is good, and you always think happy thoughts about those things later on, right? Even though you don't need them anymore?\n\nThe beatles were four really good musicians that really brought out the best in each other. They all wanted to make really good music, and they realized that the best music they could possibly make was the music they made together. But then after a while, they didn't need each other so much anymore. They had all discovered new things on their own. Just like when you discover a new toy, you don't always NEED the old ones anymore. Even if you remember them as being the best toys ever, you wouldn't really want to play with them too much now, right? They're still there, you can go back and play with them if you want to, but right now there's new things to learn and explore. \n\nSo just like you and your old toys, each of the beatles discovered new things they wanted to explore. So they all agreed to spend some time doing that, and then they discovered new things after that, and new things after that.", "They didn't so much as 'break up' as they just started doing different things by themselves, or with other people. Eventually they just weren't doing things as 'The Beatles' anymore and decided to make it official.\n\nPaul said that they broke up because of: \"Personal differences, business differences, musical differences, but most of all because I have a better time with my family.\"" ]

[ "I'm the Greatest Background and inspiration The Beatles broke up in April 1970, having achieved an unprecedented level of international fame for a musical act, and after helping to inspire many of the musical and cultural changes of the 1960s. In the eyes of the media and the public, the band members were divided into two factions: John Lennon, George Harrison and Ringo Starr, all of whom had opted to engage the services of Allen Klein to manage the group's Apple organisation in 1969; and Paul McCartney, whose isolationist stance had been interpreted as the reason for the break-up. On", "Early 1970 Background and composition Writing in 1981, NME critic Bob Woffinden described the effect of the Beatles' break-up on drummer Ringo Starr as \"shattering\". Although the official announcement came on 10 April 1970, the group's demise was initiated by John Lennon's statement during a September 1969 band meeting that he wanted a \"divorce\" from his fellow Beatles. In a February 1970 interview in Look magazine, midway through sessions for his first solo album, Sentimental Journey, Starr explained his disorientation: \"I keep looking around and thinking where are they? What are they doing? When will they come back and talk", "imposed by their two-guitars-bass-and-drums stage lineup.\nOn the Beatles' return to England, rumours began to circulate that they had decided to break up. George Harrison informed Epstein that he was leaving the band, but was persuaded to stay on the assurance that there would be no more tours. The group took a three-month break, during which they focused on individual interests. Harrison travelled to India for six weeks to study the sitar under the instruction of Ravi Shankar and develop his interest in Hindu philosophy. Having been the last of the Beatles to concede that their live performances had become futile,", "world tour on 29 August, the four band members took a break from group activities for three months. Due to the attention that their individual activities received, by early November, rumours in the press claimed that the band were breaking up. Alternatively, according to a report in The Sunday Telegraph, the Beatles were to sever ties with their longtime manager, Brian Epstein, and instead be represented by Allen Klein. Fans of the band were disappointed by the announcement that, in a break from the tradition established in 1963, the Beatles were not playing any UK shows over the Christmas period.", "the four Beatles, leading to the band's break-up in April 1970.\nAlthough he was actively involved as a director of Apple Records, and remained committed to running the label until its winding down in 1973, Harrison viewed the concept of Apple as Lennon and McCartney's egos \"running away with themselves or with each other\". Harrison's relief from the tedium of business meetings through February and March 1969 was reflected in his composition \"Here Comes the Sun\", which he wrote in Eric Clapton's garden while \"sag[ging] off\" from Apple. Around the same time, Harrison wrote \"Run of the Mill\", a song addressing", "music for the Christmas market. On 10 November, newspapers reported that there would be no further concert tours by the Beatles. The band's lack of activity and their highly publicised individual pursuits since September was interpreted by the press as a sign that the band were on the verge of splitting up. Their return to the recording studio was given front-page coverage in some newspapers.\nGeorge Harrison, who had been travelling in India during the Beatles' lay-off, recalled there being a \"more profound ambience\" in the band when they reunited to record \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". Lennon said that, having failed to", "that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ. When the 1966 world tour resumed there on 12 August, the band were the subject of radio bans in some southern states and further death threats. According to Barrow, the decision to quit touring after 1966 was made without McCartney's agreement and marked the first time that the Beatles had committed to a course of action without unanimous agreement among the four. McCartney said that he was finally persuaded to join the others' way of thinking following the group's concert at St Louis, which took place on 21 August. Legacy Over", "The Beatles because they were the cause of an argument between George Harrison and John Lennon during a recording session for the group's 1969 album Abbey Road. The incident was recounted by recording engineer Geoff Emerick in his book Here, There, and Everywhere: My Life Recording the Music of The Beatles. According to Emerick, Lennon's wife Yoko Ono was in the recording studio and at one point helped herself to Harrison's box of McVitie's while the Beatles were in the control room listening to a playback of the song they'd just recorded. Harrison got angry at Ono, and his subsequent", "English court legally dissolved the Beatles' partnership on 9 January 1975, though sporadic lawsuits against their record company EMI, Klein, and each other persisted until 1989.\nMcCartney was depressed after the group disbanded. His wife helped him pull out of that condition by praising his work as a songwriter and convincing him to continue writing and recording. In her honour, he wrote \"Maybe I'm Amazed\", explaining that with the Beatles breaking up, \"that was my feeling: Maybe I'm amazed at what's going on ... Maybe I'm a man and maybe you're the only woman who could ever help me; Baby won't", "relations between the Beatles were at their lowest ebb.\" Lennon described the largely impromptu sessions as \"hell ... the most miserable ... on Earth\", and Harrison, \"the low of all-time\". Irritated by both McCartney and Lennon, Harrison walked out for five days. Upon returning, he threatened to leave the band unless they \"abandon[ed] all talk of live performance\" and instead focused on finishing a new album, initially titled Get Back, using songs recorded for the TV special. He also demanded they cease work at Twickenham Film Studios, where the sessions had begun, and relocate to the newly finished Apple Studio. The other", "the Beatles' break-up, the two collaborated musically and formed Wings in 1971. They faced derision from some fans and critics, who questioned her inclusion. She was nervous about performing with Paul, who explained, \"she conquered those nerves, got on with it and was really gutsy.\" Paul defended her musical ability: \"I taught Linda the basics of the keyboard ... She took a couple of lessons and learned some bluesy things ... she did very well and made it look easier than it was ... The critics would say, 'She's not really playing' or 'Look at her—she's playing with one finger.' But what they", "Me\", even though the Beatles record sold considerably more. This was due to chart protocol whereby only the sales of the best-selling side of a double A-side were eligible, and the record's overall sales were effectively halved. Following the speculation that the Beatles were due to disband, their failure to secure the number 1 spot was trumpeted in the UK press as a sign that the group's popularity was declining. At the time, McCartney said he was not upset because Humperdinck's song was a \"completely different type of thing\", while Harrison acknowledged that \"Strawberry Fields Forever\", like all of the", "A Collection of Beatles Oldies Background The Beatles made the decision to retire from live performance in 1966, dissatisfied at playing to audiences of screaming fans, and following a series of controversies that had tarnished the band's image throughout the year. These controversies included the unfavourable reaction to the butcher cover originally used for the band's American album Yesterday and Today, death threats and political incidents during their visits to Japan and the Philippines, and condemnation from some religious groups in America in response to John Lennon's comment that the Beatles had become more popular than Christ. After completing their", "the end of the year, McCartney took a hiatus from the group after his daughter Mary was born on 28 August. On 20 September, Lennon told the other Beatles he was leaving the group, six days before Abbey Road was released. The single \"Something\"/\"Come Together\" followed in October, while Lennon released the Plastic Ono Band's \"Cold Turkey\" the same month. The Beatles did little promotion of Abbey Road directly, and no public announcement was made of the band's split until McCartney announced he was leaving the group in April 1970. \"Come Together\" \"Come Together\" was an expansion of \"Let's Get", "Bassist Klaus Voormann and drummer Alan White filled out the first performing lineup of the Plastic Ono Band. While organizing the band, Lennon privately decided to leave the Beatles, due to the tensions in the band at the time. The band rehearsed on the plane to Toronto, and performed both rock songs sung by Lennon and experimental pieces led by Ono. The show was recorded, and released in December as Live Peace in Toronto 1969, the first LP credited to the Plastic Ono Band.\nOn 20 September, Lennon revealed to the other Beatles that he was leaving the band, although it", "individuality.\" First visit to United States and British Invasion EMI's American subsidiary, Capitol Records, hindered the Beatles' releases in the United States for more than a year by initially declining to issue their music, including their first three singles. Concurrent negotiations with the independent US label Vee-Jay led to the release of some of the songs in 1963, but not all. Vee-Jay finished preparation for the album Introducing... The Beatles, culled from most of the songs of Parlophone's Please Please Me, but a management shake-up led to the album not being released. Then when it surfaced that the label did", "grew worse, with fans sticking chewing gum in the lock of the flat and tearing at any article of clothing when she or Lennon were leaving or arriving. American girls would write her letters proclaiming their desperate love for John; the women in the lives of the other Beatles received equivalent missives. As late as 1967, Beatles' wives were still dealing with occasional physical danger from female Beatles' fans, with Cynthia being kicked in the legs by one who demanded she \"leave John alone!\"\nAs Lennon was either touring or recording, supposed family holidays in 1966 were skiing in St. Moritz,", "Beatles reunion, particularly in the UK. That same month, Starr announced that any such reunion was \"absolutely out of the question\". In October, by which point he had separated from Ono, Lennon told Chris Charlesworth of Melody Maker that the four ex-Beatles were \"closer now than we have been for a long time\" and there was \"always a chance\" of a temporary reunion. He added that McCartney would probably have played on \"I'm the Greatest\" also, had he been in Los Angeles at the time. Recognising the importance of the session with Lennon and Harrison, Starr decided to record McCartney's", "recently left Kinfauns to stay with friends in London.\nFollowing Harrison's return to the Beatles, and the film project's relocation to their familiar Apple Studio, the band rehearsed \"Let It Down\" briefly on 25 and 29 January. Author Bruce Spizer writes of the song being embellished with \"gospel-style organ runs\", played by future Apple Records artist Billy Preston, during these late January sessions. Although the Beatles dedicated more time to it than to Harrison songs such as \"Isn't It a Pity\" and \"Hear Me Lord\", the track was dropped without being recorded, due to a lack of interest from Lennon and", "was McCartney and not Lennon that was responsible for the break-up of The Beatles. McCartney blocked a proposed film version of the musical.", "a long-lasting suspicion that \"they'd become faddists tipped into eccentric habits by unfathomable fame\". Having given up touring in 1966, the trip to India was the last time all four Beatles travelled together. Their self-exploration through meditation and before that, LSD, led to each of them adopting a more individual focus, at the expense of band unity, through to the group's break-up in 1970. The acrimony within the band was evident during the recording of their 1968 double album The Beatles (also known as the \"White Album\"), when they recorded many of the songs written in Rishikesh. Adding to the", "first of the Beatles to meet, having shared a school bus, and often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together. McCartney stated that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring. McCartney has referred to Harrison as his \"baby brother\". In a 1974 BBC radio interview with Alan Freeman, Harrison stated: \"[McCartney] ruined me as a guitar player\". Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney's personal relationship, as both men admitted that they often got on each other's nerves. Rodriguez commented: \"Even to the end of George's days,", "a favourite of the Beatles, who cast the group in their 1967 TV film Magical Mystery Tour. Harrison subsequently performed with the Bonzos' drummer, \"Legs\" Larry Smith, along with Eric Clapton and other members of Delaney & Bonnie and Friends, at John Lennon's \"Peace for Christmas\" charity concert, held at London's Lyceum Ballroom in December 1969. In I, Me, Mine, Harrison suggests an alternative scenario to the Beatles' 1970 break-up: \"What should have happened is that the Bonzos and the Beatles ... turned into one great Rutle band with all the Pythons and had a laugh.\"\nBy 1973, Sellers and Milligan were", "a spirit of reconciliation among the four ex-Beatles. This was partly due to Starr, Lennon and Harrison's decision to sever their business ties with Allen Klein, whose control of Apple had been the cause of bitter division between them and McCartney. Klaus Voormann, a friend of the Beatles since their early years in Hamburg, also cites a willingness on the part of all the album's contributors to help Starr fully establish himself as a solo artist. With Richard Perry as his producer, Starr recorded the rhythm track for \"I'm the Greatest\" at Sunset Sound Recorders in Los Angeles on 13", "loyal to EMI. After Epstein died in August 1967, in January 1968 the group formed Apple Corps, which they announced in May 1968. They hoped it would provide the means for correcting Epstein's unfortunate business decisions, which had both limited their incomes and ensured high tax burdens. Although \"Hey Jude\", the Beatles' first Apple release, was an enormous success, the label itself was a money pit, with little accountability for how money was being spent.\nKlein contacted John Lennon after reading his press comment that the Beatles would be \"broke in six months\" if things continued as they were. On January 26,", "told the others that he had quit the Beatles, although the band's break-up would not become public knowledge until McCartney's announcement on 10 April 1970 that he was also leaving. 1970s Shortly before McCartney announced his exit from the Beatles in April 1970, he and Starr had a falling out due to McCartney's refusal to cede the release date of his eponymous solo album to allow for Starr's debut, Sentimental Journey, and the Beatles' Let It Be. Starr's album – composed of renditions of pre-rock standards that included musical arrangements by Quincy Jones, Maurice Gibb, George Martin and McCartney –", "considerably more. This was due to chart protocol whereby only the sales of the best-selling side of a double A-side were eligible, and the record's overall sales were effectively halved. On the national chart compiled by Melody Maker, the combination was number 1 for three weeks. Its failure to top the Record Retailer chart provoked comments in the UK press that the Beatles' position of eminence was at an end, with headlines such as \"Has the Bubble Burst?\" The band were unperturbed by the result. In Starr's recollection, it was a \"relief\" and \"took the pressure off\" the group, while", "Beatles:\nIf the Beatles ever looked over their shoulders, it was not the Stones they saw. They saw the Dave Clark 5 or Herman's Hermits.\nThe band broke up in 1970 and in 1972, Clark stopped drumming after he broke four knuckles in a tobogganing accident.\nHe later wrote a science fiction stage musical, Time, which debuted in 1986. It played for two years in London's West End, starring Cliff Richard (replaced later by David Cassidy). The musical also launched a concept album called Time which featured Richard, Freddie Mercury, Leo Sayer, Stevie Wonder and Dionne Warwick. Two million copies were sold and", "\"Ended up smashed in Bag O'Nails with Paul [McCartney] and Neil [Aspinall]. Quite a number of people attached themselves, oh that it would happen to me... freak out time baby for Mal.\"\nIn July 1966, The Beatles toured the Philippines, and unintentionally snubbed the nation's first lady, Imelda Marcos. After the supposed snub was broadcast on Philippine television and radio, all of The Beatles' police protection disappeared. The group and their entourage had to make their way to Manila airport on their own. At the airport, road manager Evans was beaten and kicked, and the group members were pushed and jostled", "with speculation in the UK press that the Beatles' superiority in the pop world since 1963 might be coming to an end, given the customary two or three years that most acts could expect to remain at the peak of their popularity. \"Day Tripper\" / \"We Can Work It Out\" entered the UK Singles Chart (at the time, the Record Retailer chart) on 15 December, at number 2, before holding the top position for five consecutive weeks. The single also failed to top the national chart published by Melody Maker in its first week – marking the first occasion since" ]

[ "Phones lack a cooling system because there's no room for that. It takes up way too much space for a pocket-size device. If that wasn't an issue, phones would've had vents.\n\nBesides, phones don't work as hard as other computers do. They are weaker, so they produce less heat. Still, they can get hot sometimes, especially during charging, and there is nothing we can do about it.\n\nPhones cool by radiating heat away and through conduction - passing heat into the surrounding air/skin.", "Phones are very specifically engineered to be both low heat and to have passive cooling systems to dissipate that heat. It take a lot of engineering to do this properly, but it is necessary for a device that is meant to be carried and hand held.\n\nOther appliances _could_ have systems like this, but there is no real need for them. They can be large enough to have larger and more active cooling systems, which are less difficult to engineer and less costly to implement. Since there is no real benefit to making these other appliances smaller, they use the easier/cheaper cooling tech.", "How much additional cooling a given component needs depends on how much heat it releases during use, on what temperature it can tolerate internally before it gets damaged, and on what equilibrium temperature the surrounding environment reaches during use.\n\nIn a phone, if a part is getting too hot, you only really have a couple options: \n\nmodify the design or operating conditions so it makes less heat (also improves battery life, but can negatively impact performance)\n\nImprove thermal conductivity between the part and the outside of the phone. (for example, you could switch from a plastic frame to an aluminum one)", "Phones are typically underclocked to reduce power consumption and heat generation. And they start with low power parts to begin with. Heat is removed just by letting it passively radiate from the phone." ]

[ "as in small form-factor PCs and laptops, or where no fan noise can be tolerated, as in audio production. Because of the efficiency of this method of cooling, many desktop CPUs and GPUs, as well as high end chipsets, use heat pipes in addition to active fan-based cooling to remain within safe operating temperatures. Electrostatic air movement and corona discharge effect cooling The cooling technology under development by Kronos and Thorn Micro Technologies employs a device called an ionic wind pump (also known as an electrostatic fluid accelerator). The basic operating principle of an ionic wind pump is corona", "noise must be kept to a minimum, and the case exterior temperature must be kept low enough to be used on a lap. Cooling generally uses forced air cooling but heat pipes and the use of the metal chassis or case as a passive heat sink are also common. Solutions to reduce heat include using lower power-consumption ARM or Intel Atom processors. Mobile devices Mobile devices usually have no discrete cooling systems, as mobile CPU and GPU chips are designed for maximum power efficiency due to the constraints of the device's battery. Some higher performance devices may include a heat", "for industrial uses, household appliances such as blenders and mixers, power tools such as drills and rotary tools, and radio-controlled cars Advantages Attaching an internal fan to a motor is a fairly simple way to cool it. Since a fan cooled motor always provides airflow over itself regardless of whether it is stationary or partially enclosed, it is more effective than using a heat sink in applications with poor airflow because heat sinks usually require air to be flowing over them for maximum effectiveness. Internal fan cooling also takes up far less space than external fan cooling or water cooling.", "the necessary cooling air flow when the coolant temperature remains below the system's designed maximum temperature, and the fan remains disengaged. Electronics As electronic devices become smaller, the problem of dispersing waste heat becomes more difficult. Tiny radiators known as heat sinks are used to convey heat from the electronic components into a cooling air stream. Heatsink do not use water, rather they conduct the heat from the source (high-performance heat sinks have copper to conduct better). Heat is transferred to the air by conduction and convection; a relatively small proportion of heat is transferred by radiation owing to", "a refrigerator or other heat pump, these use the Peltier effect along with an external fan to draw away the heat. By reversing the current, this concept can also heat the contents instead of cooling them, useful for keeping meals hot from a drive-through, or even to keep items from freezing in severely cold climates.\nThermoelectric coolers typically can drop the temperature by about 40 °F or 22 °C below ambient temperature, or can raise it by at least that much; this is really a function of the effectiveness of the boxes' thermal insulation. Some better units even have digital thermostat controls. They", "required. For this reason, the cooling of electronic devices is most efficient when it occurs closest to the source of the heat generation.\nUse of the thermal bump does not displace system level cooling, which is still needed to move heat out of the system; rather it introduces a fundamentally new methodology for achieving temperature uniformity at the chip and board level. In this manner, overall thermal management of the system becomes more efficient. In addition, while conventional cooling solutions scale with the size of the system (bigger fans for bigger systems, etc.), the thermal bump can scale at", "either passive means or with the assistance of a fan. In the older days, before air conditioning, it would get hot inside buildings, during the day times, because of heat from the sun. Even in cars, the temperature inside can exceed 50 degrees Celsius, if the windows are up and there is no need to switch on the heater Process heat applications Solar air heat can also be used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea, corn, coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed over a medium", "the effective dissipation of heat in a high ambient temperature environment. These systems are, in essence, the next generation fluid cooling paradigm, as they are approximately 10 times more efficient than single phase water. Since the system uses a dielectric as the heat transport medium, leaks do not cause a catastrophic failure of the electric system.\nThis type of cooling is seen as a more extreme way to cool components, since the units are relatively expensive compared to the average desktop. They also generate a significant amount of noise, since they are essentially refrigerators; however, the compressor choice and air cooling", "many modern components require more effective active cooling. To cool these components, fans are used to move heated air away from the components and draw cooler air over them. Fans attached to components are usually used in combination with a heat sink to increase the area of heated surface in contact with the air, thereby improving the efficiency of cooling. Fan control is not always an automatic process. A computer's BIOS (basic input/output system) can control the speed of the built-in fan system for the computer. A user can even supplement this function with additional cooling components or connect a", "heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump. PTC junction cooling is also attractive for its simplicity — this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.\nTo avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and the Tesla Model S and 3 can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged in.\nSome electric cars, for example the Citroën Berlingo Electrique, use an", "a dry cooling tower or directly air-cooled radiators may be necessary, since the cost or environmental consequences of obtaining make-up water for evaporative cooling would be prohibitive. These coolers have lower efficiency and higher energy consumption to drive fans, compared to a typical wet, evaporative cooling tower. Once-through cooling systems Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water", "room to cool its condenser, and then vents it outside. This air is replaced by hot air from outside or other rooms (due to the negative pressure inside the room), thus reducing the unit's overall efficiency.\nModern units might have a coefficient of performance of approximately 3 (i.e., 1 kW of electricity will produce 3 kW of cooling). A dual-hose unit draws air to cool its condenser from outside instead of from inside the room, and thus is more effective than most single-hose units. These units create no negative pressure in the room. Portable evaporative system Evaporative coolers, sometimes called \"swamp coolers\", do", "edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator towards the rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. It is believed that some designs with metal cases, like Apple's aluminum MacBook Pro and MacBook Air, also employ the case of the machine as a heat sink, allowing it to supplement cooling by dissipating heat", "out of the device core. Secondary device temperature monitoring may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads with external fans can be used with laptops to reduce operating temperatures. Docking station A docking station (sometimes referred to simply as a dock) is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports, and in some cases expansion slots or bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects to a docking station, typically through a", "area. Safety Electric fan heaters are unsealed appliances with live electric parts inside, so they are not safe to use in wet environments because of the risk of electrical injury if moisture provides a conductive path to electrically-live parts. Electric fan heaters usually have a thermal fuse close to the heating element(s) to prevent overheating damage in the event of fan failure or air intakes becoming blocked, and a tip-over switch to shut the heater off when the fan outlet is not in the required orientation. Metal-cased heaters may perform better in the case of possible fire-causing faults than plastic-cased", "accessories consisting of an external window-mounted metal cylinder without moving parts, but internal under dashboard or center floor units with an electric fan are available. It was an early type of automobile air conditioner and is not used in modern cars relying on refrigerative systems to cool the interior.\nTo cool the air it used latent heat (in other words, cooling by water evaporation). Water inside the device evaporates and in the process transfers heat from the surrounding air. The cool moisture-laden air is then directed to the inside of the car. The evaporate \"cooling\" effect decreases with humidity because the", "much narrower cable. Desktops Desktop computers typically use one or more fans for cooling. While almost all desktop power supplies have at least one built-in fan, power supplies should never draw heated air from within the case, as this results in higher PSU operating temperatures which decrease the PSU's energy efficiency, reliability and overall ability to provide a steady supply of power to the computer's internal components.\nFor this reason, all modern ATX cases (with some exceptions found in ultra-low-budget cases) feature a power supply mount in the bottom, with a dedicated PSU air intake (often with its own filter) beneath", "are less common than all-air systems for cooling, but can have advantages compared to all-air systems in some applications.\nSince the majority of the cooling process results from removing sensible heat through radiant exchange with people and objects and not air, occupant thermal comfort can be achieved with warmer interior air temperatures than with air based cooling systems. Radiant cooling systems potentially offer reductions in cooling energy consumption. The latent loads (humidity) from occupants, infiltration and processes generally need to be managed by an independent system. Radiant cooling may also be integrated with other energy-efficient strategies such as night time flushing,", "of power, and the efficiency of the electrical generator which powers the heater and power loss from transporting the electricity over power lines. Measures may also consider how well a heater keeps the temperature of a space above a certain point. Such a measure would find inefficiencies in heating an already warm room. Many heaters (the majority of available models) are equipped with a thermostat to prevent this inefficient heating, which in turn reduces running costs. This feature was much more common in oil heaters than in the cheaper fan heaters until recently; thus many older oil heaters will be", "et al.). \nIt has been noted that the use of programmable thermostats is hampered by misconception about the setback feature, reducing the amount of heating or cooling in a building needs for a short time (e.g. at night or when it is unoccupied). The belief is that if the building is allowed to change temperature, its heating or cooling system has to \"work harder\" to bring it back to a comfortable temperature, counteracting or even exceeding the energy saved during reduced heating or cooling. If set up correctly the setback and recovery feature can result in energy savings of", "components such as transformers. It is also becoming popular with data centers. Personal computers cooled in this manner may not require either fans or pumps, and may be cooled exclusively by passive heat exchange between the computer hardware and the enclosure it is placed in. A heat exchanger (i.e. heater core or radiator) might still be needed though, and the piping also needs to be placed correctly. \nThe coolant used must have sufficiently low electrical conductivity not to interfere with the normal operation of the computer. If the liquid is somewhat electrically conductive, it may cause electrical shorts between components", "of their time lightly loaded. For example, most desktop PCs draw less than 250 watts at full load, and 200 watts or less is more typical.\nPower supplies with thermally controlled fans can be made quieter by providing a cooler and/or less obstructed source of air, and fanless power supplies are available, either with large passive heat sinks or relying on convection or case airflow to dissipate heat. It is also possible to use fanless DC to DC power supplies that operate like those in laptops, using an external power brick to supply DC power, which is then converted to appropriate", "the radiators.\nInstead of letting your central heating system cool down completely, so that you often have to keep switching it on for a short time to give your home a big blast of heat, it is best to keep your central heating running continuously with the central wall-mounted thermostat set at the lowest temperature at which you feel comfortable. Doing this could save you money because you will not be wasting so much fuel, especially if your home is well insulated.\nNote: It is a sure sign that you have a faulty thermostat if you find that you continually have to", "a fan to distribute the conditioned air to an occupied space such as a building or a car to improve thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Electric refrigerant-based AC units range from small units that can cool a small bedroom, which can be carried by a single adult, to massive units installed on the roof of office towers that can cool an entire building. The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be made based on desiccants (chemicals which remove moisture from the air). Some AC", "house, making them less energy efficient. This technology has evolved since the late 1950s where it firstly evolved to be used for melting snow on glass roofs and was then effectively inverted and used as the heat source inside the building.\nA common commercial use of heated glass is to prevent frost from forming on the glass doors of supermarket freezers. In addition, display cases (such as in convenience stores and delis) use heated glass shelves to keep cooked food items from cooling.", "occupants, allowing the house to be cool upon the arrival of the occupants while still having saved air conditioning energy during the peak outdoor temperatures. The reduced cooling required during the day also decreases the demands placed upon the electrical supply grid.\nConversely, during the heating season, the programmable thermostat may be set to allow the temperature in the house to drop when the house is unoccupied during the day and also at night after all occupants have gone to bed, re-heating the house prior to the occupants arriving home in the evening or waking up in the morning. Since most", "Which includes, adding lights (most likely LEDS, cathodes or other electro-luminescent lighting). Cutting the game system case, to fit hardware and/or expose the internal systems. Cooling is a large part of console hard 'modding', including: heat sink upgrades, more powerful or quieter fans, some even go so far as to abandon common heat exchange to air all together by liquid cooling a console (most notably in the Xbox 360, which initially had some heat problems). Game software On the other side, some companies actively encourage modding of their products. In cases such as TiVo and Google, there has been an", "Electronics cooling Electronics Cooling encompasses thermal design, analysis and experimental characterization of electronic systems as a discrete discipline with the product creation process for an electronics product, or an electronics sub-system within a product (e.g. an engine control unit (ECU) for a car). On-line sources of information are available and a number of books have been published on this topic.\nComputer cooling is a sub-topic. Heat sinks are devices that are used to extend the surface area of electronic components available for air cooling, helping to lower the components case temperature. Fans are used to increase the air flow.\nThermal design and", "large central hall and aligned windows designed to allow a cooling air-current to pass through the house, with an octagonal cupola at the top of the house drawing hot air up and out through natural convection.\nWhole house fans were the only method for cooling homes in the early 1900s. Air conditioning was invented by Carrier in 1907 but did not become popular until the 1950s. Whole house fans are still ideal for cooling homes when the air outside is cooler than the air inside.", "a single panel without over-driving the inverter. However, this over sizing is considered common practice in today's industry (sometimes as high as 20% over inverter nameplate rating) to account for module degradation, higher performance during winter months or to achieve higher sell back to the utility.\nOther challenges associated with centralized inverters include the space required to locate the device, as well as heat dissipation requirements. Large central inverters are typically actively cooled. Cooling fans make noise, so location of the inverter relative to offices and occupied areas must be considered. And because cooling fans have moving parts, dirt, dust," ]

[ "Someone feel free to correct me if I'm wrong, but my understanding is the Middle East put out so much supply to try and put US companies out of business which if successful they would then jack prices up and get money to themselves.", "It's all politics. What looks to be the main reason is that Saudi Arabia is losing market share in the oil game so they are distributing it in massive quantities in order to regain market share. So economically speaking it is supply and demand. They are flooding the market which increases supply causing the equilibrium price to drop, but it's based off of politics.", "Do you think it also has anything to do with the US trying to isolate Iran?", "_URL_0_\n\nthis is a pretty goos documentary on the whole thing." ]

[ "Low oil prices could alleviate some of the negative effects associated with the resource curse, such as authoritarian rule and gender inequality. Lower oil prices could however also lead to domestic turmoil and diversionary war. The reduction in food prices that follows lower oil prices could have positive impacts on violence globally.\nResearch shows that declining oil prices make oil-rich states less bellicose. Low oil prices could also make oil-rich states engage more in international cooperation, as they become more dependent on foreign investments. The influence of the United States reportedly increases as oil prices decline, at least judging by the", "not caused significant changes in oil prices and that fundamental supply and demand factors provide the best explanation for the crude oil price increases. The report found that the primary reason for the price increases was that the world economy had expanded at its fastest pace in decades, resulting in substantial increases in the demand for oil, while the oil production grew sluggishly, compounded by production shortfalls in oil-exporting countries.\nThe report stated that as a result of the imbalance and low price elasticity, very large price increases occurred as the market attempted to balance scarce supply against growing demand, particularly", "these price increases to many factors, including reports from the United States Department of Energy and others showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, Middle East tension, and oil price speculation.\nFor a time, geopolitical events and natural disasters indirectly related to the global oil market had strong short-term effects on oil prices. These events and disasters included North Korean missile tests, the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, worries over Iranian nuclear plants in 2006 and Hurricane Katrina. By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of the global", "Indonesia and the United Kingdom is the reason for the price gouging. According to Simmons, isolated events, such as the Iraq war, affect short-term prices but do not determine a long-term trend. Simmons cites the use of enhanced oil recovery techniques in large fields such as Mexico's Cantarell, which maintained production for a few years until it eventually declined. Pumping oil out of Iraq may reduce petroleum prices in the short term, but will be unable to perpetually lower the price. From Simmons' point of view, the invasion of Iraq is associated with the start of long-term increase in oil", "fact that the banks have deep pockets, and so the means to significantly sway prices, and unlike traditional market participants, neither produced oil nor ever took physical possession of actual barrels of oil they bought and sold. Journalist Kate Sheppard of Mother Jones called it \"a development that many say is artificially raising the price of crude\". However, another source stated that, \"Just before crude oil hit its record high in mid-2008, 15 of the world's largest banks were betting that prices would fall, according to private trading data...\"\nIn April 2011, a couple of observers - Brad Johnson of the", "the causes, which include the flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities to speculation and monetary policy or the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast-growing world economy and thus positions taken on those markets, such as Chinese increasing presence in Africa. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states.\nIn January 2008, oil prices surpassed $100 a barrel for the first time, the first of many price milestones to", "fact that \"both oil importers and exporters vote more often with the United States in the United Nations General Assembly\" during oil slumps.\nThe macroeconomics impact on lower oil prices is lower inflation. A lower inflation rate is good for the consumers. This means that the general price of a basket of goods would increase at a bare minimum on a year to year basis. Consumer can benefit as they would have a better purchasing power, which may improve real gdp. However, in recent countries like Japan, the decrease in oil prices may cause deflation and it shows that consumers are", "for India, USA and China, and a decline of greater than 3.5% from Saudi Arabia and Russia. A stable price of $60 would add 0.5 percentage point to global gross domestic product.\nKatina Stefanova has argued that falling oil prices do not imply a recession and a decline in stock prices. Liz Ann Sonders, Chief Investment Strategist at Charles Schwab, had earlier written that that positive impact on consumers and businesses outside of the energy sector, which is a larger portion of the US economy will outweigh the negatives. Taking cues from a legendary oil investor, Harold Hamm, ranked", "energy companies. Oil During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008. Commentators attributed the heavy price increases to many factors, including reports from the United States Department of Energy and others showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, Middle East tension, and oil price speculation.\nFor a time, geo-political events and natural disasters indirectly related to the global oil market had strong short-term effects on oil prices, such as North Korean missile tests, the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, worries over Iranian nuclear plans in", "of oversupply and lack of agreements between oil-producing countries members of the OPEC (Saudi Arabia in particular, which pumped at world's records) and also because of lack of coordinated efforts between OPEC and Non-OPEC countries (Russian being a big player, refusing to reduce production) the price of oil fell rapidly in 2015 and continued to slide in 2016 causing the cost of WTI crude to fall to a 10-year low of $26.55 on January 20. The average price of oil in January 2016 was well below $35. Oil did not recover until April 2016, when oil went above the $45", "per barrel. The world oil price declined to as little as $10 per barrel in the years following. Since the federal government based its spending on the larger figure, the result was that it spent a great deal of money on subsidies that could not be recovered in taxes on production. Furthermore, due to proximity to the U.S. market companies had opportunities to make money by playing differentials in prices. For instance, refiners in Eastern Canada would import oil subsidized down to half the world price, refine it into products, and export the products to the U.S. at full world", "a lack of refining capacity would only seem to explain high gasoline prices not high crude oil prices. Indeed, if the refineries were unable to process available crude oil then there should be a crude oil glut that would reduce crude prices on international crude oil markets. Then again, sharp changes in crude oil prices can also be due to stock market volatility and fear over the security of future supplies, or, on the other hand, an anticipation by investors of a rise in the value of crude oil once refining capacity picks up again.\nAs for the global usefulness", "The price difference between WCS and WTI was as wide as US$50 a barrel in October. As the international price of oil recovered from the December \"sharp downturn\", the price of WCS rose to US$28.60. According to CBC News, the lower global price of oil was related to declining economic growth as the China–U.S. trade war continued. The price rose as oil production was cut back by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and Saudi Arabia. According to U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) report, oil production rose by 12% in the U.S., primarily because of shale oil. As a", "to monetary policy, and some to the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast-growing world, leading to long positions taken on those markets, such as Chinese increasing presence in Africa. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states. A pattern of spiking instability in the price of oil over the decade leading up to the price high of 2008 has been recently identified. The destabilizing effects of this price variance has been proposed", "of $45 on September 11, 2001 only to drop again to a low of $26 on May 8, 2003. The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. By March 3, 2008 the price of oil reached $103.95 a barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange.\nAlthough the oil price is largely determined by the balance between supply and demand—as with all commodities—some commentators including Business Week, the Financial Times and the Washington Post, argued that the rise in oil prices prior to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was due to speculation in futures markets.\nFor a dissenting view of", "this is yet another cycle and oil prices will recover sooner rather than later.\nA 2016 survey of the academic literature finds that \"most major oil price fluctuations dating back to 1973 are largely explained by shifts in the demand for crude oil\". As the global economy expands, so does demand for crude oil. The authors note that the price of oil has also increased at times due to greater \"demand for stocks (or inventories) of crude oil... to guard against future shortages in the oil market. Historically, inventory demand has been high in times of geopolitical tension in the Middle", "rising oil prices would encourage alternatives (both on the supply and demand side), the costs and impacts of other issues involved with petroleum based personal transportation (such as pollution, the economic effects of global warming, security threats caused by sending vast amounts of money to the Middle East, and the costs of road maintenance) should also be taken into account. \"Because the price of oil is artificially low, significant private investment in alternative technologies that provide a long-term payback does not exist. Until oil and its alternatives compete in a fair market, new technologies will not thrive.\"\nIn 2005, the", "not willing to spend even though the prices of goods are decreasing yearly, which indirectly increases the real debt burden. Declining oil prices may boost consumer oriented stocks but may hurt oil-based stocks. It is estimated that 17–18% of S&P would decline with declining oil prices.\nThe oil importing economies like EU, Japan, China or India would benefit, however the oil producing countries would lose. A Bloomberg article presents results of an analysis by Oxford Economics on the GDP growth of countries as a result of a drop from $84 to $40. It shows the GDP increase between 0.5% to 1.0%", "mainly related to the drop in the price of oil.\"", "embargo, the rupture of the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, and Iranian Nationalization of the oil industry resulted in further never-before-seen price increases. Each case was followed by a marked recession in the US economy.\nIn 2008, oil prices rose briefly, to as high as $145 per barrel, and U.S. gasoline prices jumped from $1.37 to $2.37 per gallon in 2005, causing a search for alternate sources, and by 2012, less than half the US oil consumption was imported. However, as of January 2015, the price of oil has decreased to around $50 per barrel. Consumption and production In the twentieth century, oil production", "U.S. economy decreased, leading to predictions of $4 by early 2012. As of November 8, the price reached $96.80. Gas prices were not following the increase, due to lower demand resulting from the economy, the normal decrease in travel, lower oil prices in other countries, and production of winter blends which cost less. The average rose slightly to $3.41. 2012 The CIBC reported that the global oil industry continued to produce massive amounts of oil in spite of a stagnant crude oil market. Oil production from the Bakken formation was forecast in 2012 to grow by 600,000 barrels every year", "the Iraq War, and the significant increase in demand for oil from developing economies like China and India, which helped prompt a surge in oil prices to levels far higher than those targeted by OPEC during the preceding period. In addition to these events, the December 2002 oil strike in Venezuela, which resulted in a loss of almost 3mmbpd of crude oil production, brought a sharp increase in world prices of crude. International deals In 2005, PDVSA opened its first office in China, and announced plans to nearly triple its fleet of oil tankers in that region. Chávez", "declining due to a significant increase in oil production in USA, and declining demand in the emerging countries. The oil glut—caused by multiple factors—spurred a sharp downward spiral in the price of oil that continued through February 2016. By February 3, 2016 oil was below $30— a drop of \"almost 75 percent since mid-2014 as competing producers pumped 1–2 million barrels of crude daily exceeding demand, just as China's economy hit lowest growth in a generation.\" Some analysts speculate that it may continue to drop further, perhaps as low as $18\nAccording to a report released on February 15, 2016 by", "became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade. The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman. Speculation during the 2008 crisis In June 2008 Business Week reported that the surge in oil prices prior to 2008 had led some commentators to argue that at least some of the rise was due to speculation in the futures markets. However, although speculation can greatly raise the oil price in the short run, in the long run fundamental market conditions will determine the oil price. Storing oil is expensive, and all speculators must", "the supply of oil, due to reduced shipping in the Strait of Hormuz as a result of this incident. On June 17, the price of oil returned to its previous decreasing trend, falling by 1.7%.\nThe price of insurance for cargo ships has also risen in response to the event, which could increase oil prices. Bloomberg reported that the war risk insurance premium for the Persian Gulf – which had already increased following the May incidents - jumped from USD 50,000 to USD 185,000 for supertankers.", "taxes paid to the producing country.\nOil-producing countries did not realize that the companies were adjusting oil prices until the cost of oil dropped in the late 1950s and companies started reducing posted prices very frequently. The main reason for the reduction in oil prices was the change in the world's energy situation after 1957 that led to competition between energy sources. Efforts to find markets led to price cuts. Price cutting was first achieved by shaving profit margins, but soon prices were reduced to levels far lower than posted prices as companies producing oil in the Middle", "Price of oil The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Select (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and/or refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils", "oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states. Spiking instability in the price of oil over the decade leading up to the price high of 2008 has also been proposed as a causal factor in the financial crisis. Inaccurate economic forecasting A cover story in BusinessWeek magazine claims that economists mostly failed to predict the worst international economic crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania online business journal examines why economists failed to predict a major global financial crisis. An article in the New York Times informs that economist", "the petroleum available on the world market will decline much more steeply than the decline in total production. Theory As world oil exports approach (or pass) a global peak, the price of exported oil increases and further stimulates domestic economic growth and oil consumption in Export-Land countries, creating a positive feedback process between declining exports and higher prices. Eventually, however, the level of export decline outpaces the increasing oil price, slowing domestic growth. In some cases, an Export Land eventually becomes a net importer. It is unlikely that an Export Land would constrain domestic consumption to help", "prices, but it may mitigate the decline in oil production by retaining a partial amount of Iraq's oil reserves. As a direct consequence, the oil production capacity was diminished to 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day. 2004 to 2008: rising costs of oil After retreating for several months in late 2004 and early 2005, crude oil prices rose to new highs in March 2005. The price on NYMEX has been above $50 per barrel since March 5, 2005. In June 2005, crude oil prices broke the psychological barrier of $60 per barrel.\nFrom 2005 onwards, the price elasticity of the crude" ]

[ "The metal interior of the oven is grounded. It does pick up a charge from the microwaves, but the charge is dissipated to ground, and so does not arc. Your fork, or the foil on your plate, are not grounded, and thus the charge can build up until it is strong enough to arc to a grounded panel.", "Another thing to note is that not all metalic objects will spark. its only pointy things like forks, tin foil and knifes (depending on the knife). Spoons are usually fine in a microwave as they are rounded. Thats also why those chef boyarde microwavable things can have [metal lips on them] (_URL_0_)." ]

[ "added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical hazard if crushed then inhaled or ingested. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be handled. This is a danger if the microwave oven becomes physically damaged, if the insulator cracks, or when the magnetron is opened and handled, yet not during normal usage.\nThe use of unmarked plastics for microwave cooking raises the issue of plasticizers leaching into the food, or the plastics chemically reacting to microwave energy, with by-products leaching into the food, suggesting that", "(such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.\nThe high electrical fields generated inside a microwave often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device. Direct microwave exposure Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped", "inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard. Metal objects Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.\nAny object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves is safe, see below), twist-ties", "air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.\nThe effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against", "heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.\nAnother hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth", "of microwaves. This reduces attenuation of the propagating wave due to resistive losses affecting the accompanying eddy currents; the skin effect confines such eddy currents to a very thin surface layer of the waveguide structure. The skin effect itself isn't actually combatted in these cases, but the distribution of currents near the conductor's surface makes the use of precious metals (having a lower resistivity) practical. Although it has a lower conductivity than copper and silver, gold plating is also used, because unlike copper and silver, it does not corrode. A thin oxidized layer of copper or silver would have a", "stovetop cooking utensils.\nThe study of metallic elements and their alloys makes up a significant portion of the fields of solid-state chemistry, physics, materials science and engineering.\nMetallic solids are held together by a high density of shared, delocalized electrons, known as \"metallic bonding\". In a metal, atoms readily lose their outermost (\"valence\") electrons, forming positive ions. The free electrons are spread over the entire solid, which is held together firmly by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud. The large number of free electrons gives metals their high values of electrical and thermal conductivity. The free electrons also prevent", "eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\nProducts that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is", "the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are available. Art and decoration Heavier foils made of aluminium are used for art, decoration, and crafts, especially in bright metallic colours. Metallic aluminium, normally silvery in colour, can be made to take on other colours through anodisation. Anodising creates an oxide layer on the aluminium surface that can accept coloured dyes or metallic salts, depending on the process used. In this way, aluminium is used to create an", "a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.\nIt is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and", "conduct heat and electricity. Across the period, from left to right, increasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes metallic character to decrease.\nNon-metallic property increases across a period and decreases down the group due to the same reason due to increase in nuclear attractive force. Metals are ductile while nonmetals are not.", "(insulating) solids. In a metallic bond, any potential bonding electrons can easily be lost by the atoms in a crystalline structure. The effect of this delocalization is simply to exaggerate the effect of the \"sea of electrons\". As a result of these electrons, most of the incoming light in metals is reflected back, which is why we see a shiny metal surface.\nMost insulators (or dielectric materials) are held together by ionic bonds. Thus, these materials do not have free conduction electrons, and the bonding electrons reflect only a small fraction of the incident wave. The remaining frequencies (or wavelengths) are", "in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal \"fines\", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start", "Microwave Active Composition Microwave Active Composition is a brand of microwave-sensitive liquid chemicals sold by Atlanta Chemical Engineering LLC. The chemical undergoes color change if it interacts with intensive microwaves. There are two major types of microwave active compositions - reversible and irreversible. The reversible composition is colored liquid and when irradiated with microwaves losses its color. However it has the ability to revert to the original one in a short time after discontinuing the irradiation. The irreversible version of microwave active composition is white (transparent if coated) and transforms itself to colored one when makes contact with microwaves. It", "regard to impact. Aluminum foil can melt onto the top and cause permanent damage or cracking of the top. Surfaces can be scratched by sliding pans across the cooking surface. Noise Some noise is generated by an internal cooling fan. Also, audible electromagnetically-excited acoustic noise (a high pitched hum or buzz) may be produced by cookware, especially at high power, if the cookware has loose parts or if the multi-ply layers of the pot are not well bonded to each other; cookware with welded-in cladding layers and solid riveting is less likely to produce this type of noise. Some users", "the outer layer causing it to reach a higher temperature, or even if the inner layer is more thermally conductive than the outer layer making it feel hotter despite having a lower temperature. In most cases, however, with uniformly structured or reasonably homogenous food item, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of the item at a similar level to that of the inner layers. Depending on water content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with microwave ovens, in contrast to broiling/grilling (infrared) or convection heating—methods which deposit heat thinly at the food surface.", "to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.\nThe second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that", "not affect the communal metallic bonding very much. This gives rise to metals' typical characteristic phenomena of malleability and ductility. This is particularly true for pure elements. In the presence of dissolved impurities, the defects in the structure that function as cleavage points may get blocked and the material becomes harder. Gold, for example, is very soft in pure form (24-karat), which is why alloys of 18-karat or lower are preferred in jewelry.\nMetals are typically also good conductors of heat, but the conduction electrons only contribute partly to this phenomenon. Collective (i.e., delocalized) vibrations of the atoms known as phonons", "described as metallic, it is most likely due to a combination of the density of the rock and a high degree of internal stress. The sound can be duplicated on a small scale by tapping the handle of a ceramic coffee cup.\nThe iron content of the diabase is often identified as the source of the ringing ability. Actual chemical analysis of the Coffman Hill diabase shows that iron content (as ferric oxide) of the rock ranges from 9% and 12%. Although comparatively high for an average igneous rock (3% is typical for granite), it is within the normal range for", "aluminium kitchen foil is useful. This highly reflective foil is used with the shiny side facing towards the back of the radiator. However, as little of the radiator's heat is released by radiation anyway, there is little advantage in reducing losses to it. There is also a risk that reflectors made from kitchen foil may soon become inefficient, as aluminium oxidizes very quickly and then loses its reflective quality.\nA more effective DIY radiator reflector is a thin insulating layer (against conduction) of a lightweight insulator such as expanded polystyrene foam veneer or 3mm polyethylene foam, as used for laminate flooring", "Microwave chemistry Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions. Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges, such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid. Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions. Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material. Microwave heating in the laboratory began to gain", "of the light. Microwaves, which sometimes have a wavelength greater than an inch (~25 mm) can reflect specularly off a metal screen-door, continental ice-sheets, or desert sand, while visible light, having wavelengths of only a few hundred nanometers (a few hundred-thousandths of an inch), must meet a very smooth surface to produce specular reflection. For wavelengths that are approaching or are even shorter than the diameter of the atoms, such as X-rays, specular reflection can only be produced by surfaces that are at a grazing incidence from the rays.\nSurface roughness is typically measured in microns, wavelength, or grit size, with ~80,000–100,000 grit", "is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. Heating and power application A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm) through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.\nMicrowave heating is used in industrial processes", "a \"Freedom Trash Can\", which included pots and pans. Metal Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another. Aluminium Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity.", "the body. Exposure to microwave radiation can produce cataracts by this mechanism, because the microwave heating denatures proteins in the crystalline lens of the eye (in the same way that heat turns egg whites white and opaque). The lens and cornea of the eye are especially vulnerable because they contain no blood vessels that can carry away heat. Exposure to heavy doses of microwave radiation (as from an oven that has been tampered with to allow operation even with the door open) can produce heat damage in other tissues as well, up to and including serious burns that may", "absorbed via the digestive tract. When injected it concentrates in the bones, from which it is slowly released.\nFinely divided neptunium metal presents a fire hazard because neptunium is pyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.", "overheat. In some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature, microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaway. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting.\nDue to this phenomenon, microwave ovens set at too-high power levels may even start to cook the edges of frozen food while the inside of the food remains frozen. Another case of uneven heating can be observed in baked goods containing berries. In these items, the berries absorb more energy than the drier surrounding bread and cannot dissipate the heat due to the low", "most materials undergo a combination of these two effects.\nNonmagnetic materials and electrical insulators such as plastics can be induction-welded by implanting them with metallic or ferromagnetic compounds, called susceptors, that absorb the electromagnetic energy from the induction coil, become hot, and lose their heat to the surrounding material by thermal conduction. \nPlastic can also be induction welded by embedding the plastic with electrically conductive fibers like metals or carbon fiber. Induced eddy currents resistively heat the embedded fibers which lose their heat to the surrounding plastic by conduction. Induction welding of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is commonly used in the", "much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn if overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to a weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can be used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods. Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from oxygen.\nMany", "including semi-solid substances like meat and living tissue, to a distance defined by the skin effect. The penetration essentially stops where all the penetrating microwave energy has been converted to heat in the tissue. Microwave ovens used to heat food are not set to the frequency for optimal absorption by water. If they were, then the piece of food or liquid in question would absorb all microwave radiation in its outer layer, leading to a cool, unheated centre and a superheated surface. Instead, the frequency selected allows energy to penetrate deeper into the heated food. The frequency of a household" ]

[ "We still have them. Ever gone \"EW\" from spoiled food and decided not to eat it? Ever smelled something horrible and realized that it wasn't edible? \n\nThe issue is that we've realized that there's a lot more items out there can that kill us, and notice it. Our ancestors would have just died from eating it, and then warned the surviving descendants to stay away from it.", "We don't lack it. It's not like they had some magical ability to tell if something was poisonous by looking at it. Our bodies almost make us vomit if we smell rotten meat - that's the ability!" ]

[ "by congratulating them for being so lucky, because \"...after all, my ancestors used to eat their enemies.\"", "or holding poisons such as tubocurarine have been plainly found in their hunting weapons and tools, showing that early humans had discovered poisons of varying potency and applied them to their weapons. Some speculate that this use and existence of these strange and noxious substances was kept secret within the more important and higher-ranked members of a tribe or clan, and were seen as emblems of a greater power. This may have also given birth to the concept of the stereotypical \"medicine man\" or \"witch doctor\".\nOnce the use and danger of poison was realized, it became apparent that something had", "she said, \"and see whether it's marked 'poison' or not\"; for she had read several nice little histories about children who had got burnt, and eaten up by wild beasts and other unpleasant things, all because they would not remember the simple rules their friends had taught them: such as, that a red-hot poker will burn you if you hold it too long; and that if you cut your finger very deeply with a knife, it usually bleeds; and she had never forgotten that, if you drink much from a bottle marked \"poison\", it is almost certain to disagree with", "Preparedness (learning) In psychology, preparedness is a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others. For example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common and much easier to induce in the laboratory than other kinds of fears. According to Martin Seligman, this is a result of our evolutionary history. The theory states that organisms which learned to fear environmental threats faster had a survival and reproductive advantage. Consequently, the innate predisposition to fear these threats became an adaptive human trait.\nThe concept of preparedness has also been used to", "but particularly the seeds, are poisonous to humans. However, there do not appear to have been any confirmed cases in humans of severe poisoning following ingestion of kōwhai in New Zealand. Traditional Māori use Traditionally the Māori used the flexible branches as a construction material in their houses and to snare birds. The kōwhai flowers were a source of yellow dye. \nMāori also used the kōwhai tree as medicine. The bark was heated in a calabash with hot stones, and made into a poultice to treat wounds or rubbed on a sore back or made into an infusion to treat", "flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness. Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection.\nFrom an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. They may have developed during different time periods. Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. Other fears, such as fear", "F., whereas in The Body Never Lies, she talks about the impact of childhood trauma and repressed emotions on the human body.\n\"Poisonous pedagogy\" is described by these theorists as what happens when a parent (or teacher, nurse, or other caregiver) believes that a young child's behavior demonstrates that the child is infected with the \"seeds of evil\", and therefore attempts to weed out the evil, either by emotional manipulation or by brute force. Simple examples include the beating of children as punishment for lying, or mothers who refuse to feed their newborn until a set time, in order to \"teach", "Poison shyness Poison shyness, also called conditioned food aversion, refers to the avoidance of a toxic substance by an animal that has previously ingested that substance. Animals learn an association between stimulus characteristics, usually the taste or odor, of a toxic substance and the illness it produces; this allows them to detect and avoid the substance. Poison shyness occurs as an evolutionary adaptation in many animals, most prominently in generalists that feed on many different materials. It is often called bait shyness when it occurs during attempts at pest control of insects and animals. If the pest ingests the poison", "an American rabbi and author, opined, \"Since time immemorial humans have longed to learn that which the future holds for them. Thus, in ancient civilization, and even today with fortune telling as a true profession, humankind continues to be curious about its future, both out of sheer curiosity as well as out of desire to better prepare for it.\"\nPopular media outlets like the New York Times have explained to their American readers that although 5000 years ago, soothsayers were prized advisers to the Assyrians, they lost respect and reverence during the rise of Reason in the 17th and 18th centuries.\nWith", "they've been leading the others to believe. The children are so old that their true forms are mummified corpses whose stomachs are riddled with holes, making it harder for them to feed, thus explaining their need to constantly feed. The children lied in order to cause chaos within the group and make it easier to kill them in order to take over their lair, a process that they've done on at least one other occasion, per some graffiti found within the lair that says \"don't trust the children\". The children kill or chase off every member of the group and", "societies owing to sympathetic magic. This include beliefs that certain herbs with yellow sap can cure jaundice, that walnuts could strengthen the brain because of the nuts' resemblance to brain, that red beet-juice is good for the blood, that phallic-shaped roots will cure male impotence, etc.\nMany traditional societies believed that an effect on one object can cause an analogous effect on another object, without an apparent causal link between the two objects. For instance, many folktales feature a villain whose \"life\" exists in another object, and who can only be killed if that other object is destroyed. (Examples including Sauron's", "try to hide things from the eyes of their children instead of explaining those. As a result of that, the curiosity plays an important role behind their sub conscious minds. Sometimes in adolescence, without getting proper explanation and driven by the thoughts at the back of their minds, they commit many mistakes.", "delectation, that he who has not tasted it is not fit to say what a delight is. Do you think that a man who does that fears death? Not at all: for he feels strengthened, he is so elated he does not know where he is. Truly he is afraid of nothing.\nIn recent times, greater attention has begun to be given to the practical examples given in the text, for example, how to conduct a raid or how to order an army on the march", "animals for eating. This explains why people must hunt for food now.\nThe boys returned to Selu, who went to get food from the storehouse. She instructed the boys to wait behind while she was gone, but they disobeyed and followed her. They discovered Selu's secret, which was that she would rub her stomach to fill baskets with corn, and she would rub her sides to fill baskets with beans. Selu knew her secret was out and made the boys one last meal. She and Kanáti then explained to the boys that the two of them would die because their secrets", " Poison and taint have come into his body.\n\n They have produced evil.\n\n Evil being, evil face, evil mouth, evil tongue.\n\n Sorcery, venom, slaver, wicked machinations,\n\n Which are produced in the body of the sick man.\n\n O woe for the sick man whom thy cause to moan like a šąharrat.\n --(Langdon, 357, 362,", "our ancestors: they are the product of their passions, their timidity, their jealousies and their ambition. The remedy they offer is worse than the evils they pretend to cure.", "wild beasts and other unpleasant things, all because they would not remember the simple rules their friends had taught them: such as, that a red-hot poker will burn you if you hold it too long; and that if you cut your finger very deeply with a knife, it usually bleeds; and she had never forgotten that, if you drink much from a bottle marked \"poison\", it is almost certain to disagree with you, sooner or later.\"\nIn The Complete Tribune Printer, Eugene Field gave cautionary tales an ironic inversion, as in The Gun:\nThis is a gun. Is the Gun loaded?", "human beings. Children and adults have consumed the roots mistaking them for parsnips or other roots, often with fatal results. Most cases of poisoning however occur in early spring. The quantity of C. bulbifera necessary to cause death varies with the season and age of the plant. A piece of root about the size of a walnut is enough to cause the death of a cow. Symptoms The symptoms of poisoning by C. bulbifera in human beings include pain in the stomach, nausea, violent vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, labored breathing, foaming at the mouth and rapid convulsions. In animals the", "trained to put aside such subjective judgments when evaluating knowledge. Emotions are real, however, and thus must be considered within any social scientific system of coherence. Instinct The existence of distinct instincts has long been debated. Proponents of instinct argue that we eat because of hunger, drink because of thirst, and so forth. Some have even argued for the existence of God based on this criterion, arguing that the object of every instinct has a referent in reality. The counterpoint of hunger is food; for thirst it is liquid; for the sex drive it is a mate. Instincts are not", "accepted as a reliable test because they are most often indistinct, variant and difficult to define. Additionally, universal instincts are so few that they offer little to the greater body of philosophy as a criterion. Intuition Intuition is an assumed truth with an unknown, or possibly unexamined, source. It is a judgment that is not dependent on a rational examination of the facts. It is usually experienced as a sudden sensation and/or rush of thoughts that feel \"right\". Many persons experience intuitive epiphanies which later prove to be true. Scholars have sometimes come upon valid theories and proofs while daydreaming", "by its bloody history, both in the indigenous past and in its colonised period, which includes the present. The sense of taste is explored in this story, and used by the couple as a substitute for sex. As they travel tasting different dishes, they stumble upon an old secret of the ancient cuisine that may prove to be cannibalistic. A King Listens Un re in ascolto focuses on the sense of hearing. It is written in the second-person. In the story, a palace becomes a giant ear and a King is obsessed by fears of rebellion which send him toward", "never touch it until he formally apologizes and explains that his family needs it.\nThe taboos (Tanacross injih, Upper Tanana įhjih) are animistic forbidden. In addition to adhering to a code of behavior, people observed a variety of taboos designed to prevent misfortune or bad luck. Many of these taboos were associated with hunting or some other aspect of the food gathering process, thus underscoring the importance of these activities for survival of the group. Ravens, cranes, wolverines, foxes, otters, and dogs must never be eaten. The heads of caribou, moose, and Dall sheep may not be fed to the dogs;", "demonstrate a clear lack of empathy, and violence is codified. The history of poisonous pedagogy, in his view, is the history of this codification of these non-nurturant practices. It is upon these that current transmitted practice is found.\nRecent research into living Aboriginal societies and a review of the historical record of first contact data, and other recorded observations, over the past 400 years have shown that the majority of Aboriginal cultures do not chastise children. The data show that children are treated with much more respect, trust and empathy than was previously believed.", "of acquired experience. It seemed hard to understand how complicated instincts could be due to the selection of congenital variations, or be explained except by the transmission of habits acquired by the parent. However, imitation of the parent by the young account for some, and there are cases in which elaborate actions must be due to the natural selection of a fortuitously-developed habit. Such cases are the habits of 'shamming dead' and the combined posturing and colour peculiarities of certain caterpillars (Lepidoptera larvae) that cause them to resemble dead twigs or similar objects. The advantage to the caterpillar is that", "and what can happen. A perennial state of bewilderment and insecurity keeps me from thinking, reflecting, concentrating on what I have to do. Sometimes I surprise myself thinking these words: I want my life back. I silently repeat them, one by one, to myself.\n— Roberto Saviano The appeal from Nobel Prize winners People unfamiliar with Camorra power dynamics often think that killing an innocent person is a naive gesture on the part of the clans because it only legitimizes and amplifies the victim's example and words, a confirmation of the truths he spoke. Wrong. That's never the way it is. As", "physical dangers of daily life among early hunters and gatherers\". These peoples appealed to the powers of the stone, their creator(s)/deities, and the natural entities around them for protection and survival in the harsh life of the Archaic Period. Being killed in the hunt is one danger that they would be trying to protect themselves from, while giving thanks and recognizing the powers guiding their spears thrown from the atlatls would ensure their success in the hunt. As stated in Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South, \"[bannerstones'] craftsmanship and materials suggest that", "has been suggested that children are further motivated to learn when dealing with uncertainty. It is argued that their reactions to not having their expectations met would fuel their curiosity more than the introduction of a novel or complex object would. Ethicality There is a widely held belief that children's curiosity becomes discouraged throughout the process of formal education: \"Children are born scientists. From the first ball they send flying to the ant they watch carry a crumb, children use science's tools—enthusiasm, hypotheses, tests, conclusions—to uncover the world's mysteries. But somehow students seem to lose what once came naturally.\" \nSir", "Toxiphobia Toxiphobia in animals is rejection of foods with tastes, odors, or appearances which are followed by illness resulted from toxins found in these foods. In humans, toxiphobia is fear of poisons and being poisoned.", "fear of snakes, for instance, can be traced to genetic dispositions, whereas a reluctance to place one's hand on a stove is caused by previous experience on burning one's hand on a hot stove.\nThe appropriateness of applying our intuitive and automatic mode of reasoning to a given moral problem thus hinges on how the process was formed in the first place. Shaped by trial-and-error experience, automatic settings will only function well when one has sufficient experience of the situation at hand.\nIn light of these considerations, Greene formulates the \"No Cognitive Miracles Principle\":\nWhen we are dealing with unfamiliar* moral problems, we ought", "equivalent effect of kicking a human in the groin. If precisely struck with enough force, a blow to the axial can be fatal.\nCertain common compounds found on Earth are poisonous to the Newcomers and some compounds that are poisonous to humans are harmless to Tenctonese. Poisons include salt (harshly caustic); monosodium glutamate (MSG) (mild poison); chocolate (gives them the shakes, leads to a heart attack); tobacco (makes them stutter, leads to laryngitis); fluoride (strong poison); fluorocarbons (choking, leads to asphyxiation); and caffeine (causes dizziness). However, methane, alcohol, asbestos, and radon, have no effect on them. Some Newcomers, such as Uncle" ]

[ "The simple answer is stress causes this.\n\nBy setting a schedule your body will fall into a rhythm. After a while you don't really need the alarm at all. However as we know our natural rythems get disturbed occasionally. When we must get up we are creating stress that is easiest to avoid by doing nothing and that is what we want to do (avoid stress). On the weekend you don't have stress to avoid and your body is doing its thing.\n\nA sign of depression (just one of the signs) is oversleeping. Your mind allowing your body to avoid the stress of life every chance you get. Feel good that you feel awake when you don't have to. Your life is manageable to you.", "I know the true answer. we are in the computer. you are people born and living in the computer. just some program, like a demon, bother you.", "I was actually wondering the same thing not too long ago when I was on holiday. \nWe have just been on a cruise with endless activities and I found myself waking up at around 5am every morning. I wasn't actually able to do anything but watch tv until 8am but I think it is just the fact of waking up to something you really enjoy. After coming back, I have had a boat load of university assignments to finish, and I find myself waking up 9-10am. I usually get up at around 8am, but knowing that I am going to be sitting by a computer all day doing work, I find my bed just all that more comfortable." ]

[ "asked not to wake up an hour early but 3–4 hours early, while waking up \"normally\" may already be an unrecognized challenge imposed by the environment.\nThe bias toward early morning can also adversely affect adolescents in particular. Teenagers tend to require at least 9 full hours of sleep each night, and changes to the endocrine system during puberty shift the natural wake time later in the morning. Enforcing early start times despite this can have negative effects on mood, academic performance, and social skills.", "Waking up early Waking up early is a productivity method - rising early and consistently so as to be able to accomplish more during the day. This method has been recommended since antiquity and is now recommended by a number of personal development gurus. The philosopher Aristotle said, \"It is well to be up before daybreak, for such habits contribute to health, wealth, and wisdom.\" Commentary Within the context of religious observances, spiritual writers have called this practice \"the heroic minute\", referring to the sacrifice which this entails.\nBenjamin Franklin is quoted to have said: \"Early to bed and early to", " A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The", "the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years. This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.\nThe shifted circadian rhythms associated with puberty make it difficult, if not impossible, for many teenagers—who may have to rise at 5 or 6 a.m. to get ready and commute to school in time for 7 a.m. school bells—to get sufficient sleep on school nights. Even discounting for the distractions of homework and extracurricular demands and electronics, most adolescents find it difficult to fall asleep before about 11 p.m. or", "down to sleep will continue to detect that they are lying down hours later when they awaken.", "but we'll stay woke up longer.\")\nLead Belly uses the phrase near the end of the recording of his 1938 song, \"Scottsboro Boys\", while explaining about the namesake incident, saying \"I advise everybody to be a little careful when they go along through there, stay woke, keep their eyes open\". Erykah Badu and modern activist usage The first modern use of the term woke appears in the song \"Master Teacher\" from the album New Amerykah Part One (4th World War) (2008) by soul singer Erykah Badu. Throughout the song, Badu sings the phrase: \"I stay woke.\" Although the phrase did not", "It's us against the wealthy plain and simple. It's time to wake up. WAKE UP.", "awake time in the first ninety-minute sleep cycle, 8% in the second, 10% in the third, 12% in the fourth, and 13–14% in the fifth. Most of this awake time occurred shortly after REM sleep.\nToday, many humans wake up with an alarm clock; however, people can also reliably wake themselves up at a specific time with no need for an alarm. Many sleep quite differently on workdays versus days off, a pattern which can lead to chronic circadian desynchronization. Many people regularly look at television and other screens before going to bed, a factor which may exacerbate disruption of the", "influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep", "go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\"\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at", "quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time", "time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of", "to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\nPoor sleep is one of the largest", "the demands of society. It is often due to a psychosocial stressor (an event in a person's environment that causes stress or discomfort), especially for adolescents. The delayed sleep-wake cycle leads to chronic sleep deprivation and habitually late sleeping hours. Individuals with this type often have difficulty changing their sleeping patterns to an earlier and more socially acceptable time. Their actual sleep, once it begins, is normal. It is the timing of their sleeping and waking that is persistently delayed.\nThe jet lag type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is characterized by disruptions arising from a mismatch between a person's circadian", "awakenings in at least a few nights per week due to their cell phones' ringers. Among those with the cell phone ringers on, being awakened by their cell phone was correlated to difficulty sustaining sleep.\nAccording to the article, \"Interrupted Sleep: College Students Sleeping with Technology\" by Elizabeth B. Dowdell and Brianne Q. Clayton, sleep-deprived college students performed significantly worse than peers who had adequate sleep on the cognitive task work and that the sleep-deprived students were not aware of the extent to which sleep deprivation negatively affects their ability to complete cognitive tasks. Insufficient sleep while in college may be", "Wakefulness Wakefulness is a daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness in which an individual is conscious and engages in coherent cognitive and behavioral responses to the external world. Being awake is the opposite of the state of being asleep in which most external inputs to the brain are excluded from neural processing. Effects upon the brain The longer the brain has been awake, the greater the synchronous firing rates of cerebral cortex neurons. After sustained periods of sleep, both the speed and synchronicity of the neurons firing are shown to decrease.\nAnother effect of wakefulness is the reduction of", "Need to Wake Up\" from An Inconvenient Truth.", "one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast", "choice. Additionally, it is possible for people to make precommitment action. A precommitment action is an action meant to lead to a self-controlled action at a later period in time. When a person sets an alarm clock, they are making a precommitted response to wake up early in the morning. Hence, that person is more likely to exercise the self-controlled decision to wake up, rather than to fall back in bed for a little more sleep.\nCassandra B. Whyte studied locus of control and academic performance and determined that internals tend to achieve at a higher level.", "spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to", "yet have any connection to justice issues, Badu's song is credited with the later connection to these issues.\nTo \"stay woke\" in this sense expresses the intensified continuative and habitual grammatical aspect of African American Vernacular English, in essence to always be awake, or to be ever vigilant. David Stovall said: \"Erykah brought it alive in popular culture. She means not being placated, not being anesthetized.\"\nImplicit in the concept of being woke is the idea that such awareness must be earned. The rapper Earl Sweatshirt recalls singing \"I stay woke\" along to the song and his mother turning down the song", "healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking", "age group, Seriously, Just Go To Sleep is a real children's book for a parent to read to his or her child, and the word \"fuck\" was replaced by the parent in the story expressing frustration with the stubborn child in a more G-rated way. For example, \"I know you're not thirsty, that's bullshit. Stop lying. Lie the fuck down, my darling, and sleep\" was changed to \"I know you're not thirsty. You just had a drink. Stop goofing around now, and sleep.\"\nThe book was translated into many other languages, and in February 2014, it was announced on Facebook and", "Woke Woke (/ˈwoʊk/) as a political term of African American origin refers to a perceived awareness of issues concerning social justice and racial justice. It is derived from the African-American Vernacular English expression \"stay woke\", whose grammatical aspect refers to a continuing awareness of these issues. \nBy the late 2010s, woke had been adopted as a more generic slang term and has been the subject of memes and ironic usage. Its widespread use since 2014 is a result of the Black Lives Matter movement. Precedents for usage Oxford Dictionaries records early politically conscious usage in 1962 in the article \"If", "was even more pronounced on the second day of extended wakefulness. Duration The wake maintenance zone generally lasts 2 to 3 hours, during which one is less inclined to fall asleep. While potentially useful for completing urgent tasks, it may have a potentially unwanted side-effect of keeping one awake for several hours after the task has been completed. The hypervigilance and stimulation brought on by a second wind can cause fatigue, which, in the case of infants, can be literally painful. Thus, an infant may begin crying when sleep habits are disrupted.\n\nOne can avoid \"getting a second wind\" by practicing", "the end of a REM phase or sometimes in the middle of REM. Internal circadian indicators, along with successful reduction of homeostatic sleep need, typically bring about awakening and the end of the sleep cycle. Awakening involves heightened electrical activation in the brain, beginning with the thalamus and spreading throughout the cortex.\nDuring a night's sleep, a small amount of time is usually spent in a waking state. As measured by electroencephalography, young females are awake for 0–1% of the larger sleeping period; young males are awake for 0–2%. In adults, wakefulness increases, especially in later cycles. One study found 3%", "writers. Superimposed on this basic rhythm is a secondary one of light sleep in the early afternoon.\nThe brain exhibits high levels of the pituitary hormone prolactin during the period of nighttime wakefulness, which may contribute to the feeling of peace that many people associate with it.\nThe modern assumption that consolidated sleep with no awakenings is the normal and correct way for human adults to sleep, may lead people to consult their doctors fearing they have maintenance insomnia or other sleep disorders. If Ekirch's hypothesis is correct, their concerns might best be addressed by reassurance that their sleep conforms to historically", "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", "a sharp decrease in the temperature of the extremities may independently reverse sleep inertia symptoms. Noise is thought to increase attentiveness upon awakening. A drop in temperature of the extremities may prevent heat loss, facilitating the return of core body temperature to homeostatic daytime levels.", "too late to go back to sleep again, the adults had to find something to do in bed while waiting. This then led to the very high birth rates. \nOther versions of the myth vary to different degrees. Sometimes the small town is in America or England, and one version tells of noisy foghorns rather a than train whistle. Similar myths and actual events The story is related to the rumour that birth rates spiked nine months after the Northeast Blackout of 1965, the actual birthrate increase in Boston after February 1969 nor'easter September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, and other" ]

[ "The short answer is that it's not just the US government pushing to include \"backdoors.\" Tech companies could move to a country without these laws, but places like the US could restrict or prohibit them from selling their products in the US.\n\nThe better option is to follow Apple's example and refuse to build the backdoors.", "1) These demands would be required of any company selling in the US, not working in the US. The US market is too big to give up. \n\n2) The US government is not the only government asking for these backdoors.", "Ask Microsoft how well being an American company worked in getting them out of an EU antitrust case. You can't just not be based in a country in order to do business there without following their laws." ]

[ "Bruce Schneier and Saranya Vijayakumar, Seidel co-authored a survey regarding the effectiveness of restrictions on the exports of encryption products from the United States on their availability in other countries, as well as laws requiring encryption software to be made with a backdoor that the government can access. In their survey, the authors stated that such bans still leave those who want to keep the government from accessing their data through a backdoor with many foreign alternatives to American or British software.", "in the post-2001 era in the U.S. though they remain available in Germany, Switzerland and Japan, leading to calls to bring those jobs back from overseas, establish protectionism, and reduce immigration. Making it illegal for companies to purchase shares of their own stock has not yet gained traction as a remedy for the diversion of operating profits away from reinvestment in equipment and people. Manufacturing continues to evolve, due to factors such as information technology, supply chain innovations such as containerization, companies un-bundling tasks that used to be in one location or business, reduced barriers to trade, and competition from", "and their products could be somewhere used for civilian purposes, and vice versa. \nSince the beginning of the Clinton's presidency in 1993, the American hi-tech companies were allowed to export a wide range of their products all over the world without prior Government approval. The new trade policies fostered the interchange with China, but ignored their long-term impact for national security and the need of intelligence agencies and government officials to track how those technologies were effectively used and to avoid them be improperly diverted to terrorista or frign military uses.\nIn the contemporary period, from the late 1990s to the", "many states, their use of the instrumentalities of interstate commerce and the wide geographic distribution of their security holders, make difficult, if not impossible, effective state regulation of such companies in the interest of investors.", "technologies and intelligence would not be unthinkable. The same techniques used to obtain military secrets could be turned to complex commercial technologies or strategies without too much difficulty.\"\nAnother efficiency argument deals with the security of dissemination to industry. National characteristics will be different here; industry-government partnerships, for example, are far more routine in Japan than in the United States. US consortia have been open to foreign firms, and many have shut down, such as the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation and the Corporation for Open Systems (in OSI and ISDN) networking. Some, such as the Open Software Foundation merged with", "that regulation is needed. Richard Clarke states that \"industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If industry does not respond [to the threat], you have to follow through.\" He believes that software companies must be forced to produce more secure programs. Bruce Schneier also supports regulation that encourages software companies to write more secure code through economic incentives. US Representative Rick Boucher (D–VA) proposes improving cybersecurity by making software companies liable for security flaws in their code. In addition, to improving software security, Clarke believes that certain industries, such as utilities and ISPs, require regulation. Opposition On the other", "or more backdoors may be installed in order to allow access in the future, invisibly to the user.\nThe idea has often been suggested that computer manufacturers preinstall backdoors on their systems to provide technical support for customers, but this has never been reliably verified. It was reported in 2014 that US government agencies had been diverting computers purchased by those considered \"targets\" to secret workshops where software or hardware permitting remote access by the agency was installed, considered to be among the most productive operations to obtain access to networks around the world. Backdoors may be installed by Trojan horses,", "not take into account these new global realities—and that do not have sufficient flexibility to allow for adaptation in response to future changes—ultimately harm national security by imposing costs and burdens on U.S. industry without any corresponding benefit to U.S. security. In the area of exports, these significant geopolitical changes suggest that the U.S. control regime that in the past was primarily list-based must shift to a mix of list-based controls and controls that target specific end-uses and end-users of concern. BIS also should be creative in thinking about how new technologies can be utilized in designing better", "as they can profit from both the white and gray markets, having much less risk in the former.\nStates, which usually complement the labour of the original manufacturers to restrict gray markets, play a different role in the zero-day market as they are regular purchasers of exploits. Given the secretive nature of information security, it is not in their interest to disclose information on software vulnerabilities as their interest is, in this case, aligned with that of the criminals who seek to infiltrate devices and acquire information of specific targets. It can be argued that the presence of intelligence agencies as", "as EDS/AT Kearney (in 2002/2003, according to AT Kearney), or sold, such as Comdisco.\nHowever, non-technology firms have continued to invest their corporate venture capital in information and communication technology businesses and in recent years a number of non-US-based technology companies have expanded or started their corporate venturing units, according to the July 2010 issue of Global Corporate Venturing. The non-technology firms interested in buying stakes includes global advertising agency WPP, oil major Chevron and Dow Chemical, while non-US companies include Korean conglomerate Samsung and Chinese computer maker Legend Holdings. However, a number of US-based technology companies with corporate venture capital", "repatriation rate of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 changes this calculus.\nIP-heavy U.S. corporates are the main users of BEPS tools. Studies show that as most other major economies run \"territorial\" tax systems, their corporates did not need to profit shift. They could just charge-out their IP to foreign markets from their home jurisdiction at low tax rates (e.g. 5% in Germany for German corporates). For example, there are no non-U.S./non-U.K. foreign corporates in Ireland's top 50 firms by revenues, and only one by employees, German retailer Lidl (whereas 14 of Ireland's top 20 firms", "today's libertarian blockchain and bitcoin discussions.\nMany government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the \"industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through.\"\nOn the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that the government intervention", "large US technology companies have improved security and become less co-operative with foreign intelligence agencies, including those of the UK, generally requiring a US court order before disclosing data. Mexico On October 24, 2013, the Mexican Foreign Minister José Antonio Meade Kuribreña met with U.S. Ambassador Earl Anthony Wayne to discuss allegations reported by Der Spiegel that the NSA hacked the emails of former president Felipe Calderón while in office. Australia Former Foreign Minister Bob Carr remarked that the U.S. would be critical of any other nation that failed to prevent the release of such sensitive documents. \"Certainly if it", "the industry has been received critically by certain government actors, the FBI in particular. This led to the widely reported FBI–Apple encryption dispute over the possibility to gain access to information on the iPhone in assistance to law enforcement. In 2016, several bills were introduced in the US Congress that would place new limits encryption under USA law. The USA's legal system promotes and requires security measures to be implemented in the relevant contexts, including cryptographic methods of various kinds, to ensure security in commerce and trade. Relevant laws are the Federal Information Security Modernization Act (FISMA) of 2014, the", "annually in the United States.\nThis kleptocratic financial system flourishes in the United States for three reasons. First, the absence of a beneficial ownership registry means that it is the easiest country in the world in which to conceal the ownership of a company. The United States produces more than 2 million corporate entities a year, and 10 times more shell companies than 41 other countries identified as tax havens combined. It currently takes more information to obtain a library card than to form a US company. Second, some of the professions most at risk of being exploited for money laundering", "United States. As no other country implemented a similar law up to the 1990s, US-American companies faced disadvantages for their global operations. In addition to the legal status of corruption abroad, many countries also treated bribes as tax-deductible. Through applying the law to companies with ties to the United States and by working on global conventions against foreign bribery, the government of the US tried to reduce the negative impact of FCPA on US-American companies.\nAlongside the FCPA, additional laws were implement that are directly influencing anti-corruption activities. Section 922 of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act for", "the SEC through Form 6-K.\nForeign companies with Level 3 programs will often issue materials that are more informative and are more accommodating to their U.S. shareholders because they rely on them for capital. Overall, foreign companies with a Level 3 program set up are the easiest on which to find information. Examples include Vodafone, Petrobras, and China Information Technology, Inc. (CNIT). Restricted programs Foreign companies that want their stock to be limited to being traded by only certain individuals may set up a restricted program. There are two SEC rules that allow this type of issuance of shares in the", "products—why they internalize other areas of production. The first question can be answered rather simply. Different countries have different resources that companies may need for production. Also, transport costs and barriers to trade often mean the MNEs are necessary to access a particular market. The short answer to the second question it that firms internalize because it is more profitable for them to do so, but the exact reasons behind why it is more profitable to internalize are a more difficult issue. One possible reason for internalization is to insulate MNEs from opportunistic business partners through vertical integration. Technology transfer", "hand, many private-sector executives and lobbyists believe that more regulation will restrict their ability to improve cybersecurity. Harris Miller, a lobbyist and president of the Information Technology Association of America, believes that regulation inhibits innovation. Rick White, former corporate attorney and president and CEO of the lobby group TechNet, also opposes more regulation. He states that \"the private-sector must continue to be able to innovate and adapt in response to new attack methods in cyber space, and toward that end, we commend President Bush and the Congress for exercising regulatory restraint.\"\nAnother reason many private-sector executives oppose regulation is that it", "Lessig cites issues such as the problem of increasing costs of innovation as a result of the rule, as companies and individuals will be forced to devote resources to ensuring compliance with any component of a new technology that might be now considered questionable in a particular application, and new companies in particular will be deterred from producing new products because of the large costs of potential litigation. Fred von Lohmann, an intellectual property lawyer with the Electronic Frontier Foundation, states Grokster similarly \"create[s] a new theory of liability that will tie up the courts for a long time,\" pointing", "to India, a Forbes article suggested that it is increasingly more dangerous to offshore IP sensitive projects to India, because of India's continued ignorance of patent regulations. In turn, companies such as Pfizer and Novartis, have lost rights to sell many of their cancer medications in India because of lack of IP protection. Future trends A 2018 \"The Future of Outsourcing\" report began with \"The future of outsourcing is digital.\" The \"\"Do what you do best and outsource the rest\" approach means that \"integration with retained systems\" is the new transition challenge - people training still exists, but is merely", "Information technology workers in the United States. Mitigating factors However, other forces may mitigate these processes. Some observe that a growing number of multinationals, especially from wealthier areas, are starting to see the benefits of keeping more of their operations close to home. For many products, labor is a small and diminishing fraction of total costs. Long, complex supply chains, it turns out, are likely riskier than many firms may have realized. For example, when an epidemic such as SARS hits Asia or when an earthquake hits Japan, supply chains are disrupted. Also, as emerging economies boom, wages there are", "enforce non-compete agreements. Baker points out that California's success can partly be attributed to the fact that the state did not allow for the enforcement of non-compete agreements, making it easy for tech workers to quit their jobs and start to work for another company. Criticisms from politicians and activists In 2014, linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky warned that the TPP is \"designed to carry forward the neoliberal project to maximize profit and domination, and to set the working people in the world in competition with one another so as to lower wages to increase insecurity.\" Senator Bernie Sanders", "of professionals and development of policy and strategy – the risk of errors or failures is also consequently high. The CIO of U.S company Target was forced into resignation in 2014 after the theft of 40 million credit card details and 70 million customer details by hackers. CIOs that are knowledgeable about their industry and are able to adapt reduce their chances of error.\nWith the introduction of legislation such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), CIOs have now become increasingly focused on how their role is regulated and can lead to financial and reputational damage to a business. ", "their software, which should help them attract talent. \nIt is common for companies to not open-source core parts of their products that are critical for business, but helpful auxiliary processes and infrastructure. This way, through open sourcing they get all the positive aspects of talent acquisition and branding, and do not give up market share. \nBy making a product open-source, more people can contribute. These contributions can help develop the software faster, so it may also be beneficial for companies to open-source to get free help. Monopolies Open-source software can help protect against monopolies. For example, the rise of Linux,", "qualifies as a contract, the lack of federal regulation downplays the need for companies to abide.\nThe agreement to use P3P not only puts in place unenforceable promises, but it also prolongs the adoption of federal laws that would actually inhibit the access and ability to use private information. If the government were to step in and attempt to protect Internet users with federal laws on what information can be accessed, and specific regulations on how user information can be used, companies wouldn’t maintain the leeway they do now to use information as they please, despite what they may actually tell", "may be used for military or civilian purposes. China also uses state-run firms to purchase American companies with access to the targeted technology.\nChina also accesses foreign technology through industrial espionage, with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement officials rating China's industrial-espionage and theft operations as the leading threat to U.S. technological security. Between October 2002 and January 2003 five Chinese businessmen were accused of illegally shipping equipment and trade secrets from California to China, and U.S. officials prevented a Chinese man from shipping a new, high-speed computer used in classified projects (including nuclear-weapons development) from Sandia National Laboratories. Nuclear espionage A", "rights in respect to software ownership. The two opposing views are for closed source software distributed under restrictive licenses or for free and open source software.\nThe argument can be made that restrictions are required because companies would not invest weeks and months in development if there were no incentive for revenue generated from sales and licensing fees. A counter argument to this is that standing on shoulders of giants is far cheaper when the giants do not hold IP rights. Some proponents for open source believe that all programs should be available to anyone who wants to study them.", "also applies to businesses that own or maintain personal information for California residents. The regulation dictates for businesses to maintain a reasonable level of security and that they required security practices also extend to business partners. The regulation is an improvement on the federal standard because it expands the number of firms required to maintain an acceptable standard of cybersecurity. However, like the federal legislation, it requires a \"reasonable\" level of cybersecurity, which leaves much room for interpretation until case law is established. Proposed regulation The US Congress has proposed numerous bills that expand upon cybersecurity regulation. The Consumer Data", "companies around the world think about information and communication technologies, particularly cloud computing. A quarter of British and Canadian multinational companies surveyed were moving their data outside the U.S. Among U.S. companies attributing drops in revenue to, in part, fallout from Snowden's leaks were Cisco Systems, Qualcomm, IBM, Microsoft, and Hewlett-Packard. Proposed laws in more than a dozen foreign countries, including Germany, Brazil, and India, would make it harder for U.S. firms to do business there. The European Union is considering stricter domestic privacy legislation that could result in fines and penalties costing U.S. firms billions of dollars.\nIn August 2014," ]

[ "Well, actually, that's not their one job. They also have to meet with people, work on legislation, and so on.\n\nMany of the Senators may be in their offices. When an important vote is called, they will come to the floor to vote. They can get from their offices to the floor in just a few minutes." ]

[ "States Senate, they are elected by their respective party conferences to serve as the chief Senate spokespeople for their parties and to manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate. By custom, the Presiding Officer gives the floor leaders priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate.\nIn the Senate's two-party system, the floor leaders are the spokespeople from both major parties, elected by their parties. As well serve essentially as executives of their parties within the Senate. The Floor Leaders are referred to as the Senate Majority Leader, who belongs to the party", "Federal Constitutional Court Organization The court consists of two senates, each of which has eight members, headed by a senate's chairman. The members of each senate are allocated to three chambers for hearings in constitutional complaint and single regulation control cases. Each chamber consists of three judges, so each senate chairman is at the same time a member of two chambers.\nDecisions by a senate require a majority. In some cases a two-thirds vote is required (§ 15 IV 1 BVerfGG). Decisions by a chamber need to be unanimous. A chamber is not authorized to overrule a standing precedent of the", "occupied an office within its body. This is primarily because the justices that did not favor the new Supreme Court Building were eventually replaced by new justices who were not as familiar with working from home.\nThe main opposition to the creation of the Supreme Court building was in Congress, particularly during Taft's tenure as Chief Justice from 1921 to 1929. Taft faced opposition from senators in Congress, such as Senator Curtis, who threatened to replace Taft if he continued to protest his working conditions. In 1927, Taft noticed that out of ninety-six total senators at the time, only one urgently", "the White House was \"trying to create the most ideological bench in the history of the nation.\"\nAs a result, from June 2001 to January 2003, when the Senate in the 107th Congress was controlled by the Democrats, many conservative appellate nominees were stalled in the Senate Judiciary Committee and never given hearings or committee votes. 108th Congress During the 108th Congress in which the Republicans regained control of the Senate by a 51-49 margin, the nominees that the Senate Democrats had blocked in the 107th Congress began to be moved through the now Republican Senate Judiciary Committee. Subsequently, Senate Democrats", "the Senate floor. Anything less than that, in our view, is a serious and, indeed, unprecedented breach of the Senate's best practices and noblest traditions for much of our nation's history.\nSignatories to this letter included, among others, Thomas E. Mann, senior fellow at the Brookings Institution; Norman J. Ornstein, resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute; presidential historian Doris Kearns Goodwin; Pamela S. Karlan of Stanford Law School; Yale Law School professor Harold Hongju Koh; Geoffrey R. Stone of the University of Chicago Law School; and historian James M. McPherson of Princeton University.\nOn March 7, 2016, a group of 356", "of 2005 passed by Congress.\nBecause of the power of this committee and the fact that senators represent entire states, not just parts of states, it is considered extremely difficult to unseat a member of this committee at an election - especially if he or she is a subcommittee chair, or \"Cardinal\". Since 1990, four members of this committee have gone on to serve as Senate Majority Leader for at least one session of Congress: Tom Daschle (committee member August 12, 1991 - December 10, 1999; Senate Majority Leader January 3–20, 2001 and June 6, 2001 - January 3, 2003), Bill", "nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.\nNot every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with President George W. Bush's nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower's first", "party, the Senate Democrats easily blocked several conservative appellate judicial nominees during the 110th Congress by ordinary methods. Conservative appellate nominees like Peter Keisler, Robert J. Conrad and Steve A. Matthews were blocked in committee and never given a hearing.\nIf a Supreme Court justice had chosen to retire during the 110th Congress, it would have been just as easy for the Democrats to have blocked his replacement in committee. Even if the replacement nominee had made it out of committee, then the Democrats still could have defeated him with a party-line vote. As it developed, no Supreme Court justice retired", "judicial nominee, ... there is no textual or historical basis\" for the contention that the Senate has a constitutional obligation to do so. Eugene Volokh argues that there has not been a \"constant practice of Senators agreeing that every nominee should be considered without regard to there being a looming election\" and that \"in the absence of such a practice, we come down to more results-oriented politics.\" George Mason University law professor David Bernstein argued that while \"preexisting constitutional norms\" would suggest that \"hearings and eventual votes on Supreme Court nominees\" were mandatory, this norm is not required by the", "constitutional text and has been undermined by recent political practice.\nBernstein also noted that a Democratic-controlled Senate in 1960, in reaction to President Eisenhower's 1956 recess appointment of William J. Brennan Jr., passed a Senate resolution \"Expressing the sense of the Senate that the president should not make recess appointments to the Supreme Court, except to prevent or end a breakdown in the administration of the Court's business.\" Noah Feldman, a constitutional law professor at Harvard Law School, has said \"it's hard to argue that [the Constitution] requires the [Senate] to put a nominee to a vote.\" Vikram Amar, constitutional law", "and the House of Representatives. The Council contained the twelve assistants, deputy governor, and governor, who led the body, while the House was led by a Speaker elected from among its members. Because the governor led it and other notables sat in it, the Council took precedence to the House and when the two chambers were at odds, the House deferred to the Council. The 1818 constitution renamed the Council to the Senate, removed the governor and deputy governor from its membership, and removed all remaining judicial and executive authority from it, but it remained largely the same in that", "United States Senate Committee on Rules and Administration The Senate Committee on Rules and Administration (also called the Senate Rules Committee) is responsible for the rules of the United States Senate, administration of congressional buildings, and with credentials and qualifications of members of the Senate, including responsibility for contested elections.\nThe committee is not as powerful as its House counterpart, the House Committee on Rules as it does not set the terms of debate for individual legislative proposals, since the Senate has a tradition of open debate.\nSome members of the committee are also ex officio members of the Joint Committee on", "The president of the Senate is the lieutenant governor, who presides over sessions from a walnut rostrum at the front of the chamber. Both the House and the Senate use computerized voting systems, including wall-mounted screens that allow visitors to follow the voting and both also contain glass tiled ceilings that allow natural light to shine through etched glass panels to better light the room. These ceiling tiles feature the coats-of-arms of each state in the United States.\nIn summer 2013, the structure underwent additional work to replace carpeting installed in the 1989–1992 renovation that had become worn and frayed in", "and the president who nominated the judge to the federal bench, Clarence Thomas is the only justice more conservative than Kavanaugh. According to this metric, Kavanaugh's confirmation would mean the composition of the court would shift to the right. Had Merrick Garland been confirmed, Stephen Breyer would have become the median swing vote when Justice Kennedy retired. However, since Scalia was replaced by another conservative (Gorsuch), it was expected that Chief Justice John Roberts would become the median swing vote on the Supreme Court upon Kavanaugh's confirmation. Senate Judiciary Committee public hearings The Senate Judiciary Committee scheduled three or four", "The President of the Senate has a position on the most influential Senate committees and exerts considerable influence in determining the membership of Senate committees and the assignment to senators of office space in the Capitol Annex building.", "he merits the criticism.\" Judicial nominations The bloggers often commented on nominations of federal judges, especially to the Supreme Court. Mirengoff suggested that Republican Senators should vote against Sonia Sotomayor, writing: \"Half of the Senate Democrats voted against [John] Roberts, and a strong majority voted against [Samuel] Alito ... for no other reason than their desire not to have another 'conservative' on the Supreme Court ... Thus, non-liberal Senators have every right to vote against her for that reason.\" Other coverage Coverage and commentary by Hinderaker, Johnson, and Mirengoff, all alumni of Dartmouth College, was instrumental in the 2005 election of \"insurgent\"", "Chamber seats due to the national majority premium, while the centre-right won the regional majority premium in the Senate race.", "not to be affected by the fear that a power might be abused.\nBarwick CJ, Gibbs and Stephen JJ dissented. Each held that because section 7 referred only to the States, it was intended that the Senate would be a States' House and that the concept of representation envisaged by section 122 must be limited to less than full representation. Stephen J held in the following terms: page 258.\nSuch then being the constitutional structure of the Senate it is, to my mind, apparent that “representation” in s 122 must bear a meaning which accords with that structure. Such a meaning cannot", "increased and cases began to accumulate, leading the Supreme Court requesting the Parliament to increase the number of judges. As the number of the justices has increased, they sit in smaller benches of two or three (referred to as a division bench), however, coming together in larger benches of five or more (referred to as a constitution bench) when required to settle fundamental questions of law. Ad–hoc appointments and removal There has been Ad hoc appointment in the supreme court made when the quorum of Judges is not possible to complete the sitting number of justices in the court, or", "continued to be held up in committee by Senate Democrats, and it eventually was defeated in the Senate Judiciary Committee by an 8-6, party-line vote on April 12, 1991. As a result, his nomination never made it to the Senate floor for a full Senate vote.", "seats on the Supreme Court, 5 are filled by judges appointed by a Republican president, and 4 are filled by judges appointed by a Democratic president. As of July 26, 2019, of the 13 federal appeals courts, Democratic appointees have a majority on 7, Republican appointees have a majority on 5, and 1 federal appeals court is equally divided between Democratic and Republican appointees. As of September 11, 2019, Democratic appointees have a majority of district court seats in 7 circuit jurisdictions, while Republican appointees have a majority of district court seats in 3 circuit jurisdictions, and the district court", "2010 appointment of Craig Becker to the NLRB was invalid because he was not appointed between sessions.\nOn June 26, 2014, the United States Supreme Court rejected both holdings, while also unanimously deciding that President Obama overreached his executive authority in appointing members to the NLRB while the Senate was still formally in session. Justice Stephen Breyer, in the majority opinion, wrote that the Constitution allows for the Congress itself to determine its sessions and recesses, that \"the Senate is in session when it says it is\", and that the President does not have the unilateral right to dictate Congressional sessions", "him too many enemies in that party. Judicial appointments Johnson appointed nine Article III federal judges during his presidency, all to United States district courts; he did not successfully appoint a justice to serve on the Supreme Court. In April 1866, he nominated Henry Stanbery to fill the Supreme Court vacancy left by the death of Associate Justice John Catron, but Congress eliminated the seat by passing the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866. To ensure that Johnson did not get to make any appointments, the act also provided that the Court would shrink by one justice when one next departed", "full Senate were considered slim due to opposition by the Republican leadership, even if the bill was passed by the committee. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R-KY) on April 17 said that he would not bring the bill up for a vote of the full Senate, but Grassley said the Judiciary Committee would vote on it anyway. It was reported that Grassley was seeking an amendment that would require advance notice to Congress of a removal, and would require Congress to be notified if the scope of the special counsel's investigation changes. However, these changes were not", "end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the speaker, Speaker pro tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of", "Judicial and Bar Council Composition The Council is composed of a representative of the Integrated Bar, a professor of law, a retired member of the Supreme Court, and a representative of the private sector. They are the \"regular\" members, as opposed to the Secretary of Justice and a representative of Congress who are the ex officio members. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is the ex officio chairman, while the Clerk of the Supreme Court shall serve as the ex officio secretary.\nThe regular members would be nominated by the President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments for", "and, since 1978, vacancies on the Court of Appeals have been filled by appointment: a judicial selection panel submits names to the Governor who nominates one from the list for confirmation by the New York State Senate.", "case Roberts actually dissented from the majority opinion.\nIn February 2016, Trump called on the Senate to stop Obama from filling the vacant seat on the Supreme Court.\nAn analysis by FiveThirtyEight shows that, under the assumption that Scalia's vacant seat on the Court will not be filled, and taking account of the advanced age of three of the sitting justices, that a Trump presidency would move the Supreme Court \"rightward toward its most conservative position in recent memory\". Comments on judges and judicial decisions Since taking office, Trump has made a series of \"escalating attacks on the federal judiciary\" in response", "some cases state senate districts were based partly on county lines; in the vast majority of states the senate districts provided proportionately greater representation to rural areas. However, in the 1964 decision Reynolds v. Sims, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that, unlike the United States Senate, state senates must be elected from districts of approximately equal population. Lower Houses In 40 of the 49 bicameral state legislatures, the lower house is called the \"House of Representatives\". The name \"House of Delegates\" is used in Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. California and Wisconsin call their lower house the \"State Assembly\",", "the large discrepancies from state to state in the ratio of voters to senators. This often means that the composition of the Senate is different from that of the House of Representatives, contributing to the Senate's function as a house of review.\nWith proportional representation, and the small majorities in the Senate compared to the generally larger majorities in the House of Representatives, and the requirement that the number of members of the House be \"nearly as practicable\" twice that of the Senate, a joint sitting after a double dissolution is more likely than not to lead to a victory for" ]

[ "No, you'll actually be going faster. The speed is calculated based on the OEM tire size, whereas if you put a larger tire on, there is more circumference so the hub will spin slower, yet will be traveling the same speed.\n\nYou can have it recalibrated fairly cheaply.", "Example: Your car comes with factory-installed tires that are 21.8 inches in diameter. That means the circumference of each tire is 68.5 inches. Now let’s say you want to replace the stock tires with new tires that are 24.6 inches in diameter. Each new tire has a circumference of 77.3 inches, which means it travels almost 10 inches farther with each complete revolution. This has a tremendous affect on your speedometer, which will now indicate a speed that is too slow by almost 13 percent. When your speedometer reads 60 miles per hour, your car will actually be traveling 67.7 miles per hour!\n\n[source ](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "of road dirt to avoid slipping or jamming. Error Most speedometers have tolerances of some ±10%, mainly due to variations in tire diameter. Sources of error due to tire diameter variations are wear, temperature, pressure, vehicle load, and nominal tire size. Vehicle manufacturers usually calibrate speedometers to read high by an amount equal to the average error, to ensure that their speedometers never indicate a lower speed than the actual speed of the vehicle, to ensure they are not liable for drivers violating speed limits.\nExcessive speedometer errors after manufacture, can come from several causes but most commonly is due to", "(195 km/h), and did 0–60 mph in 9.3 seconds. Of particular note, in excess of 0.9 g (8 m/s²) lateral acceleration was consistently achieved by Car magazine on road tires of that era.\nOnly 296 examples of the S1 were manufactured (chassis numbers from 460001 to 460296). These are the rarest on the market. These cars had extremely light and minimalist construction, with fixed side windows, fixed seats (adjustable pedals needing the use of tools), no door handles, no internal door covers, and an aluminum dashboard. The steel chassis central beam was sandwiched (incorporated) within the fibreglass bodywork, thus reinforcing stiffness, but making repair rather", "systems, designed to improve the car's cornering and longitudinal acceleration by 32% when compared with its predecessors.\nThe brakes include a prefill function whereby the pistons in the calipers move the pads into contact with the discs on lift off to minimize delay in the brakes being applied. This, combined with the ABS and standard Carbon Ceramic brakes, have caused a reduction in stopping distance from 100–0 km/h (62-0 mph) to 32.5 metres (107 ft). Tests have shown the car will stop from 100 km/h (62.1 mph) in 90 feet (27 m) or in 85 feet (26 m) with run flat tires, 85 feet (26 m) from 60 mph (97 km/h)", "tyres for increased grip. Claimed performance figures for the car include a standing kilometre time of 22.1 seconds, a 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) acceleration time of 4.6 seconds and a top speed of 317 km/h (197 mph).", "nonstandard tire diameter, in which case the error is:\nNearly all tires now have their size shown as \"T/A_W\" on the side of the tire (See: Tire code), and the tires.\nFor example, a standard tire is \"185/70R14\" with diameter = 2*185*(70/100)+(14*25.4) = 614.6 mm (185x70/1270 + 14 = 24.20 in). Another is \"195/50R15\" with 2*195*(50/100)+(15*25.4) = 576.0 mm (195x50/1270 + 15 = 22.68 in). Replacing the first tire (and wheels) with the second (on 15\" = 381 mm wheels), a speedometer reads 100 * (1-(576/614.6)) = 100 * (1 - 22.68/24.20) = 6.28% higher than the actual speed. At an actual speed of 100 km/h", "tires. The stock tires are sized 110/70-17 54S front, and 140/70-17 66S rear. Performance Its top speed has been estimated to be just over 160 km/h (99 mph).\nMCN reports an average of 70 mpg‑imp (4.0 L/100 km; 58 mpg‑US) and Visordown reports 58.4 mpg‑US (4.03 L/100 km; 70.1 mpg‑imp). This translates to a mileage of around 420 km (261 mi).", "VR16 tires mounted on 8 x 16 inch Speedline wheels at the front and 265/50 VR16 mounted on 10 x 16 inch wheels at the rear) to provide increased cornering and braking performance and the ability to apply 400 PS (395 bhp; 294 kW) at 7,000 rpm and 496 N⋅m (366 lb⋅ft) of torque at 3,800 rpm. The GTO could accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in around 5 seconds and Ferrari claimed 0-125 mph (201 km/h) in 15 seconds flat and a top speed of 189 mph (304 km/h), making it one of the fastest street-legal production cars of its time. Evoluzione Ferrari built six (five production models and one", "by the wheel load. A lower coefficient means the tires will use less energy to travel a certain distance. The coefficient is mostly considered as independent of speed, but for precise calculations it is tabled at several speeds or an additional speed-dependent part is used. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has developed test practices to measure the RRC of tires. These tests (SAE J1269 and SAE J2452) are usually performed on new tires.\nWhen measured by using these standard test practices, most new passenger tires have reported RRCs ranging from 0.007 to 0.014. In the case of bicycle tires, values", "equation between the weight of the car and the type (and size) of its tire. A 1000 kg car can depress a 185/65/15 tire more than a 215/45/15 tire longitudinally thus having better linear grip and better braking distance not to mention better aquaplaning performance, while the wider tires have better (dry) cornering resistance.\nThe contemporary chemical make-up of tires is dependent of the ambient and road temperatures. Ideally a tire should be soft enough to conform to the road surface (thus having good grip), but be hard enough to last for enough duration (distance) to be economically feasible. It is usually", "to Fords) with chrome beauty rings and AMC hub centers. Tires were E-70-14 fiberglass belted 4-ply tires with red stripe Goodyear Polyglas tires. American Motors priced the SC/Rambler at just $2,998, a real bargain for a serious dragstrip contender, capable of quarter miles in the low 14 second range at about 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) right off the dealer's lot. For example, Road Test magazine reported 14.4 at 100.44 mph and reached 109 miles per hour (175 km/h) without topping out. With a few simple bolt on modifications they would run low 12's. Modified SC/Ramblers have run the quarter-mile in the 9-second", "Bullet railcars, capable to speeds above 90 mph (145 km/h). With 52 seats, they weighed only 26 tons though some of theme were almost 60 years in use. Automobiles Many engineers tried to incorporate aerodynamics into the shape of cars in the 1920s, and some entered production. The first such automobile (a prototype) to have a tear-drop shape and have the wheels within the body was the Persu automobile (1922), with a drag coefficient of 0.22, built by Romanian engineer Aurel Persu. Bicycles Bicycle fairings help to streamline the vehicle and rider. Velomobiles, completely enclosed bicycles or tricycles, take streamlining even further.", "rated tires, and deletion of the hood and fender emblems. The interior changes of the GNX included a serial number on the dash plaque and a revised instrument cluster providing Stewart-Warner analog gauges, including an analog turbo boost gauge. Performance was measured faster than the Ferrari F40 and the Porsche 930 with a ¹⁄₄ mile (402 m) time of 12.7 seconds at 113.1 mph (182 km/h) (0.3 and 0.8 seconds quicker, 2.9 and 13.3 mph (21 km/h) faster) and a 0-60 mph (97 km/h) time of 4.6 seconds (0.4 and 0.3 seconds quicker, respectively).\nGNX #001 is the 1986 prototype currently owned by Buick and sometimes makes appearances", "direction and velocity of the wind, on which track the car must come to rest, how many curves it must go around to get there, and how far down that track it will be going before encountering another car. In the time it takes the car to move 150 feet down the incline, the computer has calculated the precise speed the car must leave the hump track in order to roll to its classification track and couple safely with the next car.\n\"Metal shoes, operated by electronic instructions from the computer, press against the car's wheels to retard it to the", "per hour (30 km/h), but since his calculations indicated that they already had much greater speed available than they needed, this was not viewed as a problem. A small fin rose vertically at the tip of the car's nose.\nVeteran drag racer Arfons was to drive the car for the record attempt, but a month before the scheduled run, during initial testing on a dragstrip with Arfons outside the car observing, the two braking parachutes ripped loose and the car \"knifed through a chain link fence at 200 mph (320 km/h), ripped across a highway, jumped two four-foot (1.2 m) ditches and plunged 75 feet (25 m)", "all models featured 14-inch (rather than previous 13-inch) wheels and new hubcaps. The 160 GT was cancelled at the same time. Press reaction A Chrysler 180 saloon tested by the British Motor magazine in April 1971, a few months after the model's UK launch, had a top speed of 101.0 mph (162.5 km/h) and could accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 12.4 seconds. An overall fuel consumption of 21.7 miles per imperial gallon (13.0 L/100 km; 18.1 mpg‑US) was recorded. The test car was offered at £1498 including taxes. For all three of these measurements, the car was ranked third out of five UK", "30–45 secs (and quicker transitions).\nAero wheels \nA 50-80 mm deep aero front wheel and disc is the ultimate set-up but it’s a costly way to get faster. Time saved: 1–2 mins.\nLightweight aero frame \nMost of the gain is due to the aero position it allows, but the weight loss also helps a little. Time saved: 1–1:30 mins.\nHigh-quality tires\nThese reduce frontal area and rolling resistance, significant for riders with lower power output. Time saved: 2–4 mins.\nCycling shoes \nClipless, tri-specific shoes improve one's pedalling and cut transition time. Time saved: 30–60 secs.\nTotal time saved: 10–15 mins", "an aerodynamic kit made from lightweight, high strength carbon-fiber increasing the width of the car by 36 millimeters (1.4 inches). This wider stance proves to be useful for stability at higher speeds. The cars sits on Monoblock Q wheels size 9.5Jx19 wrapped around Yokohama tyres. The front axle features 265/35 ZR 19 tyres while the rear sport 285/30 ZR 19 tyres. Stopping comes courtesy of 12-piston aluminum fixed calipers and steel discs, measuring 380 x 37 millimeters (15.0 x 1.5 inches). At the rear six-piston aluminum fixed calipers measuring 360 x 28 millimeters (14.2 x1.1 inches). Performance Brabus has", "recommended a tire inflation of only 26 pounds per square inch (179 kPa) likely contributing to the tread separation problem by causing the tires to operate at higher than normal temperatures.\nFord argued that Firestone was at fault, noting that the tires made by Firestone were very defective. Nevertheless, Ford subsequently recommended that front and rear tires should be inflated to 30 pounds per square inch (207 kPa) on all Explorer models and mailed a replacement tire pressure door sticker indicating the same to all registered owners.\nSome have argued that poor driver reaction to tire blowout was a contributing factor. When a tire", "cars often have a more rearward weight distribution. In the case of pure racing cars, this is typically between \"40/60\" and \"35/65\". This gives the front tires an advantage in overcoming the car's moment of inertia (yaw angular inertia), thus reducing corner-entry understeer.\nUsing wheels and tires of different sizes (proportional to the weight carried by each end) is a lever automakers can use to fine tune the resulting over/understeer characteristics. Roll angular inertia This increases the time it takes to settle down and follow the steering. It depends on the (square of the) height and width, and (for a uniform", "lowest-powered version of the S4 could reach 108 mph/173.8 km/h.\nThe Bond Bug was sold as being fun to drive, with the low seating position giving a similar exaggerated impression of speed as in a go-kart, while the actual speed was similar to that reached by high performance cars only a few years earlier (indeed, earlier versions of the Lotus 7 had a top speed of 76 mph/122 km/h right up until 1968, and their trim level, e.g. side curtains instead of windows, was also similar).\nThe Bug was, however, no cheaper than more practical cars. It cost £629, while a basic 850 cc Mini, a four-seater", "car is 1,735 kilograms (3,825 lb). Performance The EP9 can accelerate from 0-62 mph (100 km/h) in 2.7 seconds, 200 km/h (0-124 mph) in 7.1 seconds, and 300 km/h (0-186 mph) in 15.9 seconds. The car can achieve a top speed of 350km/h (217 mph). Exterior The EP9's rear wing is adjustable between three settings: parked, low-drag, and high-downforce. The EP9 produces 24,000 newtons (5,395 lbs or 2447 kg) of downforce at 240 km/h (150 mph), similar to a Formula One car, allowing the EP9 to corner at 3.0 Gs.", "a dedicated following today.\nIn contrast to the image of three-wheeled Reliants as being slow, the Bond Bug was capable of 76 mph (122 km/h), in excess of the UK national speed limit (70 mph/112.6 km/h), and comparable to small saloon cars such as the basic 850 cc Mini (72 mph/116 km/h) and the Hillman Imp (80 mph/128 km/h). However, it could not match the speed of the Mini Cooper S (96 mph/154 km/h) or larger saloons such as the Ford Cortina Mark III (104 mph/167 km/h in the highest-powered variant), or even aging models of two-seater sports cars, such as the MG MGB (103 mph/165.7 km/h) or the Lotus Seven, where by 1970 even the", "Higher precision gauges with ±1 psi (6.9 kPa) uncertainty can also be obtained. Built-in tire pressure sensors Many modern cars now come with built-in tire pressure sensors that allow all four tire pressures to be read simultaneously from inside the car. In 2005, most on-board Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS) used indirect pressure monitoring. The anti-lock brake sensors detect one tire rotating faster than the rest and indicate a low tire pressure to the driver. The problem with this method was that if tires all lost the same pressure then none would show up against the others to indicate a", "distances. Space-savers have a maximum speed of around 50 mph (80 km/h). \nWhen replacing a damaged tire, placing the compact spare on a non-drive axle will prevent damage to the drivetrain. If placed on a drivetrain axle, the smaller-diameter tire can put stress on the differential causing damage and reducing handling. History The early days of motor travel took place on primitive roads that were littered with stray horseshoe nails. Punctures (flat tires) were all too common, and required the motorist to remove the wheel from the car, demount the tire, patch the inner tube, re-mount the tire, inflate the tire,", "cars were thoroughly proved by tests carried out on the German autobahnen, during which drivers of much larger cars were astonished to be passed by three small Austins which were being driven flat out all day, averaging 60 mph for 25000 miles!......\"\n\".....a privately-owned works-tuned A35 was driven for seven days around the Montlhéry track, near Paris, in a record-breaking run at an average speed of 75 mph, covering nearly 12500 miles....\"\nWith standard fit of drums all round, in both the A30 and the A35, the front hydraulic with rear hydro-mechanical brakes (the hydraulics acted upon the hand brake at the", "featured 18 inch Ruf 5-spoke alloy wheels, special bucket seats, restyled bumpers and a fixed \"whale tail\" rear wing reminiscent to the one found on the Porsche 964 Turbo. The car could accelerate from 0–62 mph (0–100 km/h) in 4.1 seconds and could attain a top speed of 191 mph (308 km/h). Automobile magazine Car & Driver tested a BTR2 and found the car capable of accelerating from 0–60 mph (97 km/h) in 3.7 seconds, 0–150 mph (241 km/h) in 26.2 seconds and completing the quarter-mile in 12.2 seconds at 115 mph (185 km/h).", "GM claimed the car to be capable of accelerating from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 4.7 seconds and a 13.0 second quarter mile time at 105 mph (169 km/h) (automatic transmission). Car and Driver magazine tested the car and measured the 0–60 mph acceleration time of 4.8 seconds and a quarter mile time of 13.3 seconds at 107 mph (172 km/h) with its BFGoodrich g-Force T/A KDWS, 245/45ZR-17 95W M+S front and rear tires and a manual transmission. The 0–100 mph and 0–130 mph times were 11.7 and 19.6 respectively. 2006 For 2006, two additional colors were added, Spice Red Metallic and Brazen Orange Metallic, while Midnight Blue", "a spring spoked steering wheel. Mechanically operated brakes are two-leading-shoe type by Girling. Disc wheels replaced the 12/70's wire wheels and are fitted with larger tyres.\nThe top speed is around 74 mph (119 km/h) and acceleration from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 22.2 seconds. Road test Autocar reported the new car had the typical Alvis refined sure-footed and lively performance. Its synchromesh \"worked like a charm\". The Motor said the car was much roomier than the compact close-coupled exterior suggested, rear seat knee-room was between 8 and 13 inches. A most impressive car with a flexible 4-cylinder engine. Wind noise was noticeable", "of space. Even the boot was extremely large, and if that was not enough people had the possibility to flip down the rear seats to make even more space. The A1 was not a great hit at the customers even though it was fairly cheap to buy, the class of the car taken in consideration, and the fact that it actually got some good reviews by the press.\nWith the 3.0-litre engine, the Monza was at that time the fastest car Opel had ever built. Being capable of speeds as high as 215 km/h, and the 0–100 km/h mark went in just 8.5", "improvements hardly made a difference there or on the drag strip. In fact, the 1970 Road Runner was actually quicker in the quarter mile and standard acceleration tests due to the increased weight produced by the Superbird's nose and wing. Only at speeds in excess of 60 mph (97 km/h) did the modifications begin to show any benefit. Production numbers Chrysler memos of September 1969 show that the sales programming staff were preparing to handle 1,920 winged Plymouths for 1970, but published figures say as many as 2,783 were built. The current figure generally accepted is 1,935 SuperBirds built and shipped to" ]

[ "Bugspray is actually a chemical weapon. As in it shuts down biological functions bugs need to stay alive, like forgetting how to breathe for example. It can also cause military chemical weapons detection gear to register false positives." ]

[ "bugs are known for the \"edge effect\", in which they tend to infest crops 30–40 ft from the edge of the field. Farmers who suspect having stink bugs in their crops should contact their respective departments of agriculture for information on how to manage the infestation and possible ways to prevent future incidences. Control Control of stink bugs is a priority of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which has developed an artificial pheromone which can be used to bait traps. Because the bugs insert their probosces below the surface of fruit and then feed, some insecticides are ineffective; in addition, the", "that recirculate water from the body to keep a steady flow of watery saliva going as they feed, helping the predator to flush out predigested food from the body of its prey. Biology Assassin bugs are hemimetabolous and do not undergo metamorphosis. Instead, the egg hatches into a miniature version of the adult form, and at each growth stage the nymph becomes more and more like the adult form. Use in biological control Rhynocoris marginatus is a generalist predator, feeding on at least twenty species of crop pest and occurring naturally in cotton, groundnut and soybean crops. Different life stages", "(also called \"bug bombs\") are used to kill cockroaches, fleas, and flying insects by filling an area with insecticide. Most foggers contain pyrethroid, pyrethrin, or both as active ingredients. Pyrethroids are a class of synthetic insecticides that are chemically similar to natural pyrethrins and have low potential for systemic toxicity in mammals. Pyrethrins are insecticides derived from chrysanthemum flowers (pyrethrum). Piperonyl butoxide and n-octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide often are added to pyrethrin products to inhibit insects' microsomal enzymes that detoxify pyrethrins. To distribute their insecticide, foggers also contain aerosol propellants. Hazards to humans During 2001-2006, a total of 466 fogger-related illnesses", "Rhynocoris longifrons Distribution Rhynocoris longifrons is found in various parts of India including Tamil Nadu, and often occurs in agro-ecosystems. It is a generalist predator. Biology Like other hemipterans, assassin bugs are hemimetabolous and do not undergo metamorphosis. Instead, the egg hatches into a miniature version of the adult form, and at each growth stage the nymph resembles the adult more than the previous one. Predatory assassin bugs use their long rostrums to inject toxic saliva into their prey; this liquefies the soft tissues which are then sucked out, and prey larger than the bug can be killed in this", "bug colonies due to the spores carried by infected bugs back to their harborages. Unlike typical insecticides, exposure to the fungus does not kill instantly, but kills bugs within five days of exposure. Some people, especially those with compromised immune systems, may react negatively to the concentrated presence of the fungus directly following an application. Drugs Early research shows that the common drug taken to get rid of parasitic worms, ivermectin (Stromectol), also kills bed bugs when taken by humans at normal doses. The drug enters the human bloodstream and if the bedbugs bite during that time, the bedbug", "Bug (engineering) In engineering, a bug is a defect in the design, manufacture or operation of machinery, circuitry, electronics, hardware, or software that produces undesired results or impedes operation. It is contrasted with a glitch which may only be transient. Sometimes what might be seen as unintended or defective operation can be seen as an feature. History The Middle English word bugge is the basis for the terms \"bugbear\" and \"bugaboo\" as terms used for a monster. \nThe term \"bug\" to describe defects has been a part of engineering jargon since the 1870s and predates electronic computers and computer software;", "doses, the fungus can take up two weeks to kill up to 90% of the locusts. For that reason, it is recommended for use mainly against hoppers, the wingless early stages of locusts. These are mostly found in the desert, far from cropping areas, where the delay in death does not result in damage. The advantage of the product is that it affects only grasshoppers and locusts, which makes it much safer than chemical insecticides. Specifically, it allows the natural enemies of locusts and grasshoppers to continue their beneficial work. These include birds, parasitoid and predatory wasps, parasitoid flies and", "Bug! Gameplay Bug! is a 3D platform game which revolves around the player safely progressing through various levels. The game is set on \"Bug Island\" and consists of six worlds made up of three levels each, with each last level culminating in a mandatory boss fight. Enemies come in the form of insects and are defeated by jumping on them. Each level ends when the player jumps on a \"Bug Stop\", which will then make the player proceed to the next level. Every level contains collectable items: 1-UPs supply the player with an extra life, collecting a heart will restore", "Blepharidopterus angulatus Biology The bugs feed mainly as predators of mites, mite eggs, aphids and other soft-bodied arthropods on various deciduous trees and shrubs. They are found mainly on Alnus, Betula , Corylus, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Tilia , Salix, Populus, Carpinus and Fagus. Occasionally suck also on the immature seeds of the plants.", "bug is a serious agricultural pest that has been readily causing damage to crops across the Eastern United States. They feed on a wide array of plants including apples, apricots, Asian pears, cherries, corn, grapes, lima beans, peaches, peppers, tomatoes, and soybeans. This makes them extremely versatile, as they do not require a specific plant on which to feed. To obtain their food, stink bugs use their stylets to pierce the plant tissue to extract the plant fluids. In doing so, the plant loses necessary fluids, which can lead to deformation of seeds, destruction of seeds, destruction of fruiting structures,", "Insect repellent An insect repellent (also commonly called \"bug spray\") is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces which discourages insects (and arthropods in general) from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellents help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne (and other arthropod-bourne) diseases such as malaria, Lyme disease, dengue fever, bubonic plague, river blindness and West Nile fever. Pest animals commonly serving as vectors for disease include insects such as flea, fly, and mosquito; and the arachnid tick.\nSome insect repellents are insecticides (bug killers), but most simply discourage insects and send them flying or crawling", "the bugs are able to produce vibrational signals, which Naskrecki and Nishida suggested the snails could use as an aid.\nAn undescribed species of carpenter ant, genus Camponotus (JTL-005) also visits the bug, but is only able to feed when the snail is present, presumably because the ants are too small to be able to feed on the honeydew stream by themselves. The ants climb onto the head of the snail, and then eat some of the honeydew that the snail is attempting to eat, a feeding relationship which can be described as kleptotrophobiosis. The snails appear not to be disturbed", "drained.\nThe live bugs with their now empty stink glands are then boiled in water. Further sorting is done afterwards. Dead bugs which died before they could release all their chemicals can be distinguished from the 'clean' bugs by their blackened abdomens after boiling. These are also rejected. The remaining bugs are then dried under the sun.\nIn cases where the bugs were collected dead, another method is used to remove the chemicals. The bugs are beheaded and carefully squeezed so chemicals in their stink glands flow out the severed neck. The liquids secreted are then wiped off and the bugs boiled", "capturing Bugs' difficult, considering the rabbit is able to retaliate by capturing his simultaneously. Sam attempts to continue his bombardment, but Bugs is able to put up a defence by simply catching his enemy's cannonballs with his own cannon and firing them back. When Bugs tires of that contest, he fires a large cork to plug Sam's main mortar. Sam is shot in the face while trying to remove the cork.\nFrustrated, Sam burrows his way under his base and into Bugs' base using a pickaxe. Upon surfacing, Sam lights a match, only to find himself in a room full", "feed. The adult bugs have been shown to be unpalatable to some species of birds thanks to this chemical defense, which could explain their warning coloration. As glucosinolates are often used by crucifers to reduce insect herbivory, their sequestration could also reduce attack rates by insect predators. Circulation Like all insects, harlequin bugs have an open circulatory system. Blood is pumped to the head (anteriorly) through the dorsal blood vessel and posteriorly through the ventral body cavity. To map out the circulation of blood in these insects, Craig et al. injected radioactive phosphorus into the posterior end of the heart", "Bug Crawls Synopsis Shot on digital video and set in an apocalyptic industrial landscape reminiscent of earlier Lynch works like Eraserhead or Industrial Symphony No. 1, it features a bug crawling over a house and falling on his back. Accompanied by trademark ambient sound design, the short film ends with a close-up of the door opening, showing a lighted room with some kind of machinery on it.", "Bug's help, Drummond manages to escape, but the security system malfunctions, seals all exits, and leaves Laura, Bug, and Drummond in near darkness. Bug travels through ceiling shafts and falls into the kitchen area, where he is attacked by the monster. As the monster draws closer, Bug exposes a gas line and lights his lighter, killing both himself and the monster. The monster returns to the motion-capture suit and attacks Drummond, but Laura saves him by virtually fighting the in-game monster. Laura later tries to beat the game but becomes frustrated and hysterical. Drummond suggests that she try a virtual", "after the bug reaches the adult stage following the final molt. Ecological significance Wheel bugs are highly regarded by organic gardeners because they consume a variety of insects and their presence indicates a healthy, pesticide-free ecosystem. \"They're the lion or the eagle of your food web,\" Dr. Michael J. Raupp, an entomologist at the University of Maryland, notes. \"They sit on top. When you have these big, ferocious predators in your landscape, that tells me that this is a very healthy landscape, because all these other levels in your food web are intact.\"\nThough wheel bugs are a welcome agent of", "are the sap-sucking hemipteran Dysdercus cingulatus and two species of beetles in the genus Mylabris. Feeding on the moth larvae results in the assassin bug growing faster than on other diets, and research suggests that the bug may be effective in biological control of moth larvae in cotton.", "Larvicide A larvicide (alternatively larvacide) is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Their most common use is against mosquitoes. Larvicides may be contact poisons, stomach poisons, growth regulators, or (increasingly) biological control agents. Biological agents The biological control agent Bacillus thuringiensis, also known as Bt, is a bacterial disease specific to Lepidopteran caterpillars. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis, also known as Bti, and Bacillus sphaericus, which affect larval mosquitoes and some midges, have come into increasing use in recent times.\nBti and B. sphaericus are both naturally occurring soil bacterium registered as larvicides under the", "The group then realize that the bugs are blind and they use sound to track their victims, as the wasps did not attack them. They use a radio to lure a bug in a storage closet and milk it to identify the contents of its venom. Leechee analyses the venom and realizes that it contains sedatives and some proteins. They decide to go to the nearest military airbase at Gibson the next day and decide to camp for the night in the same building. They also see the bug hive, which is emitting red colored gas. The next day, the", "organisms hinder or stop the growing process or prey on beneficial organisms. Examples of these are Aphids, Assassin Bugs, and Japanese beetles. Aphids are attracted by pollen which is bad for plants because the aphids feed on the plants after they are located from spreading their pollen. Assassin Bugs are non beneficial because they feed on many beneficial insects by stabbing them with a horn on their head repeated times living up to its name \"Assassin bug\". Japanese beetles are especially a pest to gardeners and plants because the larva feed on the stems and roots while full grown beetles", "Bugaboo (The Flea) Gameplay The game begins with an animation depicting Bugaboo, a small, yellow creature with two extremely long legs, jumping around on a colourful planet before accidentally falling through a crack in the planet's surface and falling to the bottom of a cavern.\nThe player must control Bugaboo and guide him back to the top of the cavern, and out to the safety of the planet's surface.\nThere are only two control keys: left and right. When a key is held down a gauge at the bottom of the screen begins to fill up. When the key is", "Some lygus bugs are very serious agricultural pests.\nSome methods of biological pest control have proved useful against lygus bugs. For example, wasps of the genus Peristenus are parasitoids of lygus bugs; an adult wasp will inject an egg into a lygus nymph, and once the egg hatches the wasp's larva will consume the nymph from the inside out.", "JAGS.\nThe BUGS language is the language that specifies the model code. It is parsed by OpenBUGS, which then creates an executable (compiled code) that generates a sample from the posterior distribution when run.\nOpenBUGS was designed to run together with S-Plus and the BUGS language is similar to the S programming language. OpenBUGS works well together with R; the R2OpenBUGS or BRugs packages provides some interoperability, and R modules help further analyses.", "they kill insects more slowly than traditional insecticides. Death typically occurs within 3 to 10 days, depending on the IGR product, the insect's life stage at the time the product is applied, and how quickly the insect develops. Some IGRs cause insects to stop feeding long before they die. Hormonal IGRs Hormonal IGRs typically work by mimicking or inhibiting the juvenile hormone (JH), one of the two major hormones involved in insect molting. IGRs can also inhibit the other hormone, ecdysone, large peaks of which trigger the insect to molt. If JH is present at the time of molting, the", "Myrmecoris gracilis Description The bugs are four to six millimeters long. The adult insects resemble ants of the genus Formica, the larvae dark Lasius ant species.\nThey are often found together with ants, to which they have a convincing but superficial resemblance. The long rostrum is held inconspicuously beneath the head.\nThe bugs suck plant juices, but feed mainly on aphids, other small insects and insect eggs, sometimes on honeydew, unlike other \"grass bugs\" (Stenodemini) which are exclusively herbivorous. The larvae hatch in May. The adults can be found from early June to early August. There is one generation a year. The", "depends on insects with their high protein content that have been captured by Roridula for completing its life cycle, it can survive on plant juices. In case of a fire, the bugs probably evacuate their home plant and fly off. Even if they do not find another Roridula specimen, the bugs can sit out the period until Roridula plants have germinated and sufficiently grown, by sucking juices of other plant species. Fossil record Fragments of fossil leaves, morphologically very close to extant Roridula, have been found in two pieces of amber of Eocene age (35–47 million years old), from the", "as 93% and up to 80% on the squash bug. However, T. pennipes does not prevent all crop damage as the bugs continue to feed and reproduce after being parasitised, though the reproductive organs begin to atrophy when the parasitoid reaches the second instar stage. Control of the pest is more effective when nymphs are parasitised since half of these die before becoming adults and any that overwinter will die before laying eggs.", "Snipes (video game) Gameplay The objective of the game is to control your creature by moving it around a maze to destroy snipes and their hives, and/or destroy other networked players.\nThe player must first specify the number of snipes, hives and difficulty before they play. Each game is different because the computer generates a random new maze.\nThe creature is moved using the keyboard arrow keys and shoots in different directions with the A, S, D and W keys. By combining keys, diagonal movement and shooting can be achieved. Pressing the spacebar can provide extra velocity to run away from difficult" ]

[ "The fair tax is regressive but it offers up citizens a prebate to offset their costs. \n\nBenefits \n\n* You are taxing consumption instead of production so it's seen as a more just system. \n* The stress on working household would be lessened since exemptions can be made for food or necessities. \n\nDisadvantages \n\n* This tax would stack with other state taxes so in Washington state for example a 35 percent tax would be affixed to most goods. \n* The majority of our economy's activity is consumption so it would quickly stifle growth by discouraging consumption, especially on big ticket items like auto and home purchases. \n* Once the funds accorded to you are spend you are left in the uncomfortable position of having to pay a tax of between 1/4 and 1/3 of the purchase price. \n\n[Summary of the Idea](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "Plan X Plan X is a Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) program, which seeks to develop a defensive platform for the Department of Defense to plan for, conduct, and assess cyberwarfare in a manner similar to kinetic warfare. Towards this end, the program will bridge cyber communities of interest from academe, to the defense industrial base, to the commercial tech industry, to user-experience experts.\nPlan X will not develop cyber offensive technologies or effects. National policymakers, not DARPA, will determine how the cyber capabilities developed under Plan X will be employed to serve the national security interests of the United", "of intellectual property rights, and speeding the movement of goods across and within borders. They also announced an action plan designed to make it 25 percent cheaper, easier, and faster to conduct business in the region by 2015 by decreasing costs and streamlining processes associated with starting and operating a business in APEC economies. Supporting the Multilateral Trading System APEC leaders instructed their trade ministers to work towards a successful conclusion of the Doha Development Agenda in 2010 and reaffirmed their commitment to refrain from raising new barriers to investment or to trade in goods and services. Climate Change", "seeks to incentivize fair pricing by buyers (to maintain a good reputation, and thus be eligible for future offers), and to enable sellers to limit their risk on each transaction in accord with the buyer's reputation. The FairPay architecture and how it builds on modern pricing strategy has been outlined on the Harvard Business Review Blog. FairPay integrates PWYW into a feedback/control cycle that continuously seeks win-win dynamic value propositions that reflect the customer’s dynamic perceptions of value and real willingness to pay—this enables it to optimize co-creation of customer value over the course of a relationship.", "communication \"Policy Coherence for Development – Accelerating progress towards attaining the Millennium Development Goals\", (COM(2005) 134 final, 12 April 2005), fair trade is mentioned as \"a tool for poverty reduction and sustainable development\".\nOn July 6, 2006, the European Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution on fair trade, recognizing the benefits achieved by the Fair Trade movement, suggesting the development of an EU-wide policy on Fair Trade, defining criteria that need to be fulfilled under fair trade to protect it from abuse and calling for greater support to Fair Trade (EP resolution \"Fair Trade and development\", 6 July 2006). \"This resolution responds", "Regional Plan Association Planning philosophy The RPA program represents a philosophy of planning described by historian Robert Fishman as \"metropolitanism,\" associated with the Chicago School of Sociology. It promotes large scale, industrial centers and the concentration of population rather than decentralized development. Its critics point out that this results in windfall real estate profits for downtown interests. Whether this approach to regional planning is efficient, particularly because of the infrastructure and energy required to sustain such concentration, has been questioned by scholars including James Howard Kunstler.", "economic approach. TIMES is a technology rich, bottom-up model generator, which uses linear programming to produce a least-cost energy system, optimized according to a number of user-specified constraints, over the medium to long-term. It is used for \"the exploration of possible energy futures based on contrasted scenarios\".\nAs of 2015, the MARKAL and TIMES model generators are in use in 177 institutions spread over 70 countries. NEMS NEMS (National Energy Modeling System) is a long-standing United States government policy model, run by the Department of Energy (DOE). NEMS computes equilibrium fuel prices and quantities for the US energy", "Gepa The Fair Trade Company Mission The main goal of GEPA³ is to improve the living and working conditions of people in the South, following the spirit of the UN Agenda 21 for economic, social and ecological sustainability. Membership GEPA is a FLO International registered Fairtrade licensee and importer. The organization is also a licensee of Naturland Zeichen GmbH and a member of the European Fair Trade Association (EFTA), the World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO) and the Forums Fairer Handel.", "Enabling clause In 1979, as part of the Tokyo Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the enabling clause was adopted in order to permit trading preferences targeted at developing and least developed countries which would otherwise violate Article I of the GATT. Paragraph 2(a) provides a legal basis for extending the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) beyond the original 10 years. In practice it gave a permanent validity to the GSP. The enabling clause permits developed countries to discriminate between different categories of trading partners (in particular, between developed, developing and least developed countries)", "The Global Policy Action Plan (GPACT) is a set of 22 interlinked, proven policy reforms that together, build sustainable, peaceful, and just societies and help to realise international commitments, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). The \"best\" policies identified by the World Future Council are those that meet the seven Principles for Future-Just Law-Making. A coherent best policy guide that brings together working innovative policy solutions and forward-thinking practical tools. Implementation of Feed-in Tariff Laws Feed-In Tariff (FIT) laws to speed up renewable energy production have been introduced in several countries e.g. the UK, Australia, several US states, among them", "10-36 Plan, investors had to have faith in the idea of investing in a secure future for the next generation. Rev. Sullivan's vision was to use the tools of the free enterprise system to foster something that is vital to community progress - a sense of ownership and a stake in the common good.\nFunds accumulated rapidly under the 10-36 Plan, and were soon used to invest in numerous housing and economic development initiatives. In 1964, PIA made its first investment in an 8-unit apartment building in an all-white community. The rationale for buying this property was that it would help", "policy relies on Canada-US free trade and NAFTA free trade, market-based policies, and fiscal restraint. They argue for a fourth policy called \"strategic integration.\" It would consist of free trade, both external and internal; the building of a national telecommunications infrastructure based on the development and diffusion of information technologies; and human capital development.", "responsibility for a former industrial complex, with a view to turning it into a centre for environmental activities. FairCoop In April 2014, Duran began to develop an idea that was to become Faircoop, an open global cooperative. It stated aims are to \"contribute to a transition to a new world by reducing the economic and social inequalities among human beings as much as possible, and at the same time gradually contribute to a new global wealth, accessible to all humankind as commons\".\nFaircoin was chosen as the cryptocurrency upon which to base its resource-redistribution actions and building of a new", "Fair trade certification How it works Fair trade is a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development, aiming at creating greater equity in the international trading system. Through trading partnerships with marginalised farmers and craftspeople in developing countries, social and economic opportunities are created for these producers in a way that more customers are accessible to their products and a better deal is issued. In return, the producers have to comply with all the standards laid down by Fairtrade International.\nIn reality, packers in developed countries pay a fee to the Fairtrade organisation for the right to use the Fairtrade certification", "Vision 2020, and spurred a similar movement to redevelop the country's capital city, Kigali by 2040. Vision 2020 hopes to eliminate the informal settlements that currently exist, in a scheme similar in nature to that of urban renewal in America in the early twentieth century. The plan has also prioritized growth above all else, even if that means that the total amount of net official development assistance and official aid from foreign government grew by over 45% between 2006 and 2009. While the plan is celebrated by many, the plan also confronts potential challenges of suburbanization, a challenge constantly facing", "FairVote Mission The stated mission of FairVote is \"a nonpartisan champion of electoral reforms that give voters greater choice, a stronger voice, and a representative democracy that works for all Americans.\"\nFairVote concentrates its efforts on electoral reform in the United States through research, education, outreach, and support of policies that foster equal representation and greater transparency within the electoral administration.\nThe organization's projects fall into three broad categories: fair access to participation, fair elections, and fair representation. To that end, it sponsors programs like the Democracy Secretary of State (SoS) Project, which scrutinizes practices obstructing the voting process while proposing solutions", "APEC United States 2011 Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Leaders of nine APEC nations were expected to negotiate on the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership, a multilateral free trade agreement. Balanced, Sustainable, and Inclusive Growth APEC leaders endorsed the Pittsburgh G20 principles and agreed to implement the policies of the G20 Framework for Strong, Sustainable, and Balanced Growth, further expanding the global commitment to achieve more balanced growth that is less prone to destabilizing booms and busts. Leaders pledged to make growth more inclusive through APEC initiatives that will support development of small and medium enterprises, facilitate worker retraining, and enhance", "Growth Plan Policies and Objectives This section presents a summary of key policies and objectives of the Growth Plan, following a sub-structure similar to the plan itself. Context and Vision This section speaks to the Plan's interests in promoting economic prosperity, creating a cleaner environment for investment decisions, and helping to secure the future prosperity of the GGH region. The Plan is based on a 25-year planning horizon, from when it was introduced to 2031. The plan sets out a vision for the GGH to be a great place to live in 2031, have a clean and healthy environment, strong", "for its establishment, and to predict the potential market demand for the land. Stage one of Phase II involved submitting laws for the Special Economic Zone, finding good sites for businesses, and currently there is an effort to help the government attract foreign investment. Stage two of Phase II hasn't been started yet and it involves assisting the government in creating framework for the country, creating an overall plan for the site, figuring out what the environmental impact of the project will be, and guessing how much it will cost and what the return can be made on the investment.", "Plan did not deviate much from its predecessor in basic goals. The Six-Year Plan placed more emphasis on technological advance, self-sufficiency (Juche) in industrial raw materials, improving product quality, correcting imbalances among different sectors, and developing the power and extractive industries; the last of these had been deemed largely responsible for slowdowns during the First Seven-Year Plan. The plan called for attaining a self- sufficiency rate of 60–70% in all industrial sectors by substituting domestic raw materials wherever possible and by organizing and renovating technical processes to make the substitution feasible. Improving transport capacity was seen as one of the", "support of the Government's objectives on free trade. The IFT was initially named Institute for Free Trade, but changed to Initiative for Free Trade after it emerged that permission to use the title \"Institute\", which is protected by law, had not been granted by Companies House and the Business Secretary.\nIn October 2017 IFT hosted its first event—the Global Trade Summit (London)—and has supported and participated in the Conservatives International conferences in Miami and Kampala in 2017, as well as La Convención Azul in Buenos Aires.\nIn September 2018, it launched 'An “Ideal” US-UK Free Trade Arrangement’ in conjunction with the Cato", "that, until Plan S is implemented, \"The ethical choice is to read the stolen material published by Sci-Hub.\"\nOn 7 September 2018 the European University Association (EUA) published a statement in which it generally welcomed the Plan's ambitions to turn open access into reality by 2020, but stated that, while the plan developed a bold vision for the transition, it hinged on turning principles into practice.\nOn September 12, 2018 UBS repeated their \"sell\" advice on Elsevier (RELX) stocks. Elsevier’s share price fell by 13% between Aug 28 and Sept 19, 2018.\nOn September 24, 2018, the three large researcher organizations Eurodoc, Marie", "Policy Analysis Market The Policy Analysis Market (PAM), part of the FutureMAP project, was a proposed futures exchange developed by the United States' Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and based on an idea first proposed by Net Exchange, a San Diego research firm specializing in the development of online prediction markets. Proposal PAM was to be \"a market in the future of the Middle East\", and would have allowed trading of futures contracts based on possible political developments in several Middle Eastern countries. The theory behind such a market is that the monetary value of a futures contract on", "trade prices in order to maximize the impact, as most producers only sell a portion of their crop under fair trade terms. It has been argued that the approach of the FairTrade system is too rooted in a Northern consumerist view of justice which Southern producers do not participate in setting. \"A key issue is therefore to make explicit who possesses the power to define the terms of Fairtrade, that is who possesses the power to determine the need of an ethic in the first instance, and subsequently command a particular ethical vision as the truth.\"\nSome of the criticisms of", "Trade and Investment Framework Agreement The GATT The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas. According to its preamble, its purpose was the \"substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis.\"\nThe GATT was first discussed during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO). It", "of policy learning and by adhering to WTO rules. Policymakers can also evade ineffective GIP through the creation of a transparent and accountable political coalition of actors, which includes public-private partnerships, business alliances, and civil society. A strong coalition also addresses coordination failures. The extra risks of GIP options could avoid future costs by increasing progress toward more ambitious cuts in emissions. As a result, GIP that is politically optimal may be economically optimal in the long-run, even if it experiences immediate inefficiencies. Examples The following section includes examples of GIP. Subsidies Subsidies help offset the private costs of green", "supported and 328 opposed the Plan.\nThe Leisure and Cultural Services Department, together with New World Development, further launched a series of public engagement exercises in two phases, with a view to deepening public understanding to the detailed design and future operational arrangements of the plan. New World Development also set up a website on 10 October through which the public can give opinions on the updated design of the Plan.\nThe phase one engagement was held from September to November 2015. Roving exhibitions on the updated design were staged in places including Tsim Sha Tsui waterfront, Hong Kong Cultural Centre and", "are completely different. And one of the important ways in which it is different from central planning is that it is incentive compatible, that is, actors have an incentive to report truthfully rather than an incentive to misrepresent their capabilities or preferences.\" Unlike historical examples of central planning, the parecon proposal advocates the use and adjustment of price information reflecting marginal social opportunity costs and benefits as integral elements of the planning process. Hahnel has argued emphatically against Milton Friedman's a priori tendency to deny the possibility of alternatives:\nFriedman assumes away the best solution for coordinating economic activities. He", "of real estate, the proposed public improvement is to be constructed expeditiously immediately after the date of taking and not delayed for years or decades as is often the ultimate practical reality.\nAn appraiser performing and communicating an appraisal under USPAP may estimate value assuming facts and conditions proscribed by a legal presumption, but a determination would have to be made whether the assumption is an extraordinary assumption or hypothetical condition and communicated appropriately as required under USPAP. However, should the legal context require the communication of results in a manner contrary to USPAP, or if the law requires the", "task of integrating the previously separate topics of land use and transportation into one agency that would protect natural resources, improve mobility, and minimize traffic congestion in the seven-county region. Under federal MAP-21 legislation, CMAP is responsible for developing the region's official transportation plan, part of the broader ON TO 2050 comprehensive plan that integrates transportation with land use, housing, economic development, open space, the environment, and other quality-of-life issues. This transportation plan must be updated every four years, use visualization techniques, engage the general public, and include a separate Transportation Improvement Program document.\nIts annual work plan and", "U-Vistract Description U-Vistract is considered by many to be a Ponzi scheme. The founders have stated that the plan has always been to back the assets of the plan with the in-ground natural resources, including copper, silver, gold, zinc and other products. Present status In 2010, the International Bank of Me’ekamui, one of Musingku’s bank group, established relations with a group of companies and individuals engaged in commerce outside of the usual financial system. This group has provided billions of dollars in capital to U-Vistract through IBOM, and provided the means for capitalization of the in-ground assets that Bougainville contains," ]

[ "ISP backbones tend to oversell their bandwidth, because not everyone is using their maximum allocation all the time, so there would be unused potential that isn't generating profits. This is how your neighbors can slow you down. Much of your connection is just you and your wire until you get to some shared trunk.\n\nSecond, cheap home equipment can be a significant slowdown; I'd say even the equipment you're renting from your ISP can be crap that can't deliver. Buying something good will require research beyond the scope of this post.\n\nThird, there are slow downs caused by the routing protocols as well as a fundamental design flaw in our network infrastructure. I mean, it takes time to process a packet at each hop, but this shouldn't be terribly significant. But the fundamental flaw is buffer bloat. Look it up, it was identified just a couple years ago. Basically, our routing protocols control data rates and latency by responding to dropped packets; if you're sending more than the receiving end can handle, you slow down. Well, routing equipment these days have a lot of ram, so if they can't send as fast as they're receiving your data, they're just going to buffer your data packets at full speed until the buffer maxes out, then they drop packets. You respond by slowing down, the buffer clears out just a bit, and you start sending at full speed again, until the buffer maxes out. It's dip, after dip, after dip, after dip... And this KILLS performance. The current best way to fix it is to reduce the RAM in the equipment, but no manufacturer is going to sell their newest HyperFast Router, \"Now with LESS RAM!!!\"\n\nOur routing protocols were designed this way because the early internet didn't have massive buffers, hardware was expensive and so it was out of necessity. We now need new protocols that can take this buffering into account, and they're working on it." ]

[ "provided quantitative evidence of the impact of Internet speed on online video users. Their research studied the patience level of millions of Internet video users who waited for a slow-loading video to start playing. Users with faster Internet connectivity, such as fiber-to-the-home, demonstrated less patience and abandoned their videos sooner than similar users with slower Internet connectivity.\nOpponents of the rules declared September 10, 2014, to be the \"Internet slowdown\". Participating websites were purposely slowed down to show what they felt would happen if the new rules took effect. Websites that participated in the Internet slowdown included Netflix, Reddit, Tumblr, Twitter,", "Internet-Speed Development Internet-Speed Development is an Agile Software Development development method using a combined spiral model/waterfall model with daily builds aimed at developing a product with high speed.\nIt was developed in the late nineties because software development was changing rapidly. Companies were having problems delivering products with the correct requirements within the time scheduled for the project and as such were changing to more agile software development methods. More details about how the internet-speed method was developed can be seen in the evolutionary map in the paper of Abrahamsson. Main ideas behind Internet-Speed Development Often one of the biggest problems", "research study conducted by Forrester Research, online shoppers expected the web pages they visited to download content instantly. When a page fails to load at the expected speed, many of them simply click out. A study found that even a one-second delay could lead to \"11% fewer page views, a 16% decrease in customer satisfaction, and 7% loss in conversions\". This delay can cause a server problem to small innovators who have created new technology. If a website is slow by default, the general public will lose interest and favor a website that runs faster. This helps large corporate companies", "made but this will always be affected by trade offs between features, resources and time.\nThe internet-speed development method is very different from the traditional methods and therefore uses Agile method principles. It focuses on adaptation to requirements and as such is based on the basic principles of Agile software development.\nInternet-speed development also focuses on using one fixed framework architecture from which the product is built and relies heavily on tools to increase the development speed.\nAnother basic concept of internet-speed development is that it also focuses on using small teams. The idea is that all projects can be divided into smaller", "like web browsers. Since an \"always on\" broadband is the norm expected by most newer applications being developed, this automatic upload trend in the background is expected to continue to eat away at dial-up's available bandwidth to the detriment of dial-up users' applications. Many newer websites also now assume broadband speeds as the norm and when confronted with slower dial-up speeds may drop (timeout) these slower connections to free up communication resources. On websites that are designed to be more dial-up friendly, use of a reverse proxy prevents dial-ups from being dropped as often but can introduce long wait periods", "second upload speed, target speeds seen by the CRTC as being fast enough to allow sufficient use of the Internet for carrying out essential tasks. This is to be achieved by providing subsidies to ISPs to upgrade and expand networks into rural areas, and aims to supply almost 300,000 households with high speed internet connections by 2019. Public access Locations such as public libraries where a person can connect to the internet for free without the need of owning ICTs or paying for internet access are one way of reducing the gap between those who can participate online and those", "quicker. As the number of attacks increases, S decreases with a threshold close to f=0.05, and <s> increases to the same threshold and then decreases back to one. The speed at which this type of network breaks down shows the vulnerability of common networks that are used everyday, such as the Internet.", "wrong, the internet speed in the country can be substantially slower. The \"Internet Chaos\" of South Korea in 2003 was caused by a server outage in the Hye-hwa branch, paralyzing the nationwide internet service network.\nInternet Data Center in Bundang is also equipped with various internet server platforms. Even though the IDCs are located separately at various places such as Mapo, Seon-reung in Seoul, a terrorist attack on even a single IDC can cause serious telecommunication problems.\nIn Pyung-taek distribution base, Korea National Oil Corporation maintains a large-scale facilities that store about 6.2 million barrels of oil and liquefied petroleum gas for", "their browser will use data compression technology to speed up data transmission. While pre-compressed data such as ZIP files, JPEG images, MP3 audio, MPEG video will not show significantly improved transmission speeds, uncompressed data will be transmitted in as little as one sixth the time, depending upon how efficiently it can be compressed. If and when successfully combined with Server-side web compression, 1G Analog Internet service might actually be able to compete with 2G or 3G digital internet service. Datawind claims that their browser can give up to 30 times faster speeds. Development and testing Kapil Sibal has stated that", "websites in exchange for faster connection speeds. The \"fast lane\", as the proposal was called, would prioritize that website's internet connection over those of other websites that did not pay, although the ISP could not outright block web users from accessing websites that did not pay for \"fast lanes\". In addition, in enacting these \"fast lanes\", ISPs had to divulge whether they were promoting the content of sponsors or affiliates. This was at least the FCC's third attempt to create internet fast lanes. By May 2014, the FCC was considering two options: permitting fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising", "work better (which is the stabilization part).\nInternet-speed development is based on the agile principles and as such it has a lot of similarities with Extreme Programming, Rational Unified Process, DSDM and Feature Driven Development. Internet-speed development is different however from these methods as it also incorporates a more extensive risk-management planning and has quality as a very important objective of a project. The development phase of Internet-speed development also shows some similarities with the open-source software development model because many developers around the globe can be part of the development process because of communication through the Internet and the use", "go on to argue that the monopolization of the Internet would stifle the diversity of independent news sources and the generation of innovative and novel web content. User intolerance for slow-loading sites Proponents of net neutrality invoke the human psychological process of adaptation where when people get used to something better, they would not ever want to go back to something worse. In the context of the Internet, the proponents argue that a user who gets used to the \"fast lane\" on the Internet would find the \"slow lane\" intolerable in comparison, greatly disadvantaging any provider who is unable to", "Internet Slowdown Day Internet Slowdown Day, part of the \"Battle for the Net\" initiative, was a series of coordinated protests to promote net neutrality and regulations for the equal treatment of Internet traffic, occurring on September 10, 2014. The official site explains: \"On September 10th, sites across the web will display an alert with a symbolic 'loading' symbol (the proverbial 'spinning wheel of death') and promote a call to action for users to push comments to the FCC, Congress, and the White House.\"\n\"Contrary to what the name suggests, Internet Slowdown Day didn't actually slow down the Internet, or even any", "while ensuring that the websites speed is not reduced, InstantON is an accelerating component, ContextSAFE provides security to the platform, while ImpactAnalytics offers web analytics.", "Google PageSpeed Tools Speed Impact The PageSpeed Module showed the most significant impact on decreasing webpage loading times, payload size, and number of requests when compared to other options in the industry. According to several researchers, mod_pagespeed can reduce loading times by up to 80%, amount of bytes on a wire can be decreased by 30% and the number of total requests can drop by over 20%. Since many search engines, including Google, employ a ranking algorithm which is affected by a page’s loading speed, these optimizations can impact a website’s placement in search results. As of February 2015, Google", "should be banned from the web ... but it is wrong to give the government a blank cheque to determine what is appropriate for us to view on the Internet.\" \nClive Hamilton, a senior ethics professor at the Australian National University whose think tank The Australia Institute was responsible for the initial media attention for a mandatory Internet filter in 2003, argues \n \"The laws that mandate upper speed limits do not stop people from speeding, does that mean that we should not have those laws? ... We live in a society, and societies have always imposed limits on activities", "pay for the \"fast lane\". Video providers Netflix and Vimeo in their comments to FCC in favor of net neutrality use the research of S.S. Krishnan and Ramesh Sitaraman that provides the first quantitative evidence of adaptation to speed among online video users. Their research studied the patience level of millions of Internet video users who waited for a slow-loading video to start playing. Users who had a faster Internet connectivity, such as fiber-to-the-home, demonstrated less patience and abandoned their videos sooner than similar users with slower Internet connectivity. The results demonstrate how users can get used to faster Internet", "has begun testing “Slow” labels on mobile devices for websites that exceed a certain amount of loading time, prompting developers to examine ways to increase a page’s load speed. PageSpeed Insights PageSpeed Insights is an online tool which helps in identifying performance best practices on any given website, provides suggestions on a webpage’s optimizations, and suggests overall ideas of how to make a website faster. This tool can be accessed directly in any browser. Per URL request, it grades webpage performance on a scale from 1 to 100 and provides a report on suggested optimizations, divided into categories of high,", "that the combination of these models will result in a method which does not have these disadvantages and is a better method to use in situations where requirements can change rapidly, but the project has to be executed in a structured way. Goal of the method The goal of the internet-speed development method is to allow software developers to perform a project in a structured way, but still be able to adapt to the needs of the customer. It aims to deliver a software product in a short time through intensive development. The method provides a means to deliver a", "undergone a precipitous fall in usage, and potentially approaches extinction as modern users turn towards broadband. In contrast to the year 2000 when about 34% of the U.S. population used dial-up, this dropped to 3% in 2013. One contributing factor to the extinction of dial-up is the bandwidth requirements of newer computer programs, like antivirus software, which automatically download sizable updates in the background when a connection to the Internet is first made. These background downloads can take several minutes or longer and, until all updates are completed, they can severely impact the amount of bandwidth available to other applications", "much sense\" because large websites like Google and Facebook already benefited from \"fast lanes\", albeit in the form of large servers embedded in the ISPs' Internet exchange points. He wrote that instead of advocating against a change that had already occurred, internet users should look for ways to increase ISPs' competitiveness.\nChairman Wheeler himself responded to the segment, praising it as \"creative\" but saying \"I am not a dingo\". Wheeler said, \"I think that it represents the high level of interest that exists in the topic in the country, and that's good.\" However, he also stated that the segment did not", "the slower method of reading all the complete article headers. Many clients are unable to do this, and limit filtering to what is available in the summaries. Speed Speed, for the purpose of this article, is how quickly a server can deliver an article to the user. The server that the user connects to is typically part of a server farm that has many servers dedicated to multiple tasks. How fast the data can move in this farm is the first thing that affects the speed of delivery.\nOnce the farm is able to deliver the data to the network, then", "applications need significantly higher broadband-speeds. Certain broadband technologies including Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH), high-speed digital subscriber line (DSL) and cable broadband are paving the way for increased broadband speeds. FTTH can offer broadband-speeds that are ten times (or even a hundred times) faster than DSL or cable. Internet service providers in the Zettabyte Era The Zettabyte Era has affected Internet service providers (ISPs) with the growth of data flowing from all directions. Congestion occurs when there is too much data flowing in and the quality of service (QoS) weakens. In both China and the U.S. some ISPs store and handle exabytes of", "may decrease to around 1 Mbit/s before it drops out altogether. The reason is that wireless devices dynamically negotiate the top speed at which they can communicate without dropping too many data packets.", "- 250 Mbps.\nInternet 30\nThis plans provides super fast high speed data to do the things you enjoy online with speeds of up to 30 Mbps. Surf the net, stream your favorite content and chat with friends… enjoy the internet. With Unlimited Data, there will be no overage charges.\nInternet 75\nComwave's Internet 75 plan is designed for large whole-home instant browsing, email, social media and streaming. With it's Unlimited data, download hundreds of pictures and stream HD movies every month without buffering. \nInternet 150\nStream, download and surf with ease with Internet 150. This plan offers unlimited high-speed data to share with the", "Web accelerator Web client accelerator From July 2006, these applications generally serve to improve dial-up, broadband and other connections from which users may not be getting the best speed. Many users can achieve a 2- to 10-times speed increase in average browsing experience, while some report a 5- to 20-times speed increases for specific web sites and pages. Many ISPs offer web accelerators as a part of their dial up and broadband services. Web accelerators are typically designed for web browsing and, sometimes, for e-mailing and can not improve speeds of streaming, gaming, P2P downloads or many other Internet applications.", "late 1990s, they expected a radical increase in demand, driven by the Dot-com bubble. By 2001, it became apparent that the sudden expansion in core link capacity had outstripped the actual demand for Internet bandwidth in the core. The core Internet providers were able to defer purchases of new core routers for a time, and most of the new companies went out of business.\nAs of 2012, the typical Internet core link speed is 40 Gbit/s, with many links at higher speeds, reaching or exceeding 100 Gbit/s (out of a theoretical current maximum of 111 Gbit/s, provided by Nippon Telegraph and", "automatically throttle back on the bandwidth being used during periods of network congestion. This is fair in the sense that all users that experience congestion receive less bandwidth, but it can be frustrating for customers and a major problem for ISPs. In some cases the amount of bandwidth actually available may fall below the threshold required to support a particular service such as video conferencing or streaming live video–effectively making the service unavailable.\nWhen traffic is particularly heavy, an ISP can deliberately throttle back the bandwidth available to classes of users or for particular services. This is known as traffic shaping", "issues when streaming video such as YouTube and HBO-GO. Some users reported Speedtest.net benchmarks above 3 Mbit/s, while other users reported low results of 0.03 Mbit/s down and 0.27 up. In January 2015 David P. Reed reported that Gogo service exhibited multiple seconds of latency under load, due to bufferbloat. The user connects to the gogoinflight network and registers in the same way they would on the ground. The network becomes accessible as soon as electronic devices are approved for use after take-off.\nThe service includes account management and allows purchasing service before the flight using the product", "start mode, which slowed response times.\nTo avoid this problem, modern browsers either open multiple connections simultaneously or reuse one connection for all files requested from a particular server. Initial performance can be poor, and many connections never get out of the slow-start regime, significantly increasing latency. Admission control Admission control requires devices to receive permission before establishing new network connections. If the new connection risks creating congestion, permission can be denied. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) local area networking over varying" ]

[ "The program has to be written to take advantage of that hardware. The Windows GUI, for example, being your desktop - that rendering code was written before hardware acceleration was ubiquitous. All of your windows, button, and icons are all rendered \"in software\", aka on your CPU. And your CPU isn't designed specifically for rendering, so reducing effects improves performance.\n\nAnd some of the big costs in rendering has to do with blending. Transparency is expensive, as can be anti-aliasing. And Windows desktop rendering is done on a single thread, so no matter how many CPUs or cores you have, it won't have much of an impact. Further, rendering happens on the \"main thread\", which, I believe, is also responsible for IO if memory serves me... When you're busy rendering, there's an event queue of everything you've clicked or typed that's waiting to be processed; not until the screen is refreshed. Many desktop apps are written to be single threaded, so they only execute on one core, so everything the program does happens in sequence. If rendering the window is going to take a long time, everything else in the queue is waiting to get processed. A programmer using C or C++ as their programming language has to write multi threading code themselves to take advantage of it.\n\nMicrosoft would have to rewrite that whole software layer to take advantage of a GPU, and they're not going to do that, because they're insane about backwards compatibility. Instead, they wrote a new GUI layer that developers can use going forward. Migration is always slow. Microsoft will probably keep support for their software rendered GUI for decades before they even mark it as deprecated, and then decades more before they remove its availability.", "If you're talking about Windows Vista and beyond.\n\n**Disabling visual effects doesn't increase performance**\n\nMore detailed explanation is here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nELI5:\n\nThis checkbox just switches off new system (GPU rendering) and brings back XP CPU rendering, because some software can't use new system. Starting from Windows Vista GUI is rendered on GPU(actually it's pretty complicated for compatibility reasons, old programs still use CPU rendering, and resulted bitmap is passed to GPU for composition and rendering).", "Not all programs are written as such. To send data to a GPU directly, requires a whole lot of programming." ]

[ "more direct methods of accessing the hardware are perhaps its scaling capabilities and its abstract representation of target devices. Using GDI, it is very easy to draw on multiple devices, such as a screen and a printer, and expect proper reproduction in each case. This capability is at the center of most What You See Is What You Get applications for Microsoft Windows.\nSimple games that do not require fast graphics rendering may use GDI. However, GDI is relatively hard to use for advanced animation, and lacks a notion for synchronizing with individual video frames in the video card,", "and can be disabled in order to recover this disk space. In GPUs Graphics processing unit (GPUs) are used together with a CPU to accelerate computing in variety of domains revolving around scientific, analytics, engineering, consumer and enterprise applications.\nAll of this do come with some drawbacks, the high computing capability of GPUs comes at the cost of high power dissipation. A lot of research has been done over the power dissipation issue of GPUs and a lot of different techniques have been proposed to address this issue.\nDynamic voltage scaling/Dynamic frequency scaling(DVFS) and clock gating are two commonly used techniques for", "a technology that improves the smoothness of virtual reality. The aim is to reduce latency between hardware so that the hardware can keep up with the user's head movement, eliminating the motion sickness. A particular focus is on dual GPU setups where each GPU will now render for one eye individually of the display. Virtual super resolution support Originally introduced with the previous generation R9 285 and R9 290 series graphics cards, this feature allows users to run games with higher image quality by rendering frames at above native resolution. Each frame is then downsampled to native resolution. This process", "fixed block of high performance memory that is dedicated for use by the GPU. In early 2007, computers with integrated graphics account for about 90% of all PC shipments. They are less costly to implement than dedicated graphics processing, but tend to be less capable. Historically, integrated processing was considered unfit to play 3D games or run graphically intensive programs but could run less intensive programs such as Adobe Flash. Examples of such IGPs would be offerings from SiS and VIA circa 2004. However, modern integrated graphics processors such as AMD Accelerated Processing Unit and Intel HD Graphics are more", "are rendered using Direct3D. This allows the display of more complex graphics and custom themes, at the cost of GDI's wider range of support and uniform control theming. It allows Windows to offload some graphics tasks to the GPU. This reduces the workload on the computer's CPU. GPUs are optimized for parallel pixel computations. This tends to speed up screen refreshes at the cost of decreased compatibility in markets where GPUs are not necessarily as powerful, such as the netbook market.\nThe Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) is Microsoft's UI framework to create applications with a rich user experience. It is", "poor contrast, color, and viewing angles, and it’s susceptible to backlight bleed and has a worse GPU. The limited amount of RAM makes some games not able to run and cripples the multitasking ability making apps switching slow.\nPC Advisor also considers the Lumia 530 to be worse than its predecessor, as it has a worse camera with fixed focus, instead of the auto-focus of the predecessor, half the storage size, and a worse graphics processor.", "such as a 3D game engine or a 3D computer graphics software shunt calculations from the CPU to the GPU, they usually use a special-purpose API like OpenGL or Direct3D and do not address the hardware directly. Because all translation (from API calls to GPU opcodes) is done by the device driver, it contains specialized knowledge and is an object of optimization. Due to the history of the rigidity of proprietary driver development there has been a recent surge in the number of community-backed device drivers for desktop and mobile GPUs. Free and Open Hardware organizations like FOSSi, LowRISC, and", "through the Desktop Window Manager. Mac OS X has used hardware compositing since the introduction of Quartz Extreme into Mac OS X 10.2. To improve performance, each program draws to its own independent memory buffer instead of to a slow graphical subsystem. (In Windows Vista, each hardware overlay is more correctly known as a Direct3D surface). Then the system's GPU assembles each of the windows into a single display screen in real time. With modern GPUs capable of advanced 3D graphics (as a consequence of the video game industry), operating systems can apply computationally intensive motion,", "kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and macOS are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user-space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions between Windows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly", "PC are likely to benefit from higher screen resolution, higher framerate, and anti-aliasing. Increased draw distance is also common in open world games.\nBetter hardware also increases the potential fidelity of a PC game's rules and simulation. PC games often support more players or NPCs than equivalents on other platforms and game designs which depend on the simulation of large numbers of tokens (e.g. Guild Wars 2, World of Warcraft) are rarely seen anywhere else.\nThe PC also supports greater input fidelity thanks to its compatibility with a wide array of peripherals. The most common forms of input are the mouse/keyboard combination", "the standard Microsoft iSCSI initiator. Microsoft produces their own iSCSI Target software or alternative third party products can be used. Graphics issues on the host On CPUs without Second Level Address Translation (SLAT), installation of most WDDM accelerated graphics drivers on the primary OS will cause a dramatic drop in graphic performance. This occurs because the graphics drivers access memory in a pattern that causes the translation lookaside buffer to be flushed frequently (cache thrashing).\nIn Windows Server 2008, Microsoft officially supported Hyper-V only with the default VGA drivers, which do not support Windows Aero, higher resolutions, rotation, or", "the nature of desktop composition (internal management of moving bitmaps and transparency and anti-aliasing of GDI+ being handled at the DWM core), operations like window moves can be faster or more responsive because underlying content does not need to be re-rendered by the application. Windows 7 Windows 7 includes GDI hardware acceleration for blitting operations in the Windows Display Driver Model v1.1. This improves GDI performance of the Canonical Display Driver and allows DWM engine to use local video memory for compositing, thereby reducing system memory footprint and increasing the performance of graphics operations. Most primitive GDI operations are still", "not have GPU-accelerated 3D vertex processing. A significant change came in version 11, which added a new low-level API called Stage3D (initially codenamed Molehill), which provides full GPU acceleration, similar to WebGL. (The partial support for GPU acceleration in Pixel Bender was completely removed in Flash 11.8, resulting in the disruption of some projects like MIT's Scratch, which lacked the manpower to recode their applications quickly enough.)\nCurrent versions of Flash Player are optimized to use hardware acceleration for video playback and 3D graphics rendering on many devices, including desktop computers. Performance is similar to HTML5 video playback. Also, Flash Player", "steadily towards multi-core CPUs by 2005. These processors allow the computer to simultaneously process multiple tasks, called threads, allowing the use of more complex graphics, artificial intelligence and in-game physics.\nSimilarly, 3D games often rely on a powerful graphics processing unit (GPU), which accelerates the process of drawing complex scenes in realtime. GPUs may be an integrated part of the computer's motherboard, the most common solution in laptops, or come packaged with a discrete graphics card with a supply of dedicated Video RAM, connected to the motherboard through either an AGP or PCI-Express port. It is also possible to use multiple", "By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows performance, and these coprocessors faded away from the PC market.\nThroughout the 1990s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve. As manufacturing capabilities improved, so did the level of integration of graphics chips. Additional application programming interfaces (APIs) arrived for a variety of tasks, such as Microsoft's WinG graphics library for Windows 3.x, and their later DirectDraw interface for hardware acceleration of 2D games within Windows 95 and later.\nIn the early- and mid-1990s, real-time 3D graphics were becoming increasingly common in arcade, computer and console games, which", "wl_shm_pool interfaces. The drawback of this method is that the compositor may need to do additional work (usually to copy the shared data to the GPU) to display it, which leads to slower graphics performance.\nThe most typical case is for the client to render directly into a video memory buffer using a hardware (GPU) accelerated API such as OpenGL, OpenGL ES or Vulkan. Client and compositor can share this GPU-space buffer using a special handler to reference it. This method allows the compositor to avoid additional copies of data to the GPU, resulting in faster graphics performance than using shm", "WDDM 1.1 drivers, DWM only writes the program's buffer to the video RAM, even if it is a graphics device interface (GDI) program. This is because Windows 7 supports (limited) hardware acceleration for GDI and in doing so does not need to keep a copy of the buffer in system RAM so that the CPU can write to it.\nBecause the compositor has access to the graphics of all applications, it easily allows visual effects that string together visuals from multiple applications, such as transparency. DWM uses DirectX 9 to perform the function of compositing and rendering in the GPU, freeing", "(CPU), but often lack a powerful graphics processor, and instead have a less powerful but more energy-efficient on-board graphics chip. On-board graphics chips are often not powerful enough for playing the latest games, or for other graphically intensive tasks, such as editing video.\nTherefore, it is desirable to be able to attach a GPU to some external bus of a notebook. PCI Express is the only bus commonly used for this purpose. The port may be, for example, an ExpressCard or mPCIe port (PCIe ×1, up to 5 or 2.5 Gbit/s respectively) or a Thunderbolt 1, 2, or 3 port (PCIe", "set a GPU to run at lower clock rates when performing everyday tasks (e.g. internet browsing and word processing), thus allowing the card to operate at lower temperature and thus lower, quieter fan speeds. The GPU can then be overclocked for more graphically intense applications, such as games. Underclocking a GPU will reduce performance, but this decrease will probably not be noticeable except in graphically intensive applications. Memory underclocking Newer and faster RAM may be underclocked to match older systems as an inexpensive way to replace rare or discontinued memory. This might also be necessary if stability problems are encountered", "graphics have become more accurate and detailed, due to more advanced computers and better 3D modeling software applications, such as Maya, 3D Studio Max, and Cinema 4D.\nAnother use of computer graphics is screensavers, originally intended to prevent the layout of much-used GUIs from 'burning into' the computer screen. They have since evolved into true pieces of art, their practical purpose obsolete; modern screens are not susceptible to such\nburn in artifacts. Web graphics In the 1990s, Internet speeds increased, and Internet browsers capable of viewing images were released, the first being Mosaic. Websites began to use the GIF format to display", "engineers and scientists have increasingly studied the use of GPUs for non-graphical calculations; they are especially suited to other embarrassingly parallel problems.\nWith the emergence of deep learning, the importance of GPUs has increased. In research done by Indigo, it was found that while training deep learning neural networks, GPUs can be 250 times faster than CPUs. The explosive growth of Deep Learning in recent years has been attributed to the emergence of general purpose GPUs. There has been some level of competition in this area with ASICs, most prominently the Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) made by Google. However, ASICs require", "compactness, simplicity and low energy consumption. The performance disadvantage of integrated graphics arises because the graphics processor shares system resources with the CPU. A dedicated graphics card has its own random access memory (RAM), its own cooling system, and dedicated power regulators, with all components designed specifically for processing video images. Upgrading to a dedicated graphics card offloads work from the CPU and system RAM, so not only will graphics processing be faster, but the computer's overall performance will significantly improve.\nBoth AMD and Intel have introduced CPUs and motherboard chipsets which support the integration of a GPU into the same", "than capable of handling 2D graphics or low stress 3D graphics.\nSince the GPU computations are extremely memory-intensive, integrated processing may find itself competing with the CPU for the relatively slow system RAM, as it has minimal or no dedicated video memory. IGPs can have up to 29.856 GB/s of memory bandwidth from system RAM, whereas a graphics card may have up to 264 GB/s of bandwidth between its RAM and GPU core. This memory bus bandwidth can limit the performance of the GPU, though multi-channel memory can mitigate this deficiency. Older integrated graphics chipsets lacked hardware transform and lighting, but newer", "low-X if the high-X has not changed. This can greatly reduce the total number of characters sent to the terminal if the programmer arranges the data to minimize changes in Y over a given set of coordinates, and even more if they group together points that change only in low-X and low-Y. The overall effect can roughly halve the amount of data sent to the terminal.\nGraphics are drawn by entering graph mode by sending the ASCII Group Separator (GS) character (Control+⇧ Shift+M). After that every set of four characters (or less) received by the terminal are used to define an", "The graphics are nice and the scrolling pretty smooth.\" The magazine wrote that the game can become addicting upon getting used to the controls.\nHome Computing Weekly, which gave the ZX Spectrum version two stars out of five, called the game \"boring\", in part because of the inability to change its difficulty settings. The publication noted \"the limited graphics are very well-drawn, the sound is simple but effective and machine code ensures a smooth movement of vehicles and scrolling.\" Three critics for Your Sinclair gave the ZX Spectrum version a negative review, criticizing the controls and poor collision detection, although one", "directly affects the amount of video memory required. Because there is no limit on the number of open windows, the video memory available may prove insufficient, necessitating virtualization. As the window contents that DWM composes into the final desktop are generated by different processes, cross-process surface sharing is necessary. Also, because there can be other DirectX applications running alongside DWM on the DWM-managed desktop, they must be able to access the GPU in a shared manner, necessitating scheduling.\nThough this is true for Microsoft's implementation of a composited desktop under Windows Vista, on the other hand, a composited desktop need not", "3D graphics to fit the up-close display. The requirements for latency are also higher to reduce the potential for virtual reality sickness. Multi-monitor setup Many games can run multi-monitor setups to achieve very high display resolutions. Running games that way can create a better immersion, e.g. when playing a video racing game or flight simulator or give a tactical advantage due to the higher resolution. Augmented/Mixed reality graphics Augmented or mixed reality game graphics use images that partial overlay the image of reality seen through partial transparent glasses or captured with a camera and seen with a head-mounted display or", "compare and swap operation, or equivalent). As the downside, software implementations usually come with a performance penalty, when compared to hardware solutions. Hardware acceleration can reduce some of the overheads associated with software transactional memory.\nOwing to the more limited nature of hardware transactional memory (in current implementations), software using it may require fairly extensive tuning to fully benefit from it. For example, the dynamic memory allocator may have a significant influence on performance and likewise structure padding may affect performance (owing to cache alignment and false sharing issues); in the context of a virtual machine, various background threads may", "when it is brought to the foreground. This problem is commonly seen on Windows XP and earlier, as well as some X window managers.\nAnother serious limitation that affects almost all stacking window managers is that they are often severely limited in the degree to which the interface can be accelerated by a graphics processing unit (GPU), and very little can be done about this. Avoiding limitations Some technological advances have been able to reduce or remove some of the disadvantages of stacking. One possible solution to the limited availability of hardware acceleration is to treat a single foreground window as", "be used to enhance the quality of the graphics, and Away3D supports bloom, blur, depth of field and motion blur.\nAway3D 4 and onwards fully supports GPU-accelerated graphics using the Stage3D API introduced in Flash Player 11, freeing up the CPU for other computational tasks. Since GPUs are capable of rendering many more textured triangles per second, it allows for much more detail and quality, and up to 100,000 triangles per frame instead of the typical 1,000 ceiling with CPU-based Flash rendering.\nAway Physics is a physics engine based on the Bullet physics library, for collision detection, soft and rigid body dynamics." ]

[ "I'm no expert on Constitutional Law, but where did you hear that the US income tax has no basis in law and is unconstitutional? The entire purpose of the [16th amendment](_URL_0_) was to make the income tax permanent. It was ratified almost a century ago.\n\nPeople aren't tricked into paying it for no reason, you can go to jail for tax evasion.\n\nYour income tax is not necessarily deducted from your paycheck, it depends on your withholding allowance.", "The \"don't have to pay taxes\" thing is a myth, perpetuated by people who want to sell you a book on how not to pay your taxes.\n\nPeople who follow their advice, and often the authors themselves, can face serious consequences, including jail time.", "The wiki article _URL_1_ describes all the wacky ideas people get that taxes aren't legal. Summary of article: your taxes are legal, and courts take a dim view of you trying to avoid them.\n\nIf you don't pay your taxes, the IRS levies a fine against you and starts charging you interest on the tax you haven't paid, just like if you don't pay your credit card. The difference is if you don't pay enough for your credit card, it can get cancelled, but if you don't pay your taxes, you can go to jail.\n\nIncome tax can be and frequently is deducted from your paycheck per the data on your W-4, but it doesn't have to be - you can set it up so you pay quarterly yourself instead, but that's a pain to keep track of.", "It is not illegal to not pay taxes. It is illegal not to file. Having said that the IRS will get their money if you owe it unless you live underground." ]

[ "concluded that the income tax laws could not constitutionally require him to pay a tax.\nThe Court continued:\nWe do not believe that Congress contemplated that such a taxpayer, without risking criminal prosecution, could ignore the duties imposed upon him by the Internal Revenue Code and refuse to utilize the mechanisms provided by Congress to present his claims of invalidity to the courts and to abide by their decisions. There is no doubt that Cheek, from year to year, was free to pay the tax that the law purported to require, file for a refund and, if denied, present his claims of", "and compliance difficulties The Internal Revenue Code provides for a foreign earned income exclusion allowing non-resident U.S. tax filers to exclude wage income up to a certain threshold ($99,400 for the 2013 tax filing season) from U.S. taxation, as well as credits for taxes paid to other countries. The result is that accidental Americans often do not owe U.S. income tax, but must spend thousands of dollars in accounting fees to prove that fact, and face potential fines of tens of thousands of dollars for paperwork errors. The reason is that the foreign earned income exclusion does not affect filing", "25%.\nIn cases where a taxpayer does not have enough money to pay the entire tax bill, the IRS can work out a payment plan with taxpayers, or enter into a collection alternative such as a partial payment Installment Agreement, an Offer in Compromise, placement into hardship or \"currently non-collectable\" status or file bankruptcy.\nFor years for which no return has been filed, there is no statute of limitations on civil actions – that is, on how long the IRS can seek taxpayers and demand payment of taxes owed.\nFor each year a taxpayer willfully fails to timely file an income tax return,", "to an income tax return (Form 1120S) for an S corporation. 100% penalty on unpaid withholding taxes Employers are required to withhold income and social security taxes from wages paid to employees, and to pay these amounts promptly to the government. A penalty of 100% of the amount not paid over (plus liability for paying the withheld amounts) may be collected without judicial proceedings from each and every person who had custody and control of the funds and did not make the payment to the government. This applies to company employees and officers as individuals, as well as", "If the amount of taxes due at the time of filing is $1,000 or greater, penalty fees and interest charges are assessed in addition to the tax owed.\nIncome taxes are filed annually by the payer, and must be filed by April 15, or the next business day if the 15th falls on a weekend. Failure to file taxes is a criminal offense. Overpayment of taxes will result in the state issuing a refund of the overpaid amount, or the overpayment can be held as a credit for the next taxing period. In 2008 the personal income tax revenue for the", "income taxes appear mandatory. The government succeeded in doing this by tricking the public. Other arguments Some tax protesters argue that an income tax is enforced upon threat of imprisonment, and is akin to \"government sanctioned extortion\", in which a citizen is forced to give up a percentage of his or her income in exchange for not being put in prison. Strictly speaking, a genuine inability to pay taxes is not a crime (although \"willful failure\" to pay taxes is a crime). For the most part, unpaid tax bills are settled through civil actions rather than in the criminal courts.", "penalty for not filing a tax return by April 15 that depends on whether the individual got a filing extension and the amount of unpaid taxes. However, since the maximum penalty is 25% of unpaid taxes, if an individual has paid all their taxes, there is no penalty for not filing.\nIn addition to making sure that one pays one's taxes for the year by Tax Day, it is also important to make sure that one has paid partial taxes throughout the tax year in the form of estimated tax payments of employer tax withholding. If one has not done so,", "this will rise to a minimum of $695 ($2,085 for families), or 2.5% of income over the filing minimum, by 2016. Individuals who aren't covered will be assessed the penalty on their Federal tax return. In the wording of the law, a taxpayer who fails to pay the penalty \"shall not be subject to any criminal prosecution or penalty\" and cannot have liens or levies placed on their property, but the IRS will be able to withhold future tax refunds from them. Provisions of the bill The Suspending the Individual Mandate Penalty Law Equals Fairness Act or the SIMPLE Fairness", "US, withholding by employers of tax on wages is required by the federal, most state, and some local governments. Taxes withheld include federal income tax, Social Security and Medicare taxes, state income tax, and certain other levies by a few states.\nIncome tax withheld on wages is based on the amount of wages less an amount for declared withholding allowances (often called exemptions). Withholding for allowances are calculated based on the assumption of a full year of wages. Amounts of tax withheld are determined by the employer. Tax rates and withholding tables apply separately at the federal, most state, and some", "tax system via IRS Form 8854. Exiting high net worth and high income individuals may owe an expatriation tax. However, if they continue to receive income from any U.S. sources, they will still be liable for U.S. taxes, often on a tax withholding basis and sometimes with less favorable tax rates (such as dividend tax rates). U.S. states and municipalities with their own tax systems sometimes have different exit rules.\nU.S. persons living abroad are often entitled to substantial U.S. tax relief principally through the foreign earned income exclusion, foreign housing exclusion, and/or foreign tax credit (claimed via IRS Forms 2555", "as a direct tax on the source of income, and several others.\nAnother protester argument is that the U.S. Constitution authorizes the income tax only on income derived from activities that are government-licensed or otherwise specially protected. The courts have rejected this theory, ruling that \"Congress has taxed compensation for services, without any regard for whether that compensation is derived from government-licensed or specially protected activities, … and this has been construed to cover earnings from labor.\"\nRobert L. Schulz and his We the People Foundation take the positions that the government \"is clearly prohibited from doing what it is doing –", "taxing the salaries, wages and compensation of the working men and women of this country and forcing the business entities that utilize the labor of ordinary American citizens to withhold and turn over to the IRS a part of the earnings of those workers\" and \"that the federal government DOES NOT possess ANY legal authority –statutory or Constitutional– to tax the wages or salaries of American workers.\"\nSimilarly, tax protester Tom Cryer, who was acquitted of willful failure to file U.S. Federal income tax returns in a timely fashion, argued that \"the law does not tax [a person's] wages\", and that", "to the wrongdoer. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in James v. United States that the receipt of money obtained through embezzlement is taxable as income to the wrongdoer, even though the wrongdoer is required to return the money to its owner.\nThe argument that a person's income is not taxed when the person rejects or renounces United States citizenship because the person claims to be a citizen exclusively of a state, and variations of this argument, have been officially identified as legally frivolous federal tax return positions for purposes of the $5,000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code", "certain students, certain religious objectors, and certain state/local government employees who participate in a state/local pension). Federal self-employment taxes are imposed on nearly every American with net income from self-employment above $400 (again with exceptions for certain religious objectors). So almost all Americans with some earned income do pay some federal taxes. However, the US also allows earned income tax credits to certain individuals, which can lower their income taxes below zero. When these refundable tax credits equal or exceed other federal taxes, the individual is said to pay \"no net federal taxes.\"\nAs of 2006, according", "that Trump incurred a $916 million net operating loss which, for Federal income tax purposes, could have prevented Trump from owing any Federal income taxes for up to 18 years. Marc Kasowitz of Kasowitz, Benson, Torres & Friedman wrote to the Times stating, according to one report, that \"the publication of Trump's tax records was illegal because Trump had not authorized their disclosure ... [and] threatening 'prompt initiation of appropriate legal action.'\"\nTrump claimed on his tax returns that he lost money, but did not recognize it in the form of canceled debts. Trump might have performed a stock-for-debt swap. This", "forms when participants earn less than $20,000 and have fewer than 200 transactions, results in significant unreported income. A recent survey found that the amount of unreported income for 2016 in the United States numbered at US $214.6 billion, with one in four Americans not reporting the money made on side-jobs.\nThe typical tax evader in the United States is a male under the age of 50 in the highest tax bracket and with a complicated return, and the most common means of tax evasion is overstatement of charitable contributions, particularly church donations. Foreign tax havens Jurisdictions which allow for limiting", "employee's salary is withheld for tax purposes.\nEach year, the IRS issues tax refunds to tens of millions of Americans. In 2011 alone, the IRS issued refunds to more than 100 million Americans. That means three out of four returns filed for 2011 called for money back. All told, the government sent about $318 billion to taxpayers, with the average refund being around $2,900. Claiming allowances on the W-4 and updating it frequently effectively lets the taxpayer claim refunds ahead of time, by not overpaying in the first place. Over-withholding can occur if, for example, an employee receives a one-time bonus,", "Foreign earned income exclusion The United States taxes citizens and residents on their worldwide income. Citizens and residents living and working outside the U.S. may be entitled to a foreign earned income exclusion that reduces taxable income. For 2019, the maximum exclusion is $105,900 per taxpayer (future years indexed for inflation). In addition, the taxpayer may exclude housing expenses in excess of 16% of this maximum ($46.42 per day in 2019) but with limits.\nThe exclusion is available only for wages or self-employment income earned for services performed outside the U.S. The exclusion is claimed on IRS Form 2555.", "tax for 2005. That is, 32.58% of those Americans who filed income tax returns did not owe any federal income tax at all for 2005. This percentage increased substantially in 2008, and for 2009 was 47%.\nThe federal income tax is only one of several taxes Americans pay. Americans who pay zero federal income taxes do pay other taxes, such as payroll taxes (a.k.a. FICA), excise taxes, sales taxes, tariffs, gift taxes, unemployment taxes, state income taxes, property taxes, and self-employment taxes.\nFederal payroll taxes are imposed on nearly every American with income from employment (there are exceptions for", "large exclusions. However, the Panel reported that with an individual and corporate income tax replacement (excluding other taxes) and rebate system, the overall tax burden on middle-income Americans would increase while the tax burden on the very rich would drop. According to the report, the percent of federal taxes paid by those earning from $15–$50,000 would rise from 3.6% to 6.7%, while the burden on those earning more than $200,000 would fall from 53.5% to 45.9%. The report states, \"Families with the top 10 percent of cash incomes would benefit substantially from the retail sales tax. Their tax burden", "has told the press his tax rate was none of their business, and that he tries to pay \"as little tax as possible\".\nIn October 2016, portions of Trump's state filings for 1995 were leaked to a reporter from The New York Times. They show that Trump declared a loss of $916 million that year, which could have let him avoid taxes for up to 18 years. During the second presidential debate, Trump acknowledged using the deduction, but declined to provide details such as the specific years it was applied.\nOn March 14, 2017, the first two pages of Trump's 2005 federal income", "would have allowed Trump to avoid paying income taxes for at least 18 years. An audit of Trump's tax returns for 2002 through 2008 was \"closed administratively by agreement with the I.R.S. without assessment or payment, on a net basis, of any deficiency.\" Tax attorneys believe the government may have reduced what Trump was able to claim as a loss without requiring him to pay any additional taxes. It is unknown whether the I.R.S. challenged Trump's use of the swaps because he has not released his tax returns. Trump's lawyers advised against Trump using the equity for debt swap, as", "and the poor. Examples include the earned income tax credit, child tax credits, unemployment insurance, food stamps, subsidized school meals, low-income housing assistance, energy assistance and more. The federal government spends its money in four major ways: direct payments, grants, contracts and insurance. Tax avoidance and tax evasion Taxpayer may violate the law by not paying the taxes. It is called the tax evasion, it is an illegal practice where a person, organization or corporation intentionally avoids paying his true tax liability. Those caught evading taxes are generally subject to criminal charges and substantial penalties. It's considered tax evasion if", "withheld must be paid to the taxing jurisdiction, and are available as refundable tax credits to the employees. Income taxes withheld from payroll are not final taxes, merely prepayments. Employees must still file income tax returns and self assess tax, claiming amounts withheld as payments. Social Security and Medicare taxes Federal social insurance taxes are imposed on employers and employees, ordinarily consisting of a tax of 12.4% of wages up to an annual wage maximum ($118,500 in wages, for a maximum contribution of $14,694 in 2016) for Social Security and a tax of 2.9% (half imposed on employer", "the federal government cannot tax \"[m]oney that you earned [and] paid for with your labor and industry\" because \"the Constitution does not allow the federal government to tax those earnings\" (referring to \"wages, salaries and fees that [a person] earn[s] for [himself]\").\nArguments about the taxability of compensation for personal services, whether called wages, salary, or some other term, may be either constitutional arguments as in United States v. Connor (see below) or statutory arguments as in Cheek v. United States, depending on the details of the argument. For purposes of presentation, these arguments are summarized here rather than in", "outside the United States. U.S. citizens therefore cannot avoid U.S. taxes simply by emigrating from the U.S. According to Forbes magazine some citizens choose to give up their United States citizenship rather than be subject to the U.S. tax system; but U.S. citizens who reside (or spend long periods of time) outside the U.S. may be able to exclude some salaried income earned overseas (but not other types of income unless specified in a bilateral tax treaty) from income in computing the U.S. federal income tax. The 2015 limit on the amount that can be excluded is US$100,800. In addition,", "that the Sixteenth Amendment \"did not change the constitutional limitations which forbid any direct taxation of individuals.\" The text of the Court's decision does not contain any such quotation. No U.S. Federal court has ever ruled that any provision of the United States Constitution forbids any direct taxation of individuals. Benson apparently removed the material after a court order was issued regarding his materials.\nUntil January 2008, Benson's web site also stated: \"After serving time in federal prison for not paying his United States income taxes, Bill Benson still does not pay income taxes and yet our federal government chooses not", "a tax refund after the IRS has denied the refund claim, or 6 months have elapsed (120 days in bankruptcy cases) since the filing of the claim, whichever is earlier.\nFor the exception allowing litigation without first paying the tax in bankruptcy cases, see 11 U.S.C. § 505. For income taxes and certain other taxes, the taxpayer may also litigate the tax in the United States Tax Court prior to assessment without first paying the tax. Impact In the case of National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, in which the constitutionality of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was at issue,", "hard to pay as little tax as possible\". However, Trump has in 2015 criticized corporate executives and \"hedge fund guys\" for paying zero or negligible taxes. He also alleged in 2011 and 2012 that half of all Americans do not pay income taxes, stating: \"it's a problem\", while noting \"crippling\" government debt. Trump also in 2012 criticized President Barack Obama for \"only\" paying a tax rate of around 20%.\nTrump announced his candidacy for President in June 2015.\nIn January 2016, Trump was asked by Chuck Todd if he would release his tax returns. Trump answered: \"we'll be working that over in", "of income taxes from the plaintiff, (b) even if the plaintiff would owe no federal income taxes because of possible deductions for depreciation of plant and equipment, the plaintiff would still be liable for federal social security and unemployment taxes, which taxes were also contemplated by the Anti-Injunction Act, and (c) in any event, the plaintiff sought to restrain the collection of taxes from its donors by forcing the Internal Revenue Service to continue to provide advance assurance that contributions to the plaintiff would be tax-deductible, thereby reducing the donors' tax liability, which aspect was also covered by the Anti-Injunction" ]

[ "Your banks routing number and your account number as well as your name exactly as it is written on your account are all printed on the check. That is the information they need to set up direct deposit. With the check they can be sure there are no mistakes." ]

[ "check deception statute states that it is a defense if the person issuing the check \"pays the payee or holder the amount due, together with protest fees and any service fee or charge, ... within ten (10) days after the date of mailing by the payee or holder of notice to the person that the check, draft, or order has not been paid by the credit institution.\" Furthermore, it is not a crime if \"the payee or holder knows that the person has insufficient funds to ensure payment or that the check, draft, or order is postdated\", or \"insufficiency of", "are denied checking accounts because a bank can not afford an account to be overdrawn.\nIn the United Kingdom, in common with other items such as Direct Debits or standing orders, dishonoured cheques can be reported on a customer's credit file, although not individually and this does not happen universally amongst banks. Dishonoured payments from current accounts can be marked in the same manner as missed payments on the customer's credit report. Lock box Typically when customers pay bills with cheques (like gas or water bills), the mail will go to a \"lock box\" at the post office. There a bank", "the consumer’s personal information can be verified instantly. Merchants that opt to accept electronic checks enjoy convenient processing that reaches a large number of consumers that do not own credit cards or do not wish to use credit cards to make payments. Electronic checks are known to have long clearing times of up to five business days and carry an inherent risk of charge-backs. Checks that have been verified may come back after the clearing time as “insufficient funds”, meaning that the consumer does not have sufficient funds in their account to pay the balance of the transaction.\nPhone payments", "an American checking account is that they earn considerable interest, sometimes comparable to a savings account, and there is generally no charge for withdrawals at cashpoints (ATMs), other than charges by third party owners of such machines. Branch access Customers may need to attend a bank branch for a wide range of banking transactions including cash withdrawals and financial advice. There may be restrictions on cash withdrawals, even at a branch. For example, withdrawals of cash above a threshold figure may require notice.\nMany transactions that previously could only be performed at a branch can now be done in others ways,", "another institution, as is often the case with credit unions, are teller's checks.\nDue to an increase in fraudulent activities, starting in 2006 many banks insist upon waiting for a cashier's check to clear the originating institution before making funds available for withdrawal. Personal checks will thus have the same utility in such transactions. Legal definition In the United States, under Article 3 of the Uniform Commercial Code, a cashier's check is effective as a note of the issuing bank. Also, according to Regulation CC (Reg CC) of the Federal Reserve, cashier's checks are recognized as \"guaranteed funds\" and amounts under", "first account. The purpose of check kiting is to falsely inflate the balance of a checking account in order to allow written checks to clear that would otherwise bounce. If the account is not planned to be replenished, then the fraud is colloquially known as paper hanging. If writing a check with insufficient funds is done with the expectation they will be covered by payday – in effect a payday loan – it is called playing the float.\nSome forms of check fraud involve the use of a second bank or a third party, often a place of retail, in order to delay", "register short for the next user and throw the blame onto them)\nAnother method is to create a false vendor account and supply false bills to the company being embezzled so that the checks that are cut appear completely legitimate. Yet another method is to create phantom employees, who are then paid with payroll checks.\nThe latter two methods should be uncovered by routine audits, but often aren't if the audit is not sufficiently in-depth, because the paperwork appears to be in order. A publicly traded company must change auditors and audit companies every five years. The first method is easier to", "elimination of the paper checks from the clearing process saves the banking and treasury management industries handling, sorting, transporting, storing, safeguarding, and mailing costs. After the financial institution truncates the original paper check and reconverts it to a substitute check, the financial institution can store or archive the paper check, return the paper check to its own customer according to state law, or later destroy the paper check. Return process for dishonored checks If a substitute check must be returned unpaid because of insufficient funds (a dishonored or bounced check), the paying bank (Bank 2) stamps the item NSF (non-sufficient funds)", "(personal) checks, commercial (business) checks, money orders, traveler's checks, cash advance or convenience checks tied to credit and charge card accounts, controlled disbursement checks, and payable through drafts, in addition to government warrants and U.S. Treasury checks. The Check 21 Act permits any financial institution (such as a commercial bank or credit union) that participates in the check collection process to remove or truncate the original paper check from the forward collection or return process and reconvert the paper check to a substitute check without first requiring an existing agreement between the bank of first deposit (BOFD) and the \"paying bank.\"\nThe", "checks can be cashed and cleared electronically, it is theoretically possible for a bank to take the money out of a checking account on the same day a check is used in payment. This would make checks behave much like debit cards, making it impossible, for example, to write a check to pay a bill at the grocery store, then rush to the bank to make a deposit so the check doesn't bounce. So far, all banks in the United States still operate with at least a one-day float period. Use Remote deposit use has grown. A June 2009 survey", "bank's head office does the branch-wise reconciliation, which normally take six months, by which time the money is gone. Remotely created check fraud Remotely created checks are orders of payment created by the payee and authorized by the customer remotely, using a telephone or the internet by providing the required information including the MICR code from a valid check. They do not bear the signatures of the customers like ordinary cheques. Instead, they bear a legend statement \"Authorized by Drawer\". This type of instrument is usually used by credit card companies, utility companies, or telemarketers. The lack of signature makes", "in the United States, background checks for job applicants are subject to the Fair Credit Reporting Act (2003). If an adverse assessment is found in an employment screen, the applicant has the right to dispute the report. Negligent retention, supervision, and training Negligent retention occurs where a party failed to remove an employee from a position of authority or responsibility after it became apparent that the employee was in fact misusing that authority or responsibility in a way that posed a danger to others.\nNegligent supervision is closely related, as it occurs where a party fails to reasonably monitor or control", "if the bank employee believes the transaction to be suspicious or fraudulent, commonly called a SAR, or Suspicious Activity Referral. A customer is not directly told about the $10,000 threshold unless they initiate the inquiry. A customer may decline to continue the transaction upon being informed about the CTR, but this would require the bank employee to file a SAR. Once a customer presents or asks to withdraw more than $10,000 in currency, the decision to continue the transaction must continue as originally requested and may not be reduced to avoid the filing of a CTR. For instance, if a", "date of the check. According to the Comptroller of the Currency: \"A check is a negotiable instrument—the payee, the person to whom the check is written, may negotiate it through the banking system at any time\" and check writers seeking redress must restrict themselves to pursuing the payee.\nNonetheless, if \"the customer has given notice to the bank of the postdating describing the check with reasonable certainty\" the Uniform Commercial Code requires that the notice to be honored. In practice, whether the check writer has any redress against the financial institution where the payee deposited the check may depend on whether", "the absence of funds in a transactional account on the day the check is due to clear at the bank. Such acts are frequently committed by bankrupt or temporarily unemployed individuals or small businesses seeking emergency loans, by start-up businesses or other struggling businesses seeking interest-free financing while intending to make good on their balances, or by pathological gamblers who have the expectation of depositing funds upon winning. It has also been used by those who have some genuine funds in interest-bearing accounts, but who artificially inflate their balances in order to increase the interest paid by their banks.", "and cashier's checks have been used in certain scams to steal from those who sell their goods online on sites such as eBay and Craigslist.\nThe counterfeit cashier's check scam is a scheme wherein the victim is sent a cashier's check or money order for payment on an item for sale on the Internet. When the money order is taken to the bank it may not be detected as counterfeit for 10 business days or more, but the bank will deposit the money into the account and state that it has been \"verified\" or is \"clear\" in about 24 hours. This", "process through the United States Federal Reserve System or by clearing the deposit based on a private agreement between member financial institutions of a clearinghouse that operates under the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC).\nSubstitute checks are recognized as legal checks as long as the instruments meet specific requirements. These requirements include the faithful reproduction of the paper check and warranty of the instrument by the \"reconverting bank\"—the financial institution that created the substitute check or the first financial institution that transferred or presented it during the check clearing process. Substitute checks are also subject to the UCC, existing federal and state", "the bank typically records this event by debiting an asset account on the bank's books (called loans receivable or some similar name) and credits the deposit liability or checking account of the customer on the bank's books. From an economic standpoint, the bank has essentially created economic money (although not legal tender). The customer's checking account balance has no dollar bills in it, as a demand deposit account is simply a liability owed by the bank to its customer. In this way, commercial banks are allowed to increase the money supply (without printing currency, or legal tender). Regulations Banking operates", "a courier to take their checks to the bank. Another potential benefit is that it cuts down on paperwork, and therefore reduces the chances of making mistakes or losing checks in the process of depositing them. Bounced checks also show up faster when processed through remote deposit.\nCritics, and some advocates, contend that remote deposit — and by extension, the entire Check 21 Act — is an attempt by the banking industry to eliminate \"float,\" the standard one- or two-day waiting period between the time someone writes a check and the time the money is actually taken out of their account. Now that", "paper statements, and having at least one monthly electronic deposit is required for the high rate checking option. Consumer loans include mortgages, home equity, vehicle, student, and personal loans. Alliant also offers investment services and insurance. Account access Alliant's services include Alliant online banking, free bill pay, mobile deposit, ATM deposit, eDeposit, and eDepositPlus. eDeposit gives qualified Alliant members the ability to make deposits online before mailing the actual checks in special eDeposit envelopes to the credit union. eDepositPlus allows members to remotely deposit checks using a home scanner.\nCurrently, Alliant has a 24/7 member contact center, 14 service centers, and", "month by some financial institutions. In cases where checks are stolen from a victim's mailbox, they can be used at a point of sales location thereby leaving the victim responsible for the losses. They are one path at times used by fraudsters. Unexpected repeat billing When a cardholder buys something from a vendor and expects the card to be charged only once, a vendor may charge the card a small amount multiple times at infrequent intervals such as monthly or annually until the card expires. The vendor may state in the fine print that the customer is now", "and settlement of multiple or individual customer transactions within the bank, usually on the same day. Such accounts can lead to the concealment by financial institutions transactions made by customers, however section 325 bans their use for such purposes by prohibiting financial institutions from allowing clients to direct transactions that move their funds into, out of, or through the concentration accounts of the financial institution. Financial institutions are also prohibited from informing clients about the existence of such accounts and disallows any disclosure that may give customer a way of identifying such accounts that the financial institution may use. The", "a former prisoner, but also might face a negligent hiring lawsuit if they hire an ex-prisoner who goes on to reoffend at the job. In addition, some businesses, especially smaller ones, feel that ban the box forces them to waste time and money interviewing candidates they will not hire. If a company ends up not hiring a person after doing a background check late in the process, they may have already lost qualified applicants without criminal records, who have lost interest in the job or have found another job. Some people have even argued that ban the box laws cause", "Substitute checks in the United States A substitute check (also called an Image Replacement Document or IRD) is a negotiable instrument used to represent the digital reproduction of an original paper check. In the United States, as a negotiable payment instrument, a substitute check maintains the status of a \"legal check\" in lieu of the original paper check as authorized by the Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act (also known as the Check 21 Act). Instead of presenting the original paper checks, financial institutions and payment processing centers electronically transmit data from a substitute check by either the settlement", "checking account at the same financial institution can help prevent fees due to overdrafts and reduce banking costs.", "checks to electronic images, and the paper checks are shredded and the electronic checks are sent electronically to the originating bank. Online bill-payment services Many online electronic bill-pay services are not 100 percent online. The payee might not be set up to accept electronic payments, so the bill-pay service will print out large numbers of paper checks and then mail them to the lockbox, where they will be processed alongside all the other paper checks. Offshoring Transferring data from paper to electronic format involves labor-intensive data entry work. This has prompted a movement to \"offshore\" the data entry of the", "Fee\" for each item cleared after the regulation has been exceeded, and converts the account to a checking account if the activity persists.\nThe regulation was amended in 2009 to allow greater freedom for the depositor: beforehand, the limit was six withdrawals per month if the funds remained within the same institution (e.g., transfer to checking), but was only three drafts where the funds left the institution (e.g., check, ACH Network, or card based purchase).", "presentation by the payee. This rule also generally applies where the check is not presented to the bank until the next taxable year, and even though the payer could stop payment on the check in the meantime. Postdated checks, however, are not considered payment when delivered. Generally, payments by credit card take effect at the point of the sale and not when a payer is billed by the credit card company or when the payer pays the credit card company's bill. A business that reports on an accrual basis, would report income in the year of sale though", "open balances can be collected and processed before services are offered. Eligibility checking can also be offered automatically through services like eligibilityapi.com for small transactional fees. Another common function during check-in is for patient's to verify their insurance and address info that is on file. Changes can be made and verified by the patient rather than staff eliminating common mistakes from typos that ultimately lead to inaccurate data. \nIn addition to verifying data, focusing on patient safety and infection control can also be managed by asking simple questions like, “Are you a fall risk?” and “Do you", "that the letter from the merchant is someone who has authority to ensure that the charge will not settle, they require the hold to remain according to their bank policies. Holds for differing amounts Another issue that occurs on a regular basis with authorization holds is the transaction amount changing between the time the hold is placed on the account and when the transaction is settled. It most commonly occurs when the final debit amount is uncertain when the authorization is actually obtained.\nFor example, if an individual makes a fuel purchase by swiping a check card or credit card at" ]

[ "How often do you polish the inside of your oven? I suspect a big reason would be just to keep the interior from quickly looking horrible.", "The inside walls of an oven are at the same temperature as the interior of the oven (usually hotter, actually). So any heat they do absorb is just going to be re-emitted back into the oven, even if they are not shiny.\n\nMuch of the heat to the interior actually comes from the inside walls in the first place. Most ovens have the heating element heat the floor of the oven (not heating the interior air directly). The floor conducts that heat to the walls, and then the floor and walls radiate that heat into the interior cavity. If the walls where shiny, they would not radiate as well. That is one of the symmetries in physics. If you reflect a wavelength when it hits your surface rather than absorbing it, then you also \"internally reflect\" that wavelength rather than emitting it.\n\nYou could probably come up with a coating that is shiny in the visible range, but \"black\" in the IR range. But 1) why bother? and 2) the insides of ovens are dirty, why would you want to make that more obvious than it already is?", "Modern ovens heat via convection aided via a small fan somewhere in the oven. Radiation from the walls and heating elements and reflection from the walls. But a oven also has to be designed to withstand normal use, and it's heating cycles. Protect the surrounding cabinetry from the heat and any cleaning chemicals that may be used.\n\nThere might be materials that do one or two jobs better at a certain price point. This would be a good question for a materials engineer" ]

[ "surface mirror such as a household mirror is often actual silver the \"silvering\" on precision optical instruments such as telescopes is usually aluminum. Even though silver has the best initial front-surface reflectivity in the visible spectrum it is unsuitable for optical mirrors because it quickly oxidizes and absorbs atmospheric sulfur to create a dark, low-reflectivity tarnish. Although aluminum also oxidizes quickly, the thin aluminum oxide (sapphire) layer is transparent, and so the high-reflectivity underlying aluminum stays visible.\nThe \"silvering\" on infrared instruments is usually gold. It has the best reflectivity in the infrared spectrum, and has high resistance to oxidation and", "air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.\nThe effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against", "and in self-cleaning ovens (where cerium(IV) oxide in the walls of such ovens helps oxidise carbon-based cooking residues). In soap chemistry, heavy metals form insoluble soaps that are used in lubricating greases, paint dryers, and fungicides (apart from lithium, the alkali metals and the ammonium ion form soluble soaps). Colouring and optics The colours of glass, ceramic glazes, paints, pigments, and plastics are commonly produced by the inclusion of heavy metals (or their compounds) such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, selenium, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium. Tattoo inks may contain heavy", "metal (usually aluminium). The result is a mirrored surface that reflects some light and is penetrated by the rest. Light always passes equally in both directions. However, when one side is brightly lit and the other kept dark, the darker side becomes difficult to see from the brightly lit side because it is masked by the much brighter reflection of the lit side.", "Reflector oven A reflector oven (sometimes known in older cooking literature as a tin kitchen), is a polished metal container, often made of tin. It is designed to enclose an article of food on all but one side, to cause it to bake by capturing radiant heat from an open fire, and reflecting the heat towards the food, avoiding smoke flavoring the food. In its simplest form, a reflector oven is simply a box or collar that partially surrounds the food, with an open side that faces the heat source, which is generally either a hearth fire or a", "is black when hot and turns to dark wine red on cooling.\nIt is also possible to make a bright seal between copper and glass where it is possible to see the blank copper surface through the glass, but this gives less adherence than the seal with the red Cu\n₂O containing layer. If glass is melted on\ncopper in a reducing hydrogen atmosphere the seal is extremely weak. If copper is to be heated in hydrogen-containing atmosphere e.g. a gas flame it\nneeds to be oxygen-free to prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Copper which is meant to be used as an electrical conductor is not", "placing it in a vacuum chamber with electrically heated tungsten or nichrome coils that can evaporate aluminum. In a vacuum, the hot aluminum atoms travel in straight lines. When they hit the surface of the mirror, they cool and stick. Some mirror coating shops then evaporate a layer of quartz onto the mirror, whereas others expose it to pure oxygen or air in an oven so that the mirror will form a tough, clear layer of aluminum oxide. Telescope design The telescopes amateur telescope makers build range from backyard variety to sophisticated instruments that make meaningful contributions to the field", "Perplexed as to how solid metal could be transparent, Shen guessed that some sort of quenching technique was used to produce tiny wrinkles on the face of the mirror too small to be observed by the eye. Although his explanation of different cooling rates was incorrect, he was right to suggest the surface contained minute variations which the naked eye could not detect; these mirrors also had no transparent quality at all, as discovered by William Bragg in 1932 (after an entire century of their confounding Western scientists).\nRobert Temple describes their construction: \"The basic mirror shape, with the design on", "reflectometer and for a particular metal it will be different for different wavelengths of light. This is exploited in some optical work to make cold mirrors and hot mirrors. A cold mirror is made by using a transparent substrate and choosing a coating material that is more reflective to visible light and more transmissive to infrared light.\nA hot mirror is the opposite, the coating preferentially reflects infrared. Mirror surfaces are sometimes given thin film overcoatings both to retard degradation of the surface and to increase their reflectivity in parts of the spectrum where they will be used. For instance, aluminum", "the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are available. Art and decoration Heavier foils made of aluminium are used for art, decoration, and crafts, especially in bright metallic colours. Metallic aluminium, normally silvery in colour, can be made to take on other colours through anodisation. Anodising creates an oxide layer on the aluminium surface that can accept coloured dyes or metallic salts, depending on the process used. In this way, aluminium is used to create an", "they are transparent in the visible, but good mirrors in the IR.\nFor silver the limiting frequency is in the far UV, but for copper and gold it is closer to the visible. This explains the colors of these two metals. At the surface of a metal resonance effects known as surface plasmons can result. They are collective oscillations of the conduction electrons like a ripple in the electronic ocean. However, even if photons have enough energy they usually do not have enough momentum to set the ripple in motion. Therefore, plasmons are hard to excite on a bulk metal. This", "Iridium Physical properties A member of the platinum group metals, iridium is white, resembling platinum, but with a slight yellowish cast. Because of its hardness, brittleness, and very high melting point, solid iridium is difficult to machine, form, or work; thus powder metallurgy is commonly employed instead. It is the only metal to maintain good mechanical properties in air at temperatures above 1,600 °C (2,910 °F). It has the 10th highest boiling point among all elements and becomes a superconductor at temperatures below 0.14 K.\nIridium's modulus of elasticity is the second-highest among the metals, only being surpassed by osmium. This, together with a", " These particles stick to the hot glass surface changing its color with interesting effects. Silver turns clear glass into a yellowish color, giving shades of blues and greens when backed with a dark color, while gold turns clear glass shades of pinks and reds. The precious metal coating becomes increasingly visible the more the glass is fumed. Brief history of modern lampworked beads Lampworked beads (with the exception of Asian and African beadmaking) have generally been the provenance of Italian, and, later, Bohemian lampworkers for the last four hundred years or so who kept the techniques secret.", "Speculum metal Speculum metal is a mixture of around two-thirds copper and one-third tin making a white brittle alloy that can be polished to make a highly reflective surface. It was used historically to make different kinds of mirrors from personal grooming aids to reflecting telescope optical mirrors until it was replaced by more modern materials.\nLarge speculum metal mirrors are hard to manufacture and the alloy is prone to tarnish, requiring frequent re-polishing. However, it was the only practical choice for large mirrors in high-precision optical equipment between mid-17th and mid-19th century, before the invention of glass silvering. Overview Speculum", "deep red to purple sheen. The boron oxide from the borated layer diffuses into glass and lowers its melting point. The oxidation occurs by oxygen diffusing through the molten borate layer and forming copper(I) oxide, while formation of copper(II) oxide is inhibited.\nThe copper-to-glass seal should look brilliant red, almost scarlet; pink, sherry and honey colors are also acceptable. Too thin an oxide layer appears light, up to the color of metallic copper, while too thick oxide looks too dark.\nOxygen-free copper has to be used if the metal comes in contact with hydrogen (e.g. in a hydrogen-filled tube or during handling", "viewed, how it is lit and whether a light or dark background is being reflected in the metal. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver; lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture. The surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal.\nSeveral types of antique photographs, most often ambrotypes and tintypes, but sometimes even old prints on paper, are very commonly misidentified as daguerreotypes, especially if they are in the small, ornamented cases in which daguerreotypes made in the US and UK were usually housed.", "high contrast, such as from the entrance which is dark with pools of light, to the main hall which is brightly lit, to emphasize its size. The dark entrance is also used to adjust the spectators' eyes so the main hall seems brighter. A contrast has also been used between the grandstands' slender lines and the coarse finish of the cavern rock. Red was chosen as the hall's main color because of natural occurrence of red in the rock. Glass tiles are used as they give associations to ice. Ventilation, energy and other installations use shine metal, representing silver embedded", "Red heat The practice of using colours to determine the temperature of a piece of (usually) ferrous metal comes from blacksmithing. Long before thermometers were widely available it was necessary to know what state the metal was in for heat treating it and the only way to do this was to heat it up to a colour which was known to be best for the work.", "by the (glass) substrate on top, and the bottom may be covered with a protective coating, such as a copper layer and varnish.\nDespite the use of aluminum in generic mirrors, aluminum is not always used as the reflective layer for a solar mirror. The use of silver as the reflective layer is claimed to lead to higher efficiency levels, because it is the most reflective metal. This is because of aluminum's reflection factor in the UV region of the spectrum. Locating the aluminum layer on the first surface exposes it to weathering, which reduces the mirror's resistance to", "current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1×10⁶ A/m² of cross-sectional area, above which it begins to heat excessively.\nCopper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells corresponds to orange light.\nAs with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. Chemical Copper does not react", "firing, so that the added colour blends gradually into the background colour around the edges of the tinted area. This is especially used on \"flux\", or colourless enamel, as in the ground areas, rocks and trees. Flux was also used for flesh areas as on a gold background it darkens slightly when fired to a suitable colour for skin. The rouge clair or \"ruby glass\" red, used so effectively here, was made by adding tiny particles of copper, silver and gold to the glass; here scientific tests have shown that copper was used. After firing the enamel was polished flush", "in 1912, resulted from a similar problem in incandescent light bulbs in which the filament would slowly sublimate when heated in a vacuum, coating the cooler glass surface. Aluminum was a desirable material for mirrors, but was too dangerous to apply with electroplating. John D. Strong used evaporation coating to make the first aluminum telescope mirrors in the 1930s. The first dielectric mirror was created in 1937 by Auwarter using evaporated rhodium, while the first metallic mirror to be enhanced with a dielectric coating of silicon dioxide was created by Hass the same year. In 1939 at the Schott Glass", "Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process, cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminium. It is also more expensive. Accordingly, cast aluminium cookware has become less common. It is used, for example, to make Dutch ovens lightweight and bundt pans heavy duty, and used in ladles and handles and woks to keep the sides at a lower temperature than the center.\nAnodized aluminium has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for sauté pans,", "can be caused by poor crystallization, which simultaneously decreases the size of reflective crystals and opacifies the surrounding glass with non reflective particles. It can also be caused by partial oxidation of the copper, causing it to redissolve and form its usual transparent blue-green glass in ionic solution.\nWhen reheated for lamp-working and similar uses, the working conditions should control the temperature and oxidation as required for the original batch melt: keep the temperature below the melting point of copper (1084.62 °C) and use an oxygen-poor reducing flame, or risk decomposition into the failure modes described above. Non-copper goldstones Goldstone also", "to infrared light. Hence when light from an ordinary lightbulb is passed through a body of this solution, lots of infrared and only infrared emerges out at the other side. This infrared light can be brought to a focus with a concave mirror (or an optical lens made from rock-salt, but not a lens made from glass because glass is a poor transmitter of infrared). At the point of focus, with a good focusing tool, the infrared beam is strong enough to set paper on fire. If a little piece of non-combustible solid material is placed at the focus, it", "dioxide. The inclusion of this compound makes the glass radioactive.\nOver time, thorium decay causes F-centers to form in the glass, resulting in an amber discoloration. The discoloration can be repaired by exposure to a source of ultraviolet radiation, such as direct sunlight.", "and are transparent, and its low thermal expansion is because they have a spodumene structure.\nThis material (Cer-Vit C 101) was used to form large mirror blanks (158 inches in diameter) that were used in telescopes in several places, including South America, France and Australia. Owens Illinois ceased production of C101 in 1978. In addition, Cer-Vit materials were used to make stove tops, cook ware and aviation applications, but never commercialized.\nToday, glass-ceramic products such as transparent mirror blanks and stove tops, and cookware are manufactured and in daily use. These products include trade names of Zerodor, Hercuvit, and Pyroceram. Most of", "the item.\" Metal hangars, pins, or clips should never be used to display fur objects because the metal can react with the oils in the skin and stain the object, known as verdigris. Exhibitors must be aware of the agents of deterioration. Heat, light, and humidity should be carefully monitored in whatever environment is created for the display of the objects. Fur objects should not be exposed to more light than 5 footcandles - 18 °C. The exhibitor should also plan on rotating pieces during a long exhibition due to fading and physical damage that may", "behind.\nThe problems of making metal-coated, glass mirrors were due to the difficulties in making glass that was very clear, as most ancient glass was tinted green from iron or other colors from various metallic-impurities. Lack of adequate heating temperatures also produced glass that was clouded with microscopic bubbles, so most ancient glass was typically translucent rather than transparent, and used mostly as jewelry until the advent of glass blowing around the first century. These problems were overcome when people began mixing soda, limestone, potash, manganese, and fern ashes with the glass sometime around the 1600s, which lowered the melting temperature", "temperatures in reducing conditions, the metal ions migrated to the outer part of the glaze and were reduced to metals. The end result was a double layer of metal nanoparticles with a small amount of glaze in between them. When the finished pottery was exposed to light, the light would penetrate and reflect off the first layer. The light penetrating the first layer would reflect off the second layer of nanoparticles and cause interference effects with light reflecting off the first layer, creating a luster effect that results from both constructive and destructive interference. Synthesis Various methods have been described" ]

[ "The way microwaves work is through jiggling charged/polar particles in your food (the water primarily). This jiggling increases their temperature and that heats up the rest of your food. That's why you can't heat oil as easily as you can water.\n\nHowever, metals like iron are *great* conductors of electrons. What makes them good conductors is a little complicated but basically, the reason is that they have a soup of electrons moving from atom to atom with almost 0 energy needed to move an electron from one atom to another. \n\nThus when the microwave jiggles these electrons, rather than giving energy to the atom, it gives it to the electron which zips around in the soup. The amount of energy given to the soup can get high enough to bypass the natural insulation of the air and cause electrons to jump from the metal and rip through the air. This is called a spark and is basically what happens during a lightning strike." ]

[ "inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard. Metal objects Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.\nAny object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves is safe, see below), twist-ties", "(such as Starbucks novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.\nThe high electrical fields generated inside a microwave often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device. Direct microwave exposure Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped", "heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.\nAnother hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth", "Microwave chemistry Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions. Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges, such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid. Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions. Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material. Microwave heating in the laboratory began to gain", "added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical hazard if crushed then inhaled or ingested. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC; therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be handled. This is a danger if the microwave oven becomes physically damaged, if the insulator cracks, or when the magnetron is opened and handled, yet not during normal usage.\nThe use of unmarked plastics for microwave cooking raises the issue of plasticizers leaching into the food, or the plastics chemically reacting to microwave energy, with by-products leaching into the food, suggesting that", "Microwave Active Composition Microwave Active Composition is a brand of microwave-sensitive liquid chemicals sold by Atlanta Chemical Engineering LLC. The chemical undergoes color change if it interacts with intensive microwaves. There are two major types of microwave active compositions - reversible and irreversible. The reversible composition is colored liquid and when irradiated with microwaves losses its color. However it has the ability to revert to the original one in a short time after discontinuing the irradiation. The irreversible version of microwave active composition is white (transparent if coated) and transforms itself to colored one when makes contact with microwaves. It", "of microwaves. This reduces attenuation of the propagating wave due to resistive losses affecting the accompanying eddy currents; the skin effect confines such eddy currents to a very thin surface layer of the waveguide structure. The skin effect itself isn't actually combatted in these cases, but the distribution of currents near the conductor's surface makes the use of precious metals (having a lower resistivity) practical. Although it has a lower conductivity than copper and silver, gold plating is also used, because unlike copper and silver, it does not corrode. A thin oxidized layer of copper or silver would have a", "air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.\nThe effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against", "in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal \"fines\", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start", "heat spikes. Especially in pure metals, the final damage production after the heat spike phase can be orders of magnitude smaller than the number of atoms displaced in the spike. On the other hand, in semiconductors and other covalently bonded materials the damage production is usually similar to the number of displaced atoms. Ionic materials can behave like either metals or semiconductors with respect to the fraction of damage recombined. Other consequences Collision cascades in the vicinity of a surface often lead to sputtering, both in the linear spike and heat spike regimes. Heat spikes near surfaces also frequently", "conduct heat and electricity. Across the period, from left to right, increasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes metallic character to decrease.\nNon-metallic property increases across a period and decreases down the group due to the same reason due to increase in nuclear attractive force. Metals are ductile while nonmetals are not.", "the explosive blast, called the arc blast of such a fault, destruction also arises from the intense radiant heat produced by the arc. The metal plasma arc produces tremendous amounts of light energy from far infrared to ultraviolet. Surfaces of nearby objects, including people, absorb this energy and are instantly heated to vaporizing temperatures. The effects of this can be seen on adjacent walls and equipment - they are often ablated and eroded from the radiant effects. Switching One of the most common causes of arc-flash injuries happens when switching on electrical circuits and, especially, tripped circuit-breakers.", "eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\nProducts that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is", "Microwave welding Microwave welding is a plastic welding process that utilizes alternating electromagnetic fields in the microwave band to join thermoplastic base materials that are melted by the phenomenon of dielectric heating.", "proteins or redox reactions can create additional electrical resistance. Consequentially, under- or over- processing can occur: over-processing near the electrodes; under-processing creating cold spots near the middle of the circuit. Cold spots signify the possibility of spoilage organisms in food resulting in a shortened shelf‐life and foodborne pathogens resulting in consumer illness. At lower frequencies (less than 50 Hz) there is a risk of corrosion with stainless steel electrodes that leach into the food matrix. Higher frequencies (greater than 10 kHz) decrease both corrosion and fouling. Although ohmic heating is limited by fouling deposits, it is less apparent as compared to other", "not be immediately evident because of the tendency for microwaves to heat deeper tissues with higher moisture content.\nEleanor R. Adair conducted microwave health research by exposing herself, animals and humans to microwave levels that made them feel warm or even start to sweat and feel quite uncomfortable. She found no adverse health effects other than heat. Hertzian optics Microwaves were first generated in the 1890s in some of the earliest radio experiments by physicists who thought of them as a form of \"invisible light\". James Clerk Maxwell in his 1873 theory of electromagnetism, now called Maxwell's equations, had", "on health Microwaves do not contain sufficient energy to chemically change substances by ionization, and so are an example of non-ionizing radiation. The word \"radiation\" refers to energy radiating from a source and not to radioactivity. It has not been shown conclusively that microwaves (or other non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation) have significant adverse biological effects at low levels. Some, but not all, studies suggest that long-term exposure may have a carcinogenic effect. This is separate from the risks associated with very high-intensity exposure, which can cause heating and burns like any heat source, and not a unique property of microwaves specifically.\nDuring", "absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating. Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface. This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy. Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as Wi-Fi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating. The copper cables (transmission", "the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are available. Art and decoration Heavier foils made of aluminium are used for art, decoration, and crafts, especially in bright metallic colours. Metallic aluminium, normally silvery in colour, can be made to take on other colours through anodisation. Anodising creates an oxide layer on the aluminium surface that can accept coloured dyes or metallic salts, depending on the process used. In this way, aluminium is used to create an", "that followed, Reactors 1, 2 and 3 experienced full meltdown.\nIn the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.", "the metal conductors involved, blasting molten metal and expanding plasma outward with extraordinary force. A typical arc flash incident can be inconsequential but could conceivably easily produce a more severe explosion (see calculation below). The result of the violent event can cause destruction of equipment involved, fire, and injury not only to an electrical worker but also to bystanders. During the arc flash, electrical energy vaporizes the metal, which changes from solid state to gas vapor, expanding it with explosive force. For example, when copper vaporizes it suddenly expands by a factor of 67,000 in volume.\nIn addition to", "These are exactly the kind of burns that would be caused inside a microwave oven. The dialectric heating effect varies with the power and the frequency of the electromagnetic energy, as well as the distance to the source. The eyes and testes are particularly susceptible to radio frequency heating due to the paucity of blood flow in these areas that could otherwise dissipate the heat buildup.\nRadio frequency (RF) energy at power density levels of 1-10 mW/cm² or higher can cause measurable heating of tissues. Typical RF energy levels encountered by the general public are well below the level needed to cause", "and microwave frequencies, EMR interacts with matter largely as a bulk collection of charges which are spread out over large numbers of affected atoms. In electrical conductors, such induced bulk movement of charges (electric currents) results in absorption of the EMR, or else separations of charges that cause generation of new EMR (effective reflection of the EMR). An example is absorption or emission of radio waves by antennas, or absorption of microwaves by water or other molecules with an electric dipole moment, as for example inside a microwave oven. These interactions produce either electric currents or heat, or both. Infrared", "the mechanism of a Geiger counter and also the visualization possible with a spark chamber and other wire chambers. Avalanche breakdown in semiconductors An avalanche breakdown process can happen in semiconductors, which in some ways conduct electricity analogously to a mildly ionized gas. Semiconductors rely on free electrons knocked out of the crystal by thermal vibration for conduction. Thus, unlike metals, semiconductors become better conductors the higher the temperature. This sets up conditions for the same type of positive feedback—heat from current flow causes temperature to rise, which increases charge carriers, lowering resistance, and causing more current to flow. This", "example, finely divided aluminium confined in a shell explodes violently. If larger pieces of aluminium are used, the reaction is slower and sparks are seen as pieces of burning metal are ejected. Temperature Temperature usually has a major effect on the rate of a chemical reaction. Molecules at a higher temperature have more thermal energy. Although collision frequency is greater at higher temperatures, this alone contributes only a very small proportion to the increase in rate of reaction. Much more important is the fact that the proportion of reactant molecules with sufficient energy to react (energy greater than activation energy:", "metal on the contact surfaces to melt, pool and migrate with the current. The high temperature of the arc cracks the surrounding gas molecules creating ozone, carbon monoxide, and other compounds. The arc energy slowly destroys the contact metal, causing some material to escape into the air as fine particulate matter. This very activity causes the material in the contacts to degrade quickly, resulting in device failure.\nArc suppression is an area of interest in engineering because of the destructive effects of the electrical arc to electromechanical power switches, relays and contactors’ points of contact.", "is not associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. Heating and power application A microwave oven passes microwave radiation at a frequency near 2.45 GHz (12 cm) through food, causing dielectric heating primarily by absorption of the energy in water. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following the development of less expensive cavity magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions that broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.\nMicrowave heating is used in industrial processes", "in cladding (explosion welding). A thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive. At one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force. The explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers.\nAs the length of time the shock wave spends at any point is small, we can see mixing of the two metals", "and the mechanisms suggested include selective heating of micro-organisms, electroporation, cell membrane rupture, and cell lysis due to electromagnetic energy coupling. \nBecause microwaves transfer electromagnetic energy at a molecular level, and the vibration of the molecules creates heat through friction, it is difficult to properly check for this highly localized 'micro'-thermal effect or create conditions where study of the putative 'athermal' effect is possible.", "wood fire. The oscillating electric field of the wave causes polar molecules to vibrate back and forth, increasing the temperature; this is how a microwave oven cooks food. However, unlike infrared waves, which are mainly absorbed at the surface of objects and cause surface heating, radio waves are able to penetrate the surface and deposit their energy inside materials and biological tissues. The depth to which radio waves penetrate decreases with their frequency, and also depends on the material's resistivity and permittivity; it is given by a parameter called the skin depth of the material, which" ]

[ "Derivatives are kind of what they sound like, products derived from the value of other things.\n\nA very common type of Derivative is the Future.\n\nA Wheat Farmer is growing 50 tons of wheat, but it won't be harvested until 3 months from now, but he wants to lock in the price he's going to get for it now. \nSo he'll use a Future to agree to Sell 50 tons of wheat at $10,000 a ton in 3 months. \nA Speculator may take the other end of that agreement. Sally to Speculator will agree to buy that Wheat at $10k/ton in 3 months. Sally is predicting that Wheat prices will rise in the mean time, and that she'll be able to sell her end of that contract for more money before those 3 months are up.\n\nIf the going rate of Wheat in 3 months is actually $12,000/ton, then Sally finds another person, either another speculator, or a person who actually needs wheat for something, and Sally transfers her contract to them. \n\nA person would be willing to pay almost $2,000 to get Sally's ability to pay $10,000 instead of $12,000. \n\nSo Sally ends up making $2,000 per ton on that price increase.\n\nThe part that makes Derivatives so good to potentially make money from, is the amount you have to put up as security is very small compared to hold much of the product you have control over. \n\nA contract on something like Crude Oil is usually 1,000 barrels of Oil, you might only have to put up about $3,000 to enter an Oil contract, controlling almost $70,000 worth of oil.\n\nIn some more extreme cases, like currencies or T-bills, you can put up about $400 to control over $1 million worth of T-bills, or $1,000 to control $1 million of USD Currency.\n\nThe most common place way to think of derivatives is like having a coupon. If you're at the store and have a $1 off coupon on Cereal, but you don't want cereal, and someone else does want Cereal, but doesn't have that coupon... that person should be willing to pay you almost $1 to use your coupon.\n\nDerivatives can be a very fast way to both gain and lose money, but they can also be used by businesses and people to hedge their bets and reduce risk on the prices of products they produce or consume. \n\nEDIT: I should say the actual transfer of money of a futures market is more complicated than I represented above, money is actually transferred daily, not a lump sum when someone 'buys' or 'sells' the contract, its just a little easier to think of that way than worry about daily mark-to-market." ]

[ "Fund derivative Example For example, the purchaser may be attracted by a fund's star manager, performance history or strategy, whilst improving their counter-party risk and getting leverage, currency hedging or a capital guarantee via the derivative. Features The structured product may be investible by retail clients or institutional investors that would not otherwise buy the fund, because of its provision of safeguard features such as capital guarantees or the appointment of independent administrators to calculate the underlying fund's value and additional oversight mechanisms. Types Typical fund derivatives might be a call option on a fund, a CPPI on a fund,", "promoted the development of the derivatives market.\nUnder such circumstances, financial institutions continue to create new financial tools to meet the needs of traders for avoiding the risk. Therefore, many foreign exchange derivatives were widely used, making the foreign exchange market expand from the traditional transactions market to the derivatives market, and develop rapidly.（Unknown,2012）\nSpecific foreign exchange derivatives, and related concepts include: Basic features Margin trading，which means you could pay part of margin but make full transaction without the practically transferring of your principal. The end of contract mostly adopt the settlement for differences. At the same time, the buyers need not", "underlying financial instrument. Those instruments, whose initial purpose was hedging and risk management, have become widely traded financial assets in their own right. The most common types of derivatives are futures contracts, swaps, and options. In the early 1990s, a number of central banks around the world began to survey the amount of derivative market activity and report the results to the Bank for International Settlements.\nIn the past few years, the number and types of financial derivatives have grown enormously. In November 2007, commenting on the financial crisis sparked by the subprime mortgage collapse in the United States, Doug Noland's", "June....\nA major unknown regarding derivatives is the actual amount of cash behind a transaction. A derivatives contract with a notional value of millions of dollars may actually only cost a few thousand dollars. For example, an interest rate swap might be based on exchanging the interest payments on $100 million in US Treasury bonds at a fixed interest of 4.5%, for the floating interest rate of $100 million in credit card receivables. This contract would involve at least $4.5 million in interest payments, though the notional value may be reported as $100 million. However, the actual \"cost\" of the swap", "the 1990s, derivatives became popular in the industry and added instability. Efforts to regulate derivatives were thwarted by the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000, backed by several key officials. In the 2000s, the industry was dominated by five investment banks (Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, and Bear Stearns), two financial conglomerates (Citigroup, JPMorgan Chase), three securitized insurance companies (AIG, MBIA, AMBAC) and the three rating agencies (Moody’s, Standard & Poor's, Fitch). Investment banks bundled mortgages with other loans and debts into collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), which they sold to investors. Rating agencies gave many CDOs AAA", "single-tranche CDOs. In funded credit derivatives, transactions are often rated by rating agencies, which allows investors to take different slices of credit risk according to their risk appetite. History and participants The market in credit derivatives started from nothing in 1993 after having been pioneered by J.P. Morgan's Peter Hancock. By 1996 there was around $40 billion of outstanding transactions, half of which involved the debt of developing countries.\nCredit default products are the most commonly traded credit derivative product and include unfunded products such as credit default swaps and funded products such as collateralized debt obligations (see further discussion below).\nOn", "credit derivative describes various contracts designed to assume or distribute credit risk on loans or other financial instruments. Payment obligations of a seller is triggered by specified credit events affective defined assets or entities. In a swap, it was held in Hazell v Hammersmith and Fulham London Borough Council by Woolf LJ that equity swaps were developed under ISDA's guidance and might be defined as \nA transaction in which one party pays periodic amounts of a currency based on a fixed price/rate and the other party pays periodic amounts of the same currency or different currency based on the performance", "and floors, and Cross currency swaptions. Trivia The interest rate derivatives market is the largest derivatives market in the world. The Bank for International Settlements estimates that the notional amount outstanding in June 2012 were US$494 trillion for OTC interest rate contracts, and US$342 trillion for OTC interest rate swaps. According to the International Swaps and Derivatives Association, 80% of the world's top 500 companies as of April 2003 used interest rate derivatives to control their cashflows. This compares with 75% for foreign exchange options, 25% for commodity options and 10% for stock options.\nModeling of interest rate derivatives is usually", "derivative transaction. A cash settlement at the expiry of the contract will fund the financial loss incurred by any rise in the physical jet fuel, allowing the companies to better measure future cash flows.\nThere are limitations to be considered when using energy derivatives to manage risk. A key consideration is that there is a limited range of derivatives available for trading. Continuing from the earlier example, if that company uses a specialized form of jet fuel, for which no derivatives are freely available, they may wish to create an approximate hedge, by buying derivatives based on the price of a", "derivatives can efficiently avoid systemic risk, which is brought by the adverse change of the prices in basic goods market, by its specific hedging function.\n【Increasing financial systems’ ability to resist risk.】 Financial derivatives, which contain functions to avoid and shift risk, can transfer the risk to individuals with more risk tolerance. The process turns financial risk that would be excessive for weak-risk-tolerance companies to withstand to small or intermediate impact for powerful enterprises, while some might be converted to speculators’ chances to make profit. It strengthens financial system’s overall win-resisting ability and consolidates this system’s robustness.\n【Improving economic efficiency. It mainly", "Fixed income arbitrage Fixed-income arbitrage is an investment strategy generally associated with hedge funds, which consists of the discovery and exploitation of inefficiencies in the pricing of bonds, i.e. instruments from either public or private issuers, yielding a contractually fixed stream of income. \nMost arbitrageurs who employ this strategy trade globally.\nIn pursuit of their goal of both steady returns and low volatility, the arbitrageurs can focus upon interest rate swaps, US non-US government bond arbitrage, US Treasury securities, forward yield curves, and/or mortgage-backed securities. \nThe practice of fixed-income arbitrage in general has been compared to \"picking up nickels in front", "the mark-to-market being taken to the profit and loss account. For many entities this would result in a significant amount of profit and loss volatility arising from the use of derivatives.\nAn entity can mitigate the profit and loss effect arising from derivatives used for hedging, through an optional part of IAS39 relating to hedge accounting.", "or a leveraged note on a fund. More complicated structures might include auto-call features guaranteeing that if the derivative reached a certain value that value was locked in, on top of an initial minimum value guarantee at issuance. Maturities might range from three to ten years, or more rarely multiple decades. The big players in this field are investment banks such as Barclays Investment Bank, BNP Paribas,TPG, Citigroup, Credit Suisse, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Macquarie Group, Morgan Stanley, Société Générale, UBS Investment Bank.\nFund derivatives have had explosive growth over the past 10 years but are still a major growth area.", "on their capacity to pay you any amount that may be due at settlement. Thus, investors should carefully enter into a swap agreement with other party considering all these parameters. History The first energy derivatives covered petroleum products and emerged after the 1970s energy crisis and the fundamental restructuring of the world petroleum market that followed. At roughly the same time, energy products began trading on derivatives exchange with crude oil, heating oil, and gasoline futures on NYMEX and gas oil and Brent Crude on the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE). Risk management This describes the process used by corporations, governments,", "broker will usually charge interest, and other fees, on the amount drawn on the margin account.\nIf the cash balance of a margin account is negative, the amount is owed to the broker, and usually attracts interest. If the cash balance is positive, the money is available to the account holder to reinvest, or may be withdrawn by the holder or left in the account and may earn interest. In terms of futures and cleared derivatives, the margin balance would refer to the total value of collateral pledged to the CCP (Central Counterparty Clearing) and or futures commission merchants. Initial and", "are derivatives on the interest rate paid on those deposits. A Eurodollar future is a cash settled futures contract whose price moves in response to the interest rate offered on US Dollar denominated deposits held in European banks. \nEurodollar futures are a way for companies and banks to lock in an interest rate today, for money they intend to borrow or lend in the future. Each CME Eurodollar futures contract has a notional or \"face value\" of $1,000,000, though the leverage used in futures allows one contract to be traded with a margin of about one thousand dollars.\nCME Eurodollar futures", "interest rates and loan fees that may be anticipated. This advisement often comes in the form of a Letter of Intent or Letter of Interest prepared by the lender.\nIf the borrower agrees to these figures, the broker proceeds by doing one of two things: 1) He contacts individual Private Money Investors and solicits their direct investment in the loan. This is called FRACTIONAL INVESTMENT [described below]; 2) Alternatively, he brokers the loan by contacting Private Money Lenders known to be interested in making loans of the size, type and location sought by the borrower. These lenders in turn create fractional", "broker is paid a fee, the lender works directly with the borrower. Fractional Investment This is a \"pooled or syndicated\" method for multiple investors to extend loans to borrowers. A limited number of investors (in California, 10) secure a loan made to a borrower by placing their names on a First (or Second or Third) Deed of Trust on the borrower's property. Monthly payments are made to a servicing agent, who then distributes the payments pro rata to the individual investors.\nFractionals provide the benefits of simplicity and transparency. Each individual investor reviews each prospective loan prior to making a decision", "derivatives market is a global one, London has a market share of about 40%, with the rest of Europe having about 10%.\nThe main market participants are banks, hedge funds, insurance companies, pension funds, and other corporates. Credit default swap The credit default swap or CDS has become the cornerstone product of the credit derivatives market. This product represents over thirty percent of the credit derivatives market.\nThe product has many variations, including where there is a basket or portfolio of reference entities, although fundamentally, the principles remain the same. A powerful recent variation has been gathering market share of", "The financing and lending spreads, which are charged in basis points on the value of client loans (debit balances), client deposits (credit balances), client short sales (short balances), and synthetic financing products such as swaps and CFDs (Contract for difference), make up the vast majority of prime brokerage revenue.\nTherefore, clients who undertake substantial short selling or leverage represent more lucrative opportunity than clients who do less short selling and/or utilize minimal leverage. Clients whose market activities are principally fixed income-oriented will generally produce less prime brokerage revenue, but may still present significant economic opportunity in the repo, foreign exchange (fx),", "of 2006. Combined turnover of interest rate, currency and stock index derivatives fell by 7% to $431 trillion between October and December 2006. \nThus, derivatives trading—mostly futures contracts on interest rates, foreign currencies, Treasury bonds, and the like—had reached a level of $1,200 trillion, or $1.2 quadrillion, a year. By comparison, US GDP in 2006 was $12.456 trillion. Futures markets The data for turnover in the futures markets in 1970, 1980, and 1990 is based on the number of contracts traded, which is reported by the organized exchanges, such as the Chicago Board of Trade, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, and", "derivatives market. For instance, the Netting of Financial Contracts Act 1995 is a key piece of legislation to be complied with if parties to more than one financial derivative contract wish to net those contracts off against one another. This legislation was introduced as a result of perceived grey areas in the common law which prevented legal clarity. The European Markets in Financial Instruments Directive 2004/39(MIFID) has been in place in Ireland since 2007 and this is the central piece of regulation which would apply to those financial institutions that deal in financial derivatives with their customers. The market in", "Synthetic CDO A synthetic CDO (collateralized debt obligation) is a variation of a CDO that generally uses credit default swaps and other derivatives to obtain its investment goals. As such, it is a complex derivative financial security sometimes described as a bet on the performance of other mortgage (or other) products, rather than a real mortgage security. The value and payment stream of a synthetic CDO is derived not from cash assets, like mortgages or credit card payments — as in the case of a regular or \"cash\" CDO — but from premiums paying for credit default swap \"insurance\" on", "making, traders will buy and sell financial products with the goal of making money on each trade. Sales is the term for the investment bank's sales force, whose primary job is to call on institutional and high-net-worth investors to suggest trading ideas (on a caveat emptor basis) and take orders. Sales desks then communicate their clients' orders to the appropriate trading rooms, which can price and execute trades, or structure new products that fit a specific need. Structuring has been a relatively recent activity as derivatives have come into play, with highly technical and numerate employees working on creating complex", "has been long established in North America. Chief Financial Officers (CFOS) use derivatives to dampen, remove or mitigate price uncertainty. Bankers also use hedge funds to more \"safely increase leverage to smaller oil and gas companies.\" However, when not properly used, \"derivatives can multiply losses\" particularly in North America where investors are more comfortable with higher levels of risk than in other countries.\nWith the large number of bankruptcies as reported by Deloitte \"funding [for upstream oil industry] is shrinking and hedges are unwinding.\" \"Some oil producers are also choosing to liquidate hedges for a quick infusion of cash, a risky", "backlog of confirmations for credit derivatives trades. These backlogs pose risks to the market (both in theory and in all likelihood), and they exacerbate other risks in the financial system. One challenge in regulating these and other derivatives is that the people who know most about them also typically have a vested incentive in encouraging their growth and lack of regulation. Incentive may be indirect, e.g., academics have not only consulting incentives, but also incentives in keeping open doors for research.", "Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000 Exchange trading requirement The PWG Report was directed at ending controversy over how swaps and other OTC derivatives related to the CEA. A derivative is a financial contract or instrument that \"derives\" its value from the price or other characteristic of an underlying \"thing\" (or \"commodity\"). A farmer might enter into a \"derivative contract\" under which the farmer would sell from next summer's harvest a specified number of bushels of wheat at a specified price per bushel. If this contract were executed on a commodity exchange, it would be a \"futures contract.\"\nBefore 1974, the", "be discouraged, trading for the hedging of derivatives is generally considered a good thing in that it can reduce risk, and this should not be punished. He estimates that any financial tax should be at most one basis point so as to have negligible effect on hedging.\nAssuming that all currency market participants incur the same maximum level of transaction costs (the full cost of the bid-ask spread), as opposed to earning them in their capacity of market makers, and assuming that no untaxed substitutes exist for spot currency markets transactions (such as currency futures and currency exchange-traded funds), Schmidt (2007)", "Terrence A. Duffy The Voice of An Industry Duffy often serves as the voice for the derivatives industry, focusing on the relevance of futures to the global economy. In a 2017 interview with Business Insider, Duffy discussed the importance of the markets to everyday life. “Somehow, some way, those markets are affecting you. Whether you're taking a mortgage out, whatever you're doing in your life, there is an effect on you as far as finance goes.”\nDuffy has also written about the impact of financial services on students coming into the industry. In 2013, he published an influential Op-Ed in the", "Fixed price Fixed-price contract A fixed-price contract is a contract where the contract payment does not depend on the amount of resources or time expended by the contractor, as opposed to cost-plus contracts. These contracts are often used in military and government contractors to put the risk on the side of the vendor and control costs.\nHistorically, when fixed-price contracts are used for new projects with untested or developmental technologies, the programs may fail if unforeseen costs exceed the ability of the contractor to absorb the overruns. In spite of this, such contracts continue to be popular. Fixed-price contracts tend to" ]

[ "It's not so much that Americans developed a distinct accent, but rather that speech on both sides of the Atlantic changed significantly, with both sides diverging quite a bit from what they had sounded like earlier on. This process is still happening, with accents on the Canadian and US sides of the great lakes undergoing vowel shifts at this very moment, and in opposite directions; Canadian and US accents are actually becoming less similar, even among people in the niagara region who live a few km apart.\n\nWhy? We don't really understand this process at all well. The key thing relevant to your question though is that accents change a lot, that distance and separation make this process easier and more likely, and that neither English nor an American speakers sound much like their 16th century forebears.", "This article provides some explanation. What's interesting is that medieval English is closer to American English than contemporary British English.\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in the Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering any American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity, the father–bother merger, Mary–marry–merry merger, pre-nasal \"short a\" tensing,", "General American may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as \"accentless\" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to the speaker's regional or social background. Prestige Certain accents are perceived to carry more prestige in a society than other accents. This is often due to their association with the elite part of society. For example, in the United Kingdom, Received Pronunciation of the English language is associated with the traditional upper class. The same can be said about the predominance of Southeastern Brazilian accents in the case of the Brazilian variant of the Portuguese language, especially", "\"Good American Speech\" or \"Eastern Standard\" (both names now dated), described it as the appropriate American pronunciation for \"classics and elevated texts\". She vigorously drilled her students in learning the accent at the Carnegie Institute of Technology and, later, the Juilliard School.\nIt is also possible that the clipped, nasal, \"all-treble\" quality associated with the Mid-Atlantic accent partly arose out of technological necessity in the earliest days of radio and sound film, which ineffectively reproduced normal human bass tones. As used by actors, the Mid-Atlantic accent is also known by various other names, including American Theater Standard or American stage speech.\nAmerican", "all major U.S. cities along the Atlantic coast except for the Delaware Valley area centered around Philadelphia and Baltimore. During the early to mid-1900s (presumably correlated with the Second World War), rhotic accents began to gain social prestige even in the these traditionally non-rhotic areas. Thus, non-rhotic accents are increasingly perceived by Americans as sounding foreign or less educated, while rhotic accents are increasingly seen as sounding more \"General American\".\nToday, non-rhoticity in the American South is found primarily among older speakers, and only in some areas such as central and southern Alabama; Savannah, Georgia; and Norfolk, Virginia, as well as", "accent are native to the region. Many of its most stereotypical features (such as r dropping and the so-called broad A) are believed to have originated in Boston from the influence of England's Received Pronunciation, which shares those features. While some Boston accents are most strongly associated with the so-called \"Eastern Establishment\" and Boston's upper class, the common accent is locally prevalent and predominantly associated with blue-collar natives exemplified by movies like Good Will Hunting and The Departed. The Boston accent and accents closely related to it cover eastern Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine.\nSome Rhode Islanders speak with a non-rhotic", "began, classical actors in the United States were in the habit of explicitly imitating higher-class British accents onstage. From the 1920s to 1940s, the \"World English\" of Wiliam Tilly, and his followers' slight variations of it taught in classes of theater and oratory, became popular affectations onstage and in other forms of high culture in North America. The codification of a Mid-Atlantic accent in writing, particularly for theatrical training, is often credited to Edith Warman Skinner in the 1930s, a student of Tilly best known for her 1942 instructional text Speak with Distinction. Skinner, who referred to this accent as", "Accent (sociolinguistics) History As human beings spread out into isolated communities, stresses and peculiarities develop. Over time, they can develop into identifiable accents. In North America, the interaction of people from many ethnic backgrounds contributed to the formation of the different varieties of North American accents. It is difficult to measure or predict how long it takes an accent to form. Accents from Canada, South Africa, Australia and the US for example, developed from the combinations of different accents and languages in various societies and their effect on the various pronunciations of British settlers.\nIn many cases, the accents of non-English", "a rhotic accent (meaning that the r sound is never \"dropped\").\nIn the very late nineteenth century until the 1950s, Philadelphia accents shifted to have more features in common with the then-emerging (and now-common) regional accents of the American South and Midland, for example in fronting /oʊ/, raising /aʊ/, and even some reported weakening of /aɪ/. Philadelphians also began retreating from their longstanding New York City-like accent features after this point, and even further developed their own entirely unique phonological features. \nFurthermore, higher-educated Philadelphians born in or since the last quarter of the twentieth century are now showing a process of", "to become non-rhotic. Like regional dialects in England, the accents of other areas in America remained rhotic in a display of linguistic \"lag\" that preserved the original pronunciation of /r/. Non-rhotic pronunciation continued to influence American prestige speech until the 1860s, when the American Civil War shifted America's centers of wealth and political power to areas with fewer cultural connections to the British elite. This largely removed the prestige associated with non-rhotic pronunciation in America, presumably bolstered by the resurgence for an American linguistic identity following the Second World War, such that when the advent of radio", "the Northeastern upper class, as well as in schools for film and stage acting. The accent's overall use sharply declined following the Second World War.\nA similar accent, known as Canadian dainty, was also known in Canada in the same era, although it resulted from different historical processes. More generically, the term \"mid-Atlantic accent\" refers to any accent with a mixture of American and British characteristics. Elite use At the start of the 20th century, elevated public speaking in the United States focused on song-like intonation, lengthily and tremulously uttered vowels, and a booming resonance, rather than the details of", "speech, acting and elocution in the United States up to the end of World War II\".\nEarly recordings of prominent Americans born in the middle of the 19th century provide some insight into their adoption or not of a cultivated non-rhotic speaking style. President William Howard Taft, who attended public school in Ohio, and inventor Thomas Edison, who grew up in Ohio and Michigan of modest means, both used natural rhotic accents. Presidents William McKinley of Ohio and Grover Cleveland of Central New York, however, clearly employed a non-rhotic, upper-class, Mid-Atlantic quality in their speeches; both even use the distinctive and", "English, as well as some varieties of Scottish English.\nNon-rhotic accents in the Americas include those of the rest of the Caribbean and Belize. England Though most English varieties in England are non-rhotic today, stemming from a trend toward this in southeastern England accelerating in the very late 18th century onwards, rhotic accents are still found in the West Country (south and west of a line from near Shrewsbury to around Portsmouth), the Corby area, some of Lancashire (north and west of the centre of Manchester), some parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and in the areas that border Scotland. The prestige", "Boston accent Non-rhoticity The traditional Boston accent is non-rhotic, particularly in the early 1900s. Recent studies have shown that younger speakers use more of a rhotic accent than older speakers from the Boston region. The phoneme /r/ does not appear in coda position (where in English phonotactics it must precede other consonants, see English phonology#Coda), as in most dialects of English in England and Australia; card therefore becomes [kʰaːd] \"cahd\". After high and mid-high vowels, the /r/ is replaced by [ə] or another neutral central vowel like [ɨ]: weird [wiɪd], square [ˈskweə]. Similarly, unstressed /ər/ is replaced by [ə], [ɐ],", "American English Phonology Compared with English as spoken in the United Kingdom North American English is more homogeneous, and any phonologically unremarkable North American accent is known as \"General American\". This section mostly refers to such General American features. Vocabulary The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the Native American languages. Examples of such names are opossum, raccoon, squash, moose (from Algonquian), wigwam, and moccasin. The languages of the other colonizing nations also added to the American vocabulary; for instance, cookie, from Dutch;", "Mid-Atlantic accent The Mid-Atlantic accent, or Transatlantic accent, is a cultivated accent of English blending together prestigious American and British English (Received Pronunciation) ways of speaking. Adopted in the early 20th century mostly by American aristocrats and actors, it is not a native vernacular or regional American accent. Instead, according to voice and drama professor Dudley Knight, it is an affected set of speech patterns whose \"chief quality was that no Americans actually spoke it unless educated to do so\". Primarily fashionable in the 1930s and 1940s, the accent was embraced in private independent preparatory schools, especially by members of", "the distinctive accent and vocabulary of the native-born colonists, that differed from that of their parents and with a strong London influence. Anthony Burgess writes that \"Australian English may be thought of as a kind of fossilised Cockney of the Dickensian era.\"\nThe first of the Australian gold rushes, in the 1850s, began a large wave of immigration, during which about two per cent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria. According to linguist Bruce Moore, \"the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing the Australian accent was", "Harbor speech, for example, in the phrase \"naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan\".\nAfter the accent's decline following the end of World War II, this American version of a \"posh\" accent has all but disappeared even among the American upper classes, as Americans have increasingly dissociated from the effete speaking styles of the East Coast elite. The clipped, non-rhotic English of George Plimpton and William F. Buckley, Jr. were vestigial examples. Self-help author and 2020 Democratic Party presidential candidate, Marianne Williamson, was recently noted as speaking with a Mid-Atlantic accent. Theatrical and cinematic use When the 20th century", "an advanced form of Inland Northern American English. This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short 'a' sound as in \"cat\", which can sound more like \"kyet\" to outsiders. The accent remains well associated with the city. Entertainment and the arts Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier. Broadway", "is frequently the subject of humor about Boston, as in comedian Jon Stewart joking in his book America that, although John Adams drafted the 1780 Massachusetts Constitution, \"delegates from his state refused to ratify the letter 'R'.\"\nBeing conspicuous and easily identifiable as regional, Boston accents are routinely featured by actors in films set in Boston, particularly for working-class white characters, such as in Good Will Hunting, Mystic River, The Departed, Manchester by the Sea, The Town, Ted, The Fighter, and Black Mass. Television series based within a Boston setting such as Boston Public and Cheers have featured the accent. Simpsons", "in the Yat accent of New Orleans. The local dialects of eastern New England, especially Boston, Massachusetts, extending into the states of Maine and (less so) New Hampshire, show some non-rhoticity, as well as the traditional Rhode Island dialect; however, this feature has been receding in the recent generations. The New York City dialect is traditionally non-rhotic, though William Labov more precisely classifies its current form as variably rhotic, with many of its sub-varieties now fully rhotic, such as in northeastern New Jersey.\nAfrican-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is largely non-rhotic, and in some non-rhotic Southern and AAVE accents, there is no", "to that of neighbouring areas of Lancashire. The influence of Irish and Welsh migrants, combined with European accents, contributed to a distinctive local Liverpool accent. The first reference to a distinctive Liverpool accent was in 1890. Linguist Gerald Knowles suggested that the accent's nasal quality may have derived from poor 19th-century public health, by which the prevalence of colds for many people over a long time resulted in a nasal accent becoming regarded as the norm and copied by others learning the language. Academic research The period of early dialect research in Great Britain did little to cover Scouse. The", "English accents in an area of northern England and the Midlands, including the cities of Birmingham (see Brummie), Manchester, Liverpool (see Scouse), Sheffield and Stoke-on-Trent. It is also associated with some American English accents in the New York City area.\nOn the other hand, in some accents of the west of Scotland and Ulster, NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, so that finger is pronounced /'fɪŋər/, thus rhyming with singer (although the [ɡ] is not dropped before a stressed syllable, as in engage).\nIt is because of NG-coalescence that /ŋ/ is now normally regarded one of the phonemes of standard English.", "a given word's phonetic qualities. Nevertheless, since the 19th century, communities on the Eastern seaboard and much of the South increasingly adopted many of the phonetic qualities of educated, non-rhotic (sometimes called \"r-less\") British accents based around southeastern England. During the earlier part of the 20th century, imitation of British speaking styles was increasingly taught as a part of public speaking skills, particularly to the upper class. Sociolinguist William Labov describes that such \"r-less pronunciation, following Received Pronunciation\", the standard accent of London and much of Southern England, \"was taught as a model of correct, international English by schools of", "or America, although it clearly bears some resemblance to the speech patterns that were spoken in a few areas of New England, and a very considerable resemblance ... to the pattern in England which was becoming defined in the 1920s as \"RP\" or \"Received Pronunciation.\" World English, then, was a creation of speech teachers, and boldly labeled as a class-based accent: the speech of persons variously described as \"educated,\" \"cultivated,\" or \"cultured\"; the speech of persons who moved in rarified social or intellectual circles and of those who might aspire to do so.\nNow popularly identified as a Mid-Atlantic accent, this", "carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States speaking General American (i.e., an absence of a regional, ethnic, or working class accent) is widely preferred in many contexts such as television journalism. Also, in the United Kingdom, the Received Pronunciation is associated with being of higher class and thus more likeable. In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence, and having poorer social skills. An example can be seen in the difference between Southerners and Northerners in the United States, where people from the", "have a distinct way of pronouncing words in the English language. Typically, many syllables are simply dropped (e.g., Annapolis becomes Napliss). The accent varies; the accent is not as noticeable when spoken by North & West Baltimoreans but is at its heaviest when spoken by East & South Baltimoreans. Hon Although nowadays the city is extremely culturally diverse, the lasting image of Baltimoreans seems to be the \"Hon\" culture exemplified most markedly by the longer established families and residents of the Highlandtown, Irvington, Canton, Locust Point, Hampden and Pigtown neighborhoods. Between the 1950s and 1970s, it was common to see", "white accents of English once spoken in Southern plantation areas—namely, the Lowcountry, Virginia Piedmont and Tidewater, lower Mississippi Valley, and western Black Belt—the modern-day AAVE accent is mostly non-rhotic (or \"r-dropping\" ). The presence of non-rhoticity in both black English and older white Southern English is not merely coincidence, though, again, which dialect influenced which is unknown. It is better documented, however, that white Southerners borrowed some morphological processes from black Southerners.\nMany grammatical features were used alike by older speakers of white Southern English and African-American Vernacular English more so than by contemporary speakers of the same two varieties. Even", "form, however, exerts a steady pressure toward non-rhoticity. Thus the urban speech of Bristol or Southampton is more accurately described as variably rhotic, the degree of rhoticity being reduced as one moves up the class and formality scales. Scotland Most Scottish accents are rhotic, but non-rhotic speech has been reported in Edinburgh since the 1970s and Glasgow since the 1980s. United States American English is predominantly rhotic today, but at the end of the 1800s non-rhotic accents were common throughout much of the coastal Eastern and Southern U.S., including along the Gulf Coast. In fact, non-rhotic accents were established in", "English Americans Sense of identity Americans of English heritage are often seen, and identify, as simply \"American\" due to the many historic cultural ties between England and the U.S. and their influence on the country's population. Relative to ethnic groups of other European origins, this may be due to the early establishment of English settlements; as well as to non-English groups having emigrated in order to establish significant communities.\nSince 1776, English-Americans have been less likely to proclaim their heritage, unlike African Americans, Irish Americans, Scottish Americans, Italian Americans or other ethnic groups. A leading specialist, Charlotte Erickson, found them to", "terms (truck, trunk).\nNew foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish (chutzpah, schmooze) and German (hamburger, wiener). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7), while others have not (have a nice day, for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey, boost, bulldoze and jazz, originated as American slang.\nAmerican English has always shown a marked tendency to use words" ]

[ "Its just to put emphasis on the fact that *they will* use any and all evidence against you that they can, including anything you say or do.", "The rights are telling you, anything you say , whether you think it is incriminating or not, can be used against you by someone following the letter of the law. This is the warning part. And if it can, it WILL be used, they won't ignore anything. This is the assurance of prosecution part. \n\nIf you are not a lawyer, this story may help you.\n\nA little bird finally grew its wings and decided it was time...it jumped into the air overjoyed as it merrily flapped it's wings.\n\nBut the air was cold , and the little birdy froze and passed out, hurtling towards the ground and landing in a pile of fresh cowdung. \n\nThankfully, the warmth of the fresh cow crap revived the little birdie...and it started chirping loudly trying to free itself from the goo.\n\nA fox heard its chirps, and quickly pounced eating up the little birdie. \n\nWhat lesson did you learn?\n\n1. What you think is good for you, like flying, may not be.\n\n2. What you think is bad for you, like landing in cowdung, may not be.\n\n3. When in deep shit, KEEP YOUR MOUTH SHUT!", "It's a way of saying, Shut the fuck up before you say something your gonna regret.", "If they don't add the \"and will be used quaint you\" part, then they could lie and day they won't. \"I just want you to tell us what happened, I'm not going to use anything against you\" and then when you admit to being an accessory to murder they arrest you. This part of the Miranda rights is to remind the person that the police are trying to build a case, not necessarily to help you.\n\nEvery part of the Miranda rights is detrimental to police, it doesn't help them if the subject calls in a lawyer or pleads the fifth. It's to protect the ignorant from being taken advantage of.", "It \"can\" be used against you and if it is incriminating it \"will\" be used against you. Something that is not incriminating will not be used. It is best to use the rights the 5th amendment gives you and refuse to say anything or answer any questions until you have an attorney." ]

[ "might look with hostility on congressional attempts to rein in the scope of the Miranda rule, the Supreme Court itself is willing to interpret narrowly the protections that Miranda affords criminal defendants. And it is willing to reach relatively far to do so.\" \nOther legal responses included Stanford University law professor Robert Weisberg, who stated that \"this decision authorizes lower courts to construe ambiguous situations in favor of police and prosecutors\", and University of Michigan law professor Richard Friedman who concluded, \"[t]his decision means that police can keep shooting questions at a suspect who refuses to talk as long as", "of pre-Miranda statements may still be admitted. There was no majority opinion of the Court in that case.)\nIn some jurisdictions, a detention differs at law from an arrest, and police are not required to give the Miranda warning until the person is arrested for a crime. In those situations, a person's statements made to police are generally admissible even though the person was not advised of their rights. Similarly, statements made while an arrest is in progress before the Miranda warning was given or completed are also generally admissible.\nBecause Miranda applies only to custodial interrogations, it does not protect detainees", "searches and seizures shall not be violated”. Therefore, the Fourth Amendment gives a constitutional right to security for people's \"private places, and private things\". Most privacy violation court cases (prior to explicit court precedents and legislation) relied on the \"unreasonable\" verbiage as the basis for there arguments of infringement of privacy. This suggests that whenever a search or seizure was deemed unreasonable the seized evidence was considered unlawful and could not be used in the trial after arresting and booking the plaintiffs. This amendment required law officials to obtain a warrant prior to searching the client if there was", "considered whether invocation of Miranda rights could be implied from the behavior or ambiguous words of the accused. It concluded (in line with previous cases such as Davis v. United States) that there was good reason why invoking these rights should require an unambiguous act of the accused, including certainty for police, prosecutors, and accused, and social benefit in law enforcement.\nThe court then considered whether the accused had taken action that waived those rights. Waiver must be a free choice with full awareness (Moran v. Burbine). Miranda v. Arizona (the Miranda ruling) states that \"[A] heavy burden rests on the", "required to re-read the Miranda warning, while saying \"no\" to the second question invokes the right at that moment; in either case the interviewing officer or officers cannot question the suspect until the rights are waived.\nGenerally, when defendants invoke their Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and refuse to testify or submit to cross-examination at trial, the prosecutor cannot indirectly punish them for the exercise of a constitutional right by commenting on their silence and insinuating that it is an implicit admission of guilt. Since Miranda rights are simply a judicial gloss upon the Fifth Amendment which protects against coercive interrogations,", "Miranda v. Arizona case, the United States requires police departments to inform arrested persons of their rights, which is later called Miranda warning and typically begins with \"You have the right to remain silent.\" Freedom of religion The establishment clause of the first amendment prohibits the establishment of a national religion by Congress or the preference of one religion over another. The clause was used to limit school praying, beginning with Engel v. Vitale, which ruled government-led prayer unconstitutional. Wallace v. Jaffree banned moments of silence allocated for praying. The Supreme Court also ruled clergy-led prayer at public high school", "be instituted to enable police officials to impede on citizens' constitutional rights as long as the technique being used is considered to be less intrusive than that of an officer pulling his or her gun on an unarmed suspect. Truthful statements by an innocent person An incriminating statement includes any statement that tends to increase the danger that the person making the statement will be accused, charged or prosecuted – even if the statement is true, and even if the person is innocent of any crime. Thus, even a person who is innocent of any crime who testifies truthfully can", "who are unsophisticated, poorly educated or mentally ill—for hours on end. This will lead, just as inevitably, to more coerced—and therefore unreliable—confessions... the very phenomenon that Miranda aimed to eliminate.\" She noted the attorney general's comment that Miranda warnings had not deterred terrorism suspects such as Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab and Faisal Shahzad from talking and providing \"valuable intelligence\". The positive observation was a reflection upon attempts by Congress to amend Miranda legislatively, that the decision \"sends a strong signal\" that \"the Supreme Court is not shy about curtailing Miranda protections, even without prodding from Congress\". She concluded that \"[w]hile it", "actionable intelligence to stop attacks, not confessions for use in civilian trials\". Yoo concluded that the court's \"new flexibility\" would perhaps allow it to \"ease the burden\" on military, intelligence and police\" and permit \"more [flexible responses to] terrorism within the criminal-justice paradigm, though at the expense of weakening the civil rights of all Americans\". The present ruling might clarify that Miranda was not relevant where information was not being collected for use at a trial. As such it might act in mitigation of \"weak anti-terrorism policies\".\nKent Scheidegger, legal director of the Criminal Justice Legal Foundation, stated that the court", "no justification for \"reasonable cause\". The government previously used privacy and intrusiveness as the measure through which to determine the \"unreasonableness\"; however now they use a combination of the \"expectation of privacy\" through “societal knowledge”, and legislation to determine the need of warrantless searches within varying contexts and environments. Fifth Amendment The Fifth Amendment protects against involuntary self-incrimination during trial. Often known as pleading the fifth, this right allows individuals the right to remain silent and maintain a sense of privacy when being interrogated by the state. This amendment provides security towards both \"the sanctity of a man's home\" and", "the motion to suppress stems from the exclusionary rule. As the court stated in Simmons v. United States: \"In order to effectuate the Fourth Amendment's guarantee of freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures, this Court long ago conferred upon defendants in federal prosecutions the right, upon motion and proof, to have excluded from trial evidence which had been secured by means of an unlawful search and seizure.\"\nBecause it is grounded in the right to be secure from unreasonable searches and seizures, a person must have standing to move to suppress evidence. In other words, one cannot object to evidence obtained", "for Miranda outlined the case and then stated that Miranda had not been advised of his right to remain silent when he had been arrested and questioned, adding the Fifth Amendment argument to his case. Flynn contended that an emotionally disturbed man like Miranda, who had a limited education, should not be expected to know his Fifth Amendment right not to incriminate himself.\nGary Nelson spoke for the people of Arizona, arguing that this was not a Fifth Amendment issue but just an attempt to expand the Sixth Amendment Escobedo decision. He urged the justices to clarify their position, but not", "pressure is basically to err on the side of caution, to give the Miranda warning almost every time.\" Professor Stephen Saltzburg of George Washington University agreed that the ruling would pressure police to adopt a strategy of \"When in doubt, give Miranda warnings\", but also opined that it would make little practical difference to young people facing police questioning. \"The reality is that even with Miranda warnings, it's doubtful that young people understand exactly what it all means and understand their choices, and so in the long run, I doubt that there will be many fewer confessions because of this", "show that constitutionally enshrined individual rights does not protect an individual from harm by abusers due to action (or inaction) by the government. The implication is that Constitutional challenges brought by abusers claiming police action (inaction) directly resulting in abuse involving firearm from a boyfriend is likely to fail. Surrendering of firearms The issue of enforceability of the existing law to protect victims of abuse from stalkers and convicted domestic abusers highlights the complexity of separating guns from abusive users. When states utilize tools that allow for programs aimed at surrendering weapons and develop clear guidelines and protocols", "(2010), the Supreme Court declared in a 5–4 decision that criminal defendants who have been read their Miranda rights (and who have indicated they understand them and have not already waived them), must explicitly state during or before an interrogation begins that they wish to be silent and not speak to police for that protection against self-incrimination to apply. If they speak to police about the incident before invoking the Miranda right to remain silent, or afterwards at any point during the interrogation or detention, the words they speak may be used against them if they have not stated they", "the United States Constitution states that:\n\"The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.\"\nThe text of the amendment is brief, and most of the law determining what constitutes an unlawful search and seizure is found in court rulings. The brief definitions of the terms \"search\" and \"seizure\" was concisely summarized in United States v. Jacobsen,", "California legislators passed a \"red flag law\" to enable a person to ask a judge to have guns seized from a family member who they feel is a danger to themselves or to others. The gun owner will have an opportunity to contest the seizure. Gun rights groups, including the National Rifle Association, opposed the legislation, citing that the rights of regular gun owners may be put in jeopardy due to a misunderstanding. The law went into effect in 2016. Misogyny The attack, videos, and written manifesto of Rodger sparked conversations about broader issues of violence against women and misogyny", "Miranda warning Origin and development of Miranda rights The concept of \"Miranda rights\" was enshrined in U.S. law following the 1966 Miranda v. Arizona Supreme Court decision, which found that the Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights of Ernesto Arturo Miranda had been violated during his arrest and trial for armed robbery, kidnapping, and rape of a mentally handicapped young woman. \nMiranda was subsequently retried and convicted, based primarily on his estranged ex-partner, who had been tracked down by the original arresting officer via Miranda's own parents, suddenly claiming that Miranda had confessed to her when she had visited him in", "the Court looked to the legislative history of the statute where they found that the congressional intent was to deter criminals to leave their guns at home instead of using them during the commission of a drug felony. Thus, on this point the Court also found that “carries a weapon” should be construed to include possessing a weapon in one’s vehicle.", "was corrected by the U.S. Supreme Court which stated that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense-specific, and attaches to charged and sufficiently related uncharged offenses, not necessarily offenses 'factually related' to those that have actually been charged. Subsequent developments Critics of the 5–4 decision predicted that the offense-specific rule would endanger suspects’ rights and grant police too much power to carry out interrogations without the presence of counsel. The majority, in response, pointed to suspects’ abilities to invoke their Miranda rights during interrogations –rights which were waived by Cobb. The majority opinion also introduced", "Statement against penal interest In United States law, a statement against penal interest is a statement that puts the statement-maker at risk of prosecution. It is the criminal equivalent of a statement against interest, a statement a person would not normally make, which would put them in a disadvantaged position to that they would have had if they had not made the statement in the first place.\nIn certain circumstances, it can be a factor in allowing as evidence statements that would otherwise be excluded through the law of hearsay.", "Statement against interest In United States law, a statement against interest is a statement made by a person which places them in a less advantageous position than if they had not made the statement and is, as a consequence, deemed credible as evidence (usually within a legal trial). For example, if a driver in an automobile accident boasts publicly that they were speeding, it may represent a legal admission of liability. It is analogous to the criminal equivalent, the statement against penal interest which is a statement that puts the person making the statement at risk of prosecution. Statements", "explicitly the invocation of these rights, or, alternatively, simply remain silent. Absent the former, \"anything [said] can and will be used against [the defendant] in a court of law\". Public safety exception The \"public safety\" exception is a limited and case-specific exception, allowing certain unadvised statements (given without Miranda warnings) to be admissible into evidence at trial when they were elicited in circumstances where there was great danger to public safety; thus, the Miranda rule provides some elasticity.\nThe public safety exception derives from New York v. Quarles (1984), a case in which the Supreme Court considered the admissibility of a", "be searched and the persons or things to be seized, limited in scope (according to specific information supplied to the issuing court). It is solely a right of the people that neither the Executive nor Legislative branch can lawfully abrogate, even if acting in concert: no statute can make an unreasonable search reasonable.\nThe term \"unreasonable\" connotes the sense that a constitutional search has a rational basis, that it is not an excessive imposition upon the individual given the circumstances and is in accordance with societal norms. It relies on judges to be sufficiently independent of the authorities seeking warrants that", "asserted his Fifth Amendment's right to counsel but rather relies on his Sixth Amendment's right to counsel, police may reinitiate interrogation after his Miranda rights have been read. However, if a Defendant has asserted his Fifth Amendment's right to counsel and adversarial proceedings have begun, police may not reinitiate questioning without counsel present and waiver under Edwards, or unless the Defendant initiates the conversation and police get a waiver.", "does not violate the Fourth Amendment's prohibition against unreasonable seizures, even if a reasonable officer would not have stopped the motorist absent some additional law enforcement objective.\nIf officers have probable cause to believe that a traffic violation occurred, they are allowed to stop a vehicle. Because the petitioners sped away at an \"unreasonable\" speed, the officers were given reasonable cause to stop the vehicle. A traffic violation occurred, which made the following search and seizure lawful. The officers did not ignore the danger of a pretextual stop but acted on a crime.\nThe court also rejected the petitioners claim that", "States v. Liberty Avenue is a case in which the innocent owner defense was used. It can be claimed when the owner can prove that he had no knowledge of illegal activity or had not consented to the illegal activity. Many property owners choosing to assert the innocent owner defense are burdened by inconsistent judicial interpretation of the statutory phrase \"without the knowledge or consent of that owner.\" Some jurisdictions give this phrase a conjunctive meaning by requiring an owner to prove both lack of knowledge and lack of consent to defeat a forfeiture. Other jurisdictions interpret the phrase disjunctively", "are for Prisons,\" and \"Free People Move Freely.\" In her speech Gericke said:\nWhen I say liberty, I mean as enshrined in the Constitution, and specifically the 4th Amendment, which says: 'The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.'\nSHALL NOT BE VIOLATED. It doesn’t say, except when X or Y happens. It doesn’t say except", "judgment of the Florida Supreme Court. Donald Ayer argued for Bostick, and the ACLU submitted an amicus curiae brief on Bostick's behalf. Opinion of the Court The Fourth Amendment forbids \"unreasonable\" searches and seizures. When the police detain a person for any length of time, it is a \"seizure\" within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. The Court has found not all seizures to be unreasonable, and much Fourth Amendment law consists of explaining what makes certain governmental actions \"unreasonable.\"\nJustice O'Connor began by reciting certain basic ideas about what does not make a seizure unreasonable. It is not unreasonable for", "of Parliament specifying rights or protections at common law) can be seen today in Commonwealth nations like Australia and New Zealand, where police officers are still required at common law to issue \"Miranda-style\" warnings (but which are completely unrelated to the US Miranda warning ruling) and inform arrested persons that they do not have to answer any questions but that whatever they do say (or do) can be used in court as evidence. The police must also determine whether the arrested persons understand these rights. Any failure to do so can jeopardize a criminal prosecution. While differing slightly from the" ]

[ "Since rewinding needs to be done for each playback, what makes you think it is the rewinding which causes quality loss? Tapes lose quality over time whether you play them or not due to breakdown of the binder and dry lubricant. Rewinding is no more damaging than playback if the VCR is functioning correctly. \n\nThere is a phenomenon called [print-through](_URL_0_) which transfers signal from one layer to the next. Professional audio engineers often store reel to reel tapes \"tails out\". That means without rewinding. It doesn't stop print-through, but it does make it happen later rather than earlier, so on playback it will be heard after a track rather than before.\n\nSource: 40 years experience in broadcast VTR/VCR maintenance.", "VHS tapes are a magnetic tape (that contains the information) wrapped over two spindles. Your VCR scans the tape as it goes from one spindle to the other, and you see the information. Moving the tape back and forth between the spindles and through the read/record head stresses the tape, and damages it over time. Damage on the tape results in lower quality picture and sound.", "Tapes store the video or audio information on a magnetic \"tape\", and basically what happens is, as it gets used over several years, the magnetic tape loses its magnetism a little bit, so you get \"lowered quality\" in the data." ]

[ "stored indefinitely without deterioration, some digital formats (like MiniDV) place tracks only about 10 micrometers apart (compared with 19–58 μm for VHS). A digital recording is more vulnerable to wrinkles or stretches in the tape which could erase data, but tracking and error-correction code on the tape compensates for most defects. On analog media, similar damage registers as \"noise\" in the video, leaving a deteriorated (but watchable) video. DVDs may develop DVD rot, losing large chunks of data. An analog recording may be \"usable\" after its storage media deteriorates severely, but slight media degradation in digital recordings may trigger an", "in Video8 systems tend to be more advanced in order to mitigate the format's vulnerability to dropouts. In this respect, VHS's and Betamax's larger head drums proved advantageous. Lifespan of 8mm tapes 8mm tapes should be stored vertically, out of direct sunlight, in a dry, cool, dust-free environment. As with any media, they will eventually deteriorate and lose their recorded contents over time, resulting in a buildup of image noise and dropouts. Tapes more than 15 years old may start to show signs of degradation. Among other problems, they can become sticky, jamming playback units, or become brittle and", "respectively, but at the cost of reduced-quality images.) Longer sessions generally require additional infrastructure (line power or more batteries), and hence longer recording times offer little advantage in a true travelling environment.\nVideo8/Hi8's main drawback is that tapes made with Video8 camcorders cannot be played directly on VHS hardware. Although it is possible to transfer tapes (using the VCR to rerecord the source video as it is played back by the camcorder), this inevitably leads to degradation of the analog signal. During the 1990s Sony did market a few VHS VCRs that also feature an 8mm deck to allow convenient transfer", "common among DVD players. Some DVD players have cache features which stores a certain amount of the video in RAM which allows the player to index a DVD as quickly as an LD, even down to the frame in some players.\nDamaged spots on a LaserDisc can be played through or skipped over, while a DVD will often become unplayable past the damage. Some newer DVD players feature a repair+skip algorithm, which alleviates this problem by continuing to play the disc, filling in unreadable areas of the picture with blank space or a frozen frame of the last readable image and", "applications, a large buffer size also increases the latency between input and output, which is undesirable in low-latency applications such as video conferencing. CD and DVD recording issues Buffer underruns can cause serious problems during CD/DVD burning, because once the writing is started, it cannot stop and resume flawlessly; thus the pause needed by the underrun can cause the data on the disc to become invalid. Since the buffer is generally being filled from a relatively slow source, such as a hard disk or another CD/DVD, a heavy CPU or memory load from other concurrent tasks can easily exhaust the", "the linear tape speed becomes much lower than what is commonly considered a satisfactory minimum for audio recording. Copy protection As VHS was designed to facilitate recording from various sources, including television broadcasts or other VCR units, content producers quickly found that home users were able to use the devices to copy videos from one tape to another. Despite the generation loss, this was regarded as a widespread problem, which the members of the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) claimed caused them great financial losses. In response, several companies developed technologies to protect copyrighted VHS tapes from casual duplication", "its center as it is spun and read. As a result, playback would not wear the information-bearing part of the discs, and properly manufactured LDs would theoretically last beyond a lifetime. By contrast, a VHS tape held all of its picture and sound information on the tape in a magnetic coating which is in contact with the spinning heads on the head drum, causing progressive wear with each use (though later in VHS's lifespan, engineering improvements allowed tapes to be made and played back without contact). The tape was also thin and delicate, and it was easy for a player", "The layer change can exhibit a noticeable pause in some DVD players, up to several seconds. This caused more than a few viewers to worry that their dual layer discs were damaged or defective, with the end result that studios began listing a standard message explaining the dual layer pausing effect on all dual layer disc packaging.\nThe stacked, shine-through arrangement of layers does come with a small increase in error rate due to reduced reflectivity of the written layers, and a similar small risk of crosstalk interference. One of the techniques employed to help compensate for these reliability shortcomings is", "subject to change and re-writes. They are also ideal for home DVD video recorders, where it is advantageous to have a rewritable format capable of digital video data speeds, while being removable, small, and relatively inexpensive. Another benefit to using a rewritable disc is, if the burning process produces errors or corrupted data, it can simply be written over again, corrected. In other words, One benefit to using a rewritable disc is, if there are writing errors when recording data, the disc is not ruined and can still store data by erasing the faulty data. DVD-R and DVD-RW (DVD “dash”)", "in some DVD players, up to several seconds. This caused more than just a few viewers to worry that their dual-layer discs were damaged or defective, with the end result that studios began listing a standard message explaining the dual-layer pausing effect on all dual-layer disc packaging.\nDVD recordable discs supporting this technology are backward compatible with some existing DVD players and DVD-ROM drives. Many current DVD recorders support dual-layer technology, and the price is now comparable to that of single-layer drives, though the blank media remain more expensive. The recording speeds reached by dual-layer media are still well below those", "once it has begun.\nHowever, storage conditions certainly seem to contribute to the speed of the decay, as some bronzed CDs were already reported as unreadable in the mid-1990s, whereas others were still playable as recently as 2012. As it was noted that CDs stored in paper sleeves were deteriorating sooner and faster than CDs stored in jewel cases, it is likely that storing CDs in an acid-free environment might slow down the bronzing effect. A minimum measure would be to remove the booklet and paper inlay from the CD's jewel case, though it might be advisable to store affected CDs", "can suspend and resume the recording process in such a way that the gap the stoppage produces can be dealt with by the error-correcting logic built into CD players and CD-ROM drives. The first of these drives were rated at 12× and 16×.\nWhile drives are burning DVD+R, DVD+RW and all Blu-ray formats, they do not require any such error correcting recovery as the recorder is able to place the new data exactly on the end of the suspended write effectively producing a continuous track (this is what the DVD+ technology achieved). Although later interfaces were able to stream", "it will cause permanent damage to shellac, master and one-time recordings (acetate, wax and lacquer). Preservation Each medium - including digital media - has benefits and drawbacks and over the long term, vinyl records may even have advantages over digital media. Due to the nature of the medium, playback of \"hard\" records, e.g.: LPs, causes gradual degradation of the recording. CDs, however, can also have degradation due to \"CD rot\" and other abnormalities. CDs' shelf life has been disputed as to whether it is to be the equivalent of vinyl- which actually can last for years of playback. CDs also", "manual, or bundled brochures or pamphlets.\nIn the late 1990s, buffer underruns became a very common problem as high-speed CD recorders began to appear in home and office computers, which—for a variety of reasons—often could not muster the I/O performance to keep the data stream to the recorder steadily fed. The recorder, should it run short, would be forced to halt the recording process, leaving a truncated track that usually renders the disc useless.\nIn response, manufacturers of CD recorders began shipping drives with \"buffer underrun protection\" (under various trade names, such as Sanyo's \"BURN-Proof\", Ricoh's \"JustLink\" and Yamaha's \"Lossless Link\"). These", "prevent overload, a modern digital system may compress input signals so that digital full-scale cannot be reached Physical degradation Unlike analog duplication, digital copies are exact replicas that can be duplicated indefinitely and without generation loss, in principle. Error correction allows digital formats to tolerate significant media deterioration though digital media is not immune to data loss. Consumer CD-R compact discs have a limited and variable lifespan due to both inherent and manufacturing quality issues.\nWith vinyl records, there will be some loss in fidelity on each playing of the disc. This is due to the wear of the stylus in", "distributed across the DVD. DVD Shrink can automatically re-compress video, to as little as 39% of its original size, depending on the aspect ratio of the original DVD (with a corresponding loss in quality) to allow it to fit on a standard DVD±R(W), a Dual-Layer DVD+R, or any user-defined custom size. When \"Deep Analysis\" and \"Adaptive Error Compensation\" options are selected, the quality of the resulting DVD is improved. These options are more time-consuming because DVD Shrink runs through the DVD once doing the analysis, and then again doing the transcoding. The transcoder in DVD Shrink was unusual at the", "the VHS releases, as they seem a lot cleaner and have more vibrant colour. In addition, a number of white lines appear momentarily, possibly indicating that the picture was taken from a degraded video source rather than original film elements. The picture is also cropped into 16:9 format, occasionally cropping off part of a signpost or graffiti gag in the process. Finally, although the DVD release version is split into the original six minute segments, the original end credits sequences have been replaced by a new set of credits made for the DVD.\nIn September 2013, the series in its original", "a given disc very quickly. By comparison, VHS would require tedious rewinding and fast-forwarding to get to specific points.\nLaserDiscs were initially cheaper than videocassettes to manufacture, because they lacked the moving parts and plastic outer shell that are necessary for VHS tapes to work, and the duplication process was much simpler. A VHS cassette has at least 14 parts including the actual tape while LaserDisc has one part with five or six layers. A disc can be stamped out in a matter of seconds whereas duplicating videotape required a complex bulk tape duplication mechanism and was a time-consuming process. However,", "disc is updated every time it is used. Due to DVD-Video not being able to take advantage of defect management and the extra overhead of background finalising after each edit or recording, the +VR mode has always been the least reliable, and the editing features may be missing on some DVD recorders to make it more robust.\nBecause Video Mode and VR mode are Forum standards, they are only used when recording to DVD approved formats i.e. DVD-RAM/DVD-RW/DVD-R discs. DVD+RW isn't approved by the DVD Forum and manufacturers can't get a license for it to use the above modes, leading Philips", "\"all or nothing\" failure; the digital recording will be unplayable without extensive restoration. Recording media Older digital camcorders record video onto tape digitally, microdrives, hard drives, and small DVD-RAM or DVD-Rs. Newer machines since 2006 record video onto flash memory devices and internal solid-state drives in MPEG-1, MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 format. Because these codecs use inter-frame compression, frame-specific editing requires frame regeneration, additional processing and may lose picture information. Codecs storing each frame individually, easing frame-specific scene editing, are common in professional use.\nOther digital consumer camcorders record in DV or HDV format on tape, transferring content over FireWire or USB", " Another alternative is a lengthy transfer to a computer for viewing. Finally, since machines will soon no longer be manufactured, maintenance of current recorders may prove difficult.\nD-VHS's primary advantage is that it is still the best way to archive encrypted high definition material from cable programming. Cable, satellite companies, TiVo, and PCs equipped with cable card tuners all offer high-definition digital video recorders, but archival has proven to be an obstacle, as proprietary boxes have restrictions on moving encrypted content. Outside of D-VHS, only HD capture devices that use an analog conversion process, such as the Hauppauge", "tape over the heads and guides meant that the tape still did wear, and eventually that wear would lead to digital errors and permanent loss of quality if the tape was not copied before reaching that point. Still, digital reel-to-reel tape represented a significant advance in audio recording technology, and most who could afford to record using digital tape generally did.3M's 32-track recorder was priced at $115,000. 1978.\nBest known for its lines of tape media and professional analog recorders, with its M series of multitrack and 2-track machines, the Mincom division of 3M spent several years developing a digital recording", "which are not part of the official DVD-Video specification, include Sony ARccOS Protection, Macrovision RipGuard, X-protect, ProtectDisc SecureBurn, Anaho, Fortium, and others. All of these methods have been circumvented (as might have been expected, since all standard DVD players naturally circumvent them to play and navigate the discs normally). Riplock is a feature that reduces drive noise during playback but inadvertently reduces ripping speed. Disabled user operations DVD-Video allows the disc to specify whether or not the user may perform any operation, such as selecting a menu, skipping chapters, forwarding or rewinding – essentially any function on the remote control.", "disc or tapes deteriorate over time. The main question related to digital preservation is what and how much should be preserved. To make the preservation of digital media cost effective, standardization of different media format is required. Following are the three possible approaches. Technology preservation, emulation, and migration In technology preservation, both hardware and software related to digital information are preserved. This may not be cost effective because changes to hardware and different versions of software need to be either maintained or constantly upgraded.\nIn emulation, some emulator software programs will mimic the hardware and software of the original data and", "of so-called \"back-catalogue\" titles stored in the archives of recording labels, thanks to the fact that labels can now convert old recordings and distribute them digitally at a fraction of the cost of physically reissuing albums on LP or CD. Digital audio has also enabled dramatic improvements in the restoration and remastering of acoustic and pre-digital electric recordings, and even freeware consumer-level digital software can very effectively eliminate scratches, surface noise and other unwanted sonic artefacts from old 78rpm and vinyl recordings and greatly enhance the sound quality of all but the most badly damaged records. In the field of", "back in more recent DVD players that support it.\nVideo mode is the standard DVD video mode format used by DVD movies. Because the DVD Video format was invented before DVDs were recordable it doesn't allow editing of the disc, doesn't support defect management and is therefore not as robust. Space from deleted titles may not be fully reclaimed until the disc is completely erased. It is compatible with most DVD players. It is used on DVD-RW and DVD-R discs, but has never used for DVD-RAM. Most (but not all) recorders that use DVD-RW will offer the choice of VR mode", "DVD-R and CD-R media. Sectors can be rewritten at random (though in packets at a time). These media can be erased entirely at any time, making the disc blank again, ready for writing a new UDF or other file system (e.g., ISO 9660 or CD Audio) to it. However, sectors of -RW media may \"wear out\" after a while, meaning that their data becomes unreliable, through having been rewritten too often (typically after a few hundred rewrites, with CD-RW).\nThe plain and VAT builds of the UDF format can be used on rewriteable media, with some limitations. If the plain build", "time of its release in that it employs compressed domain video processing technology to avoid a full decode and re-encode of the video stream. This boosts performance significantly as only part of the video stream is decoded and scraped.\nDVD Shrink operates in two main modes, \"Reauthor\" and \"Full Disk\".\nIn \"Reauthor\" mode, the interface allows the user to choose specifically which DVD elements (Main Title, Menus, audio tracks and subtitles, and Special Features) to retain on the \"shrunken\" DVD; the Menu clips are stored in folders and some of them are playable. The compression is automatic if the Main Title only", "strong performance in the rental market (e.g., cult films).\nVHS became the leading consumer tape format for home movies after the \"videotape format war\", though its follow-ups S-VHS, W-VHS and D-VHS never caught up in popularity. In early 2000's in the prerecorded video market, VHS began to be displaced by DVD. The DVD format has several advantages over VHS tape. A DVD is much better able to take repeated viewings than VHS tape, which can crack or break, which makes DVDs a better format from a rental store's perspective. As well, whereas a VHS tape can be erased if it is", "function correctly in both video and audio. The cut was made for video and a portion of audio then re-copied into the correct relationship, the same technique as for editing 16mm film with a combined magnetic audio track.\nThe disadvantages of physically editing tapes were many. Some broadcasters decreed that edited tapes could not be reused, in an era when the relatively high cost of the machines and tapes was balanced by the savings involved in being able to wipe and reuse the media. Others, such as the BBC, allowed reuse of spliced tape in certain circumstances as long as it" ]

[ "Librarian here.\n\nA lot of that stuff comes from stores and reserves from other libraries in the system. My library authority has been around since 1890 and has accumulated decades of stuff that due to archiving policies /librarian OCD hoarding we never throw out, For example we have 23 libraries in our group with over 750,000 items. Around a 1/6 of that stock is reserves and then rotated to other libraries so it appears new to the customers of that branch.\n\nEncyclopaedias are really common actually, especially older ones we have around 10 full sets of the most common things like Britannica and Oxford. Any book dealer will most likely have a few sets kicking around if you are short.\n\nIn the UK the British Library has virtually every book and periodical ever published, I assume the Library of Congress is the same in US and we can get copies of stuff from them. \n\nTL:DR a combination of stuff hidden in basements and storage supplemented by specialist periodical providers" ]

[ "The Last Bookstore History The store was founded in 2005 by Josh Spencer. The first incarnation was a downtown Los Angeles loft. They sold books and other things online only, then focused on books, opened a small bookstore in December 2009 on 4th and Main streets. They moved to the current incarnation in the Spring Arts Tower at 5th and Spring streets on June 3, 2011. The store is 22,000 square feet. The current store is in a former bank with books on two levels, including the former vault.\nVox reported that the store creates visual merchandising through creative displays, which", "publishing, distribution, and promotion of books, but public events, social events, and community-building. List of bookstores This list is meant to include past and present \"brick-and-mortar\" bookstores. Bookstores that were once \"brick-and-mortar\", but have moved online, should be included. Bookstores that have only ever been solely online vendors should be listed separately.", "main store underwent a major renovation and expansion, with the addition of an elevator, air conditioning, and a re-organization of the floors to make browsing easier for shoppers. It also begin to sell discounted new books and non-book merchandise.\nThe bookstore had 70,000 books in its early years, which increased by the mid-1960s to 500,000. By the 1990s it had 2.5 million books, which necessitated the renting of a warehouse in Sunset Park, Brooklyn. At that time, the oldest book for sale in the Strand is an edition of Magna Moralia, which is priced at $4,500. The most expensive", "be either part of a chain, or local independent bookstores. Stores can range in size offering from several hundred to several hundred thousand titles. They may be brick and mortar stores or internet only stores or a combination of both. Sizes for the larger bookstores exceed half a million titles. Bookstores often sell other printed matter besides books, such as newspapers, magazines and maps; additional product lines may vary enormously, particularly among independent bookstores. Colleges and universities often have their own student bookstore on campus that focuses on providing course textbooks and scholarly books, although some on-campus bookstores are owned", "Library of Things Library of Things describes collections of things other than books that are being loaned like books, for no charge. A library of things can loan out kitchen appliances, tools, gardening equipment and seeds, electronics, toys and games, art, science kits, craft supplies, musical instruments, recreational equipment, and more. These new types of loaner collections vary widely, but go far beyond the books, journals, and media that have been the primary focus of library collections in the past.\nThe Library of Things movement is a growing trend in public, academic, and special libraries in many countries. There are also", "old book is my new book\" \"Your old book is my new book\" is an ongoing campaign which aims to collect, repair and redistribute the used school textbooks amongst the schools in villages and areas in need. This project was the kickoff for EWB. It started in 2011 with collecting 5,000 textbooks and reached more than 8,000 textbooks this year. Schools rehabilitation project \"hit & run\" \"Hit & run\" has an objective to restore and rehabilitate old school buildings in coordination with the residents to create a more fitting environment for students.\nThe project started mid-year last year (2011) in two", "library is based on a promised gift of 20,000 books from board members Stanley Abercrombie and Paul Vieyra. Housed in the Pamela and John Story Gallery, the museum's current collection of 2,500 art, architecture and design books serve as a public reference source. In 2016 the Museum Store opened, replacing the Museum Cafe, specializes in uniquely designed products made by local artists as well as international gifts of all kinds. The one of a kind museum setting offers educational, inspirational and fun products. In 2018 SVMA rolled out with a new logo by Mende Design in San Francisco.", "by large chains such as WHSmith or Waterstone's in the United Kingdom, or Barnes & Noble College Booksellers in the United States, which is a private firm controlled by the chair of Barnes & Noble.\nAnother common type of bookstore is the used bookstore or second-hand bookshop which buys and sells used and out-of-print books in a variety of conditions. A range of titles are available in used bookstores, including in print and out of print books. Book collectors tend to frequent used book stores. Large online bookstores offer used books for sale, too. Individuals wishing to sell their used books", "and new publishers offering their eBooks and audiobooks. Major retailers utilizing Content Reserve include Borders Group, eFollett.com, Harlequin, and WH Smith.", "The library collects a great number and variety of art books and journals. The library is an open-shelf, non-lending library which means that the books and journals are freely accessible on shelves in the reading room, but may only be read there. Museum shop The museum shop offers books, watches and jewellery, model construction kits, calendars, collectible items, DVDs, and other items. Beside zeppelin souvenirs, all available publications on the collection themes and catalogues of the exhibits can also be acquired.", "books directly from dozens of member libraries.\nThe library is supported primarily though public funds through library taxes levied by its board of trustees, but also through private donations, book sales, and fees for services such as printing and faxing.\nThe district boasts a collection of more than 17,000 items, including books, magazines, audiobooks, music CDs, movies, and eBook readers. In February, 2011, the district became the first library in the region to offer eBook readers to patrons for check-out.", "bookstores, though it may vary how complete their collection is.", "owns and maintains all of the original library grounds, gardens, and buildings as well as the collections of artifacts and rare books.", "made with education book selling. Engineering books are often taken on rent for a semester or 2 and returned after use. With the online space roaring, newer start ups have emerged in online book renting. In engineering book stores, you order books and pay Cash on Delivery, after usage you collect back up to 70% of the invoice back. Presence Online libraries and rental companies have come with a national presence and are trying to reach other smaller cities by using courier companies and the postal service to deliver books. These new ventures have become popular with the trend", "Library system in which a librarian fetched the books. Main Library The Main Library consists of two buildings. The older wing, completed on May 6, 1925 and renovated between 1997 and 1999, has five stories, each as high as two stories in most buildings. The renovations included the restoration of Dominance of the City a large mural painted by Ora Coltman in 1934 for the Federal Arts Project. The painting was restored by the Intermuseum Conservation Association.\nIn 1957, the library purchased the six-story Plain Dealer Building at 710 Superior Avenue (now the site of the Louis Stokes Wing). The library", "the financing for the new library when they approved a $1.6 million bond measure in November 1995. Construction began soon after and the new building opened its doors in April 1997. Collection The library collection consists of over 200,000 books, periodicals, CDs, DVDs, and audio books in print and electronic formats. The library also boasts a robust digital library of research databases, ebooks, emagazines, and streaming videos.", "company is planning to expand its offerings to further markets in 2016. Book offerings The platform currently includes book titles in Danish, Swedish, Dutch and English, both in writing and audio. Book titles from a vast array of publishing houses, among them Gyldendal, Nordstedts, HarperCollins, Lindhardt og Ringhof, Simon & Schuster and Penguin Random House are currently offered in the platform.", "2013, replaced the original library (demolished in 2010). The new library is twice the size of the old one, and has won numerous awards, from design through completion.", "of printed primary and secondary literature, and a wide range of microfilm and online primary sources. About 80% of the library's printed collection is available as open-shelf material, with the remainder, including all works published before 1920, held underground in a climate-controlled bookstack. The library and institute were opened by US President Bill Clinton in May 2001.", "the books offered for sale, and often detail previously unpublished manuscript and other material. They are often cited by researchers in on-line and printed publications. At the request of customers and researchers, the older catalogs are now kept in an online archive. \nWeiser Antiquarian Books is now primarily an internet retailer, and does not maintain an open shop, but is open to established customers by prior appointment.", "books with annual acquisitions valued at over 3 million U.S. dollars. As of 2017, Bilkent University Library is the largest university library of Turkey, and it is the only university library to rank in the top 10 libraries in the country.\nIn addition to books, the collection includes periodical subscriptions, microforms, CD-ROM, access to numerous online databases and electronic journals, DVD, VHS and audio cassettes. Sheet music and sound recordings are available in the music rooms. The library also hosts a number of private collections and an exhibition hall. Academics The university offers 33 undergraduate majors, together with 32 graduate", "year. An average of 550 new books are being added to the library in each year.", "than the original price.\" While from a publishing perspective, this sounds like a good balance of library lending and protecting themselves from a feared decrease in book sales, libraries are not set up to monitor their collections as such. They acknowledge the increased demand of digital materials available to patrons and the desire of a digital library to become expanded to include best sellers, but publisher licensing may hinder the process. Recommendation systems Many digital libraries offer recommender systems to reduce information overload and help their users discovering relevant literature. Some examples of digital libraries offering recommender systems are IEEE", "15 new books every year, mainly in the New Age, non-fiction genre through their partnership with Atria Books. Independently they are wholesalers of their titles for international distribution, and operate Beyond Distribution as a subsidiary for releases of other media such as videos. The company has its editors, designers, and printers work with each author, which is atypical in the publishing world. Their philosophy helped turn the company into a \"national leader\", or as Susan Reich of Publishers Group West stated, \"They are one of a few independent publishers who can do beautiful photography books, very finely produced.\"", "Goodreads, which will supply them with the information needed to find their new book. The library system also offers a Speakers Bureau, where library staff will visit civic organizations, homeowners associations, and volunteer groups to give presentations on the services and opportunities available at the library. \nEach library offers many different forms of media such as books, comics, DVDs, CDs, magazines, newspapers digital ebooks, audiobooks and many other options. Physical media items can be requested from neighboring libraries and then delivered at a later date for pick up. Electronic and digital items can be located and downloaded from associated programs", "American Bookbinders Museum The American Bookbinders Museum is a small, not-for-profit museum in San Francisco, California, dedicated to showcasing the artistry, history, and craft of bookbinding.\nThe museum, which opened in 2009, is located in the South of Market neighborhood exhibits bookbinding machinery, with a focus on the transition inthe 1800s from bookbinding by craftsmen, to bookbinding machinery. The Museum, a nonprofit corporation, is the project of Tim James, the owner of the nearby Taurus Bookbindery, an artisanal business where books are custom bound by hand.\nThe New York Times described it as, \"a small, obsessive collection of machinery and ephemera.\"", "the Friends of the Library (established in 1954) with a bi-annual book sale, usually in October and April. The Friends of the Library book sale is the largest of its kind in the state of Florida, with 500,000 books, magazines, videos, puzzles, games, and more available for sale. The book sale also has a Collector's Corner, which specializes in rare books, including first editions, signed copies, and Florida-related materials. The sale offers more than 64 categories of books, including general fiction, classics, cookbooks, children's and young adult fiction, and comic books. Proceeds from the sale fund different programs benefiting the", "can best be described using a sample. In the following the business model of a book publishing house is presented.\nBook publishers are companies that have two components to consider: profit-orientation and a cultural dimension. They usually publish titles which are produced by external authors. The sales of books in the receiver markets are the main part of the revenue model of a book publisher. Other revenues can be generated in the rights and licensing markets. Further sources for revenues are utilization rights generating revenue outside of the printing sector. For example, successful manuscripts are used for film, television, magazines and", "a claim to be the oldest bookshop in the United Kingdom, with books having been sold on the site since 1581. The Bowes & Bowes shop closed in 1986 and it was taken over by Sherratt & Hughes, which itself closed in 1992. Since then, the site has become the Cambridge University Press bookshop.", "For those wishing to purchase an item, the library has a Book Sale occurring on the library's Main Floor. The library accepts donations of books, tapes/CDs, old maps, old postcards, children's books, and magazines. Art on display The library has a variety of different art forms all over the library. Prominently displayed occupying several stories of the entry is \"Ghostwriter\" – a suspended wire sculpture by Ralph Helmick and Stuart Schechter that can be seen from every floor of the library." ]

[ "Basically, in the 1950s things were very ... basic. Conservative values reigned, the biggest fashion was \"normal\". Some today still think of this as our golden age (unless you're a minority or a woman), but everything was very inside-the-box type thinking. Buy a house with a white picket fence, get a job at the local company, have 2.5 kids, etc.\n\nAt the same time, the US was introduced to Eastern Philosophy and psychedelic drugs. These had existed before, but for various reasons they became more widely available. Beat Generation authors learned about and experienced these things and decided to reject the \"normal\" values. Specifically, they wrote books/poetry about explicitly sexual things, about raw human emotions, about abnormal things like homosexuality, drugs, leaving materialism in favor of a spiritual quest, etc. \n\nThis obviously was not met with praise from the \"normal\" folk, though it was hugely popular with the youth. Eventually a clash happened in the form of a trial over whether Allen Ginsberg's famous poem Howl could be censored/banned because it was obscene. The beat poet won, and really liberalism won, as it was declared that the poem had redeeming social value (which is a pretty interesting thing, that the courts basically gave a stamp of legitimacy to a cultural trend). \n\nAs far as stereotypes vs. real, it is hard to say. It was a huge struggle breaking out of the \"normal\", but it quickly gave way to the hippies and counterculture in the 60s and 70s. People who followed the Beat ideas were mostly authentic, but it would be hard to tease out a \"philosophy\" other than \"we should rebel and form a new philosophy\". Still, as far as being interesting, it definitely is. Ginsberg (Howl) and Jack Kerouac (On the Road) are definitely the two main authors to check out, and both works are relatively short. Also Naked Lunch is fairly famous, and similarly, themed. \n\nOne thing to keep in mind, though, is that along with everything else these guys were purposely rejecting normal narrative style and story structure. So, if you try to read them like a \"normal\" story, you will think it is not good. But if you appreciate what they're trying to do, trying to have an authentic mental/spiritual experience in a very conservative and boring society, it is pretty interesting.", "I think u/animalprofessor covered most of it, but I can add that you might be able to piece out some philosophical ideas from Kerouac's books Desolation Angels and Dharma Bums. I think that the void and a search for truth underlying a lot of what he wrote, and he was said to capture the generation. Also, the movie The Last Time I Committed Suicide is, at the very least, a pretty cool movie based around the character Dean Moriarty, who Kerouac wrote affectionately about, and at most, a reflection of the desires of that generation.", "You must read Kerouac's \"On the Road\", Ginsberg's \"Howl\" and Burrough's \"Naked Lunch\". They're canon. \n\nIf they interest you, you can branch out to those author's other works and also to the more \"minor\" Beats and their associates. \n\nI'd specifically recommend John Clellon Holmes' \"Go\", Neal Cassady's \"The First Third\" and Carolyn Cassady's biography of Neal." ]

[ "embraced the beatniks, or at least found the parodies humorous (Ginsberg, for example, appreciated the parody in the comic strip Pogo) others criticized the beatniks as inauthentic poseurs. Jack Kerouac feared that the spiritual aspect of his message had been lost and that many were using the Beat Generation as an excuse to be senselessly wild. \"Hippies\" During the 1960s, aspects of the Beat movement metamorphosed into the counterculture of the 1960s, accompanied by a shift in terminology from \"beatnik\" to \"hippie\". Many of the original Beats remained active participants, notably Allen Ginsberg, who became a fixture of the anti-war", "and Beat Generation. This suggested that beatniks were (1) \"far out of the mainstream of society\" and (2) \"possibly pro-Communist.\" Caen's term stuck and became the popular label associated with a new stereotype—the man with a goatee and beret reciting nonsensical poetry and playing bongo drums while free-spirited women wearing black leotards dance.\nAn early example of the \"beatnik stereotype\" occurred in Vesuvio's (a bar in North Beach, San Francisco) which employed the artist Wally Hedrick to sit in the window dressed in full beard, turtleneck, and sandals, creating improvisational drawings and paintings. By 1958 tourists who came to San Francisco", " Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase \"Beat Generation\" in 1948, generalizing from his social circle to characterize the underground, anti-conformist youth gathering in New York at that time. The term \"beatnik\" was coined by Herb Caen of the San Francisco Chronicle in 1958, and the stereotypical \"beat\" look of sunglasses, berets, black turtlenecks, and unadorned dark clothing provided another fashion alternative for youths of both sexes, encouraged by the marketing specialists of Madison Avenue. New Look Revolution On 12 February 1947 at 10.30 a.m. Christian Dior, aged 42, presented his first collection at 30 Avenue Montaigne, which was strewn with", "Baby\". Criticism The Beat Generation was met with scrutiny and assigned many stereotypes. Several magazines, including Life and Playboy, depicted members of the Beat Generation as nihilists and as unintellectual. This criticism was largely due to the ideological differences between American culture at the time and the Beat Generation, including their Buddhist-inspired beliefs.\nNorman Podhoretz, a student at Columbia with Kerouac and Ginsberg, later became a critic of the Beats. His 1958 Partisan Review article \"The Know-Nothing Bohemians\" was a vehement critique primarily of Kerouac's On the Road and The Subterraneans, as well as Ginsberg's Howl. His central criticism is that", "Beat Generation The Beat Generation was a literary movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-war era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized throughout the 1950s. The central elements of Beat culture are the rejection of standard narrative values, making a spiritual quest, the exploration of American and Eastern religions, the rejection of economic materialism, explicit portrayals of the human condition, experimentation with psychedelic drugs, and sexual liberation and exploration.\nAllen Ginsberg's Howl (1956), William S. Burroughs' Naked Lunch (1959) and Jack Kerouac's On the Road (1957)", "Beatniks art Beatniks art is the direction of contemporary art that originated in the United States as part of the beatniks movement in the 1960s. The movement itself, unlike the so-called \"lost generation\" did not set itself the task of changing society, but tried to distance itself from it, while at the same time trying to create its own counter-culture. The art created by artists was influenced by jazz, drugs, occultism, and other attributes of beatniks movement.\nThe scope of the activity was concentrated in the cultural circles of New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco and North Carolina. Prominent representatives of", "to Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar, the perceived madness of the state of affairs in America was brought to the forefront of the nation's literary expression. Immigrant authors such as Vladimir Nabokov, with Lolita, forged on with the theme, and, at almost the same time, the beatniks took a concerted step away from their Lost Generation predecessors, developing a style and tone of their own by drawing on Eastern theology and experimenting with recreational drugs.\nThe poetry and fiction of the \"Beat Generation\", largely born of a circle of intellects formed in New York City around Columbia University and established more", "movement. Notably, however, Jack Kerouac broke with Ginsberg and criticized the 1960s politically radical protest movements as an excuse to be \"spiteful\".\nThere were stylistic differences between beatniks and hippies—somber colors, dark sunglasses, and goatees gave way to colorful psychedelic clothing and long hair. The beats were known for \"playing it cool\" (keeping a low profile),\nBeyond style, there were changes in substance: The Beats tended to be essentially apolitical, but the hippies became actively engaged with the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. Literary legacy Among the emerging novelists of the 1960s and 1970s, a few were closely connected with", "being applied to a generation was conceived by Jack Kerouac who told Holmes, \"You know, this is really a beat generation.\" The term later became part of common parlance when Holmes published an article in The New York Times Magazine entitled \"This Is the Beat Generation\" on November 16, 1952 (pg.10). In the article, Holmes attributes the term to Kerouac, who had acquired the idea from Herbert Huncke. Holmes came to the conclusion that the values and ambitions of the Beat Generation were symbolic of something bigger, which was the inspiration for Go.\nLater in life, Holmes taught at the University", "Beatniks (novel) Beatniks: An English Road Movie (1997) is a novel by British author Toby Litt set in Bedford in The United Kingdom in 1995, and concerns the adventures of a group of young people who admire the Beat Writers and Musicians of the 1950s and 1960s America. Initially published by Secker & Warburg in 1997. Plot summary Mary (a recent graduate from University) meets Jack, Maggie and Neal at a party and learns that despite it being The UK of 1995, they yearn for the life of a Beatnik in 1960s America. Fascinated by the group (especially the handsome,", "and became friends of figures associated with the San Francisco Renaissance.\nIn the 1960s, elements of the expanding Beat movement were incorporated into the hippie and larger counterculture movements. Neal Cassady, as the driver for Ken Kesey's bus Further, was the primary bridge between these two generations. Ginsberg's work also became an integral element of early 1960s hippie culture. Origin of name Kerouac introduced the phrase \"Beat Generation\" in 1948 to characterize a perceived underground, anti-conformist youth movement in New York. The name arose in a conversation with writer John Clellon Holmes. Kerouac allows that it was Huncke, a street hustler,", "Offbeat generation The Offbeat generation was a loose association of like-minded writers working across different styles but united by their opposition to a mainstream publishing industry driven by marketing departments. The term—coined by Andrew Gallix in 3:AM Magazine in February 2006—was a pun on the Beat Generation but more likely to be associated with the Chemical generation immediately before it (who were anthologised at the Repetitive Beat Generation also).\nIn August 2007 Arena wrote of them: \"Young, untamed, good-looking and as influenced by punk rock as they are by Proust, a new wave of loosely-linked writers dubbed The Off-Beat Generation", "Big-beat (Eastern Bloc) Big-beat (also caled 'big beat' or 'bigbit') is a term used in Eastern Bloc countries in the 1960s to cover rock and roll and related genres, as the original name was unaccepted by communist authorities.\nGenres of American origin, such as jazz, twist and especially rock and roll were banned or at least hardly tolerated in Eastern Bloc countries in the mid 20th century. Such music was considered as an element of American imperialism. Despite the official attitude, a number of jazz bands were formed in those countries. In 1950s these bands included some rock and roll elements", "almost entirely composed of echoes and reiterations of his previous work ... He was definitely one of the fathers of the postmodern movement in fiction which has continued undermining the ideas of logical coherence in narration, formal plot, regular time sequence, and psychologically explained characters.\nThe \"Beat Generation\" was the youth of America during the materialistic 1950s; Jack Kerouac, who coined the term, developed ideas of automatism into what he called \"spontaneous prose\" to create a maximalistic, multi-novel epic called the Duluoz Legend in the mold of Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time. More broadly, \"Beat Generation\" often includes several", "at the infamous 1968 Democratic National Convention, and was friends with Abbie Hoffman and other members of the Chicago Seven. Stylistic differences between beatniks, marked by somber colors, dark shades and goatees, gave way to colorful psychedelic clothing and long hair worn by hippies. While the beats were known for \"playing it cool\" and keeping a low profile, hippies became known for displaying their individuality.\nOne early book hailed as evidencing the transition from \"beatnik\" to \"hippie\" culture was Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me by Richard Fariña, brother-in-law of Joan Baez. Written in 1963, it", "role in their lives. From what began as the Beatlemania fad, the group's popularity grew into what was seen as an embodiment of sociocultural movements of the decade. As icons of the 1960s counterculture, Gould continues, they became a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women's liberation, gay liberation and environmentalism. According to Peter Lavezzoli, after the \"more popular than Jesus\" controversy in 1966, the Beatles felt considerable pressure to say the right things and \"began a concerted effort to spread a message of wisdom and higher consciousness\".\nOther commentators such as", "are among the best known examples of Beat literature. Both Howl and Naked Lunch were the focus of obscenity trials that ultimately helped to liberalize publishing in the United States. The members of the Beat Generation developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists, who celebrated non-conformity and spontaneous creativity.\nThe core group of Beat Generation authors — Herbert Huncke, Ginsberg, Burroughs, Lucien Carr, and Kerouac — met in 1944 in and around the Columbia University campus in New York City. Later, in the mid-1950s, the central figures, with the exception of Burroughs and Carr, ended up together in San Francisco, where they met", "and another called the Artistiekelingen, who can be compared to the bohemian artists of pre-world-war France. The Nozems spent their time listening to rock and roll music, driving motorcycles through town and picking up ladies while the Artistiekelingen would discuss philosophy, paint, draw and listen to jazz music. 1960s In the 1960s, the beats (AKA beatniks) grew to be an even larger subculture, spreading around the world. Other 1960s subcultures included radicals, mods, rockers, bikers, hippies and the freak scene. One of the main transitional features between the beat scene and the hippies was the Merry Pranksters' journey across the", "the trend were artists: Wallace Berman, Jay Defoe, Jes Collins, Robert Frank, Claes Oldenburg and Larry Rivers.\nThe culture of the beatniks generation has become a kind of intersection for representatives of the creative intellectual of the United States associated with visual and visual art, which are usually attributed to other areas and trends of artistic expression, such as assemblage, happening, funk art and neo-dadaism. They made efforts to destroy the wall between art and real life, so that art would become a living experience in cafes or jazz clubs, and not remain the prerogative of galleries and museums. Many works", "wrote and released a contemporary homage to Jack Kerouac and Beat Generation aesthetics entitled \"Beat Generation\" on the 1988 album Quake City.\nMusician Mark Sandman, who was the bass guitarist, lead vocalist and a former member of the alternative jazz rock band Morphine, was interested in the Beat Generation and wrote a song called \"Kerouac\" as a tribute to Jack Kerouac and his personal philosophy and way of life.\nThe band Aztec Two-Step recorded \"The Persecution & Restoration of Dean Moriarty (On the Road)\" in 1972.\nThere was a resurgence of interest in the beats among bands in the 1980s. Ginsberg worked with", "entitled \"The Know-Nothing Bohemians\", writes that \"the plain truth is that the primitivism of the Beat Generation serves first of all as a cover for an anti-intellectualism so bitter that it makes the ordinary American's hatred of eggheads seem positively benign\".", "as fresh and pertinent as the latest scholarly history, only far more entertaining.” The Beats tells the story of Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and John Clellon Holmes who became known as The Beat Generation. This cultural revolution is seen through the eyes of the movement's key figures and its minor characters including Diane di Prima, Carolyn Cassady, Philip Lamantia, and others. The startlingly original graphic non-fiction work was highly praised in Vanity Fair: “Editor Paul Buhle’s graphic history The Beats—with riffs from cats such as Harvey Pekar and Trina Robbins—burns like a Roman candle.”\nPiskor's Eisner Award winning", "alleged spontaneity of Kerouac's style. Later career: 1957–1969 In July 1957, Kerouac moved to a small house at 1418½ Clouser Avenue in the College Park section of Orlando, Florida, to await the release of On the Road. Weeks later, a review of the book by Gilbert Millstein appeared in The New York Times proclaiming Kerouac the voice of a new generation. Kerouac was hailed as a major American writer. His friendship with Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and Gregory Corso, among others, became a notorious representation of the Beat Generation. The term Beat Generation was invented by Kerouac during a", "people the late 1960s:\nIt is the girls that give the show away - culottes, glossy leather, mini-skirts, boots - driving up in Mini-Coopers ... Rebellious sentiment is more obvious among the boys: long hair, square spectacles, Che Guevara [Cuban revolutionary, died 1967] beards. The picture in Nanterre in May was lots and lots of painted dollies cohabiting with unkempt revolutionaries. America: the beat generation and flower power In the United States adherents of the \"beat\" counter-culture (probably best defined by Jack Kerouac's novel, On the Road, set in the late 1940s, written in 1952 and published in 1957) were associated", "the hippie with the back beat...\" Another use around the same time was on the 1963 Freddy Cannon single on Swan Records, \"Do What The Hippies Do\". In addition, The Stereos, a doo-wop group who had already released their 1959 single \"Memory Lane\" under the alias \"the Tams\" (not the more famous group The Tams), re-released the recording yet again in 1963 under the name of \"the Hippies\". Pejorative use To the Beat Generation that had been active since the 1940s, the flood of youths in the 1960s adopting beatnik sensibilities appeared as a cheap, mass-produced imitation. By Beat", "reflected on the attacks of 9/11 and America's reaction to this incident in relation to other occurrences in America Sexuality One of the key beliefs and practices of the Beat Generation was free love and sexual liberation, which strayed from the Christian ideals of American culture at the time. Some Beat writers were openly gay or bisexual, including two of the most prominent (Ginsberg and Burroughs). Some met each other through gay connections, including David Kammerer's interest in Lucien Carr. Considered racy at the time, Kerouac's writings are now considered mild. On the Road mentions Neal Cassady's bisexuality without comment,", "the economics of the record business in ways that far outstripped the earlier pop explosions triggered by the Elvis phenomenon of 1956 and the Beatlemania phenomenon of 1963\".\nThe group's popularity and influence grew into what was seen as an embodiment of socio-cultural movements of the decade. In Gould's view, they became icons of the 1960s counterculture and a catalyst for bohemianism and activism in various social and political arenas, fuelling movements such as women's liberation and environmentalism. A 1997 study titled \"Beatlemania: A sexually defiant consumer subculture?\" argued that Beatlemania represented a proto-feminist demonstration of girl power. In their 1986", "conversation held with fellow novelist Herbert Huncke. Huncke used the term \"beat\" to describe a person with little money and few prospects. \"I'm beat to my socks\", he had said. Kerouac's fame came as an unmanageable surge that would ultimately be his undoing.\nKerouac's novel is often described as the defining work of the post-World War II Beat Generation and Kerouac came to be called \"the king of the beat generation,\" a term with which he never felt comfortable. He once observed, \"I'm not a beatnik. I'm a Catholic\", showing the reporter a painting of Pope Paul VI and saying, \"You", "projection of joy. The beatnik thing was black, cynical, and cold.\" The Beats tended to be cagey, keeping their lives discreet (save for the few who published, in literary bursts, about their perceptions, enthusiasms, and activities); in a word, they generally “kept cool.” The young hippies were far more numerous, less wary, and had scarcely any inclination to keep their lifestyles concealed.\nThe new music was loud and community-connected: bands sometimes presented free concerts in Golden Gate Park and \"happenings\" at the city's several psychedelic clubs and ballrooms. The many bands that formed signalled a shift from one subculture to the", "2007. Style Kerouac is generally considered to be the father of the Beat movement, although he actively disliked such labels. Kerouac's method was heavily influenced by the prolific explosion of\njazz, especially the Bebop genre established by Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk, and others. Later, Kerouac included ideas he developed from his Buddhist studies that began with Gary Snyder. He often referred to his style as \"spontaneous prose.\" Although Kerouac's prose was spontaneous and purportedly without edits, he primarily wrote autobiographical novels (or roman à clef) based upon actual events from his life and the people with whom he interacted.\nMany" ]

[ "> Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, far stronger than O2. It is also **unstable at high concentrations**, decaying to ordinary diatomic oxygen. [...] In a sealed chamber, with fan moving the gas, ozone has a **half-life of approximately a day at room temperature**.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nTL;DR: It is very unstable. It will decay fairly quickly; half of the ozone you make today will be gone tomorrow, turned into regular oxygen gas." ]

[ "because there are no by-products. When its job is done, ozone gas quickly degrades into oxygen. Ozone is more effective than chlorine in destroying viruses and bacteria.\nIn 1990, the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) identified aqueous ozone as a substance that is allowed for use in organic crop and livestock production. In 1997, it was approved by the FDA as an antimicrobial agent for use on food. In 2002, the FDA approved ozone for use on food contact areas and directly on food with its Generally Regarded as Safe (“GRAS”) designation.\nOzone is most commonly created by a process called “corona", "and impose strict codes on appliance manufacturers and installers against gas leakage.\nNevertheless environmental experts see the production of oxides of nitrogen as a major menace in the formation of greenhouse gases and photochemical smog. The interaction of NOx with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhausts and sunlight, can also form low level ozone. In the stratosphere (some 25 km up). Ozone is helpful by absorbing the fiercer part of the ultraviolet radiation of the sun, but at ground level it damages materials and vegetation. It irritates throat, lungs and eyes, and strenuous exercise or work can become painful. Furthermore, the effectiveness of", "instability makes it dubious that it has any effect on the ozonosphere.\nIt is the world's largest single natural generator of ozone, lending calls for it to be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Consumers Devices generating high levels of ozone, some of which use ionization, are used to sanitize and deodorize uninhabited buildings, rooms, ductwork, woodsheds, boats and other vehicles.\nIn the U.S., air purifiers emitting low levels of ozone have been sold. This kind of air purifier is sometimes claimed to imitate nature's way of purifying the air without filters and to sanitize both it and household surfaces. The United", "at the tropopause. About 90% of total ozone in the atmosphere is in the stratosphere, and 10% is in the troposphere. Although tropospheric ozone is less concentrated than stratospheric ozone, it is of concern because of its health effects. Ozone in the troposphere is considered a greenhouse gas, and may contribute to global warming.\nPhoto-chemical and chemical reactions involving ozone drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the troposphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations (the largest source being emissions from combustion of fossil fuels), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.\nPhotolysis of ozone", "such as nitrogen gases present in ambient air. This method of generation can achieve concentrations of 20–30% and is independent of air quality because water is used as the source material. Production of ozone electrolytically is typically unfavorable because of the high overpotential required to produce ozone as compared to oxygen. This is why ozone is not produced during typical water electrolysis. However, it is possible to increase the overpotential of oxygen by careful catalyst selection such that ozone is preferentially produced under electrolysis. Catalysts typically chosen for this approach are lead dioxide or boron-doped diamond.\nThe ozone to oxygen ratio", "the important environmental contaminants. In addition, because ozone is a gas, adding ozone to the bottom of the contaminant pool forces the ozone to rise up through the contaminants and react. Because of this property, ozone can also be delivered more quickly. Also, in theory, H\n₂O\n₂ co-injected with ozone will result in -OH ions, which are very strong oxidants.\nHowever, ozone has many properties that pose problems. Ozone reacts with a variety of contaminants, but the problem is that it also reacts quickly with many other substances such as minerals, organic matter, etc. that are not the targeted substances. Again, it", "ozone was present at ground level before the Industrial Revolution, peak concentrations are now far higher than the pre-industrial levels, and even background concentrations well away from sources of pollution are substantially higher. Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas, absorbing some of the infrared energy emitted by the earth. Quantifying the greenhouse gas potency of ozone is difficult because it is not present in uniform concentrations across the globe. However, the most widely accepted scientific assessments relating to climate change (e.g. the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report) suggest that the radiative forcing of tropospheric ozone is about", "known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when O\n₂ combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O\n₂ by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet. Near the Earth's surface, it is a pollutant formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft.\nThe metastable molecule tetraoxygen", "due to pollutants in the air released by heavy industry (manufacturing plants, refineries, coal-fired power plants). Therefore, Ozone Action Days occur most frequently in the Midwestern United States. In recent years, many sites have taken steps to help reduce the amount of pollutants they discharge.\nSecondary sources include automotive emissions (leaky auto exhaust systems, excessive engine idling) and liberal use of household chemicals or sprays. Surface Ozone Limits In 2008, the EPA created “non-attainment areas” for ozone in which ozone levels shall not exceed the federal standard of 75 parts per billion averaged over the course of three years. The EPA", "reduce the amount of chlorine or bromine required by reactivating them to their free state. Since ozone does not remain in the water long enough, ozone by itself is ineffective at preventing cross-contamination among bathers and must be used in conjunction with halogens. Gaseous ozone created by ultraviolet light or by corona discharge is injected into the water.\nOzone is also widely used in treatment of water in aquariums and fishponds. Its use can minimize bacterial growth, control parasites, eliminate transmission of some diseases, and reduce or eliminate \"yellowing\" of the water. Ozone must not come in contact with fishes' gill", "deplete the ozone layer. This is because the depletion is caused by the chlorine atoms in CFCs, which dissociate when struck by UV radiation. Carbon–fluorine bonds are stronger and less likely to dissociate.\nAccording to Guinness World Records Tetrafluoromethane is the most persistent greenhouse gas.\nMain industrial emissions of tetrafluoromethane besides hexafluoroethane are produced during production of aluminium using Hall-Héroult process. CF₄ also is produced as product of the breakdown of more complex compounds such as halocarbons. Health risks Due to its density, tetrafluoromethane can displace air, creating an asphyxiation hazard in inadequately ventilated areas.", "Ozone Layer and Greenfreeze The Ozone layers surrounding the Earth absorb significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation. A 1976 report by the US Academy of Sciences supported the ozone \"depletion hypothesis.\" Its suffering large losses from chlorinated and nitrogenous compounds was reported in 1985. Earlier studies had led some countries to enact bans on aerosol sprays, so that the Vienna Convention was signed in 1985 the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to go in force two years later. The use of CFCs and HCFCs in refrigeration were and are among the banned technologies. A German technological institute developed an ozone-safe", "their effluent water disinfection.\nOzone (O₃) is generated by passing oxygen (O₂) through a high voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O₃. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated on-site as needed from the oxygen in the ambient air. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone", "trace amounts of other molecules, such as argon and carbon dioxide. It contains over 99% of the mass of the Earth's atmosphere. The density of air decreases with height in the homosphere. Variations in concentration One large-scale exception to effective mixing is the ozone layer, centered at about 20 - 30 km in altitude, where the concentration of O₃ is much higher than in the rest of the atmosphere. This is due to incoming ultraviolet light, which turns O₂ into O₃. This created ozone itself blocks most ultraviolet light from penetrating to lower layers of the atmosphere and creating similar", "for many years because stratospheric ozone shields the Earth's surface (and its inhabitants) from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Since recent declines in stratospheric ozone have been linked to human activity, accurate long-term measurements of ozone remain crucial.\nIt is important to monitor ozone levels in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere since observed trends are the largest and most poorly understood at those altitudes. SAGE III's high vertical resolution and long-term stability make it uniquely well suited to make these measurements. SAGE III will also be able to look at the relationship between aerosol, cloud, and chemical processes affecting ozone argue for", "the University of Michigan had shown that Cl is even more efficient than NO at catalyzing the destruction of ozone. Similar conclusions were reached by Michael McElroy and Steven Wofsy at Harvard University. Neither group, however, had realized that CFCs were a potentially large source of stratospheric chlorine—instead, they had been investigating the possible effects of HCl emissions from the Space Shuttle, which are very much smaller.\nThe Rowland–Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is \"a science fiction tale", "Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Background During the 1970's, research indicated that man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) reduce and convert ozone molecules in the atmosphere. CFCs are stable molecules composed of carbon, fluorine, and chlorine that were used prominently in products such as refrigerators. The threats associated with reduced ozone pushed the issue to the forefront of global climate issues and gained promotion through organizations such as the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations. The Vienna Convention was agreed upon at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and entered into force in 1988. The Vienna Convention provided the", "ozone production, no air prep systems are used (air dryer or oxygen concentrator), therefore these generators tend to be less expensive. However UV ozone generators usually produce ozone with a concentration of about 0.5% or lower which limits the potential ozone production rate. Another disadvantage of this method is that it requires the ambient air (oxygen) to be exposed to the UV source for a longer amount of time, and any gas that is not exposed to the UV source will not be treated. This makes UV generators impractical for use in situations that deal with rapidly moving air", "than the top. Tubes are built into the ground to transport the ozone to its starting place; the bubbles then rise to the surface. Whatever volatile substances are left over are sucked up by a vacuum pump. Because the bubbles travel more vertically than horizontally, close placement of ozone injection wells is needed for uniform distribution.\nThe biggest advantage in using ozone in ISCO is that ozone does not leave any residual chemical like persulfate leaves SO²⁻\n₄ or permanganate leaves MnO\n₂. The processes involved with ozonation (treating water with ozone) only leave behind O\n₂. Ozone can also react with many of", "10–25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of ozone-depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. A gradual trend toward \"healing\" was reported in 2016. Research history The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short-wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen (O\n₂) molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which", "occurs at wavelengths below approximately 310-320 nano-meters. This reaction initiates the chain of chemical reactions that remove carbon monoxide, methane, and other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere via oxidation. Therefore, the concentration of tropospheric ozone affects how long these compounds remain in the air. If the oxidation of carbon monoxide or methane occur in the presence of nitrogen monoxide (NO), this chain of reactions has a net product of ozone added to the system. Measurement Ozone in the atmosphere can be measured by remote sensing technology, or by in-situ monitoring technology. Because ozone absorbs light in the UV spectrum, the most", "where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from the fleet of, then proposed, supersonic transport (SST) airliners(a few hundred Boeing 2707s), which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer; however more recent analysis has disputed this", "likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.\nThe residual effects of CFCs accumulating within the atmosphere lead to a concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the ocean. This organohalogen compound is able to dissolve into the ocean's surface waters and is able to act as a", "is improved by increasing current density at the anode, cooling the electrolyte around the anode close to 0°C, using an acidic electrolyte (such as dilute sulfuric acid) instead of a basic solution, and by applying pulsed current instead of DC. Special considerations Ozone cannot be stored and transported like other industrial gases (because it quickly decays into diatomic oxygen) and must therefore be produced on site. Available ozone generators vary in the arrangement and design of the high-voltage electrodes. At production capacities higher than 20 kg per hour, a gas/water tube heat-exchanger may be utilized as ground electrode and assembled with", "regulations set a limit of 250 nmol/mol with a maximum four-hour average of 100 nmol/mol. Some planes are equipped with ozone converters in the ventilation system to reduce passenger exposure. Production Ozone generators are used to produce ozone for cleaning air or removing smoke odours in unoccupied rooms. These ozone generators can produce over 3 g of ozone per hour. Ozone often forms in nature under conditions where O₂ will not react. Ozone used in industry is measured in μmol/mol (ppm, parts per million), nmol/mol (ppb, parts per billion), μg/m³, mg/h (milligrams per hour) or weight percent. The regime of", "some other oxidizing reagents. Ozone While oxygen is a very strong oxidant, it's elemental form O\n₂ is not very soluble in water. This poses a problem in ground water remediation, because the chemical must be able to mix with water to remove the contaminant. Fortunately, ozone (O\n₃) is about 12 times more soluble than O\n₂ and, although it is still comparably insoluble, it is a strong oxidant.\nThe unique part of ozone oxidation is its in-situ application. Because, unlike other oxidants used in ISCO, it is a gas, it needs to be injected into the contamination site from the bottom rather", "as much as 50% to 100%. According to Train, this could lead to greater ground-level heat and hamper the formation of ozone. Later, an additional threat to the ozone was found in the exhaust's nitrogen oxides, a threat that was later validated by MIT. More recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and others found that the drop in ozone would be from 1 to 2% if a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft was operated. Fahey expressed the opinion that this would not be a fatal obstacle for an", "to as the photostationary state (PSS). However, because of the presence of Reaction 2 and 3, NOₓ and ozone are not in a perfect steady state. By replacing Reaction 6 with Reaction 2 and Reaction 3, the O₃ molecule is no longer destroyed. Therefore, the concentration of ozone keeps increasing throughout the day. This mechanism can escalate the formation of ozone in smog. Other reactions such as the photooxidation of formaldehyde (HCHO), a common secondary pollutant, can also contribute to the increased concentration of ozone and NO₂. Photochemical smog is more prevalent during summer days since incident solar radiation fluxes", "that is, to produce ~2 °C of cooling.\nIn 1969, Paul Crutzen discovered that oxides of nitrogen (NOx) could be an efficient catalyst for the destruction of the ozone layer/stratospheric ozone. Following studies on the potential effects of NOx generated by engine heat in stratosphere flying Supersonic Transport (SST) airplanes in the 1970s, in 1974, John Hampson suggested in the journal Nature that due to the creation of atmospheric NOx by nuclear fireballs, a full-scale nuclear exchange could result in depletion of the ozone shield, possibly subjecting the earth to ultraviolet radiation for a year or more. In 1975, Hampson's hypothesis \"led", "strong and responsible for ozone being an important minor greenhouse gas. This IR band is also used to detect ambient and atmospheric ozone although UV-based measurements are more common.\nThe electronic spectrum of ozone is quite complex. An overview can be seen at the MPI Mainz UV/VIS Spectral Atlas of Gaseous Molecules of Atmospheric Interest.\nAll of the bands are dissociative, meaning that the molecule falls apart to O + O₂ after absorbing a photon. The most important absorption is the Hartley band, extending from slightly above 300 nm down to slightly above 200 nm. It is this band that is responsible for absorbing" ]

[ "Say you have a recipe for a chocolate cake. Except instead of saying 1 cup of sugar, the recipe says 1 cup of salt. Every time someone makes a cake using that recipe, it's going to taste like crap.\n\nModern medicine is like trying to fix the cake once it's already made. You can add sugar to the top of the cake after the fact, or try to cut out the saltiest parts of the cake. Sometimes, you can try to tell each baker not to add the salt individually. But the best way to fix the problem is the correct the recipe. That's what gene therapy tries to do.\n\nGenes are like recipes for your body. DNA is like the letters in the sentences. Proteins are like the cake. Gene therapy is about cutting out letters and adding new ones so that you get the proper proteins at the end of it.\n\nThe possibilities are endless. There are a ton of diseases that are caused by genetic problems. Some like cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia are directly caused by genetic problems. Others like cancer, heart disease, diabetes, etc. are hugely influenced by genes. If you can rewrite disease causing genes, you can eliminate these illnesses at the source.\n\nThe therapy doesn't exist yet. There are lots of experiments, but no one has quite figured it out yet. Once they do, they'll almost certainly cure some major diseases, and win some Nobel Prizes. The most promising idea is to use a virus to help us. Viruses already rewrite genes. Usually when they do, it hurts us. But if you can get a virus to \"join our side\" they can be used to rewrite genes in ways that help people. \n\nGene therapy has a potential downside though. If you can rewrite genes to make people not get disease, what's to stop people from rewriting genes so their kids are 7-foot tall, blonde hair, blue eyed genius supermodels? What happens to people who can't afford the therapy? Genetics does everything possible to create diversity in a society, but gene therapy reduces it. If everyone decides they want to have blonde haired children, what happens when a disease comes along that only kills blonde haired people? There might not be enough non-blonde kids left to continue the human race.\n\nOverall, gene therapy is a remarkable idea that can help billions of people. It has ethical risks, but the benefits would likely far exceed the potential for harm." ]

[ "of the disorders in an attempt to improve patient quality of life.\nGene therapy refers to a form of treatment where a healthy gene is introduced to a patient. This should alleviate the defect caused by a faulty gene or slow the progression of disease. A major obstacle has been the delivery of genes to the appropriate cell, tissue, and organ affected by the disorder. How does one introduce a gene into the potentially trillions of cells which carry the defective copy? This question has been the roadblock between understanding the genetic disorder and correcting the genetic disorder.", "gene therapy widely accepted as a success was demonstrated in a trial that started on 14 September 1990, when Ashi DeSilva was treated for ADA-SCID.\nThe first somatic treatment that produced a permanent genetic change was initiated in 1993. The goal was to cure malignant brain tumors by using recombinant DNA to transfer a gene making the tumor cells sensitive to a drug that in turn would cause the tumor cells to die.\nGene therapy is a way to fix a genetic problem at its source. The polymers are either translated into proteins, interfere with target gene expression, or possibly correct genetic", "Gene therapy may be classified into two types: Somatic In somatic cell gene therapy (SCGT), the therapeutic genes are transferred into any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte, or undifferentiated stem cell. Any such modifications affect the individual patient only, and are not inherited by offspring. Somatic gene therapy represents mainstream basic and clinical research, in which therapeutic DNA (either integrated in the genome or as an external episome or plasmid) is used to treat disease.\nOver 600 clinical trials utilizing SCGT are underway in the US. Most focus on severe genetic disorders, including immunodeficiencies, haemophilia, thalassaemia, and cystic", "Gene therapy In the medicine field gene therapy (also called human gene transfer) is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease. The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980 by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989. The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990.It is", "a neurological disorder. Gene therapy has been proven effective at treating a variety of disorders, including neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease (PD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD), in rodent and non-human primate models, and in humans, via the application of neurotrophic factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and via the application of enzymes such as glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), which commonly use adeno-associated viruses (AAV) as a vector. Stem cells Stem cells, particularly induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), are utilized in translational neuroscience research as not only a", "Gene therapy for osteoarthritis Theory Passing from parents to children, genes are the building blocks of inheritance. They contain instructions for making proteins. If genes do not produce the right proteins in a correct way, a child can have a genetic disorder.\nGene therapy is a molecular method aiming to replace defective or absent genes, or to counteract the ones undergoing overexpression. For this purpose, three techniques may be utilized: gene isolation, manipulations, and transferring to target cells. \nThe most common form of gene therapy involves inserting a normal gene to replace an abnormal gene. Other approaches including repairing an abnormal", "Gene therapy can be broadly divided into two categories. The first is alteration of germ cells, that is, sperm or eggs, which results in a permanent genetic change for the whole organism and subsequent generations. This “germ line gene therapy” is considered by many to be unethical in human beings. The second type of gene therapy, “somatic cell gene therapy”, is analogous to an organ transplant. In this case, one or more specific tissues are targeted by direct treatment or by removal of the tissue, addition of the therapeutic gene or genes in the laboratory, and return of the treated", "blocks of the human body. Currently, therapeutic gene therapy is available to treat specific genetic disorders by editing cells in specific body parts. For example, gene therapy can treat hematopoetic disease. There is also a controversial gene therapy called \"germline gene therapy\", in which genes in a sperm or egg can be edited to prevent genetic disorder in the future generation. It is unknown how this type of gene therapy affects long-term human development. In the United States, federal funding cannot be used to research germline gene therapy. Education Bioethics is taught in courses at the undergraduate and graduate level", "Vectors in gene therapy Gene therapy utilizes the delivery of DNA into cells, which can be accomplished by several methods, summarized below. The two major classes of methods are those that use recombinant viruses (sometimes called biological nanoparticles or viral vectors) and those that use naked DNA or DNA complexes (non-viral methods). Viruses All viruses bind to their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of", "Just two months later in August 1974, Marjorie Thomas, John Cameron and Ronald W. Davis submitted a report for publication of a similar achievement.\nCollectively, these experiments represented the very start of the development of what would eventually become known as biotechnology or recombinant DNA methods. Gene therapy Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes that can cure diseases in human cells.These viruses can deliver DNA or RNA genetic material to the targeted cells. Gene therapy is also used by inactivating mutated genes that are causing the disease using viruses. \nViruses that have been used for gene therapy are,", "The goals of genetic counseling are to increase understanding of genetic diseases, discuss disease management options, and explain the risks and benefits of testing. Counseling sessions focus on giving vital, unbiased information and non-directive assistance in the patient's decision-making process. Seymour Kessler, in 1979, first categorized sessions in five phases: an intake phase, an initial contact phase, the encounter phase, the summary phase, and a follow-up phase. The intake and follow-up phases occur outside of the actual counseling session. The initial contact phase is when the counselor and families meet and build rapport. The encounter phase includes dialogue between the", "human cells are germline gene therapy and the engineered nuclease system CRISPR/Cas9. Germline gene therapy Gene therapy is the delivery of a nucleic acid (usually DNA or RNA) into a cell as a pharmaceutical agent to treat disease. Most commonly it is carried out using a vector, which transports the nucleic acid (usually DNA encoding a therapeutic gene) into the target cell. A vector can transduce a desired copy of a gene into a specific location to be expressed as required. Alternatively, a transgene can be inserted to deliberately disrupt an unwanted or mutated gene, preventing transcription and translation of", "gene therapy typically introduces a gene which can express only one transcript, rather than a set of stoichiometrically-expressed spliced transcript variants. Additionally, virally-introduced genes can be targeted for gene silencing by methylation which can counteract the effect of traditional gene therapy. This is not anticipated to be a problem for transcriptional modulation as it acts on endogenous DNA.\nThere are three major categories of agents that act as transcriptional gene modulators: triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs), synthetic polyamides (SPAs), and DNA binding proteins. What are they Triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFO) are one potential method to achieve therapeutic gene modulation. TFOs are approximately 10-40 base", "least one treatment available on the market.\nGene therapy aims to replace a missing protein in the body through the use of vectors, usually viral vectors. In gene therapy, a gene encoding for a certain protein is inserted into a vector. The vector containing the therapeutic gene is then injected into the patient. Once inside the body the vector introduces the therapeutic gene into host cells, and the protein encoded by the newly inserted gene is then produced by the body's own cells. This type of therapy can correct for the missing protein/enzyme in patients with lysosomal storage", "be tested against these mouse models. Also genetically modified pigs have been bred with the aim of increasing the success of pig to human organ transplantation.\nGene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans, generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. Clinical research using somatic gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including X-linked SCID, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease. In 2012, Alipogene tiparvovec became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use. In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a", "it is hard to say with certainty whether genetic counseling can be \"conceptualized as a short-term, applied, specific type of psychotherapy\". However, there few existing studies suggest that genetic counseling falls \"significantly short of psychotherapeutic counseling\" because genetic counseling sessions primarily consist of the distribution of information without much emphasis placed on explaining any long-term impacts to the client. Genetic counselors as support Genetic counselors provide supportive counseling to families, serve as patient advocates and refer individuals and families to community or state support services. They serve as educators and resource people for other health care professionals and for the", "with no apparent side effects. Traditionally, gene therapy has been divided into two categories: biological (viral) vectors and chemical or physical (nonviral) approaches. Although viral vectors are currently the most effective approach to delivering DNA into cells, they have certain limitations, including immunogenicity, toxicity, and limited capacity to carry DNA.\nOne factor critical to successful gene therapy is the development of efficient delivery systems. Although advances in gene transfer technology, including viral and non-viral vectors, have been made, an ideal vector system has not yet been constructed. Alternatives Microinjection is the predecessor to nanoinjection. Still used in biological research, microinjection is", "Transgenesis is the same as gene therapy in the sense that they both transform cells for a specific purpose. However, they are completely different in their purposes, as gene therapy aims to cure a defect in cells, and transgenesis seeks to produce a genetically modified organism by incorporating the specific transgene into every cell and changing the genome. Transgenesis will therefore change the germ cells, not only the somatic cells, in order to ensure that the transgenes are passed down to the offspring when the organisms reproduce. Transgenes alter the genome by blocking the function of a host gene; they", "in animals and showed a doubling in median survivals amongst patients with advanced-stage pancreatic cancer in phase I/II clinical trials, and a tripling in one-year survival rate. Gene therapy In treatment of genetic diseases, gene therapy aims to insert, alter or remove genes within an afflicted individual's cells. The technology relies heavily on viral vectors which raises concerns about insertional mutagenesis and systemic immune response that have led to human deaths and development of leukemia in clinical trials. Circumventing the need for vectors by using naked or plasmid DNA as its own delivery system also encounters problems such as low", "trial of gene therapy in humans and are now able to locate, identify, and describe the function of many genes in the human genome.\nResearch conducted by universities, hospitals, and corporations also contributes to improvement in diagnosis and treatment of disease. NIH funded the basic research on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), for example, but many of the drugs used to treat the disease have emerged from the laboratories of the American pharmaceutical industry; those drugs are being tested in research centers across the country.", "Gene therapy for epilepsy Gene therapy is being studied for some forms of epilepsy. It relies on viral or non-viral vectors to deliver DNA or RNA to target brain areas where seizures arise, in order to prevent the development of epilepsy or to reduce the frequency and/or severity of seizures. Gene therapy has delivered promising results in early stage clinical trials for other neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, raising the hope that it will become a treatment for intractable epilepsy. Overview Epilepsy refers to a group of chronic neurological disorders that are characterized by seizures, affecting over 50 million", "Once characterized and manipulated to provide signals for appropriate expression, cloned genes may be inserted into organisms, generating transgenic organisms, also termed genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Although most GMOs are generated for purposes of basic biological research (see for example, transgenic mouse), a number of GMOs have been developed for commercial use, ranging from animals and plants that produce pharmaceuticals or other compounds (pharming), herbicide-resistant crop plants, and fluorescent tropical fish (GloFish) for home entertainment. Gene therapy Gene therapy involves supplying a functional gene to cells lacking that function, with the aim of correcting a genetic disorder or acquired disease.", "used to treat all childhood leukemias. Four of these are standard treatment and one is in clinical trials. The four specific types of treatments that are traditionally used are Chemotherapy, Stem cell transplant, Radiation therapy and Targeted therapy. Immunotherapy is another type of therapy that is currently in clinical trials.\nChemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemicals to interfere with the cancer cells ability to grow and reproduce. Chemotherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies. Chemotherapy can be given either as a pill to swallow orally, an injection into the fat or muscle, through an IV directly", "cells to the patient. Clinical trials of somatic cell gene therapy began in the late 1990s, mostly for the treatment of cancers and blood, liver, and lung disorders.\nDespite a great deal of publicity and promises, the history of human gene therapy has been characterized by relatively limited success. The effect of introducing a gene into cells often promotes only partial and/or transient relief from the symptoms of the disease being treated. Some gene therapy trial patients have suffered adverse consequences of the treatment itself, including deaths. In some cases, the adverse effects result from disruption of essential genes within the", "Therapeutic gene modulation Therapeutic gene modulation refers to the practice of altering the expression of a gene at one of various stages, with a view to alleviate some form of ailment. It differs from gene therapy in that gene modulation seeks to alter the expression of an endogenous gene (perhaps through the introduction of a gene encoding a novel modulatory protein) whereas gene therapy concerns the introduction of a gene whose product aids the recipient directly.\nModulation of gene expression can be mediated at the level of transcription by DNA-binding agents (which may be artificial transcription factors), small molecules, or", "to produce pharmaceuticals and other proteins. They may also be engineered to have advantageous or useful traits. Green fluorescent protein is sometimes used as tags which results in animal that can fluoresce, and this have been exploited commercially to produce the fluorescent GloFish. Gene therapy Gene therapy is a promising treatment for a number of diseases where a \"normal\" gene carried by the vector is inserted into the genome, to replace an \"abnormal\" gene or supplement the expression of particular gene. Viral vectors are generally used but other nonviral methods of delivery are being developed. The treatment is still a", "cell, there can be a change in the expression of the genes or normalize them. Types of gene therapy There are several types of gene therapy. There are therapies for symptomatic approaches like the production of ectopic L-dopa, the full ectopic dopamine synthesis, the ectopic L-dopa conversion or the use of glutamic acid descarboxylase (GAD). Also there are disease modifying therapies like NTN or GNDF (glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor), the regulation of the α-synuclein and Parkin gene expression. Currently the main studies are using AAV2 as a vector platform, making it the standard vector for this disease although a", "fibrosis. Such single gene disorders are good candidates for somatic cell therapy. The complete correction of a genetic disorder or the replacement of multiple genes is not yet possible. Only a few of the trials are in the advanced stages. Germline In germline gene therapy (GGT), germ cells (sperm or egg cells) are modified by the introduction of functional genes into their genomes. Modifying a germ cell causes all the organism's cells to contain the modified gene. The change is therefore heritable and passed on to later generations. Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, Switzerland, and the Netherlands prohibit GGT for application", "applications such as gene therapy.", "Gene expression Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as transfer RNA (tRNA) or small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, the product is a functional RNA.\nThe process of gene expression is used by all known life—eukaryotes (including multicellular organisms), prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), and utilized by viruses—to generate the macromolecular machinery for life.\nSeveral steps in the gene expression process may be modulated, including the transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification of a protein. Gene regulation" ]

[ "It is entirely possible to be such a person, it's called statelessness.\n\nAt one point, Einstein was stateless. However, renouncing your citizenship means you have no protection by any state. This is very bad, as we are as a species very largely reliant on our respective corporate states of the world.\n\nI personally identify as a citizen of no country, if you wish to go stateless, I suggest you study the subject further and figure out how to survive without a state.", "There's was at one time something called a [Nansen Passport](_URL_0_) For stateless people." ]

[ "their own country, and dare not return. And in many cases the crime that they have committed is, I suspect, the unpardonable crime of poverty. Women who have held some kind of social position in their own country, and become impoverished, develop the not unreasonable idea that they can live more cheaply, and with more dignity, in a foreign hotel.\" The two women of the title are secondary casualties of World War I. The older woman's son has suffered mental damage, the younger woman's lover is unaccounted for. The older woman remembers her son as he used to be, as", "is economically or socially inactive, or lives outside of what is defined as the \"productive system\" or \"organized society\" could be classified as a nonperson. This is often the case of homeless and marginalized people in general. Another example has been the group of The Erased in Slovenia, about 25,000 people, who lost their legal status and therefore all social, civil, and political rights after Slovenia declared its independence in 1991, because they did not register themselves in due time as \"foreigners\".\nAlso, some legally detained prisoners can be considered to be in a quasi-nonperson status, temporarily or indefinitely, to different", "to follow one's own interests, especially when they are such as you have chosen; practically everyone would agree. But this also you must bear in mind, that none of us is born for himself alone; a part of our existence belongs to our country, a part to our parents, a part to our other friends, and a large part is given to the circumstances that command our lives. When our country calls us to public service it would, I think, be unnatural to refuse; especially since this means giving place to unworthy men, who enter public life for", "has reasonable grounds for believing that the person is able, under the law of a country or territory outside the United Kingdom, to become a national of such a country or territory.\" \nThe powers to strip citizenship were initially very rarely used. Between 2010 and 2015, 33 dual nationals had been deprived of their British citizenship. In the two years to 2013 six people were deprived of citizenship; then in 2013, 18 people were deprived, increasing to 23 in 2014. In 2017, over 40 people had been deprived as of July (at this time increased numbers of British citizens went", "who in the Old World does not know \"that the New World knows nothing of kings, princes and nobles?-that on those semi-virgin lands, in human societies born yesterday and scarcely yet consolidated, no one has the right or the power to call himself any greater than the very least of its citizens?\" Marriage In 1846, Gobineau married Clémence Gabrielle Monnerot, who had pressed for a hasty marriage as she was pregnant by their mutual friend Pierre de Serre who had abandoned her and as a good Catholic she did not wish to give birth to an illegitimate child. Monnerot had", "have been reserved to the people of this country, by their conduct and example, to decide the important question, whether societies of men are really capable or not of establishing good government from reflection and choice, or whether they are forever destined to depend for their political constitutions on accident and force. If there be any truth in the remark, the crisis at which we are arrived may with propriety be regarded as the era in which that decision is to be made; and a wrong election of the part we shall act may, in this view, deserve to be", "nation, whom you are bound to cherish. And certainly it is not lawful for you to put away the wives you have and marry others, or ally yourselves in marriage with a foreign people, a thing never done by any of your ancestors.... It is wicked of you even to entertain the thought of marrying again when you are already married. You ought not to act thus, who profess to follow the law of God, and punish others to prevent men acting in this unlawful manner. Such things do the heathen. But they ought not to be done by you", "Union. See Double criminality. Political nature of the alleged crime Many countries refuse to extradite suspects of political crimes. See political offence exception. Jurisdiction Jurisdiction over a crime can be invoked to refuse extradition. In particular, the fact that the person in question is a nation's own citizen causes that country to have jurisdiction (see next point). Own citizens Some countries, such as Austria, Brazil, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Russia, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland and Syria, forbid extradition of their own citizens. These countries often have laws", "a woman is to have one husband. \"Now concerning the matters about which you wrote: “It is good for a man not to have sexual relations with a woman.” 2 But because of the temptation to sexual immorality, each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband. 3 The husband should give to his wife her conjugal rights, and likewise the wife to her husband. 4 For the wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does. Likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does.", "survive where there is a need that they must work outside the home to help support the family. Culturally, countries get set in their ways and forget that the world is a different place than it was in the past. Women, such as Susana, must be able to voice their opinion because they too can help a country to better economically just as men can. It may be difficult for Eligio, and other men in Latin American countries to accept change, but women too our people that should be respected and that can have an impact. Agustín shows that the", "speak the language, don't know anyone and have no connection whatsoever with that country, apart from the formality of having been born there; they may be traumatised through experiences made in detention; they may be detained again as soon as they enter their country of origin; they may even be persecuted. Exclusion from protection Asylum seekers who have committed crimes against peace, a war crime or a crime against humanity, or other serious non-political crimes, or whose actions are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations, are excluded from international protection.", "man can have two wives, why can't a woman have two husbands?\"\nAs the town booms, the arrangement with Ben, Pardner, and Elizabeth works well for a while. But soon the town becomes large enough that civilized people from the East begin to settle there. A parson begins to make a determined effort to persuade the people of No Name City to give up their evil ways, warning the townsfolk that they will be swallowed up by God's wrath if they do not repent (\"The Gospel of No Name City\"). As the gold plays out, Ben and a group of miners", "when women cannot conceive, the blame is put on them, even when approximately 50% of infertility issues come from the man .\nIn addition, many societies only tend to value a woman if she is able to produce at least one child, and a marriage can be considered a failure when the couple cannot conceive. The act of conceiving a child can be linked to the couple’s consummation of marriage, and reflect their social role in society. This is seen in the \"African infertility belt\", where infertility is prevalent in Africa which includes countries spanning from Tanzania in the east to", "a Country, private person or group of people on account of race, skin colour, ethnic, national or social origin, gender, language, religion, political opinion or any other opinion, wealth, birth or any other status, sexual orientation or any other reason is strictly prohibited and punishable by suspension or expulsion.”\nThis letter has been supported and signed by more than 200 prominent Iranian academics, human-, civil- and political activists, political prisoners and artists.\nAt the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro she showed her banner during the volleyball games of the Iranian men's volleyball team. This action caused a lot of controversy.", "here set out have been won. The People Shall Govern! Every man and woman shall have the right to vote for and to stand as a candidate for all bodies which make laws; \nAll people shall be entitled to take part in the administration of the country; \nThe rights of the people shall be the same, regardless of race, colour or sex;\nAll bodies of minority rule, advisory boards, councils and authorities shall be replaced by democratic organs of self-government. All National Groups Shall Have Equal Rights! There shall be equal status in the bodies of state, in the courts and", "any person or persons whomsoever, for a term of service, within the United States for lewd and immoral purposes? Do you wish of your own free and voluntary will to go to the United States? Do you go to the United States for the purposes of prostitution? Are you married or single? What are you going to the United States for? What is to be your occupation there? Have you lived in a house of prostitution in Hong Kong, Macao, or China? Have you engaged in prostitution in either of the above places? Are you a virtuous woman? Do you", "a man will go and marry a man and a woman will go and marry a fellow woman. Then we also discussed the aspect of the psychological and mental trauma that the children of such union, whether adopted or not, will have to go through. For example when they go to school and they are asked; who are your parents? And they have to answer that their mummy and daddy are both men or are both female. This does not fit into a highly religious society like ours. There is nowhere in the world where God is worshipped like in", "are men whose family ties have been broken—\"womanless, voteless, and jobless men.\" Competent authorities estimate that about one-half of them are native Americans, and the other half men who have been uprooted by labor brokers and padrones from their native ethnic and social environments; voluntary or forced immigrants from the agricultural districts of Ireland, from the Welsh and Cornish mines, from the hungry hills of Italy, Serbia, Greece, and Turkish Asia Minor.\nBruere wrote of a \"pernicious system of sabotage\" by railroad corporations and other business interests, creating \"hobos, vagabonds, wayfarers—migratory and intermittent workers, outcasts from society and the industrial machine,", "a sample;\nThere is only one man in the world and his name is All Men. There is only one woman in the world and her name is All Women. There is only one child in the world and the child's name is All Children.\nPeople! flung wide and far, born into toil, struggle, blood and dreams, among lovers, eaters, drinkers, workers, loafers, fighters, players, gamblers. Here are ironworkers, bridge men, musicians, sandhogs, miners, builders of huts and skyscrapers, jungle hunters, landlords, and the landless, the loved and the unloved, the lonely and abandoned, the brutal and the compassionate — one big", "of the proceedings of the Council or the House of Keys had been kept.\n…in respect to government and laws, the Manks appear, in all ages to have been a distinct people, and in some degree an independent, or not annexed to any other kingdom… The people, however, beyond all written record, have clearly within claimed and enjoyed the right and privilege of being governed and regulated by laws of their own making, or consented to by themselves, or by their constitutional representative…\nTo maintain this independence of the Legislature, is held to be the first duty of every Manxman… they dread", "another country. There are however some exceptions. Statelessness A stateless person cannot apply for an OCI, however there is an open question if an OCI holder can be considered stateless (if they lose citizenship of the other country), so in countries where citizenship to dual citizens can be revoked, such as Australia an OCI holder may be disadvantaged, however, the lack of precedents in this area means that the issue is uncertain. United Kingdom In specific circumstances, acquiring Overseas Citizenship of India prevents British National (Overseas) and British Overseas citizens from registering as full British citizens under Section 4B of", "way. No woman can give birth to a child without a man.\"\n\n(2) \"The father of Christ was a young Jew and was no Angel Gabriel. Any girl who wants a child can call a Gabriel or some John.\"\n\n(3) \"Religion, capitalism, and government are all damned humbugs, liars, and thieves. Those three classes combine into one organization.\n\n(4) \"All religions are a deception of the people.\"\n\n(5) \"A young man came to Mary during the night, and, coming near her with a flower in his hand, took her by the hand and said: 'Sh; sh.' Look how the priests teach you, the falsifiers,", "in those countries. Therefore, women who wish to live as renunciates in those countries must do so by taking eight or ten precepts. Neither laywomen nor formally ordained, these women do not receive the recognition, education, financial support or status enjoyed by Buddhist men in their countries. These \"precept-holders\" live in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Nepal, and Thailand. In particular, the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has ruled that there can be no valid ordination of women in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations,", "final cause of statelessness is non-state territories. As per the definition of a stateless person, only states can have nationals. As a result, people who are \"citizens\" of non-state territories are stateless. This includes, for instance, residents of occupied territories where statehood has ceased to exist or never emerged in the first place. The Palestinian territories are the most prominent example. Others are Western Sahara and Northern Cyprus (depending on the interpretation of what constitutes statehood and sovereignty). An example not involving military occupation is American Samoa.\nWhile statelessness has existed for several centuries, the international community has only been concerned", "renounced, voluntarily relinquished or lost through action or inaction any citizenship or nationality. Previously such persons would have not had the right of abode in any country, and would have thus been de facto stateless. Despite strong resistance from Senior Officials at the Home Office, the then Home Secretary, David Blunkett, said on 3 July 2002 that this would \"right a historic wrong\" which had left stateless tens of thousands of Asian people who had worked closely with British colonial administrations. The Government of India has also issued clarifications in respect of people with these citizenships to assist with consideration", "be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their", "want to serve your country, your gender is not an issue.\"", "Statelessness By sex Although many states allow the acquisition of nationality through parental descent irrespective of where the child is born, some do not allow female citizens to confer nationality to their children. There are 27 countries in the world that do not grant equal rights to women in passing on their nationality. This can result in statelessness when the father is stateless, unknown, or otherwise unable to confer nationality. There have been recent changes in favor of gender neutrality in nationality laws, including reform processes in Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal that may inform change elsewhere. For example, Algeria amended", "Historically women have held the dwellings, horses and farmed land, and a woman's property before marriage has stayed in her possession without being mixed with that of her husband. Men and women have traditionally had separate roles but both hold real power in the Nations. The work of a woman's hands is hers to do with as she sees fit. Historically, at marriage, a young couple lived in the longhouse of the wife's family. A woman choosing to divorce a shiftless or otherwise unsatisfactory husband is able to ask him to leave the dwelling and take his possessions with him.\nThe", "groups of people out of power. She said, \"[w]hat's made of biology is that the people who are in power are going to figure out why this is a good reason for them to stay in power. Look at the tests that show that women have better linguistic abilities: Yet, how many of our ambassadors are women? How many of the politicians are women? This is not looked at; instead, the argument goes that women don't have the mathematical abilities ... every now and then. So we're much more likely now to be penalized for whatever we're assumed not to" ]

[ "Think of every single instrument making their vibrations - some loud, some soft, some brash, some smooth, some at one pitch, others at another.\n\nEvery one of those vibrations add up together and bounce against your eardrum in beautiful chaos. The specific way your eardrum vibrates as a result of all that is what your brain is able to process as all those sounds at once!\n\nNow, if you were able to draw the way your eardrum vibrates back and forth like a earthquake seismograph, now you have a line that makes the shape of the whole orchestra! Now just make a groove in that same exact shape, hook it up to a microphone, and now you have those sounds again, just like the instruments were there." ]

[ "recorded locked groove at the end, it is possible to record sound into the lead-in groove. King Crimson's USA (mentioned above) has this feature. George Harrison's Wonderwall Music and the Dead Kennedys' Plastic Surgery Disasters also start in the lead-in groove. Parallel grooves Also known as concentric grooves, it is possible to master recordings with two or more separate, interlaced spiral grooves on a side. Such records have occasionally been made as novelties. Victor made one as early as 1901. Depending on where the needle is dropped in the lead-in area, it will catch more or less randomly in one", "earlier part to form a circle. The sound is encoded by fine variations in the edges of the groove that cause a stylus (needle) placed in it to vibrate at acoustic frequencies when the disc is rotated at the correct speed. Generally, the outer and inner parts of the groove bear no intended sound (exceptions include the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Split Enz's Mental Notes).\nIncreasingly from the early 20th century, and almost exclusively since the 1920s, both sides of the record have been used to carry the grooves. Occasional records have been issued since then with", "reproduced on a rotating cylinder with a stylus (or \"needle\") attached to a diaphragm mounted at the narrow end of a horn. Emile Berliner invented the familiar lateral-cut disc phonograph record in 1888.\nIn addition to recreating recorded sounds by placing the stylus on the cylinder or disc and rotating it in the same direction as during the recording, one could hear different sounds by rotating the cylinder or disc backwards. In 1878, Edison noted that, when played backwards, \"the song is still melodious in many cases, and some of the strains are sweet and novel, but altogether different from the", "record in order to maintain loudness and make the groove traceable by the stylus of a record player using a low-quality phono cartridge. Often, sounds have been mastered with additional compression, limiting, and equalization. In order to reduce wear on the master tape most discs are not sourced from the original master. The source tape used may be many generations removed from the original. Typically, the engineer will cut the first pressing and a \"cutting master\" tape in parallel. Subsequent pressings are cut directly from the cutting master. Some pressings are cut from copies of the cutting master tape. Each", "live in the studio; the tracks were rendered into looped samples. Reznor took a similar approach to recording guitar parts: he would tape 20- to 25-minute-long sessions of himself playing guitars on a hard disc recorder with the Studio Vision sequencer.\nMost of the music was recorded into a Macintosh computer using a board and manipulated with music editor programs on the computer. Unique effects such as analyzing and inverting the frequency were applied to the tracks to create original sounds. The band would \"get an arrangement together\" and convert it into analog tape. Reznor sampled excerpts from guitar tracks and", "concept has been extended to the production of records consisting entirely of circular multiple bands to provide collections of infinite loop sound samples of duration limited to one revolution of the disc. Notable examples of this are the releases from RRRecords of the 7-inch RRR-100 (with 100 individual bands) and the 12-inch RRR-500 (with 500 bands) and RRR-1000 (with 1000 bands.) Sound recorded in locked grooves Most records have a locked groove at the end of each side or individual band. It is usually a silent loop that keeps the needle and tonearm from drifting into the label area. However,", "the recording or playback stylus. It was then wound onto a second reel. The sharp recording stylus, actuated by a sound-vibrated mica diaphragm, engraved a groove into the wax coating. In playback mode, a dull, loosely mounted stylus attached to a rubber diaphragm rode in the recorded groove. The reproduced sound was heard through rubber listening tubes like those of a stethoscope.\nThe position of the recording and reproducing heads, mounted alternately on the same two posts, could be adjusted so that several recordings could be cut on the same wax-coated strip. Although the machine was never developed commercially, it is", "high fidelity and other experiments During the same period engineers got a bright idea. Split the signal into two parts, bass and treble, and record the treble on its own track near the edge of the disc in a lateral format so that there would be no high-frequency distortion, and then record the bass on its own track in a vertical fashion to get rid of the rumble. Unfortunately, vertical grooves take up more space than lateral grooves; so when the bass track was full, starting halfway through the disc and ending up at the center, the treble track had", "to the \"master disc\" at the recording studio. From about 1950 on (earlier for some large record companies, later for some small ones) it became usual to have the performance first recorded on audio tape, which could then be processed or edited, and then dubbed on to the master disc. A record cutter would engrave the grooves into the master disc. Early versions of these master discs were soft wax, and later a harder lacquer was used. The mastering process was originally something of an art as the operator had to manually allow for the changes in sound which affected", "it is possible to record sound in this groove, and some artists have included looping audio in the locked groove.\nOne of the best-known examples of this technique was The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967). Many UK copies featured a multi-layered collage of randomized chatter in their run-off loops. However, two variations were made: the original British pressing (black label with gold logo) has the \"inner groove\" play through the entire locked groove and does not include the laughter at the beginning of the piece. The re-issue of the British pressing (black label with silver logo) starts playing", "of the record. The straight arm will not do this, and so will theoretically drag more as the record rotates, wearing down the grooves. Vestax however have consistently denied this. Turntables have been made for many years with straight tone arms and other varying designs. The crucial aspect of the record player is cartridge and stylus alignment which relates to how records are made (cut) Baerwald ca. 1941 showed that the tracking error of a pivoted stylus could be minimized if the stylus is aligned such that it is parallel to the groove at two points along its curved path.", "(in the era of shellac pressings and steel needles, needle wear considerations dictated an inside start for such a long recording) or with an outside start.\nLonger programs, which required several disc sides, pioneered the system of recording odd-numbered sides inside-out and even-numbered sides outside-in so that the sound quality would match from the end of one side to the start of the next. Although a pair of turntables was used, to avoid any pauses for disc-flipping, the sides had to be pressed in a hybrid of manual and automatic sequencing, arranged in such a manner that no disc being played", "their characteristic square center hole came in three sizes, 6 inches (known as \"Mail Chute\") that played for fifteen minutes per side, a 5-inch disc with 10 minutes of recording time per side, and 4-inch \"Memo Discs\" with eight minutes of recording time. The soft vinyl medium limited the number of times a disc could be played back without degradation of the audio quality.\nA SoundScriber is a plot device in the 1952 Joan Crawford film Sudden Fear.", "using the more common multi-track tape recording methods.\nTo make a direct-to-disc recording, musicians would typically play one 15-minute \"live\" set in a recording studio per LP side using professional audio equipment. The recording was made without multitrack recording and without overdubs. The performance was carefully engineered and mixed live in stereophonic sound. During the performance, the analog disc cutting head engages the master lacquer from which sides of an LP record are ultimately derived and is not stopped until the entire side is complete.\nSuch a direct-to-disc recording was often simultaneously recorded onto a two-track master tape for subsequent pressing in", "gear that creates the groove with a diamond stylus, and a pickup arm with a sapphire stylus for playback. A foot-operated playback/pause—and-reverse switch is used for transcribing.\nUnlike some other recording technologies of the time, the recording stylus creates the groove not by cutting the vinyl but by embossing (plastically deforming) the surface, leaving no waste plastic chips to get into the mechanical works.\nThe format remained popular for two decades before it was superseded by magnetic tape recorders, due in part to the robustness of the discs and the ease with which they could be mailed. The green discs with", "Mellotron Operation The Mellotron use the same concept as a sampler, but generates its sound using analogue samples recorded on audio tape rather than digital samples. When a key is pressed, a tape connected to it is pushed against a playback head, as in a tape deck. While the key remains depressed, the tape is drawn over the head, and a sound is played. When the key is released, a spring pulls the tape back to its original position. A variety of sounds are available on the instrument. On earlier models, the instrument is split into \"lead\" and \"rhythm\"", "having two tracks or channels for stereo sound and one for the synchronization or click track which was used to encode and playback the signals for the dissolve units. The audio and synchronization tracks were normally separated by a blank track to prevent any carryover of the synchronization cues into the audio playback.\nAudio editing of the music or voice-over was done manually to create a scratch track, usually with a cutting block and tape. Once the audio edits were completed, the final version would be copied onto another tape; either to ​¹⁄₄ inch, cassette or other format so that there tape", "dust on the vinyl produces popping and ticking sounds. The latter can be reduced somewhat by cleaning the record prior to playback. Equalization Due to recording mastering and manufacturing limitations, both high and low frequencies were removed from the first recorded signals by various formulae. With low frequencies, the stylus must swing a long way from side to side, requiring the groove to be wide, taking up more space and limiting the playing time of the record. At high frequencies, hiss, pops, and ticks are significant. These problems can be reduced by using equalization to an agreed standard. During recording", "is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself. Locked grooves are not uncommon and were even heard occasionally in radio broadcasts.\nVinyl records can be warped by heat, improper storage, exposure to sunlight, or manufacturing defects such as excessively tight plastic shrinkwrap on the album cover. A small degree of warp was common, and allowing for it was part of the art of turntable and tonearm design. \"Wow\" (once-per-revolution pitch variation) could result from warp, or from a spindle hole that was not precisely centered. Standard practice for LPs was to place the LP in a", "1930s and '40s.\nMusiker's arrangements in surviving recordings have a distinct sound with a rhythm described as \"bustling\" and \"propulsive\", with the drummer accenting the first, fourth and seventh quaver of each 4/4 bar, the double bass providing a steady pulse on the beat and either piano or accordion playing chords on the off-beats. Musiker regularly used an accordion within arrangements to generate a rich, full sound with a relatively small band. Tanz Musiker is perhaps best known for the album Tanz, recorded in 1955 and released in 1956 on the 'Epic' label, an imprint of CBS/Columbia. The album includes traditional", "Jamaica by sound system operators in the late 1940s and 1950s. Acetates were often used as \"demos\" of new recordings by artists and record labels. Recording Before the introduction of magnetic tape for mastering, disc recording was done \"live\" (see direct to disc recording), although sometimes intermediate disc-to-disc editing procedures were involved. Before acetate discs were adopted for the purpose, the master recording was cut into a disc of wax-like material that was too soft to be played non-destructively and had to be electroplated to produce a metal stamper, which was in turn used to make playable pressings. Acetate blanks", "were then recorded onto vinyl records before manipulating them on record decks to sample. In order to create a vintage sound, Barrow said that they distressed the vinyl records they had recorded by \"putting them on the studio floor and walking across them and using them like skateboard\", and they also recorded the sound through a broken amplifier. For the track \"Sour Times\", the album samples Lalo Schifrin's \"The Danube Incident\" and Smokey Brooks' (Henry Brooks, Otis Turner) \"Spin It Jig\"; for \"Strangers\", Weather Report's (Wayne Shorter) \"Elegant People\"; for \"Wandering Star\", War's \"Magic Mountain\"; for \"Biscuit\", Johnnie Ray's", "overseas broadcasters until the use of CDs became a practical alternative.\nOn a few early phonograph systems and radio transcription discs, as well as some entire albums, the direction of the groove is reversed, beginning near the center of the disc and leading to the outside. A small number of records (such as The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief) were manufactured with multiple separate grooves to differentiate the tracks (usually called \"NSC-X2\"). Shellac era The earliest rotation speeds varied considerably, but from 1900-1925 most records were recorded at 74–82 revolutions per minute (rpm). Edison Disc Records consistently ran at 80 rpm.\nAt", "was occasionally pushed to as much as 20 minutes. Unlike ordinary records, some were recorded inside out, with the start of the recording near the label and the end near the edge of the disc. The label usually noted whether the disc was \"outside start\" or \"inside start\". If there was no such notation, an outside start was assumed. Beginning in the mid-1950s, some transcription discs started employing the \"microgroove\" groove dimensions used by the 12 and 10 inch 33 1/3 rpm vinyl LP records introduced for home use in 1948. This allowed 30 minutes to fit comfortably on each", "on cranked tube amps across multiple amps, one at a time. A sound would be dialed-in for several hours on one cranked guitar amplifier, and if this stress audibly wore down the amplifier components, another amplifier would be used to record the remaining work. It has been noted that Phil Spector, re-mixing the original Beatles’ Let It Be master tapes in 1970, may have re-recorded dry electric guitar program through a guitar amplifier.\nFilm sound re-recording is a time-honored practice. Sound designer Walter Murch is known for a technique called \"worldizing\" in which \"real world\" ambiance is added, via re-recording, to", "LP there are 510 mm of vinyl per second traveling past the stylus while the ending of the groove gives 200–210 mm of vinyl per second — less than half the linear resolution. Distortion towards the end of the side is likely to become more apparent as record wear increases.\nAnother problem arises because of the geometry of the tonearm. Master recordings are cut on a recording lathe where a sapphire stylus moves radially across the blank, suspended on a straight track and driven by a lead screw. Most turntables use a pivoting tonearm, introducing side forces and pitch and azimuth errors,", "in automatic sequence. A two-record set had Side 1 and Side 4 on one record, and Side 2 and Side 3 on the other, so the first two sides could play in a changer without the listener's intervention. Then the stack was flipped over. Larger boxed sets used appropriate automatic sequencing (1–8, 2–7, 3–6, 4–5) to allow continuous playback, but this created difficulties when searching for an individual track. Disadvantages Vinyl records are vulnerable to dust, heat warping, scuffs, and scratches. Dust in the groove is usually heard as noise and may be ground into the vinyl by the passing", "with a recording stylus connected to it while the stylus cut a groove into a soft recording medium rotating beneath it. To make this process as efficient as possible, the diaphragm was located at the apex of a hollow cone that served to collect and focus the acoustical energy, with the performers crowded around the other end. Recording balance was achieved empirically. A performer who recorded too strongly or not strongly enough would be moved away from or nearer to the mouth of the cone. The number and kind of instruments that could be recorded were limited. Brass instruments, which", "the arm out of the way, dropped the record with side 2, and played it. When both records had been played, the user would pick up the stack, turn it over, and put them back on the spindle—sides 3 and 4 would then play in sequence. Record changers were used for many years of the LP era, but eventually fell out of use. 8-track tape 8-track tape (formally Stereo 8: commonly known as the eight-track cartridge, eight-track tape, or simply eight-track) is a magnetic tape sound recording technology popular in the United States from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s", "playing surface while re-stacking the records. A similar weight on top of the stack ensures stable playback of the bottom side of the topmost record.\nThe mechanism causes the lower portion of the spindle to rotate clockwise like an ordinary record player, while the top half of the spindle rotates counterclockwise to permit the bottom of the record to be played in the correct direction. The spindle contains three sets of retractable claws which hold the records in the upper and lower playing positions, and permit one record at a time to be dropped from the upper to the lower playing" ]

[ "It's a matter of emphasis. \"We aren't going\" could be simply spoken, or the \"we\" could be emphasized (an emphasis that is lost in simple text). Similarly \"We're not going\" could be used to emphasize the \"not\" part. Beyond that it's preference. The stylistic choices of language are everywhere, and it's one of the main reasons that most sentences of reasonable length have never been written before.", "Some phrasings are more regional/taught through environment as opposed to what would be most appropriate. Sometimes the different contractions can indicate a mood or assertiveness, but it's not absolute.\n\n\"We're not going\" sounds resolute, has some finality to it. \"We aren't going\" sounds more casual, to me. \"We are not going\" sounds like somebody trying to convince me or guilt trip somebody.\n\nAssuming it's not a conscious decision, I'm gonna go with it just being habit." ]

[ "English auxiliaries and contractions Contractions Contractions are a common feature of English, used frequently in ordinary speech. In written English, contractions are used in some formal writing and mostly in informal writing. They usually involve the elision of a vowel – an apostrophe being inserted in its place in written English – possibly accompanied by other changes. Many of these contractions involve auxiliary verbs and their negations, although not all of these have common contractions, and there are also certain other contractions not involving these verbs.\nContractions were first used in speech during the early 17th century and in writing during", "encountered in relatively informal writing). This applies in particular to constructions involving consecutive contractions, such as wouldn't've for \"would not have\".\nContractions in English are generally not mandatory as in some other languages. It is almost always acceptable to use the uncontracted form, although in speech this may seem overly formal. This is often done for emphasis: I am ready! The uncontracted form of an auxiliary or copula must be used in elliptical sentences where its complement is omitted: Who's ready? I am! (not *I'm!).\nSome contractions lead to homophony, which sometimes causes errors in writing. Confusion is particularly common between it's", "word order is subject–verb–object although a pronoun object precedes the verb. Some types of sentences allow for or require different word orders, in particular inversion of the subject and verb like \"Parlez-vous français?\" when asking a question rather than just \"Vous parlez français ?\" Both questions mean the same thing; however, a rising inflection is always used on both of them whenever asking a question, especially on the second one. Specifically, the first translates into \"Do you speak French?\" while the second one is literally just \"You speak French?\" To avoid inversion while asking a question, 'Est-ce que' (literally 'is it", "a verb form. Similarly, the glottal stop in the particle maʼ has been lost in verbal forms. Thus, words beginning or ending with a vowel and not a glottal stop should be pronounced together with the word preceding or following it. For example, tal ix (\"he already came\") would sound like [talix]. Typology Tzeltal is an ergative–absolutive language, meaning that the single argument of an intransitive verb takes the same form as the object of a transitive verb, and differently from the subject of a transitive verb. It is also an agglutinative language, which means that words", "classifies the words in several ways. They are sentence-modifying adverbs, adverbs that act as modifiers to an entire sentence. They are also sentence words, when standing alone. They may, as question responses, also be absolute forms that correspond to what would otherwise be the not in a negated echo response. For example, a \"No.\" in response to the question \"Is he here?\" is equivalent to the echo response \"He is not here.\" Sweet observes that there is no correspondence with a simple yes in the latter situation, although the sentence-word \"Certainly.\" provides an absolute form of an emphatic echo response", "conjunction.\nAppositions are separated from the referred element with a comma (or a colon), if they are in the same grammatical position as the referred element. If the apposition gets further back in the sentence, the comma will precede it directly. If the apposition is followed by a pause in speech, a comma may be placed after it, too. If a descriptive phrase is added to a personal name but only the last part takes the suffixes (in which case it is not called an apposition), no comma is used after the personal name. For example: Nagy Elemérnek, városunk díszpolgárának ‘to", "a general rule, words with one syllable require the suffix (except for the four words: fun, real, right, wrong), words with three or more syllables require \"more\" or \"most\", and words with two syllables may use one system or the other; which words use which system is a matter of idiom. Some adjectives, e.g. 'polite', can use either form, with different frequencies according to context. Estonian In Estonian, the superlative form can usually be formed in two ways. One is a periphrastic construction with kõige followed by the comparative form. This form exists for all adjectives. For example: the comparative", "proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist. Syntax The usual word order is subject-object-verb, but words can be moved to the front of the sentence for stress or to start a clause. Relative clauses are normally before the antecedent, but they sometimes follow the antecedent. Dependent words and adjectives are normally before their head word.\nVarious conjunctions with temporal or conditional meaning are used to link clauses. There is no coordinating conjunction, but main clauses can be coordinated with the enclitic -ha, which is attached to the first word of the following clause. In narratives, clauses", "a verb. Here stress is connected to vowel reduction: in the noun \"contract\" the first syllable is stressed and has the unreduced vowel /ɒ/, but in the verb \"contract\" the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to /ə/. Stress is also used to distinguish between words and phrases, so that a compound word receives a single stress unit, but the corresponding phrase has two: e.g. a burnout (/ˈbɜːrnaʊt/) versus to burn out (/ˈbɜːrn ˈaʊt/), and a hotdog (/ˈhɒtdɒɡ/) versus a hot dog (/ˈhɒt ˈdɒɡ/).\nIn terms of rhythm, English is generally described as a stress-timed language, meaning that", "affixes, but these forms are used infrequently and usually apply to loan words from Samoan.\nThe distinction between verb and adjective is often only indicated by the use of verb/tense markers and the position of the word in the sentence. Adjectives always follow the noun they reference. Adjectives regularly change in the plural form (by gemination) where nouns do not. Many adjectives can become abstract nouns by adding the definite article te, or a pronoun, before the adjective. This is similar to English adjectives adding the suffix -ness to an adjective to form a noun.\nAdverbs usually follow the verb they apply", "defined. Some, such as Keith Maclennan (2017), suggest that the term alliteration should be used only of repeated sounds at the beginning of words, and assonance of sounds repeated in another context. Tracy Peck (1884) also gives examples only of word-initial alliteration.\nHowever, Pontano himself, who invented the term, used it also of the alliteration of medial consonants. The French scholars A. Cordier (1939) and Jules Marouzeau (1933) similarly define it as \"the repetition, near or exact, of a phoneme or group of phonemes at the beginning of syllables (e.g. fanfare) or at the beginning of words (e.g. bel et bien)", "declarative sentences (which state propositions). Syntax refers to grammatical changes, such as changing word order or adding question words; prosody refers to changes in intonation while speaking. Some languages also mark interrogatives morphologically, i.e. by inflection of the verb. A given language may use one or more of these methods in combination. Responses Responses to questions are often reduced to elliptical sentences rather than full sentences, since in many cases only the information specially requested needs to be provided. (See Answer ellipsis.) Also many (but not all) languages have words that function like the English yes and no, used to", "\"Those who condemn it simply assume that the case of a pronoun in a coordination must be the same as when it stands alone. Actual usage is in conflict with this assumption.\" H-adding Some British accents, such as Cockney, drop the initial \"h\" from words; e.g. have becomes 'ave. A hypercorrection associated with this is H-adding, adding an \"h\" to a word which would not normally have an initial \"h\". An example of this can be found in the speech of the character Parker in Thunderbirds, e.g. \"We'll 'ave the h'aristocrats 'ere soon\" (from the episode \"Vault of Death\"). ", "Epanalepsis Epanalepsis (from the Greek ἐπανάληψις, epanálēpsis \"repetition, resumption, taking up again\") is the repetition of the initial part of a clause or sentence at the end of that same clause or sentence. The beginning and the end of a sentence are two positions of emphasis, so special attention is placed on the phrase by repeating it in both places. Nested double-epanalepses are antimetaboles.", "adjectives in English is important for determining the correct plural for a compound expression. For example, because martial is a postpositive adjective in the phrase court-martial, the plural is courts-martial, the ending being attached to the noun rather than the adjective. Archaic and poetic usage Phrases with postpositive adjectives are sometimes used with archaic effect, as in things forgotten, words unspoken, dreams believed. Phrases which reverse the normal word order are quite common in poetry, usually to fit the meter or rhyme, as with \"fiddlers three\" (from Old King Cole)or \"forest primeval\" (from Evangeline), though word order was less important", "unique grammatical usage, primarily appearing with adjectives and adverbials along with most nouns derived from verbs. It only appears in verbs subordinate to another element of the sentence. When a highfall appears on a verb it changes the verb's role in the sentence, typically to one of four main categories: agentive derivation, modal, object derivation, or subordination. Word order Simple declarative sentences usually have a subject-object-verb word order. Negative sentences have a different word order. Adjectives come before nouns, as in English. Demonstratives, such as ᎾᏍᎩ nasgi (\"that\") or ᎯᎠ hia (\"this\"), come at the beginning of noun phrases. Relative", "and get up), are known as \"phrasal verbs\".\nFor details of possible patterns, see English clause syntax. See the Non-finite clauses section of that article for verb phrases headed by non-finite verb forms, such as infinitives and participles. Adjectives English adjectives, as with other word classes, cannot in general be identified as such by their form, although many of them are formed from nouns or other words by the addition of a suffix, such as -al (habitual), -ful (blissful), -ic (atomic), -ish (impish, youngish), -ous (hazardous), etc.; or from other adjectives using a prefix: disloyal, irredeemable, unforeseen, overtired.\nAdjectives may be used", "before the adjective describing it in a sentence. For example, ana hmunan directly translates as \"child first\", but refers to somebody's first child. However, unlike in Spanish, punctuation will only come at the end of a sentence. Like most languages, the first word of each sentence, as well as proper nouns are capitalized. Helong uses negative modifiers to change the meaning of a sentence to the opposite. For example, \"... parsai lo\" means \"do not believe\", with parsai being a word meaning believe, and lo being a negative modifier. Vocabulary Helong takes many loanwords, stems, suffixes, and prefixes from Malay,", "or with the preposition em.\nThe genitive is formed with the ending -n (-en after a consonant) with the plural being -sen (-esen after a consonant) or with the preposition de.\nOther cases are formed with prepositions. Adjectives All adjectives end in -i, but this may be dropped if it is easy enough to pronounce and no confusion will be caused. Adjectives precede the noun qualified. Adjectives do not agree with the noun but may be given noun endings if there is no noun present to receive them.\nComparative adjectives are formed by placing various particles (plu, tam, and min) in front of", "Three letter rule Exceptions While many function words have more than two letters (and, she, were, therefore, etc.), the exceptions to the rule are rather two-letter content words. Only a few of these occur commonly in most texts: the words go (which also has a functional usage in the idiom going to do something), ox and, especially in American texts, ax.\nEnglish grammar is relatively flexible about converting words of one class to another, allowing verbal uses such as to up the ante or nominal uses such as the ins and outs. The verb forms be, am, is and do can", "Inflectional phrase In X-bar theory and other grammatical theories that incorporate it, an inflectional phrase or inflection phrase (IP or InflP) is a functional phrase that has inflectional properties (such as tense and agreement). An inflectional phrase is essentially the same as a sentence, but reflects an analysis whereby a sentence can be treated as having a head, complement and specifier, like other kinds of phrases. Definition An inflectional phrase is a phrase that contains as its head an abstract category called Infl (short for 'inflection'). The Infl head bears inflectional properties such as tense and person, and may or", "in the standard varieties of Modern English.\nThe change in fact applies not only at the end of a word, but generally at the end of a morpheme. If a word ending in -ng is followed by a suffix or is compounded with another word, the [ŋ] pronunciation normally remains. For example, in the words fangs, sings, singing, singer, wronged, wrongly, hangman, there is no [ɡ] sound. An exception is the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: in the words longer/longest, stronger/strongest, younger/youngest, the [ɡ] is pronounced in most accents.\nIn other cases (when it is not morpheme-final), word-internal -ng- does not", "Expletive attributive Etymology Expletive comes from the Latin verb explere, meaning \"to fill\", via expletivus, \"filling out\". It was introduced into English in the seventeenth century for various kinds of padding—the padding out of a book with peripheral material, the addition of syllables to a line of poetry for metrical purposes, and so forth. Use of expletive for such a meaning is now rare. Rather, expletive is a linguistics term for a meaningless word filling a syntactic vacancy. Outside linguistics, the word is commonly used to refer to \"bad language\" or profanity. Some linguists use it as shorthand for \"expletive", "French prepositions link two related parts of a sentence. In word order, they are placed in front of a noun in order to specify the relationship between the noun and the verb, adjective, or other noun that precedes it. Some common French prepositions are: à (to, at, in), à côté de (next to, beside), après (after), au sujet de (about, on the subject of), avant (before), avec (with), chez (at the home/office of, among), contre (against), dans (in), d'après (according to), de (from, of, about), depuis (since, for), derrière (in back of, behind), devant (in front of), durant (during, while),", "An attributive adjective (phrase) precedes the noun of a noun phrase (e.g. a very happy man). A predicative adjective (phrase) follows a linking verb and serves to describe the preceding subject, e.g. The man is very happy. Adjective vs. adjectival There is a tendency to call a phrase an adjectival phrase when that phrase is functioning like an adjective phrase, but is not actually headed by an adjective. For example, in Mr Clinton is a man of wealth, the prepositional phrase of wealth modifies a man in a manner similar to how an adjective phrase would, and it can be", "Adverb Formation and comparison In English, adverbs of manner (answering the question how?) are often formed by adding -ly to adjectives. Other languages often have similar methods for deriving adverbs from adjectives (French, for example, uses the suffix -ment), or else use the same form for both adjectives and adverbs, as in German and Dutch where for example schnell or snel, respectively, can mean either \"quick\" or \"quickly\", depending on the context. Many other adverbs, however, are not related to adjectives in this way; they may be derived from other words or phrases, or may be single morphemes. Examples of", "like come with, as in Do you want to come with? for standard Do you want to come with me? or with us?. In standard English, other prepositions can be used as adverbs, like go down (down as adverb) for go down the stairs (down as preposition). With is not typically used in this way in standard English (particularly in British and Irish English because of being distinguished as the original form of the English language), and this feature likely came from languages spoken by some immigrants, such as Scandinavian (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian), German (includes Austrian), or Dutch (includes Flemish", "the beginning and the end of words, where î is to be used instead. Exceptions include proper nouns where the usage of the letters is frozen, whichever it may be, and compound words, whose components are each separately subjected to the rule (e.g. ne- + îndemânatic → neîndemânatic \"clumsy\", not *neândemânatic). However, the exception no longer applies to words derived with suffixes, in contrast with the 1904 norm; for instance what was spelled urît after 1904 became urât after 1993.\nAlthough the reform was promoted as a means to show the Latin origin of Romanian, statistically only few of the words", "inflection or word formation. The next section will attempt to clarify this distinction.\nWord formation is a process where one combines two complete words, whereas with inflection you can combine a suffix with some verb to change its form to subject of the sentence. For example: in the present indefinite, we use ‘go’ with subject I/we/you/they and plural nouns, whereas for third person singular pronouns (he/she/it) and singular nouns we use ‘goes’. So this ‘-es’ is an inflectional marker and is used to match with its subject. A further difference is that in word formation, the resultant word may differ from", "(houses). This suffix can optionally be left out if the noun dealt with is clearly a plural.\nOptionally, to make a noun genitive, the suffix -(u)f is added. If the noun is plural, then it becomes -(i)fs.\nNouns are not changed if a preposition precedes them. Adjectives Adjectives normally end in -ju. ex. dobrju (good), velju (big), silaju (strong). If the word ends in ia or ie then it replaces it. ex. galaktia (galaxy) - galaktju (galactical), morie (sea) - morju (marine). Adjectives can also end in -(e)sk if pronunciation with -ju would be difficult to pronounce or if it is unclear" ]

[ "There is a big piece to this question which is not intuitive: chirality. Basically, the food we eat is useful to our bodies because the molecules can be used to build or repair our cells or can be turned into energy. Either way, our cells make use of chemicals called enzymes that are basically molecule sized tools. Enzymes literally fit around the molecules they are designed to attach to, so the shape is very important.\n\nOk, you go to Europa (not proven to have life yet, btw), and find a fish that looks particularly tasty. On inspection, it seems like it is made of similar stuff to life on earth: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. You eat the fish for a while... And starve to death. Turns out that because the fish evolved on a different planet, it's molecules, while similar to ours, are like mirror images of ours. They don't fit into our enzymes, and so our bodies can't digest them.\n\nChirality appears on earth, too. The chemical that makes spearmint taste minty is a mirror image of the flavor of caraway seeds (found in rye bread and sausages). Interestingly, all life (I think) on earth shares the same chirality, evidence of a common tree of life.", "Fish have water in them and roughly reflect the ph of the water. This is true no matter how poisonous the water is to us (depth, or non-normal life by volcanic vents). So no, it's unlikely. We are phosphorous based life (not carbon), I've looked but not found any thing suggesting if life there would be the same or not." ]

[ "the creatures began to eat greedily, and due to the huge amount of the mud substance they could feed on it for a very long time.\nAs they ate and ate, their luminous body began to be coated by the mud substance, formed a coarser body, then suddenly, the sun and moon were seen, so were the stars, and also Night and Day began on Earth. The logical explanation of this was that the creatures were the self-illuminating, so blinding and luminous that they didn't notice the Sun. The Earth was covered in their light. So, when the materialization took place,", "of the creatures foods to eat, humans had cultivated plants, the antelope had grass, but the snake was given poison and a desire to attack humans.", "by protecting them from the voracious omnivore species. The planet is notable for its thick atmosphere, which allows flight to be performed with less energy, and permits the existence of air-borne phytoplankton. The herbivores eat the plankton, and the omnivores eat anything they can. The human characters' diets play an important role in their interaction with the native species. Aquilon eats a normal human diet—she is an omnivore. Veg is a vegetarian. Cal is forced to drink blood to survive, due to a medical condition.\nOrn involves travel by the scientists and mantas into a parallel dimension they dub Paleo, resembling", "environment of the moon appears a lot like how the girl cat described it. Things like cakes, candy canes and ice cream are a common sight. After eating some of the scenery, the cats play some of the musical instruments which are also present. They then come to a table with fruits on top where they resume eating. Meanwhile, a hostile animated bottle of castor oil and spoon approach. Though they are stuffed with sweets, the cats are able to run. The bottle and spoon chase them across the lunar terrain until they decide to jump off an edge.\nAfter leaping", "you have not tasted any food while you were below? Speak out and hide nothing, but let us both know. For if you have not, you shall come back from loathly Hades and live with me and your father, the dark-clouded son of Cronos and be honored by all the deathless gods; but if you have tasted food, you must go back again beneath the secret places of the earth, there to dwell a third part of the seasons every year: yet for the two parts you shall be with me and the other deathless gods. But when the earth", "and shōjin ryōri (shōjin means \"devotion\", ryōri means \"cuisine\") in Japan, and by many other names in other countries. Due to the understanding of animals as conscious and suffering beings, many Buddhists do not kill animals and many also do not eat meat (other than that from those who died naturally, and from species where the consumption of brethren is not troubling to the still living). Certain major Mahayana sutras show the Buddha forcefully denouncing meat-consumption and advocating vegetarianism (vegetarianism in Buddhism). Some Mahāyāna Buddhists in China and Vietnam also avoid eating strong-smelling plants such as onion, garlic, chives, shallot, and", "browser. Examination of the stomach contents of animals caught on the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago show that the largest dietary item is fish, although it is not clear whether this is caught by the animal as prey or is the result of scavenging activity. Crustaceans formed part of the diet as did the green alga Caulerpa racemosa which is common in the study area. Another item consumed was calcareous algae scraped off the rock surface and this is likely to be an important source of calcium for the formation of the hard shell. Rock fragments found in the", "people now savour these creatures as delicacies or snacks. Food is commonly eaten by hand using sticky rice pressed into a ball with the fingers of the right hand. Soups are a frequent element of any meal, and contain either vegetables and herbs, noodles, chunks of fish, balls of ground pork, or a mixture of these. They are eaten using a spoon and chopsticks at the same time.\nThe traditional dress of Isan is the sarong. Women's sarongs most often have an embroidered border at the hem, while men's are in a chequered pattern. Men also wear a pakama, a versatile", "dried fruits, herbs, and mushrooms, soup powder, fish meal, and bread. Other products it consumes include leather and animal skins, bones, feathers, dried feces, silk, wool, textiles, old wood, books, and dead insects and specimens, including taxidermy. It is known to feed on cayenne pepper, tobacco, and opium.", "is an omnivore. It will eat almost anything including smaller starfish and sunstars, swallowing them whole. It is also a scavenger.", "Diet They mainly eat spiders and small invertebrates, but will occasionally eat fruit on the ground. They will sometimes even eat other anoles, due to territorial reasons, or if food is scarce.", "completely stray away from eating animal products, although they do allow consumption of milk. Furthermore, they also avoid eating processed foods and the five pungent foods which are: garlic (Allium sativum), welsh onion (Allium fistulosum), wild garlic (Allium oleraceum), garlic chives (Allium tuberosum), and asafoetida (\"asant\", Ferula asafoetida). The Middle Path refers to avoiding extremes of indulgence on the one hand and self-mortification on the other. Prior to attaining Buddhahood, prince Siddhartha practiced a short regime of strict austerity and following years of serenity meditation under two teachers which he consumed very little food. These austerities with", "in lieu of fish or meat dishes in India. Vegetarianism Most candy contains no meat or other animal parts, and many contain no milk or other animal products. Some candy, including marshmallows and gummi bears, contains gelatin derived from animal collagen, a protein found in skin and bones, and is thus avoided by vegans and some vegetarians. \"Kosher gelatin\" is also unsuitable for vegetarians and vegans, as it is derived from fish bones. Other substances, such as agar, pectin, starch and gum arabic may also be used as setting and gelling agents, and can be used in place of", "animals have immortal souls, and that a diet of mostly grain is the healthiest for humans.\nIn Chinese folk religions, as well as the aforementioned faiths, people often eat vegan on the 1st and 15th of the month, as well as the eve of Chinese New Year. Some nonreligious people do this as well. This is similar to the Christian practice of lent and not eating meat on Friday. The percentage of people permanently being pure vegetarian is about the same as the modern English-speaking world, but this percentage has not really changed for a very long time. Many people eat", "food sources such as fruit and leaves and they are also distributed more sparsely and appear unpredictably, making them a challenging source of food for Goeldi’s monkeys.\nFungi are renowned for their poisons to deter animals from feeding on them: even today humans die from eating poisonous fungi. A natural consequence of this is the virtual absence of obligate vertebrate fungivores, with the diprotodont family Potoridae being the major exception. One of the few extant vertebrate fungivores is the northern flying squirrel, but it is believed that in the past there were numerous vertebrate fungivores and that toxin development greatly lessened", "(globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower). Animals Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from muscle systems or from organs.\nFood products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures.", "it eating a range of foods including: spiders; insects (leaf beetles, ladybirds, stink bugs, ants, moth and butterfly larvae); nectar (from Jacaranda mimosifolia, Erythrina variegata, Lagunaria patersonia, Callistemon salignus, Callistemon viminalis, eucalypts Argyle apple, sugar gum, yellow gum, grey ironbark, and grey gum, Banksia ericifolia, B. integrifolia, B. serrata, Grevillea aspleniifolia, G. banksii, G. hookeriana, G. juniperina, G. rosmarinifolia, and flowering quince); seeds from oats, wheat and pepper tree; fruit from saltbush, mistletoe and crabapple; frogs and skinks; and other matter such as bread, pieces of meat and cheese, and food scraps.\nIn the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species, the noisy", "and fish are major protein sources, and smaller animals such as rats, wild chickens, and insects are also sometimes eaten. Domestic animals such as pigs, cows, and buffaloes are only eaten when sacrifices are made. In the rainy season, many varieties of vegetables and leaves are gathered from the forest. (Vegetables are generally not cultivated.) Commonly eaten fruits include bananas, jackfruit, papayas, and mangoes.\nHouses in rural Ratanakiri are made from bamboo, rattan, wood, saek, and kanma leaves, all of which are collected from nearby forests; they typically last for around three years. Village spatial organization varies by ethnic group. Kreung", "Its diet in the wild consists largely of leaves, fruit, and other plant material, but it has been known to eat meat, cereals, root vegetables, and insects in captivity. Food is eaten by sitting on its haunches and using its forepaws to bring food items to its mouth. It is the only species in the super family Muroidea whose stomach is highly compartmentalized. The stomach contains five anatomically discrete sections that superficially resemble the sacculated configuration characteristic of ruminant artiodactyls. By virtue of its large size and biomass, L. imhausi may be one of the few muroid rodents that can", "Other food items include insects, such as chironomids, ephemeroptera, trichoptera and hemiptera and in some Lake Kariba samples these formed 55% of the stomach contents sampled and it is indicated by these samples that these prey items are taken on the surface at night. In Lake Kivu cannibalism appears to be common and is suspected in the Lake Kariba population but these may also prey on other fish species, unidentified fish remains have been recorded in Kariba samples and a specimen of the Southern mouth-brooder Pseudocrenilabrus philander has been found in the stomach of 6.4 cm specimen in Lake Kariba.", "World Vegetarian Day Graphics Various graphic and artistic representations are used; there is no one logo to represent World Vegetarian Day. Some of the other dates within Vegetarian Awareness Month have their own logos, or a series of logo representations, if they are sponsored in part or totally by identifiable organizations. Chinese society vegetarian days There is a common practice for some Chinese people to be vegetarian twice a lunar month. The first day and the 15th day of each lunar month. (初一)﹑(十五). The 15th day of each lunar month is the day/night with full moon. Local vegetarian restaurants", "food for humans is eaten raw in salads and cooked in soups. It is high in protein, soluble dietary fiber, and a variety of vitamins and minerals, especially iron. However, contamination with toxic heavy metals at certain sites where it can be collected makes it dangerous for human consumption. Aquarium trade Sea lettuce species are commonly found in the saltwater aquarium trade, where the plants are valued for their high nutrient uptake and edibility. Many reef aquarium keepers use sea lettuce species in refugia or grow it as a food source for herbivorous fish. Sea lettuce is very easy to", "and fishes from a perch on a low branch beside a large river, snatching fish from the water and also feeding on frogs, crabs, small mammals and birds. In many places, crustaceans may be the most frequently eaten food. It roosts during the day in a tree near the river. In southern Nigeria its favourite food appears to be Clarias catfish which have primitive lungs and rise to the surface periodically to breathe.\nIts voice is a low, croaking hoot, followed by four to eight staccato notes. A pair of owls often sing in duet, and being a fairly common species,", "Eating Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a", "food, not pets. They were not mummified to the same meticulous extent that a pet or human mummy would be, but the animals were nonetheless carefully preserved using natron and other special salts. This food was included in tombs in order to sustain the deceased person's soul, called the ka, during the journey to the next world. A variety of food has been found in many tombs, mostly breads, meats, and fowl. King Tutankhamen's tomb held several coffin-shaped wooden boxes containing this type of mummified animal, in his case duck and other types of meat. Religious purposes Ancient Egyptian religion", "prey items include spiders, caterpillars, insect larvae, grasshoppers and beetles; individuals of some species have also been observed eating fruit, and in one case a frog.", "macaques of Gibraltar. Food Most Old World monkeys are at least partially omnivorous, but all prefer plant matter, which forms the bulk of their diet. Leaf monkeys are the most vegetarian, subsisting primarily on leaves, and eating only a small number of insects, while the other species are highly opportunistic, primarily eating fruit, but also consuming almost any food items available, such as flowers, leaves, bulbs and rhizomes, insects, snails, and even small vertebrates. The Barbary macaque's diet consists mostly of leaves and roots, though it will also eat insects and uses cedar trees as a water source. Gestation, birth,", "in their diet—they also eat other fish, eggs, and algae. This is another thing that distinguishes them from the C. danae, which feeds mainly on crustaceans.", "eat a wide range of foods. Animals that are commonly reported as sora food items include snails (Gastropoda), crustaceans (Crustacea), spiders (Araneae), and insects (Insecta), mainly beetles (Coleoptera), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), flies (Diptera), and dragonflies (Odonata). Soras often eat the seeds of plants, such as smartweeds, bulrushes, sedges, and barnyard grasses. Seeds of annual wildrice (Zizania aquatica) and rice cutgrass are eaten by soras in the eastern United States. A literature review lists crowngrass (Paspalum spp.) and rice (Oryza sativa) as relatively important food sources for soras in the Southeast. Plants comprising <5% of the sora's diet are also listed and", "the most important source of protein in the average diet. Very few vegetables are eaten due to a lack of farming land in the country. Elders smoke guduguda, an elongated pipe that goes through a trough of water. Most food served in tourist resorts is imported. On ceremonial occasions, meat other than pork is eaten. Alcohol is not permitted except at tourist resorts. The local brew \"Bogaru\" is consumed instead of alcoholic beverages. Basic commodities such as rice, sugar, and flour are imported. Folklore The Maldivian folklore is the body of myths, tales and anecdotes belonging to the oral tradition" ]

[ "The beef wasn't with Cuba, the beef was with the USSR. The Soviets were trying to use their communist ally in The West as a beachhead for terror. (Not the modern definition of terror, the old-fashioned one). By placing ICBMs in Cuba (aimed at the United States) they wanted to cast a cloak of fear over the U.S. Cold War tactics at its finest.", "US enmity with Cuba started because after the US backed/imposed dictatorship of Batista beginning in 1952, there was an ultimately successful Communist insurrection led by Fidel Castro.\n\nCastro's government ultimately turned out to also be authoritarian/dictatorial and resulted in the seizure of property formerly held by relatively wealthy Cubans (though also some who were not so wealthy; also, left-wing critics hasten to point out that while undeniably politically authoritarian, Castro's regime provided extremely generous social services), many of whom took up a later \"offer\" to freely emigrate from the Island, ultimately winding up in the electorally crucial swing-state of Florida.\n\n*That* revolution and its aftermath was what originally got Cuba on the US shit list; The Cuban Missile crisis was the USSR (which was the great source of US angst ~1950-1989) shipping nuclear weapons to Cuba, which the US really didn't like." ]

[ "the Cuban-American community of Miami were all involved. The climactic stage of this prolonged battle was the April 22, 2000, seizure of Elián by federal agents, which drew the criticism of many in the Cuban-American community. During the controversy, Alex Penelas, the mayor of Miami-Dade County at the time, vowed that he would do nothing to assist the Bill Clinton administration and federal authorities in their bid to return the six-year-old boy to Cuba. Tens of thousands of protesters, many of whom were outraged at the raid, poured out into the streets of Little Havana and demonstrated. Car horns blared,", "and illicitly traded for U.S. electronic goods through Panama. Increasing numbers of Cubans fled to Florida, who were labelled \"scum\" by Castro. In one incident, 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum, and so the U.S. agreed that it would accept 3,500 refugees. Castro conceded that those who wanted to leave could do so from Mariel port. Hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S., leading to a mass exodus of 120,000; Castro's government took advantage of the situation by loading criminals and the mentally ill onto the boats destined for Florida. In 1980, Ronald Reagan became U.S. President and", "of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most US-owned assets, including banks and sugar mills. Relations between Cuba and the US were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, the Le Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. The cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly mentioned that the US government were guilty of sabotage. On 13 October 1960, the US government then prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba – the exceptions being medicines and certain foodstuffs – marking the start of an economic embargo. In retaliation, the Cuban National Institute for", "of international tobacco and sugar markets and civil upheavals that further disrupted the already fragile Cuban republic. As a result, tens of thousands of Cubans migrated to the U.S. hoping to find greater economic opportunities and more civil liberties, establishing sizeable communities in New Orleans, Tampa, and New York City. The start of the Cuban Revolution in 1953 only gave Cuban civilians more reason to flee the country, adding to the flood of immigrants to the United States. Rise of Pachanga in New York At the time the South Bronx had large developments of affordable public housing where many Cubans", "businesses, and companies owned by upper- and middle-class Cubans were nationalized (notably, including the plantations owned by Fidel Castro's family). Reforms and worsening relations with the United States Cuba-United States relations were heavily strained after the explosion of a French vessel, the La Coubre, in Havana harbor in March 1960. The ship carried weapons purchased from Belgium, and the cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly insinuated that the U.S. government was guilty of sabotage. He ended this speech with \"¡Patria o Muerte!\" (\"Fatherland or Death\"), a proclamation that he made much use of in ensuing years.\nBy", "Latin America where killing a cow is a crime (and eating beef a rare luxury). That has not stopped the cattle herd declining from 7 m in 1967 to 4 m in 2011.\n— The Economist (2012)\nInitially, this was a very difficult situation for Cubans to accept; many came home from studying abroad to find that there were no jobs in their fields. It was pure survival that motivated them to continue and contribute to survive through this crisis. The documentary, The Power of Community: How Cuba Survived Peak Oil, states that today, farmers make more money than most other occupations.\nDue to a poor", "Maleconazo Background Cuba had fallen into an economic crisis because of the recent collapse of the Soviet Union and old American embargo. Many citizens began to try to leave the country. Some had even begun to steal boats to flee. The clash began as police began securing boats to prevent theft. Riot Protesters' rage caused by the Special Period was vented into vandalism and violence, a few even began shooting. Many hotels were damaged, the police and communist party members were called in to disperse the crowd. Hundreds of protesters took to streets in Havana, some chanting \"Libertad!\" (Spanish for", "America. Cuban Revolution By 1959, Cuba was afflicted with a corrupt dictatorship under Batista, and Fidel Castro ousted Batista that year and set up the first communist state in the hemisphere. The United States imposed a trade embargo on Cuba, and combined with Castro's expropriation of private enterprises, this was detrimental to the Cuban economy. Around Latin America, rural guerrilla conflict and urban terrorism increased, inspired by the Cuban example. The United States put down these rebellions by supporting Latin American countries in their counter-guerrilla operations through the Alliance for Progress launched by President John F. Kennedy. This thrust appeared", "Cuba–United States relations Pre-1800 Relations between the Spanish colony of Cuba and polities on the North American mainland first established themselves in the early 18th century through illicit commercial contracts by the European colonies of the New World, trading to elude colonial taxes. As both legal and illegal trade increased, Cuba became a comparatively prosperous trading partner in the region, and a center of tobacco and sugar production. During this period Cuban merchants increasingly traveled to North American ports, establishing trade contracts that endured for many years.\nThe British occupation of Havana in 1762 opened up trade with the colonies in", "that was built before the revolutionary government took control.\nCuba had a one-crop economy (sugar cane) whose domestic market was constricted. Its population was characterized by chronic unemployment and deep poverty. United States monopolies like Bethlehem Steel Corporation and Speyer gained control over valuable national resources. The banks and the country's entire financial system, all electric power production and the majority of the industry was dominated by U.S. companies. U.S. monopolies owned 25 percent of the best land in Cuba. More than 80 percent of farmland was owned by sugar and livestock-raising large landowners. 90 percent of the country's raw sugar", "in Cuba because of its great strategic importance in the Caribbean, and the stranglehold that Spain kept on it as a result.\nAs soon as Spain opened Cuba's ports up to foreign ships, a great sugar boom began that lasted until the 1880s. The island was perfect for growing sugar, being dominated by rolling plains, with rich soil and adequate rainfall. By 1860, Cuba was devoted to growing sugar, having to import all other necessary goods. Cuba was particularly dependent on the United States, which bought 82 percent of its sugar. In 1820, Spain abolished the slave trade, hurting the Cuban", "property of the Afro-Cubans and slaughtered many. Within two years, half of the sugar mills in Oriente were owned by U.S. investors. For Cubans working within the province, life had become near unbearable.The presence of Americans, Jamaicans and Haitians, brought in by the United Fruit Company exacerbated racial problems not present until the U.S. occupation of 1898. Cuba's national hero, José Martí called for a multiracial republic.", "visited Florida several times, Tampa-area Cubans and their neighbors donated money, equipment, and sometimes their lives to the cause of Cuba Libre. After the Spanish–American War, some Cubans returned to Cuba, but others chose to stay in the U.S. due to the physical and economic devastation caused by conflicte on the island. Early emigration – 1900–59 Several other small waves of Cuban emigration to the U.S. occurred in the early 20th century (1900–59). Most settled in Florida and the northeast U.S. The majority of the 100,000 Cubans came for economic reasons due to (the Great Depression of 1929, volatile sugar", "in 1898. Hostilities began in the aftermath of sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, leading to American intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The sinking of the USS Maine occurred on February 15, resulting in the deaths of 266 people and causing the United States to blame Spain, since the ship had been sent to Havana in order to protect a community of U.S. citizens there. American acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions led to its involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately in the Philippine–American War.\nRevolts against Spanish rule had been occurring for some years in Cuba", "of Peru, a Cuban guard was killed by friendly fire. Cuba precipitously removed the perimeter guards and over ten thousand Cuban asylum seekers flooded the compound. Eventually 125,000 Cubans left the island in the ensuing months, mostly to the United States. Also during the Mariel period a large group of hundreds of Cuban ex-political prisoners and applicants to immigrate to the United States to rejoin family (civilians) waiting in front of the Interests Section was attacked by government employees in several buses and sought refuge inside the building. A junior Consular Officer, Susan Johnson, was accused of inciting the crowd", "Bandits by the Cuban government.\nLuis Posada and CORU are widely considered responsible for the 1976 bombing of a Cuban airliner that killed 73 people.\nBetween 1959 and 1980, an estimated 500,000 Cubans left the island for the United States, for both political and economic reasons; 125,000 left in 1980 alone, when the Cuban government briefly permitted any Cubans who wished to leave to do so. By 2010, the Cuban American community numbered over 1.9 million, 67% of whom lived in the state of Florida. As a voting bloc, Cuban Americans have traditionally been strongly opposed to ending the U.S. embargo of", "Amistad Memorial (New Haven) The Amistad Affair La Amistad was an American ship owned by a Cuban Spaniard that was retrofitted to carry slaves. It is historically infamous because of the revolt which occurred on board the ship in 1839. The long journey of the 53 Mende captives responsible for the revolt began when they were abducted from their home in present-day Sierra Leone, and forced aboard the Portuguese slave ship Tecora, bound for Cuba to be sold as slaves. Upon their secret arrival in Cuba, the captives were transferred to 'La Amistad'. On July 2, 1839, a revolt was", "Royal Dutch Shell and Clyde Petroleum from investing in Cuba. This pressure did not work in all cases. According to the Mexican Newspaper El Financiero, the US ambassador to Mexico, John Negroponte travelled to meet two Mexican business men who had signed a textile deal with Cuba on October 17, 1992. Despite the representation, the deal went ahead and was eventually worth $500 million in foreign capital. All of this happened before the signing of the Cuban Democracy Act. Economic impacts of the embargo The Economic impacts of the U.S. embargo on Cuba are the monetary long-term and", "directed from the United States. Castro warned the U.S. that \"Cuba is not another Guatemala\" in one of many combative diplomatic exchanges before the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961. Banana massacre One of the most notorious strikes by United Fruit workers broke out on 12 November 1928 near Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast of Colombia. On December 6, Colombian Army troops allegedly under the command of General Cortés Vargas, opened fire on a crowd of strikers in the central square of Ciénaga. Estimates of the number of casualties vary from 47 to 3000. The military justified this", "to escalate the dispute. Cuba expropriated more US-owned properties, notably those belonging to the International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITT) and to the United Fruit Company. In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law, on 17 May 1959, the state sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to small farmers in \"Vital Minimum\" tracts. This law served as a pretext for seizing lands held by foreigners and for redistributing them to Cuban citizens. Formal disconnection The United States severed diplomatic relations with Cuba on 3 January 1961, and further restricted trade in", "to compete for a nation based on permanent residency. Conflict with the United States government On December 14, it was also reported that the United States Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control denied the Cuban National Team a license to play due to the continuing U.S. embargo against Cuba, the embargo being in place to prevent Cuba from making a profit at the expense of the United States.\nAfterward, Cuban President Fidel Castro announced publicly that any profit made by Cuba in the Classic would be donated to the victims of Hurricane Katrina. Major League Baseball's commissioner's office and the", "a private level. Where the U.S kept intervening into Cuba, snowballed all the way up to the final Cuban Revolution which led to the first mass migration of Cuban into the U.S. Starting in 1959 from 1960-70 the Cuban population grew from 79,000 to 439,000. Good Neighbor Policy is caused to mass migration for Cuba Nations.", "territorial governor. Cuban crisis By the time McKinley took office, rebels in Cuba had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule for decades. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a war for independence. The United States and Cuba enjoyed close trade relations, and the Cuban rebellion adversely affected the American economy which was already weakened by the depression. As rebellion engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals grew ever harsher, and Spanish authorities began removing Cuban families to guarded camps near Spanish military bases. The rebels put high priority on their appeals to the sympathy of ordinary Americans,", "Act 1833). Cubans were torn between desire for the profits generated by sugar and a repugnance for slavery, which they saw as morally, politically, and racially dangerous to their society. By the end of the 19th century, slavery was abolished.\nHowever, prior to the abolition of slavery, Cuba gained great prosperity from its sugar trade. Originally, the Spanish had ordered regulations on trade with Cuba, which kept the island from becoming a dominant sugar producer. The Spanish were interested in keeping their trade routes and slave trade routes protected. Nevertheless, Cuba's vast size and abundance of natural resources made it an", "slave territory. The pro-slavery element proposed the Ostend Manifesto proposal of 1854. It was rejected by anti-slavery forces.\nAfter the American Civil War and Cuba's Ten Years' War, U.S. businessmen began monopolizing the devalued sugar markets in Cuba. In 1894, 90% of Cuba's total exports went to the United States, which also provided 40% of Cuba's imports. Cuba's total exports to the U.S. were almost twelve times larger than the export to her mother country, Spain. U.S. business interests indicated that while Spain still held political authority over Cuba, economic authority in Cuba, acting-authority, was shifting to the US.\nThe U.S. became", "in 1959, the Cuban government of U.S.-backed Fulgencio Batista was overthrown by Fidel Castro who subsequently installed a Marxist–Leninist government. When the U.S. refused to trade with Cuba, Cuba allied with the Soviet Union who imported Cuban sugar, Cuba's main export. The government installed by Fidel Castro has been in power ever since. In 2016, the U.S. eased trade and travel restrictions against Cuba. United Airlines submitted a formal application to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) for authority to provide service from four of its largest U.S. gateway cities – Newark/New York, Houston, Washington, D.C. and Chicago – to", "the Cuban Volunteers necessitated \"the death knell of Spanish power in America.\" The New York Herald demanded Secretary Hamilton Fish's resignation and the recognition by the US of the Cuban belligerency. The National Republican, believing the threat of war with Spain to be imminent, encouraged the sale of Cuban bonds. The American public considered the executions as a national insult and rallied for intervention. Protest rallies took place across the nation in New Orleans, St. Louis, and Georgia, encouraging intervention in Cuba and vengeance on Spain.\nThe British Minister to the United States, Sir Edward Thornton, believed the American public was", "Bay of Pigs Invasion Background Since the middle of the 18th century, Cuba had been the crown jewel of the Spanish colonial empire. In the late 19th century, Cuban nationalist revolutionaries rebelled against Spanish dominance, resulting in three liberation wars: the Ten Years' War (1868–1878), the Little War (1879–1880) and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). The United States government proclaimed war on the Spanish Empire, resulting in the Spanish–American War (1898). The US subsequently invaded the island and forced the Spanish army out. Of note, a special operations attempt to land a group of at least 375 Cuban soldiers", "not applied severe legislation against the torturers, terrorists, and other criminals employed by the Batista regime, the people themselves would have taken justice into their own hands. Refugees According to the US government, some 1,200,000 Cubans (about 10% of the current population) left the island for the United States between 1959 and 1993, often by sea in small boats and fragile rafts. Forced labor camps and abuse of prisoners In 1987 a \"Tribunal on Cuba\" was held in Paris to present testimonies by former prisoners of Cuba's penal system to the international media. The gathering was sponsored by Resistance International", "war.\nThe real engine for the growth of Cuba's commerce in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century was the Haitian Revolution. When the enslaved peoples of what had been the Caribbean's richest colony freed themselves through violent revolt, Cuban planters perceived the region's changing circumstances with both a sense of fear and opportunity. They were afraid because of the prospect that slaves might revolt in Cuba, too, and numerous prohibitions during the 1790s on the sale of slaves in Cuba that had previously been slaves in French colonies underscored this anxiety. The planters saw opportunity, however, because they thought that" ]

[ "Weeeeellllllllllll... the title 'nanorobot' is a bit misleading in this case, they actually genetically engineered some salmonella bacteria (non harmful versions of it at least) to seek out cancer cells. They also filled the bacteria with cancer killing drugs and programmed it to explode on contact with a cancerous cell, providing targeted medication which means they can use more powerful drugs without causing the collateral damage normally associated with eg. chemotherapy (hair loss, nausea etc).\n\nWhile this is very cool and definitely the way forward for medicine, it falls more under the category of Genetic Modification than Nanorobotics. These do have a lot of overlap as a lot of nanorobot production is done using genetically modified cells because.. cells are good at that kind of thing, however there are a load of stigma and negative connotations attached to GM stuff, so most medical development uses Nanorobotics as a descriptor because it makes it more likely to receive positive press coverage and funding. \n\nAnd use, patient confidence is important, which sounds better \"we would like to fill you full of genetically engineered super-bacteria-suicide-bombers blow up your cancer\" or \"we would like to introduce an army of nanorobots to annihilate the cancerous cells\". Actually on second thought those both sound pretty cool to me." ]

[ "practical nanorobots should be integrated as nanoelectronics devices, which will allow tele-operation and advanced capabilities for medical instrumentation. Nubots A nucleic acid robot (nubot) is an organic molecular machine at the nanoscale. DNA structure can provide means to assemble 2D and 3D nanomechanical devices. DNA based machines can be activated using small molecules, proteins and other molecules of DNA. Biological circuit gates based on DNA materials have been engineered as molecular machines to allow in-vitro drug delivery for targeted health problems. Such material based systems would work most closely to smart biomaterial drug system delivery, while not allowing precise in", "Nanobottle Nanobottles are hollow bottle-shaped particle with the maximal dimension smaller or comparable with 1 micrometer. They can be used for storing and distributing various chemical compounds, for example, inside the human body. Laboratory synthesis Carbon nanotubes capped at one end may be regarded as nanobottles. They can be produced by cutting nanotubes, which are typically capped as both ends after the growth.\nNanobottles were also fabricated in a three-step process: First, voids were created in aluminium foils. Then a thin layer of non-Al material, such as carbon, germanium, silicon, silica or hafnia, was deposited into the voids, and the surrounding", "also focuses around nanotechnology, focusing mainly on its ability to cure cancer.\nA nanomorph, term first coined by Science Fiction writer David Pulver in 1986's GURPS Robots, is a fictional robot entirely made of nanomachines. Its brain is distributed throughout its whole body, which also acts as an all-around sensor, hence making it impossible to surprise as long as the target is on line of sight. A nanomorph is arguably the robotic ultimate in versatility, maybe even in power. Further uses of the concept could include using parts of its body as a tracking device, splitting the body for doing several", "to work together to perform microscopic and macroscopic tasks. These nanorobot swarms, both those unable to replicate (as in utility fog) and those able to replicate unconstrainedly in the natural environment (as in grey goo and synthetic biology), are found in many science fiction stories, such as the Borg nanoprobes in Star Trek and The Outer Limits episode \"The New Breed\".\nSome proponents of nanorobotics, in reaction to the grey goo scenarios that they earlier helped to propagate, hold the view that nanorobots able to replicate outside of a restricted factory environment do not form a necessary part of a", "nanobot's immense potential, enhancing NEW-GEN's landscape and revitalizing the world's plant life. Gabriam expresses his gratitude and commends his apprentice's vision, and Deadalus retorts that if he is truly appreciative, he will allow him to use their discoveries to heal his sick wife, Kallius. Gabriam refuses, claiming the nanobots aren't stable enough for human trials, and past experimentation on Kallius have progressed her condition. As they quarrel, Deadalus is alerted that his wife has taken a turn for the worse. He rushes to Kallius' side where she bids him farewell and asks him to look after their infant daughter, Carmen.", "a broad range of applications such as controlling the function of single molecules, controlled drug delivery, and molecular computing.\".\nNanorobots made of DNA origami demonstrated computing capacities and completed pre-programmed task inside the living organism was reported by a team of bioengineers at Wyss Institute at Harvard University and Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials at Bar-Ilan University. As a proof of concept, the team injected various kinds of nanobots (the curled DNA encasing molecules with fluorescent markers) into live cockroaches. By tracking the markers inside the cockroaches, the team found the accuracy of delivery of the molecules (released", "origami-based nanobots capable of carrying out logic functions to achieve targeted drug delivery in cockroaches. It is said that the computational power of these nanobots can be scaled up to that of a Commodore 64. Nanoelectronics Commercial nanoelectronic semiconductor device fabrication began in the 2010s. In 2013, SK Hynix began commercial mass-production of a 16 nm process, TSMC began production of a 16 nm FinFET process, and Samsung Electronics began production of a 10 nm process. TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018. In 2019, Samsung announced plans for the commercial", "uses for nanorobotics in medicine include early diagnosis and targeted drug-delivery for cancer, biomedical instrumentation, surgery, pharmacokinetics, monitoring of diabetes, and health care.\nIn such plans, future medical nanotechnology is expected to employ nanorobots injected into the patient to perform work at a cellular level. Such nanorobots intended for use in medicine should be non-replicating, as replication would needlessly increase device complexity, reduce reliability, and interfere with the medical mission.\nNanotechnology provides a wide range of new technologies for developing customized means to optimize the delivery of pharmaceutical drugs. Today, harmful side effects of treatments such as chemotherapy are commonly a result", "ability to manipulate nanomachines. Nanobots are later used for a variety of purposes, from turning victims into berserk warriors to granting Creed Diskenth immortality.\nIn the anime and manga series To Love-Ru, the Transformation Weapons Golden Darkness and Mea Kurosaki have nanomachines within them, in the same manner as Eve from Black Cat.\nIn the anime and manga series Project ARMS, the ARMS are weapons made from many nanomachines imbued into compatible biological beings, granting them a great variety of combative abilities and regeneration. The four protagonists each have an ARMS that have artificial intelligence, but the Keith series and the modulated", "Microbotics Microbotics (or microrobotics) is the field of miniature robotics, in particular mobile robots with characteristic dimensions less than 1 mm. The term can also be used for robots capable of handling micrometer size components. History Microbots were born thanks to the appearance of the microcontroller in the last decade of the 20th century, and the appearance of miniature mechanical systems on silicon (MEMS), although many microbots do not use silicon for mechanical components other than sensors. The earliest research and conceptual design of such small robots was conducted in the early 1970s in (then) classified research for U.S. intelligence agencies.", "Nanoknife A nanoknife is a carbon nanotube-based prototype compression cutting tool intended for sectioning of biological cells. Working principle is similar to that of a 'cheese slicer', a nanometer-thin individual carbon nanotube strung between two tungsten needles would allow sectioning of very thin slices of biological matter for imaging under an electron microscope. Tests are currently being performed by scientists at Virginia Tech, CU-Boulder and other universities. A successful development of this new tool will allow scientists and biologists to make 3D images of cells and tissues for electron tomography, which typically requires samples less than ~300 nanometers in thickness.", "Nanorobotics Nanorobotics theory According to Richard Feynman, it was his former graduate student and collaborator Albert Hibbs who originally suggested to him (circa 1959) the idea of a medical use for Feynman's theoretical micromachines (see biological machine). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) \"swallow the surgeon\". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's 1959 essay There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom.\nSince nanorobots would be microscopic in size, it would probably be necessary for very large numbers of them", "arms. It can solve any Rubik's Cube in less than 50 seconds, and has managed it in a record time of 21 seconds. The robot has been nicknamed \"The Cubinator\". Creator Pete Redmond is from Dublin, Ireland. He has worked as an avionics engineer for the Irish Air Corps. Pete has degrees in Computer Science and a master's degree in Engineering. His other notable works include Diotoir and Nemesis from the TV show Robot Wars and a combustion engine powered sprinting robot called Ulysses that set a world record on a BBC TV show called Technogames.", "Molecular assembler Nanofactories A nanofactory is a proposed system in which nanomachines (resembling molecular assemblers, or industrial robot arms) would combine reactive molecules via mechanosynthesis to build larger atomically precise parts. These, in turn, would be assembled by positioning mechanisms of assorted sizes to build macroscopic (visible) but still atomically-precise products.\nA typical nanofactory would fit in a desktop box, in the vision of K. Eric Drexler published in Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing and Computation (1992), a notable work of \"exploratory engineering\". During the 1990s, others have extended the nanofactory concept, including an analysis of nanofactory convergent assembly by Ralph Merkle,", "Sanbot Nano stands at 2.7 feet tall and is equipped with over 50 sensors to avoid objects in its way, recognize voices and know when someone enters the room. \nSanbot Nano inherits popular features from Sanbot Elf including the Android SDK, Sanbot App Store and automatic charging. It adopts Amazon’s Alexa (Alexa Voice Service) and families can use it to control lights, thermostats and home appliances. It is the first home robot adopting the Amazon Alexa AI system.", "Nanoprobing Nanoprobing is method of extracting device electrical parameters through the use of nanoscale tungsten wires, used primarily in the semiconductor industry. The characterization of individual devices is instrumental to engineers and integrated circuit designers during initial product development and debug. It is commonly utilized in device failure analysis laboratories to aid with yield enhancement, quality and reliability issues and customer returns. Commercially available nanoprobing systems are integrated into either a vacuum-based scanning electron microscope (SEM) or atomic force microscope (AFM). Nanoprobing systems that are based on AFM technology are referred to as Atomic Force nanoProbers (AFP). Principles and operation", "Fail-safes in nanotechnology Ferrous nanoparticles Many researchers are looking into creating nano-scale robots (“nanobots”), for the purpose of undertaking tasks where only robots on the nano scale can be used, such as inside the human body. These robots would have the ability to construct other nanostructures or perform medical procedures, and will be introduced into the body via an injection. The robots’ shells and circuits would be made of ferrous nanoparticles so that a magnetic field could be used to prevent or manipulate their movement. In case of failure or malfunction, a small EMP or an MRI could be used", "Carbon nanotube metal matrix composites Nanonetwork Nanonetworks are expected to expand the capabilities of single nanomachines both in terms of complexity and range of operation by allowing them to coordinate, share and fuse information. CNT metal matrix composites enable new applications of nanotechnology in the military technology and industrial and consumer goods applications. Nanorobotics Nanomachines are largely in the research-and-development phase, but some primitive molecular machines have been tested. An example is a sensor having a switch approximately 1.5 nanometers across, capable of counting specific molecules in a chemical sample. The first useful applications of nanomachines might be in medical", "Molecubes Molecubes are a collection of modular robots created by Hod Lipson and Victor Zykov from Cornell University. A molecube is made of two rotatable halves, one with the microprocessor which represents the intelligence behind the unit, and the other with a motor for rotating the joint. A group of the cubes can be connected into a variety of shapes.\nA robot constructed entirely of molecubes would be able to repair itself using extra cubes, and to create a copy of itself using the same number of cubes.\nAn open source educational version of Molecubes has been developed with all mechanical, electrical,", "to government, hospitality, public service and retail industries.\nSanbot Nano is Qihan’s new generation intelligent robot for home use and it was launched at 2017 IFA Expo in Messe Berlin, Germany. Sanbot Nano adopts Amazon’s Alexa Voice Service (AVS) and families can use it to control lights, thermostats and home appliances. People can order pizza, request a car, track fitness stats, control the TV, play music from today’s leading streaming providers through Sanbot Nano at home. Sanbot Elf A matrix design of 360 wrap-around perception that utilizes more than 60 sensors gives Sanbot Elf better than human-like awareness. The robot is", "Nanoinjection Nanoinjection is the process of using a microscopic lance and electrical forces to deliver DNA to a cell. It is claimed to be more effective than microinjection because the lance used is ten times smaller than a micropipette and the method uses no fluid. The nanoinjector mechanism is operated while submerged in a pH buffered solution. Then, a positive electrical charge is applied to the lance, which accumulates negatively charged DNA on its surface. The nanoinjector mechanism then penetrates the zygotic membranes, and a negative charge is applied to the lance, releasing the accumulated DNA within the cell. The", "Nano-scaffold How it works Nano-scaffolding is very small, 100 times smaller than the human hair and is built out of biodegradable fibers. The use of this scaffolding allows more effective use of stem cells and quicker regeneration. Electrospun nanofibers are prepared using microscopic tubes that range between 100 and 200 nanometers in diameter. These entangle with each other in the form of a web as they're produced. Electrospinning allows the construction of these webs to be controlled in the sense of the tube's diameter, thickness, and the material being used. Nano-scaffolding is placed into the body at the site where", "approaches Manufacturing nanomachines assembled from molecular components is a very challenging task. Because of the level of difficulty, many engineers and scientists continue working cooperatively across multidisciplinary approaches to achieve breakthroughs in this new area of development. Thus, it is quite understandable the importance of the following distinct techniques currently applied towards manufacturing nanorobots: Biochip The joint use of nanoelectronics, photolithography, and new biomaterials provides a possible approach to manufacturing nanorobots for common medical uses, such as surgical instrumentation, diagnosis, and drug delivery. This method for manufacturing on nanotechnology scale is in use in the electronics industry since 2008. So,", "films of carbon nanotubes have been used for the macroscopic applications. Carbon nano-tweezers Carbon nanotube tweezers have been fabricated by deposition of MWNT bundles on isolated electrodes deposited on tempered glass micropipettes. Those nanotube bundles can be mechanically manipulated by electricity and can be used to manipulate and transfer micro- and nano-structures. The nanotube bundles used for tweezers are about 50 nm in diameter and 2 µm in lengths. Under electric bias, two close sets of bundles are attracted and can be used as nanoscale tweezers. Nanotube on/off switches and random access memory Harvard researchers have used the electrostatic attraction principle to", "season, Kilobot is a vampiric robot that is far smarter than any of his cohorts. Dr. K describes him as his finest creation, developed to absorb data from other robots. Kilobot's name comes from the fact that he has the potential to copy the powers of up to 1000 other robots. As such, his power is potentially unlimited. Kilobot originally appeared in a bat-like form, but later upgraded to a bulkier body designed after Cubix's cubes. Kilobot is Cubix's new arch-enemy. In the series finale, he took control of Dr. K's robots and planned an ultimate takeover. However, he was", "Omnibot The Omnibot (オムニボット) is a toy robot originally manufactured by Tomy in the mid-1980s. The name then came to apply to the successful line of robots manufactured by the company. The initial Omnibot was announced with expectations of restoring popular interest in robots, at a time when it was becoming obvious that robots with advanced AI such as R2-D2 were still a long way away. A more advanced version of the Omnibot was called the Omnibot 2000 and did not have a plastic bubble over its head. With the success of the Omnibots, the Omnibot range quickly expanded. After", "Ebot (microcontroller) Hardware The Ebot microcontroller was built using an (ATMEGA1284P) integrated circuit from the (AVR 8-bit) family, which uses 8 bits to build the commands.\nThe diagram consists of two layers. The first layer has (ATMEGA1284P) pin functions, the second has the Arduino-compatible pins (bootloader), and the second layer has the names of the (Ebot) pins. The pin names and placement have been modified to suit the unit’s inputs and outputs ports, which will facilitate the programming process for the user. Software Ebot IDE was developed by CreativeBits Co., and was designed to teach programming in a simple way. The", "using a WiFi enabled micro controller to create a bristlebot that you can drive from a smartphone, or even teach to drive autonomously.\nIn BEAM robotics, a sophisticated bristlebot may begin to resemble a Walker, although these multi-legged robots are usually much more sophisticated, using multiple actuators with independent control. Commercial bristlebots The popular Hexbug range of toy robots began with the Hexbug Nano, a bristlebot. Nano V2, a development of the original Nano released in 2013, has three additional flexible spines on their top surface. This gives them the new ability to climb vertically between two suitably spaced plates or", "Nanochondrion Nanochondria are hypothetical nanomachines that are meant to live inside or with biological cells. They are named after mitochondria, due to their similarities in working inside the cell, and their reproduction. Abilities Nanochondria would be able to replicate themselves within the body, even to the point where a mother would pass them on to her children, reducing the need for them to be implanted after the first generation. Even a single nanochondrion inside of an egg cell would be able to replicate to the point where the person that was born from the egg would have nanochondria in every", "Dobot Dobot is a brand of robotic arms produced by Shenzhen Yuejiang Technology Co., Ltd. The company was founded in 2015 and is based in Shenzen, China. That year, the first Dobot significantly exceeded its initial $36,000 Kickstarter funding goal, ultimately raising $650,000. The company has since released five models. History Shenzhen Yuejiang Technology Co., Ltd. was founded in June 2015 by Jerry Liu, who became its CEO, and six of his classmates in robotics engineering. The company is based in Shenzen, China. Liu and his cofounders originally intended to build large-scale industrial arms, but realizing the competition in the" ]

[ "When water evaporates, it gets heated to an extent that the water particles move faster and spread apart, which causes them to become \"lighter\" than the air around them, turning into water vapor, a gas. Due to this, they rise up into the atmosphere. Then, they start to cool down, and become liquid again. When they become cool enough that they're heavier than the air, it rains back down.\n\nThis is the basic water cycle.\n\nThe salt which makes it salt water requires a much higher temperature to turn into gas, one which doesn't normally happen during this cycle. Because of this, it does not follow the water, and thus, it doesn't rain salt water.", "The rise in temperature that is required to evaporate the water is less than that is needed to evaporate salt water, as a result, the water is evaporated and the salt gets left behind. You can see this sometimes if you wear a black hat on a hot sunny day. The sweat on your cap evaporates leaving behind a salty residue (or a white lining) on your cap." ]

[ "environmental flows. There is no water allocation for the purpose of salt export to the sea. When rain water comes in contact with the soil, it picks up some salts in dissolved form from the soil. The total amount of dissolved salts contained in the river water has to reach sea without accumulating in the river basin. This process is called \"salt export\". If all the water is utilised without letting adequate water to the Sea, the water salinity / total dissolved salts (TDS) would be so high making it unfit for human, cattle and agriculture use. Higher Sodium in", "salty and uninhabitable. Water salinity is reduced by salt collecting around plant roots as most of the incoming water is transpired by plants. Peat fires might contribute to deposit salt into layers below the surface. The low salinity of the water also means that the floods do not greatly enrich the floodplain with nutrients. Salt islands The agglomeration of salt around plant roots leads to barren white patches in the centre of many of the thousands of islands, which have become too salty to support plants, aside from the odd salt-resistant palm tree. Trees and grasses grow in the sand", "tend to have very poor structure which limits or prevents water infiltration and drainage.\nOver long periods of time, as soil minerals weather and release salts, these salts are flushed or leached out of the soil by drainage water in areas with sufficient precipitation. In addition to mineral weathering, salts are also deposited via dust and precipitation. In dry regions salts may accumulate, leading to naturally saline soils. This is the case, for example, in large parts of Australia. Human practices can increase the salinity of soils by the addition of salts in irrigation water. Proper irrigation", "poor irrigation practices have led to increased salt content in the soil, reducing the productivity of the land. Irrigation salinity is caused by water soaking through the soil level adding to the ground water below. This causes the water table to rise, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. As the irrigated area dries, the salt remains. At Wakool in the Riverina region of New South Wales, irrigation salinity is mitigated through a salt interception scheme that pumps saline ground water into evaporation basins, protecting approximately 50,000 hectares of farmland in the area from high water tables and salinity. The subsequent", "from rain.Natural rainwater has a pH of 5.6 due to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.This is low enough to dissolve the calcium carbonate that constitutes limestone and cement. Air pollution can greatly enhance this effect by dropping the pH of the rainwater. In the eastern United States, the pH of rainwater can be as low as 2.0.\nRain can also dissolve salts from the stone or other sources and redeposit the salt into cracks in the stones or between them. The salts will then crystalize as the water evaporates, putting pressure on the edges of the crack and causing the stones", "an appropriate drainage system. The salt concentration of the drainage water is normally 5 to 10 times higher than that of the irrigation water, thus salt export matches salt import and it will not accumulate. The soil salinity problem Salty (saline) soils are soils that have a high salt content. The predominant salt is normally sodium chloride (NaCl, \"table salt\"). Saline soils are therefore also sodic soils but there may be sodic soils that are not saline, but alkaline.\nAccording to a study by UN University, about 62 million hectares (240 thousand square miles; 150 million acres), representing 20% of the world's irrigated", "Salt lake Properties Salt lakes form when the water flowing into the lake, containing salt or minerals, cannot leave because the lake is endorheic (terminal). The water then evaporates, leaving behind any dissolved salts and thus increasing its salinity, making a salt lake an excellent place for salt production. High salinity will also lead to a unique halophilic flora and fauna in the lake in question; sometimes, in fact, the result may be an absence or near absence of life near the salt lake.\nIf the amount of water flowing into a lake is less than the amount evaporated, the lake", "due to a combination of natural and human-caused processes. Arid conditions favour salt accumulation. This is especially apparent when soil parent material is saline. Irrigation of arid lands is especially problematic. All irrigation water has some level of salinity. Irrigation, especially when it involves leakage from canals and overirrigation in the field, often raises the underlying water table. Rapid salination occurs when the land surface is within the capillary fringe of saline groundwater. Soil salinity control involves watertable control and flushing with higher levels of applied water in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface drainage. Reclamation Soils", "when the water table is between two and three metres from the surface of the soil. The salts from the groundwater are raised by capillary action to the surface of the soil. This occurs when groundwater is saline (which is true in many areas), and is favored by land use practices allowing more rainwater to enter the aquifer than it could accommodate. For example, the clearing of trees for agriculture is a major reason for dryland salinity in some areas, since deep rooting of trees has been replaced by shallow rooting of annual crops. Salinity due to irrigation Salinity", "Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to contamination of drinking water sources and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saline water has a higher mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As a result, saltwater can push inland beneath the freshwater. Certain human activities, especially groundwater pumping from coastal freshwater wells, have increased saltwater intrusion in many coastal areas. Water extraction drops the level of fresh groundwater,", "weathering, which decreases the dissolved load. Salt export The process of carrying salts by water to the sea or a land-locked lake from a river basin is called salt export. When adequate salt export is not occurring, the river basin area gradually converts into saline soils and/or alkali soils, particularly in lower reaches.", "such as the Biscayne Aquifer near Miami and the New Jersey Coastal Plain aquifer, have problems with saltwater intrusion as a result of overpumping and sea level rise. Salination Aquifers in surface irrigated areas in semi-arid zones with reuse of the unavoidable irrigation water losses percolating down into the underground by supplemental irrigation from wells run the risk of salination.\nSurface irrigation water normally contains salts in the order of 0.5 g/l or more and the annual irrigation requirement is in the order of 10,000 m³/ha or more so the annual import of salt is in the order of 5,000 kg/ha or more.\nUnder the", "more saline soils then others. This is important in countries where resources such as fresh water are scarce and needed for drinking, and saline water is able to be used for agriculture. Soil salinity can vary between extremes in a relatively small area; this allows plants to seek areas with less salinity. It is hard to determine which plants are able to grow in soil with high salinity, because the soil salinity is not uniform, even in small areas. However, plants absorb nutrients from areas with lower salinity. Erosion Soil erosion is the removal of the soil's upper layers by", "capacity of the aquifer or because water cannot exit the aquifer, for instance if the aquifer is situated in a topographical depression.\nWorldwide, the major factor in the development of saline soils is a lack of precipitation. Most naturally saline soils are found in (semi)arid regions and climates of the earth. Primary cause The primary cause of man-made salinization is the salt brought in with irrigation water. All irrigation water derived from rivers or groundwater, however 'sweet', contains salts that remain behind in the soil after the water has evaporated.\nFor example, assuming irrigation water with a low salt concentration of", " When soil is irrigated with high salinity water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into saline soil or lose its fertility. Saline water enhance the turgor pressure or osmotic pressure requirement which impedes the off take of water and nutrients by the plant roots.\nTop soil loss takes place in alkali soils due to erosion by rain water surface flows or drainage as they form colloids (fine mud) in contact with water. Plants absorb water-soluble inorganic salts only from the soil for their growth. Soil as such does not lose fertility", "the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process \"continental weathering\".\nHalley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant", "Brine used to be made by allowing fresh water to run through abandoned rock salt mines. A Salt-on-Salt process strengthens brine by dissolving rock salt, and/ or, crystal salt in weak brine or sea water prior to evaporation. Solar Evaporation uses the sun to strengthen and evaporate sea water trapped on the sea-shore to make sea salt crystals, or to strengthen and evaporate brine sourced from natural springs where it is made into white salt crystals.\nThis led to three types of salt production all of which used a variation of the open-pan salt method: \nCoastal salt production. The process involved", "century. In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud.\nThe Tigris and Euphrates also carry large quantities of salts. These, too, are spread on the land by sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding. A high water table and poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near the surface of the soil. In general, the salinity of the soil increases from Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in the region south of Al Amarah. The salinity is reflected in the large lake in central", "nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.\nSalt is processed from salt mines, and by the evaporation of seawater (sea salt) and mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine; salt is used in many industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp and many other products. Of the annual global production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water", "salt is made”. Salt is collected from seawater through evaporation, leaving the crystalline salt behind.\nThe Lingayen Gulf is also home to the 1200 megawatt Sual Power Station, the Philippines largest coal power plant.", "to ground water, salt water can also intrude into aquifers near the coast. Soils may become too salty for farms or forests. For example, some of the freshwater swamps along the York River’s tidal tributaries have standing dead trees that were killed by saltwater intrusion made possible by rising sea level\". Storms, homes, and infrastructure \"Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense during the past 20 years. Although warming oceans provide these storms with more potential energy, scientists are not sure whether the recent intensification reflects a long-term trend. Nevertheless, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are likely to", "Salt pan (geology) Natural salt pans or salt flats are flat expanses of ground covered with salt and other minerals, usually shining white under the sun. They are found in deserts, and are natural formations (unlike salt evaporation ponds, which are artificial). Overview A salt pan forms by evaporation of a water pool such as a lake or pond. This happens in climates where the rate of water evaporation exceeds the rate of precipitation, that is, in a desert. If the water cannot drain into the ground, it remains on the surface until it evaporates, leaving behind minerals precipitated", "areas, which is mainly due to ingress of seawater and its subsequent evaporation. Like the Dead Sea the lake is sufficiently buoyant that people can float easily.\nSalt is exported across the region by up to 3,000 collectors, men and women from all over Western Africa, who work 6–7 hours a day, and protect their skin with beurre de Karité (shea butter), an emollient produced from Shea nuts which helps avoid tissue damage. The salt is used by Senegalese fishermen to preserve fish, a component of many traditional recipes including the national dish, a fish and rice meal called thieboudienne.\nFish in", "variations acting on salt efflorescence in coastal regions; and salt weathering. Most commonly, researchers have advocated salt weathering as the primary explanation for the formation of honeycomb weathering. Currently, it is considered to be polygenetic in origin; being the result of complex interaction of physical and chemical weathering processes, which include salt weathering and cyclic wetting and drying. There are instances where honeycombing or pitting of sandstone is due simply to removal of easily soluble cements such as calcite or dolomite, e.g. Cretaceous sandstones in central Kansas.", "reducing its water pressure and allowing saltwater to flow further inland. Other contributors to saltwater intrusion include navigation channels or agricultural and drainage channels, which provide conduits for saltwater to move inland. Sea level rise could also contribute to saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion can also be worsened by extreme events like hurricane storm surges. Hydrology At the coastal margin, fresh groundwater flowing from inland areas meets with saline groundwater from the ocean. The fresh groundwater flows from inland areas towards the coast where elevation and groundwater levels are lower. Because saltwater has a higher content of dissolved salts and", "will eventually disappear and leave a dry lake (also called playa or salt flat).\nBrine lakes consist of water that has reached salt saturation or near saturation (brine), and may also be heavily saturated with other materials. \nMost brine lakes develop as a result of high evaporation rates in an arid climate with a lack of an outlet to the ocean. The high salt content in these bodies of water may come from minerals deposited from the surrounding land. Another source for the salt may be that the body of water was formerly connected to the ocean. While the water", "sidewalks and driveways after a snow storm to melt the ice. It is not necessary to use so much salt that the ice is completely melted; rather, a small amount of salt will weaken the ice so that it can be easily removed by other means. Also, many cities will spread a mixture of sand and salt on roads during and after a snowstorm to improve traction. Using salt brine is more effective than spreading dry salt because moisture is necessary for the freezing-point depression to work and wet salt sticks to the roads better. Otherwise the salt can be", "management can prevent salt accumulation by providing adequate drainage water to leach added salts from the soil. Disrupting drainage patterns that provide leaching can also result in salt accumulations. An example of this occurred in Egypt in 1970 when the Aswan High Dam was built. The change in the level of ground water before the construction had enabled soil erosion, which led to high concentration of salts in the water table. After the construction, the continuous high level of the water table led to the salination of the arable land. Dry land salinity Salinity in drylands can occur", "water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. On Earth, mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of salts and other minerals. Sometimes water flows through Earth's aquifers, and then evaporates at the surface just as is hypothesized for Mars. One location this occurs on Earth is the Great Artesian Basin of Australia. On Earth the hardness of many sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, is largely due", "water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. On Earth, mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of salts and other minerals. Sometimes water flows through Earth's aquifers, and then evaporates at the surface just as is hypothesized for Mars. One location this occurs on Earth is the Great Artesian Basin of Australia. On Earth the hardness of many sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, is largely due" ]

[ "A centrifuge is typically used to separate a heterogeneous mixture of solid and liquid by spinning it. Salt water is a solution, so if it is even possible, I am sure the energy, time and expense are enormous." ]

[ "to control the nozzle. During sludging, the water is injected to open the nozzle and drained to close it. Oil and gas industry Conical plate centrifuge can be used to remove water, salts and solids to condition fuels for gas turbine. It also removes some heavy phase liquid and fine solids to obtain high purity liquid fuel. On the other hand, the centrifuge is also useful for treating water, an oil and gas by product, by removing oil contaminants before discharging back to the sea, as required by law. Moreover, emulsion of oil and water can be further treated to", "is required for a certain motor boat depends on the engine location and design. Unlike antifreezes used for automotive application, assortment of boat antifreezes is more complex.\nAntifreeze was developed to overcome the shortcomings of water as a heat transfer fluid.\nOn the other hand, if the engine coolant gets too hot, it might boil while inside the engine, causing voids (pockets of steam), leading to localized hot spots and the catastrophic failure of the engine. If plain water were to be used as an engine coolant, it would promote galvanic corrosion. Proper engine coolant and a pressurized coolant system obviate the", "use seawater for this process due to its extreme low obtaining cost. The seawater used is usually brackish water or brine (i.e. a solution with >0.5% salinity). In these cases, random chemicals may be introduced into the system. These random chemicals pose no threat to the system however, due to the simplicity of the process. The low voltage DC current that is applied will do only what it is intended to do, i.e. electrochlorination. The excess random chemicals are left untouched and can be easily discarded. Products The product of this process, sodium hypochlorite, contains 0.7% to 1% chlorine.", "reduced flammability and reducing shorts via preventing dendrites. Perfluoropolyether In 2014, researchers at University of North Carolina found a way to replace the electrolyte’s flammable organic solvent with nonflammable perfluoropolyether (PFPE). PFPE is usually used as an industrial lubricant, e.g., to prevent marine life from sticking to the ship bottoms. The material exhibited unprecedented high transference numbers and low electrochemical polarization, indicative of a higher cycle durability. Solid-state While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also", "concern over the toxicity of their components. Many observers believed that they were officially referred to as 'detergents', rather than the more accurate 'solvent-emulsifiers', to encourage comparison with much more benign domestic cleaning products.\nSome 42 vessels sprayed over 10,000 tons of these dispersants onto the floating oil and they were also deployed against oil stranded on beaches. In Cornwall, they were often misused – for example, by emptying entire 45-gallon drums over the clifftop to 'treat' inaccessible coves or by pouring a steady stream from a low-hovering helicopter. On the heavily oiled beach at Sennen Cove, dispersant pouring from", "of success underwater due to the extra pressure from the sea depths surrounding and pressing against the object and grasper. However, they noted that an underwater environment would require different manufacturing materials that would allow the suction cups to perform well in salt water, such as a thermal plastic.", "good surfactants and can aid in the formation of stable emulsions, or blends, of water and fats. Surfactants reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water by adsorbing at the liquid–liquid interface. Electrical deflection of water Contrary to popular misconception, the electrical deflection of a stream of water from a charged object is not based on polarity. The deflection occurs because of electrically charged droplets in the stream, which the charged object induces. A stream of water can also be deflected in a uniform electrical field, which cannot exert force on polar molecules. Additionally, after a stream of water is", "to tap water for use in automotive cooling systems.\nUsing deionised or distilled water in appliances that evaporate water, such as steam irons and humidifiers, can reduce the build-up of mineral scale, which shortens appliance life. Some appliance manufacturers say that deionised water is no longer necessary.\nPurified water is used in freshwater and marine aquariums. Since it does not contain impurities such as copper and chlorine, it helps to keep fish free from diseases, and avoids the build-up of algae on aquarium plants due to its lack of phosphate and silicate. Deionized water should be re-mineralized before use in aquaria, since", "55,000 parts per million (ppm).\nDesalination is the technique of removing salts from seawater to leave fresh water suitable for drinking or irrigation. The two main processing methods, vacuum distillation and reverse osmosis, use large quantities of energy. Desalination is normally only undertaken where fresh water from other sources is in short supply or energy is plentiful, as in the excess heat generated by power stations. The brine produced as a by-product contains some toxic materials and is returned to the sea. Marine pollution Many substances enter the sea as a result of human activities. Combustion products are transported in the", "of this defluoridated water may also help in fluorosis reversal. Thus, it is expected that utilization of this defluoridation technique to provide safe drinking water helps in the mitigation of fluorosis.", "cleaning internal and external surfaces because the operator is generally able to send the stream of water into places that are difficult to reach using other methods. Another benefit of hydro-blasting is the ability to recapture and reuse the water, reducing waste and mitigating environmental impact. Micro-abrasive blasting Micro-abrasive blasting is dry abrasive blasting process that uses small nozzles (typically 0.25 mm to 1.5 mm diameter) to deliver a fine stream of abrasive accurately to a small part or a small area on a larger part. Generally the area to be blasted is from about 1 mm² to only a few cm² at", "a significant environmental hazard, both due to corrosive and sediment-forming effects of salts and toxicity of other chemicals diluted in it. It must be properly disposed, which may require permits and compliance with environmental regulations.\nThe simplest way to dispose of unpolluted brine from desalination plants and cooling towers is to return it to the ocean. To limit the environmental impact, it can be diluted with another stream of water, such as the outfall of a wastewater treatment or power plant. Since brine is heavier than seawater and would accumulate on the ocean bottom, it requires methods to ensure proper diffusion,", "of saltwater to produce potable water, the salt concentrate should be dispersed back into the oceans, or further dried and sent off for disposal/ use in other operations. For most cases, there are no hazardous waste streams associated with natural and forced circulation evaporators. Advantages Natural/forced circulation evaporators have many advantages, making them the more popular choice of evaporator in industry.\nThe liquid entering the circulation evaporator will boil in the separator, not on a heating surface, hence minimising fouling, whereas with plate evaporators, boiling will occur on a heating surface. It is for this reason that circulation evaporators are preferred", "dikes fully eliminate any sea water seepage in to the coastal reservoir by establishing fresh water seepage to the sea. The rain water falling on the coastal reservoir area and run off water from its catchment area is adequate to cater the seepage and evaporation losses from the coastal reservoir. The 180 km long, 1000 m gap between the two dikes is also used as deep water mega harbor for shipping, ship breaking, ship building, etc. For shipping purpose, the breakwater outer dike facing the sea is envisaged with few locks fitted with twin gates for access to the open", "feed water. The pressures required in these units are generally between 4.5-7.5 bar.\nFor seawater desalination using a NF-RO system a typical process is shown below.\nBecause of the fact that NF permeate is rarely clean enough to be used as the final product for drinking water and other water purification, is it commonly used as a pre treatment step for reverse osmosis (RO) as is shown above. Post-treatment As with other membrane based separations such as ultrafiltration, microfiltration and reverse osmosis, post-treatment of eitherpermeate or retentate flow streams (depending on the application) – is a necessary stage in industrial NF", "water level is used outdoors in winter, antifreeze can be added to the water. Automotive window washer fluid can also be used for antifreeze and increased visibility. Additionally it inhibits the formation of error-causing bubbles. A surfactant (surface active agent), such as hand-dishwashing liquid detergent, can be added to the water to significantly lower the surface tension of the water. This liquid solution will flow more easily and more rapidly in the tube than plain water, so operation of the device will be more precise, repeatable, and responsive – particularly when using a small-diameter tube. Also, this liquid solution can", "reduces entry of any water that splashes over the top end of the tube, thereby keeping it relatively free from water.\nFinswimmers do not normally use snorkels with a sump valve, as they learn to blast clear the tube on most if not all exhalations, which keeps the water content in the tube to a minimum as the tube can be shaped for lower work of breathing, and elimination of water traps, allowing greater speed and lowering the stress of eventual swallowing of small quantities of water, which would impede their competition performance.\nA common problem with all mechanical clearing mechanisms is", "pool increases by a large magnitude when solids exit the pool onto the beach. A decanter centrifuge possessing a small cone angle is able to produce a lower slippage force compared to a large cone angle. A low cone angle is beneficial when solids do not compact properly and possess a soft texture. Additionally, low cone angles result in a lower wear rate on the scroll and are beneficial when being used with very compact solids requiring a large magnitude of torque to move.\nThe magnitude of centrifugal force being used must also be considered. Centrifugal force aids with dewatering but", "is less reliant on the detergent's surfactants but more reliant on machine's hot water as well as the detergent's builders, bleach, and enzymes. Automatic dishwashing detergents' surfactants generally have less foam to avoid disrupting the machine.", "will reduce or even waive the need to vacuum the bottom. To gain the maximum rotation force on the main body of water, the consecutive dilution system needs to be as clean and unblocked as possible to allow maximum flow pressure from the pump. As the water rotates, it also disturbs organic waste at lower water layers, forcing it to the top. Rotational force the pool return jets create is the most important part of cleaning the pool water and pushing organic waste across the mouth of the skimmer.\nWith a correctly designed and operated swimming pool, this circulation is", "dispersant requires a particular thickness to work; otherwise, the dispersant will interact with both the water and the oil. More dispersant may be required if the sea energy is low. The salinity of the water is more important for ionic-surfactant dispersants, as salt screens electrostatic interactions between molecules. The viscosity of the oil is another important factor; viscosity can retard dispersant migration to the oil-water interface and also increase the energy required to shear a drop from the slick. Viscosities below 2,000 centipoise are optimal for dispersants. If the viscosity is above 10,000 centipoise, no dispersion is possible. Surfactants Surfactants", "a co-rotating frame of reference (one that rotates with the water) because the water appears stationary in this frame, and so should have a flat surface. Thus, observers looking at the stationary water need the centrifugal force to explain why the water surface is concave and not flat. The centrifugal force pushes the water toward the sides of the bucket, where it piles up deeper and deeper, Pile-up is arrested when any further climb costs as much work against gravity as is the energy gained from the centrifugal force, which is greater at larger radius.\nIf you need a centrifugal", "areas near the ocean, seawater could be treated. Passarell The Passarell process uses reduced atmospheric pressure rather than heat to drive evaporative desalination. The pure water vapor generated by distillation is then compressed and condensed using an advanced compressor. The compression process improves distillation efficiency by creating the reduced pressure in the evaporation chamber. The compressor centrifuges the pure water vapor after it is drawn through a demister (removing residual impurities) causing it to compress against tubes in the collection chamber. The compression of the vapor increases its temperature. The heat is transferred to the input water falling in the", "Salinometer Applications Fresh water generators (Evaporators) use salinometers on the distillate discharge in order to gauge the quality of the water. Water from the evaporator can be destined for potable water supplies, so salty water is not desirable for human consumption.\nIn some ships, extremely high quality distillate is required for use in water-tube boilers, where salt water would be disastrous. In these ships, a salinometer is also installed on the feed system where it would alert the engineer to any salt contamination. The salinometer may switch the evaporator's output from fresh-water to feed-water tanks automatically, depending on the water quality.", "mechanical components, and be safe, including freedom from toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion or climate change. Since different fluids have the desired traits in different degree, choice is a matter of trade-offs.\nThe desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by appropriate choice of operating pressures. Environmental issues A", "surface of the water being kept as large as possible which is reached by a very fine nebulization of the water. A special nozzle and sufficient process water pressure provide for the nebulization degree. Also hydrophobic substances, such as rubber or plastic, can be extinguished or the water quantity can be minimized by adding relaxant agents.\nIn some cases, water is not appropriate as extinguishing agent (e.g. light metals cannot be extinguished using water) or the process is disturbed (e.g. gluing in the sugar industry).\nTherefore, deflectors for material bypassing purposes or sliders and flaps to shut off the conveying flow are", "droplets from clinging to the glass. The coatings also make removal of salt deposits possible without using fresh water. Furthermore, superhydrophobic coatings have the ability to harvest other minerals from seawater brine with ease. Despite the coating's many applications, safety for the environment and for workers is an issue. The International Maritime Organization has many regulations and policies about keeping water safe from potentially dangerous additives.\nSuperhydrophobic coatings rely on a delicate micro or nano structure for their repellence—this structure is easily damaged by abrasion or cleaning; therefore, the coatings are most used on things such as electronic components, which are", "the surface of water in a sink. In addition to talc, there are a number of proprietary chemical products that also are marketed as detackifiers. The common feature of these chemicals is that they are weak polyelectrolytes (sometimes cationic), and they have a tendency to form a film at the surface of tacky or hydrophobic suspended matter.\nSome of the key rules of thumb for talc are (a) disperse it well, (b) add it to those process streams that are giving the biggest problems, (c) add it early enough to the process with enough agitation, and (d) add enough. If too", "clogged quickly.\nWater must be purified of harmful living organisms and chemicals. Some commercial filters can remove most organisms and some harmful chemicals, but they are not 100% effective. Distillation filters, purifies, and removes some harmful chemicals. Chemicals with a lower or about equal boiling point of water are not eliminated by distilling. Iodine or chlorine dioxide solutions or tablets can be used to purify water. It can be boil water in a fire-resistant pot or water bottle. Water can be boiled in some flammable materials like bark because the water absorbs the heat. Pasteurization takes place at temperatures lower than", "clumsy solution, suited only to small-to-medium-sized ships. Boats typically lack the generators and space for the solution, while the amount of power needed to overcome the magnetic field of a large ship is impractical. Active countermeasures Active countermeasures are ways to clear a path through a minefield or remove it completely. This is one of the most important tasks of any mine warfare flotilla. Mine sweeping A sweep is either a contact sweep, a wire dragged through the water by one or two ships to cut the mooring wire of floating mines, or a distance sweep that mimics a ship" ]

[ "I'm not sure whether you mean licensing info for the video itself or for 3rd part content in the video, but if it's the former then people angling to create viral videos will want to exert their creative rights over it in case it really does take off, because viral things like Grumpy Cat and Nyan Cat can end up being worth a lot of money. And if it's licensing info for 3rd party content, some content is free to use so long as you attribute it under certain conditions, and one of those conditions is often linking to the license." ]

[ "which can be difficult to obtain when broadcasters and agencies insist on full ownership of the footage. The other difficulty can be trying to find distribution beyond established contacts. Increasingly, online companies are giving VJs the opportunity to keep ownership of their stories and find global distribution.", "site which offers downloads of many of the early classic videos produced by the company, including works by Hitomi Kobayashi, Rui Sakuragi and Ai Iijima. The VIP label is now used by Media Bank (メディアバンク Media Banku), another AV production company, which has been issuing videos under this label since at least 2001.", "Digital Citizens Alliance Reports and Filings In 2013, Digital Citizens Alliance conducted an exposé on online pharmacies selling drugs to minors. This was followed by a report on online drug marketplaces like Silk Road in 2014. DCA has issued several reports alleging that Google inappropriately profited from advertising revenues on YouTube videos that promote the sale of unlawful sale of controlled substance.\nDigital Citizens has conducted reports on whether ad-supported websites were infringing copyrights of movies and television shows. In one report, with MediaLink, Digital Citizens estimated that ad-supported content theft was at least a $227 million business. \nIn a December", "most of the videos are full-length instead of short clips, these websites have sharply cut in to the profits of pornographic paysites and traditional magazine and DVD-based pornography. The profits of tube-site owners are also squeezed in an increasingly crowded market, with the number of sites constantly growing.", "videos by country (e.g., if a video is uploaded with a banned or unlicensed logo).\nMCNs have been described as a means to \"negate the hassle involved when seeking out your own advertising opportunities on the site.\" Advertisers who work with MCNs can pay for services including overlay adverts, product placement and in show sponsorships, aiming to gain repeated exposure, endorsement by YouTube personalities, and increased audience engagement, especially compared with television advertisements which are often ignored or skipped. Controversies There have been several controversies involving YouTube Networks.\nMachinima has been criticised for the use of perpetual contracts. Ben Vacas, known to", "ID without the aid of a major backer difficult, limiting its usage to big corporations in practice. Context Between 2007 and 2009, companies including Viacom, Mediaset, and the English Premier League filed lawsuits against YouTube, claiming that it has done too little to prevent the uploading of copyrighted material. Viacom, demanding $1 billion in damages, said that it had found more than 150,000 unauthorized clips of its material on YouTube that had been viewed \"an astounding 1.5 billion times\".\nDuring the same court battle, Viacom won a court ruling requiring YouTube to hand over 12 terabytes of data detailing the viewing habits of", "by including other material which was similarly flagged by Content ID, hoping that multiple claims would prevent anyone from monetizing the video and running advertisements on his channel, which is intended to be ad-free and funded solely by Patreon. In a follow-up video, he claimed that the technique, which he termed the \"copyright deadlock\" had succeeded, as the video received multiple ContentID claims, one of which attempted to monetize the video, while two others prevented any monetization, allowing the video to run advertisement-free. Sterling stated that this was indicative of a poorly designed system on YouTube's part, as a video", "by pop-up or banner advertising. Story submission and rating depends on registration as a user, but this is also usually free. Example sites include Literotica, True Dirty Stories and Lust Library. Minors If the video or images in question are of individuals who are minors, including material created by the subject (ex. selfies, etc.), investigation by law enforcement can lead to charges for child pornography as has happened in cases involving sexting. User-generated online content Like traditional magazine and VHS/DVD-based pornography, Internet pornography has long been a profitable venture. However, with the rise of Web 2.0 ventures and amateur pornography,", "intelligence software to identify and tag videos on the website with information about the performers and sex acts. Price said the company planned to scan its entire library beginning in early 2018. Copyright infringement claims In 2010, Mansef Inc. and Interhub, the then-owners of Pornhub, were sued by the copyright holding company of the pornographic film production company Pink Visual, Ventura Content, for the copyright infringement of 95 videos on websites, including Pornhub, Keezmovies, Extremetube, and Tube8. According to Ventura Content, the 45 videos were streamed \"tens of millions of times\" and they claimed the piracy threatened the \"entire adult", "video owners for every video, whether by one-time payment or ongoing revenue share. Once Jukin has acquired a clip, it monetizes the clip with advertisements and integrates the clip into its library of videos that are available for third-party use. After being acquired, the video clips are licensed to third-parties that distribute them through a variety of channels including social media, television, and websites. Jared Frank kicked in the head One notable example of the type of videos that Jukin Media seeks out involved Canadian man Jared Frank filming himself being kicked in the head by the driver of a", "limitations such as fair dealing and parody (leading, they state, to a \"meme ban\"). Supporters and third parties pointed out that YouTube has used Content ID for a decade and yet remains a successful host for content of all kinds. However, the system still suffers from false positives, copyright trolls, and scammers leveraging YouTube's handling of copyright claims under the U.S. Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA)—a component of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)—as a form of extortion, by placing false copyright claims on a user's content until they pay a ransom (aiming to have the account taken", "The Message in the Bottle, books dealing with the history of pornography, its suppression, and the nature of language and man, Lawless created a multimedia installation at SPACES (Cleveland), a key work in the Uncensored exhibit in 1987. Although smaller than Green Lightning this work confronted many of the same issues, resurrected the offending \"images\", and incorporated video technology.\nFrom the title down to the sources for the video clips, Lawless rips political statements out of their contexts and illuminates them with biting irony. Judge Potter Stewart's infamous inadequate definition of pornography forms the title. Passages from the 1986 Meese Report", "the usage of a song licensed by Universal that was used in a YouTube video of a dancing toddler. Free video licenses At the moment, there are no known free content licenses that are specifically designed for video content. Instead, most known free video content is under a Creative Commons license and other, non-media-type-specific free content licenses, or within the public domain as the video's copyright has already expired. Free video formats While the discussion on free video is related to an extent to the advocacy for freely-licensed data compression technologies such as Theora for video and Ogg Vorbis for", "a memorandum opinion holding \"Video Buyer's Guide\" to be a generic trademark, denying Reese's motion for injunctive relief, and dismissing the complaint against Hampton. Vindicated, Hampton released its buyer's guide shortly afterward under the title \"Hampton's Official 1980 Video Buyer's Guide\".\nAppealing the decision before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in early 1980, Reese asserted that the lower court had abused its discretion in finding the trademark to be generic, that it had failed to provide Reese an adequate opportunity to present all evidence, that state claims were not adjudicated, and that other bases for enjoining Hampton's", "a free site can earn through advertising may not be sufficient to cover the costs of that bandwidth. One recent entry into the free pornography website market are Thumbnail gallery post sites. These are free websites that post links to commercial sites, providing a sampling of the commercial site in the form of thumbnail images, or in the form of Free Hosted Galleries—samplings of full-sized content provided and hosted by the commercial sites to promote their site. Some free websites primarily serve as portals by keeping up-to-date indexes of these smaller sampler sites. These intents to create directories about adult", "The owners of the actual physical copies of public domain footage often impose restrictions on its use along with charging licensing fees. The result is that documentary filmmakers have in many cases found it nearly impossible to either make a film or else have dropped projects entirely. In one example, filmmaker Gordon Quinn of Kartemquin Films in Chicago learned that the public domain federal government footage he wanted to use in a film was considered copyrighted by a director who then wanted payment to use it. Similarly, Stanford professor Jan Krawitz needed to incorporate a public domain clip into an", "companies that need significant bandwidth – like CD Baby, Spotify, and Netflix. CD Baby is an online music store specializing in the sale of CDs and music downloads from independent musicians to consumers. Like camming's hosting sites, CD Baby is an aggregator of independent performers' digital media in the same way that camming sites enable cam models to sell their videos for tips. Since the free-access business model of the camming industry also relies on large bandwidth, these possible new costs could eventually be passed on to camming hosting sites, as well as to the cam models themselves. A politically", "sell downloads through Google Video. The service launched with independent films Aardvark'd: 12 Weeks with Geeks, and Waterborne, as well as content from media partners CBS, the NBA, The Charlie Rose Show, and Sony BMG. Initially, the content of a number of broadcasting companies (such as ABC, NBC, CNN) was available as free streaming content or stills with closed captioning. In addition, the U.S. National Archive used Google Video to make historic films available online, but this project was later discontinued.\nGoogle Video also searched other non-affiliated video sites from web crawls. Sites searched by Google Video in addition to their", "last acquisition gave the company their East Coast distribution point in New Jersey to support the West Coast center in California. Competition WantedList is one of a number of websites in the pornographic video marketplace that mimic the Netflix model of subscription-based rentals by mail. Other sites include: DVD Empire, XRentDVD, Intelliflix (closed), Intimatedvd, AdultDVDCentral.com, Rentdvdxxx.com, URentDVDs and SugarDVD Awards WantedList won the AVN Award for Best Retail Website in 2005, 2006 (tied with Adult DVD Empire) and 2007 and the Xbiz award for Web Retailer of the Year in 2007.\nWantedList is a winner of the 2010 Best Adult DVD", "create a virtual store where they can sell items like videos, photos, personal clothing, and memberships to their fan club. The profile page's virtual store creates a stream of passive income, meaning that even if a camgirl is not online and performing, she can still generate money while fans come to the ever-present profile page to purchase its wares. Some of the most popular items are homemade videos that cam models make of themselves. While most these videos are sexual in nature, they often include elements of comedy, fashion, and a narration of their lifestyles. The affordability of and access", "requires visitors to navigate through pay-per-click advertisements for sex toys, Viagra-esque pills, and online casinos before they can watch or download pornographic content. The websites typically offer a mix of domestic amateur pornography videos and pirated content from Japan, Europe and the US. They typically set up their servers overseas and frequently change their URLs to avoid being detected by the authorities.\nFor some users, the quantity of advertisements on these websites can be uncomfortable and frustrating. Sometimes there is no pornographic content available after the advertisements have been navigated. The chance of picking up malware in the process is high.", "system to change the level of accessibility to \"unsafe\" content for entire nations, including South Korea, Hong Kong and Germany. In summer 2007, German users staged a \"revolt\" over being assigned the user rights of a minor. See Censorship below. Licensing Flickr offers users the ability to either release their images under certain common usage licenses or label them as \"all rights reserved\". The licensing options primarily include the Creative Commons 2.0 attribution-based and minor content-control licenses – although jurisdiction and version-specific licenses cannot be selected. As with \"tags\", the site allows easy searching of only those images that fall", "do so. Copyright laws Copyright laws also play a factor in relation to user-generated content, as users may use such services to upload works—particularly videos—that they do not have the sufficient rights to distribute. In many cases, the use of these materials may be covered by local \"fair use\" laws, especially if the use of the material submitted is transformative. Local laws also vary on who is liable for any resulting copyright infringements caused by user-generated content; in the United States, the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act (OCILLA)—a portion of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), dictates safe harbor", "the Ogg format and some web sites now support searching specifically for WebM videos. Copyright issues On some websites, users share entire films by breaking them up into segments that are about the size of the video length limit imposed by the site (e.g., 15-minutes). An emerging practice is for users to obfuscate the titles of feature-length films that they share by providing a title that is recognizable by humans but will not match on standard search engines. It is not even in all cases obvious to the user if a provided video is a copyright infringement.\nFor privacy reasons, the", "YouTube copyright issues YouTube has various copyright protection methods, such as copyright strikes, Content ID and Copyright Verification Program. However over the years these have been criticized for favoring corporations and unfair claims on videos. \nWhen a person creates an original work that is fixed in a physical medium, he or she automatically owns copyright to the work. The owner has the exclusive right to use the work in certain, specific ways. In response to a lawsuit from Viacom, video sharing service YouTube developed a copyright enforcement tool referred to as Content ID which automatically scans uploaded content against a", "being distributed on torrents and Cyberlocker sites. Pink Visual recommends that consumers purchase legally and provides numerous methods for consumers to access their content legally. Illegal downloads of PinkVisual content are prohibited and considered copyright infringement.\nIn 2012, Pink Visual established an anti-piracy service of its own that performs online copyright infringement location, trademark monitoring, copyright registration and DMCA takedown notice services for rights-holders.", "the USA; these include photographs taken by Jacob Riis, Mathew Brady and Alfred Stieglitz. Public domain videos Since the invention of video capture and animation techniques, thousands of films or videos have entered the public domain. Some examples include: TV series A number of television series, because they were released before 1964 and did not have their copyright renewed (such as almost all of the extant DuMont Television Network archive), were originally recorded before 1989 without a valid copyright notice, or were works of the United States government, have episodes in the public domain.\nPublic domain status of television episodes is", "products could not—for economic reasons—find a place in pre-Internet information distribution channels controlled by book publishers, record companies, movie studios, and television networks. Looked at from the producers' side, the Long Tail has made possible a flowering of creativity across all fields of human endeavor. One example of this is YouTube, where thousands of diverse videos—whose content, production value or lack of popularity make them inappropriate for traditional television—are easily accessible to a wide range of viewers. The benefit to the consumer is that they know have an almost infinite choice of content to select from able to create their", "incoming traffic from those freesites, except that freesites designed for TopLists have many more galleries. Usenet Another free source of pornography on the Internet are the Usenet newsgroups that were the first home to such material. Newsgroups tend to be poorly organized and flooded with content that is off-topic or spam. Commercial software and websites are available that allow browsing the images or videos on newsgroups, sometimes with galleries of thumbnail images. Peer-to-peer Peer-to-peer file sharing networks provide another form of free access to pornography. While such networks have been associated largely with the illegal sharing of copyrighted music and", "the IP address that visited them, even someone whose computer was an open wifi. In 2008, a man in Middlesbrough, UK, was found guilty of downloading \"child pornography\" when he downloaded computer generated cartoons. United Kingdom The sale or distribution of hardcore pornography through any channel was prohibited until the rules were relaxed in 2002. However, pornographic videos sold or distributed legally within the UK must receive a certificate from the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC) and the rules are still quite strict.\nIn 1996, internet service providers started the Internet Watch Foundation to watch for pornographic content that" ]

[ "It's a unique device address given to each piece of network connected hardware. It's different from an IP address because it's permanent: every device has one and only one MAC address, but it is given a new IP address every time it connects. \n\nEdit: You can think of the MAC address as a device's permanent name, and the IP address as an instruction for other devices to find it. Your device *is* MAC number X, and it *can be found at* IP address Y.", "MAC stands for Media Access Control. You can think of it as a unique identifier for an electronic device connecting to a network, like a VIN number for a car on a freeway of other cars.\n\nIf you've got an Iphone, you can see your IPhone's MAC address via Settings > General > About > WiFi Address" ]

[ "MAC address A media access control address (MAC address) of a device is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface controller (NIC). For communications within a network segment, it is used as a network address for most IEEE 802 network technologies, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. Within the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, MAC addresses are used in the medium access control protocol sublayer of the data link layer. As typically represented, MAC addresses are recognizable as six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or no separator (see Notational conventions below).\nA MAC address may be referred", "Address constant In IBM System/360 through present day z/Architecture, an address constant or \"adcon\" is an assembly language data type which contains the address of a location in computer memory. An address constant can be one, two, three or four bytes long, although an adcon of less than four bytes is conventionally used to hold expression for a small integer such as a length, a relative address, or an index value, and does not represent an address at all. Address constants are defined using an assembler language \"DC\" statement.\nOther computer systems have similar facilities, although different names may be used.", "to as the burned-in address, and is also known as an Ethernet hardware address, hardware address, and physical address (not to be confused with a memory physical address).\nA network node with multiple NICs must have a unique MAC address for each. Sophisticated network equipment such as a multilayer switch or router may require one or more permanently assigned MAC addresses.\nMAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of network interface cards. Each is stored in hardware, such as the card's read-only memory or by a firmware mechanism. A MAC address typically includes the manufacturer's organizationally unique identifier (OUI). MAC", "Physical address In computing, a physical address (also real address, or binary address), is a memory address that is represented in the form of a binary number on the address bus circuitry in order to enable the data bus to access a particular storage cell of main memory, or a register of memory mapped I/O device. Use by central processing unit In a computer supporting virtual memory, the term physical address is used mostly to differentiate from a virtual address. In particular, in computers utilizing a memory management unit (MMU) to translate memory addresses, the virtual and physical addresses", "addresses are formed according to the principles of two numbering spaces based on Extended Unique Identifiers (EUI) managed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): EUI-48, which replaces the obsolete term MAC-48, and EUI-64. Address details The original IEEE 802 MAC address comes from the original Xerox Network Systems Ethernet addressing scheme. This 48-bit address space contains potentially 2⁴⁸ (over 281 trillion) possible MAC addresses. The IEEE manages allocation of MAC addresses, originally known as MAC-48 and which it now refers to as EUI-48 identifiers. The IEEE has a target lifetime of 100 years (until 2080) for applications", "Unique local address A unique local address (ULA) is an Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) address in the address range fc00::/7. Its purpose in IPv6 is analogous to IPv4 private network addressing. Unique local addresses may be used freely, without centralized registration, inside a single site or organization or spanning a limited number of sites or organizations. They are routable only within the scope of such private networks, but not in the global IPv6 Internet. History In 1995, the IPv6 address block fec0::/10 was reserved for site-local addresses, that could be used within a \"site\" for private IPv6 networks. However,", "has the IP address 192.168.0.55.\nTo send the message, it also requires Computer 2's MAC address. First, Computer 1 uses a cached ARP table to look up 192.168.0.55 for any existing records of Computer 2's MAC address (00:eb:24:b2:05:ac). If the MAC address is found, it sends an Ethernet frame with destination address 00:eb:24:b2:05:ac, containing the IP packet onto the link. If the cache did not produce a result for 192.168.0.55, Computer 1 has to send a broadcast ARP request message (destination FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF MAC address), which is accepted by all computers on the local network, requesting an answer for 192.168.0.55. \nComputer 2", "reserves the 16th character as a NetBIOS Suffix. This suffix describes the service or name record type such as host record, master browser record, or domain controller record or other services. The host name (or short host name) is specified when Windows networking is installed/configured, the suffixes registered are determined by the individual services supplied by the host. In order to connect to a computer running TCP/IP via its NetBIOS name, the name must be resolved to a network address. Today this is usually an IP address (the NetBIOS name to IP address resolution is often done by either broadcasts", "in nearly any manner they please, subject to the constraint of uniqueness. A locally administered address is assigned to a device by a network administrator, overriding the burned-in address.\nUniversally administered and locally administered addresses are distinguished by setting the second-least-significant bit of the first octet of the address. This bit is also referred to as the U/L bit, short for Universal/Local, which identifies how the address is administered. If the bit is 0, the address is universally administered. If it is 1, the address is locally administered. In the example address 06-00-00-00-00-00 the first octet is 06 (hex), the binary", "IP address An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.\nAn IP address serves two main functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing.\nInternet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.\nIP addresses are written and displayed in", "Addressability Addressability is the ability of a digital device to individually respond to a message sent to many similar devices. Examples include pagers, mobile phones and set-top boxes for pay TV. Computer networks are also addressable, such as via the MAC address on Ethernet network cards, and similar networking protocols like Bluetooth. This allows data to be sent in cases where it is impractical (or impossible, such as with wireless devices) to control exactly where or to which devices the message is physically sent.\nIn the case of simple hardware devices like the pager, the address is simply", "form of which is 00000110, where the second-least-significant bit is 1. Therefore, it is a locally administered address. Another example that uses locally administered addresses is the DECnet protocol. The MAC address of the Ethernet interface is changed by the DECnet software to be AA-00-04-00-XX-YY where XX-YY reflects the DECnet network address xx.yy of the host. This eliminates the need for an address resolution protocol since the MAC address for any DECnet host can be simply determined. Usage in hosts On broadcast networks, such as Ethernet, the MAC address is expected to uniquely identify each node on that segment and", "Migration Authorisation Code In the United Kingdom a Migration Authorisation Code (MAC) was a 17 to 19-character unique identifier code used by DSL customers when they wish to switch internet service provider (ISP). A MAC is generated by the actual telecommunication provider (most commonly BT), identifies the local loop (telephone line) to be switched, and authorises the provider to switch the customer to the new ISP.\nMACs usually begin with \"BBIP\", \"FTIP\", \"BBDS\", or \"BBDP\", and consist of 4 letters, 7 digits (sometimes up to 9), a slash, 2 letters, 2 digits (this indicates the day in the month the", "email addresses of their parents, siblings, and other relatives, as well as profiles with various fields of biographical information about themselves and their relatives. From there users may graphically manipulate sections of their connections network to create a complete personal family tree.\nThe service uses the contact information to invite additional members to join, and builds a comprehensive social network database from the information collectively entered by members. For now users may only see information belonging to themselves, their connected \"family group\", and to people in their immediate network who have given them permission. Discussion forums and projects Each family tree", "computer's memory management unit and operating system memory mapping; see below. Unit of address resolution Most modern computers are byte-addressable. Each address identifies a single byte (eight bits) of storage. Data larger than a single byte may be stored in a sequence of consecutive addresses. There exist word-addressable computers, where the minimal addressable storage unit is exactly the processor's word. For example, the Data General Nova minicomputer, and the Texas Instruments TMS9900 and National Semiconductor IMP-16 microcomputers used 16 bit words, and there were many 36-bit mainframe computers (e.g., PDP-10) which used 18-bit word addressing, not byte addressing, giving", "to a single address because each private address is tracked by a port number. PAT uses unique source port numbers on the inside global IP address to distinguish between translations. The port numbers are 16-bit integers. The total number of internal addresses that can be translated to one external address could theoretically be as high as 65,536 per IP address. Realistically, the number of ports that can be assigned a single IP address is around 4000. PAT attempts to preserve the original source port. If this source port is already used, PAT assigns the first available port number starting", "Network address A network address is an identifier for a node or host on a telecommunications network. Network addresses are designed to be unique identifiers across the network, although some networks allow for local, private addresses or locally administered addresses that may not be unique. Special network addresses are allocated as broadcast or multicast addresses. These too are not unique.\nIn some cases, network hosts may have more than one network address. For example, each network interface may be uniquely identified. Further, because protocols are frequently layered, more than one protocol's network address can occur in any particular network interface or", "IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to 4294967296 (2³²) addresses. Of this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).\nIPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits (an octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. IPv6 addresses In IPv6, the", "and the MAC addresses are compared only if the priorities are equal. The switch with the lowest priority of all the switches will be the root; if there is a tie, then the switch with the lowest priority and lowest MAC address will be the root. For example, if switches A (MAC=0200.0000.1111) and B (MAC=0200.0000.2222) both have a priority of 32768 then switch A will be selected as the root bridge. If the network administrators would like switch B to become the root bridge, they must set its priority to be less than 32768. Breaking ties in selecting the path", "address. For example, the Irish Parliament Dáil Éireann is: D02 A272\nThe first three digits are the routing key, which is a postal district and the last four characters are a unique identifier which relates to an individual address (business, house or apartment). A fully developed API is also available for integrating the Eircode database into business database and logistics systems. Netherlands Postal codes in the Netherlands, known as postcodes, are alphanumeric, consisting of four digits followed by a space and two letters (NNNN AA). Adding the house number to the postcode will identify the address, making the street name and", "method via I/O addresses 0xCF8 and 0xCFC, and another called memory-mapped configuration.\nThe legacy method was present in the original PCI, and it is called Configuration Access Mechanism (CAM). It allows for 256 bytes of a device's address space to be reached indirectly via two 32-bit registers called PCI CONFIG_ADDRESS and PCI CONFIG_DATA. These registers are at addresses 0xCF8 and 0xCFC in the x86 I/O address space. For example, a software driver (firmware, OS kernel or kernel driver) can use these registers to configure a PCI device by writing the address of the device's register into CONFIG_ADDRESS, and by putting the", "were set to define the actual address space in use at any one time, their contents being concatenated with the 16-bit address used by a program to produce a real address. These \"ATRs\" were privileged, available only to the operating system.\nThe original S/3 model 10 (and the later model 12) had an optional crude form of multi-programming called the Dual Program Feature. This provided no more main memory addressing, but gave two sets of registers and instructions which flipped from one \"program level\" to the other. The standard I/O instructions were also modified to flip when an", "Service d'adresse mondial The Worldwide Address Service (French: service d'adresse mondial), abbreviated as Sedamo, is an Internet-based service for conveying postal addresses (mailing addresses) especially in non-Latin characters (such as Chinese, Japanese, or Korean). Any postal address gets a unique eight-letter code, the Sedamo address code, which can be used to retrieve the original address in native writing. Usage In the first step, the receiver looks up the sedamo address code of the destination address. This code is forwarded to the sender.\nIn the second step, the sender uses the code to print out the foreign address in an international format", "a host name (also sometimes called a machine name). Originally these names were stored in and provided by a hosts file but today most such names are part of the hierarchical Domain Name System (DNS).\nGenerally the host name of a Windows computer is based on the NetBIOS name plus the Primary DNS Suffix, which are both set in the System Properties dialog box. There may also be connection-specific suffixes which can be viewed or changed on the DNS tab in Control Panel → Network → TCP/IP → Advanced Properties. Host names are used by applications such as telnet, ftp,", "of the phone. It has a 1,000-entry phone book with room in each entry for five numbers, two e-mail addresses and a street address. Other features include voice command and dialing functionality, calendar, alarm clock, world clock, notepad, mobile instant messenger (AIM, Windows Live Messenger, and Yahoo), tip calculator, and Bluetooth. The phone also features the ability to add a social network e-mail address in the \"Blogs\" section of the Messaging menu, allowing photos or videos to be uploaded directly to Facebook or MySpace.\nAdvanced users can also use the phone as a large USB mass storage device, GPS with VZ", "address fields only). This is then followed by three or more fill bits of 0. Unusually for an IBM protocol, the bits within each frame are sent lsbit-first.\nAll messages are sent between the controller (master) and one slave device. The first frame in a message from the controller contains the device's address, from 0 to 6. The address field of following frames can be any value from 0 to 6, although is usually set to the device's address as well. The final frame in a message includes an address of 7 (all ones) as an", "Address pool In the context of the Internet addressing structure, an address pool is a set of Internet Protocol addresses available at any level in the IP address allocation hierarchy. At the top level, the IP address pool is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The total IPv4 address pool contains 4294967296 (2³²) addresses, while the size of the IPv6 address pool is 2¹²⁸ (340282366920938463463374607431768211456) addresses.\nIn the context of application design, an address pool may be the availability of a set of addresses (IP address, MAC address) available to an application that is shared among its users, or", "resulting address cannot be predicted. However, in IPv6 it is usually derived automatically from the interface media access control (MAC) address in a rule-based method. IPv4 In RFC 3927, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has reserved the IPv4 address block 169.254.0.0/16 (169.254.0.0 – 169.254.255.255) for link-local addressing. The entire range may be used for this purpose, except for the first and last 256 addresses (169.254.0.0/24 and 169.254.255.0/24), which are reserved for future use and must not be selected by a host using this dynamic configuration mechanism. Link-local addresses are assigned to interfaces by host-internal, i.e. stateless, address autoconfiguration when", "6to4 Address block allocation For any 32-bit global IPv4 address that is assigned to a host, a 48-bit 6to4 IPv6 prefix can be constructed for use by that host (and if applicable the network behind it) by appending the IPv4 address to 2002::/16.\nFor example, the global IPv4 address 192.0.2.4 has the corresponding 6to4 prefix 2002:c000:0204::/48. This gives a prefix length of 48 bits, which leaves room for a 16-bit subnet field and 64 bit host addresses within the subnets.\nAny IPv6 address that begins with the 2002::/16 prefix (in other words, any address with the first two octets of 2002", "Motivation The changing of the assigned MAC address may allow the bypassing of access control lists on servers or routers, either hiding a computer on a network or allowing it to impersonate another network device. MAC spoofing is done for legitimate and illicit purposes alike. New hardware for existing Internet Service Providers (ISP) Many ISPs register the client's MAC address for service and billing services. Since MAC addresses are unique and hard-coded on network interface controller (NIC) cards, when the client wants to connect a new gadget or change his/her existing gadget, the ISP will detect different MAC addresses" ]

[ "i’m a drummer so i’m not speaking for guitarists/bassists here.\n\nin drums there’s basically three things to improvisation - the time signature, the tempo and confidence (in my experience). \n\nthe time signature is pretty easy to find out - you only need to listen to one bar to figure it out really. \ntime signature is stuff like 4/4, which means there’s 4 quarter notes in a bar basically. kind of easy if you know how to count time signatures.\n\ntempo could be more difficult depending on how much rhythm you have. tempo is literally just how fast or slow you go, at it’s simplest. i’m quite good at keeping time and getting tempo right so i don’t really worry about that but some are worse. if you’re an experienced drummer, you’ll most likely be good at this. \n\nconfidence is key when playing as a whole. only a drummer can tell when a drummer goes wrong usually, you just gotta have the confidence to carry on and ignore your mishap. often it doesn’t matter what drum you hit, just how you hit it and what time you hit it (although obviously some combinations sound better than others!)\n\nanother factor would be experience and knowledge of different beats. if you only know one simple rock rhythm then you’re probably not gonna be very good at improvisation cause you’ll be doing the same thing every time. \n\ni’ve only been drumming for a year in november and i can improvise very well along with guitar/piano so it’s not as difficult as it seems as long as you put practice into learning the instrument and also practice improvising. you’re never gonna be good the first time but you get better.", "Experience, mostly.\n\nIf you know the key something is played in and it's rythem, you can throw just about anything in and sound good.", "Experience and ear training. You play enough music and patterns start to emerge and, once you recognize a pattern, you can latch on and let it carry you along. It might take a few minutes to figure out the key, but a lot of music -- especially if you play a specific genre -- is similar; that allows a musician to either duplicate what someone is playing or take off and do a riff on the basic theme." ]

[ "Playing by ear Method Learning music by ear is done by repeatedly listening to other musicians, either their live shows or sound recordings of their songs, and then attempting to recreate what one hears. Audiation involves hearing sounds mentally, although on a different level than just \"hearing a song in one's head\". The skill of reproducing those sounds involves the ability to mentally hear and recognize rhythms, tell the interval between a note and a reference note in a melody, play a specific interval between a melodic note and root note (typically 1, 3, or 5 intervals below the", "must also be familiar and able to play in multiple keys, styles, and tempos and make a switch instantaneously. The orchestration for a musical is written in a key best suited to range of the singer. Some keys are more difficult to play in than others because of the increased attention that greater amounts of sharps and flats require. Musicals also tend to have a number of styles which can range from a soulful ballad to a syncopated funk tune to a driving hard rock song. Many musicians have been trained to play in a certain style, such as classical", "their taste and mix them. I know talented young musicians who can't do it; we can understand why. Nothing compares with a recording of a live performance in which the players provide each other with the time-framework. [...] if you want to kill a musical performance, give the player a click track!\n— James Beament; How we hear music: the relationship between music and the hearing mechanism\nWhen there is no need to post-process the music with it properly fitting up to a tempo grid in a DAW, it can be reasoned that there is thus no need to record or perform to", "it was nice to play with a group that was a group. You can't help but have a better feel when the musicians know each other, are headed in the same direction, and have the same goals. You can make most everything work. You get chances to play a lot of colors, and really stretch your ideas.\"\nIn 2005 Blackman released Music for the New Millennium on her Sacred Sounds Label. \"It's rooted in tradition, but it's not traditional music. It's explorative, very creative, very expressive, and we really try to expand any ideas we have that everything is played over", "as other types of tunes such as marches and strathspeys). Learning old-time music Players traditionally learn old-time music by ear; even musicians who can read music. A broad selection of written music does exist, although many believe that the style of old-time music cannot be practically notated by written music. This is in part because there are many regional and local variations to old-time tunes, and because some of the most noted players often improvised and wouldn't play a tune exactly the same way every time.\nPlayers usually learn old-time music by attending local jam sessions and by attending festivals scattered", "will provide information on the specifics of what is being played, such as the pitch and the harmonics of the sound. This allows deaf musicians to better understand what notes they are playing, which enables them to create music in a new way. \nResearchers from the National University of Singapore have also created a device that will enhance musical experiences for the deaf. This technology combines a music display and haptic chair that integrates sound qualities from music into vibrations and visual images that correlate to the specific qualities found within the music. The visual display shows various shapes that", "question of which system to use is a controversial subject among music educators in schools in the United States. While movable do is easier to teach and learn, some feel that fixed do leads to stronger sight-reading and better ear training because students learn the relationships between specific pitches as defined independently, rather than only the function of intervals within melodic lines, chords, and chord progressions.\nIf a performer has been trained using fixed do, particularly in those rare cases in which the performer has absolute pitch or well-developed long-term relative pitch, the performer may have difficulty playing music scored for", "chromatic octaves with perfect intonation, Europeans produced mechanically complex instruments that require a great deal of technical skill on the part of the musician. Until a high level of competence is achieved, pouring out one‘s innermost feelings during a performance is extremely difficult. The ability to play musically and emotionally is subject to the musician‘s technical ability. As most music teachers will attest, many beginners take so long to master the necessary skills and are so focused on the technical aspects of their instruments that they must eventually be taught how to play with feeling. Struggling with the demands of", "Musical technique may also be distinguished from music theory, in that performance is a practical matter, but study of music theory is often used to understand better and to improve techniques. Techniques such as intonation or timbre, articulation, and musical phrasing are nearly universal to all instruments.\nTo improve their technique, musicians often practice ear training. For example, musical intervals, and fundamental patterns and of notes such as the natural, minor, major, and chromatic scales, minor and major triads, dominant and diminished sevenths, formula patterns and arpeggios. For example, triads and sevenths teach how to play chords with accuracy and speed.", "InstrumentChamp Gameplay Once installed, it listens through the microphone how people play on for example the guitar (wireless). The better people play in sync, the better the score.\nPeople can connect a piano and/or drums and play with many people at the same time, either together making a band, or as a challenge against each other.", "to develop the inner ear to facilitate musical thinking, reading and writing music without the help of an instrument. While continuing to build his methodology, he observed his students and noticed that the students who could not play in time in the music world, were able to walk in time in the real world. The walking was completely spontaneous and easy. He observed that some of his best students could tap the beat using their feet, or shake their heads and bodies in response to music. This physical response was natural and common to all ages and cultures.\nMoreover, he", "listening, imitating, and improvising. He calls for students to listen and sing along to melodies on tape until they can reproduce the melody without the tape. It is essential, according to Blake, that a student do this before touching an instrument, as imitating the mechanics of a performance alone does not develop one's ear.\nIn 2011, Ran Blake published a book with Jason Rogers entitled The Primacy of the Ear. In the 144-page work, Blake explores the relationship between the ear and the mind in-depth and provides the reader with exercises to train one's ear. Discography An asterisk (*) after the", "character that made it, however, the resources and the appropriate recipes won't. Musical instruments Players will be able to learn to play certain musical instruments such as guitars and join other players to create beautiful music. These instruments will be combined with quest lines and once you have finished the relevant quests, you can buy the instrument and start playing different notes. Enchanting Players can enchant their items through magical stones acquired in-game or through the cash shop, there are 2 types of magic stones, which helps the item to level up, and the one that protects the item from", "challenging for even an experienced musician to play.\nPichler is one of the very few musicians in the world who has mastered this instrument and is also composing for it.", "sessions, and sometimes it is easy to recall a tune while playing it or learn it on the spot, but for the most part it is expected that professional jazz musicians have a very large vocabulary of tunes available by memory.", "modes called \"Drum Lessons\" and \"Beatle Beats\".\nBefore playing, a difficulty has to be selected: easy, medium, hard or expert. Expert is a match of the original notes; hard has some note-heavy drum rolls and other difficult or fast notes removed; medium takes away the orange notes (for guitar and bass) and anything else considered tricky. Easy is designed for new players, and gives an easy rhythm for those to settle into the game. However, there are too few notes for it to feel like they're playing the actual tune from the song. A \"No Fail\" mode has been carried over", "and instead played and sang music \"by ear\".\nThe skill of sight reading is the ability of a musician to perform an unfamiliar work of music upon viewing the sheet music for the first time. Sight reading ability is expected of professional musicians and serious amateurs who play classical music, jazz and related forms. An even more refined skill is the ability to look at a new piece of music and hear most or all of the sounds (melodies, harmonies, timbres, etc.) in one's head without having to play the piece or hear it played or sung. Skilled composers and conductors", "musical output. Using this criterion, an artist who mimics or mimes the playing of instruments whilst simply having a prerecorded CD or digital audio track sound over the PA system or broadcast, might not be considered particularly \"live\" by most people.\nOn the far opposite end of the spectrum, some artists choose to take only an idea or motif (e.g. a bassline, rhythm pattern, or chord progression), realize it from scratch with electronic instruments on-the-spot, and then build upon it, modify it, and continue in this way for the entire performance. This requires a degree of discipline, technical musical skill and", "changes, and arrangements. Even when a jazz band has a lead sheet, chord chart or arranged music, many elements of a performance are improvised.\nHandwritten or printed music is less important in other traditions of musical practice, however, such as traditional music and folk music, in which singers and instrumentalists typically learn songs \"by ear\" or from having a song or tune taught to them by another person. Although much popular music is published in notation of some sort, it is quite common for people to learn a song by ear. This is also the case in most forms of western", "the music rather than his playing. He is constantly experimenting with new sounds through spontaneity and originality while being innovative and progressive through improvisation and expression.", "balance between \"virtuosity\" and aspiring to real musical expressiveness. \"Of course,\" he said, \"you have to master all the problems of technique to be free to express yourself through your instrument. You can have a big imagination and a big heart but you cannot express it without technique. But the first quality you must have to be good, to be inspiring, is the sound. Without the sound you cannot achieve anything. The tone, the sound, the sonorité is most important. Otherwise, with the fingers alone it is not enough... everyone these days has the fingers, the virtuosity... but the sound,", "move periodically from its home institution to another museum on loan (besides providing cultural satisfaction), instruments are subject to: travel or wear and tear consistently due to continual playing. Musical instruments create art by producing sound because the human hand touches their skins, strings, bows, fret board or keys. Musical instruments are generally used on a regular basis, during recitals and concerts by all levels of musicians.\nAn instrumentalist needs to keep in mind how to play their instrument carefully so that they can preserve the integrity of the instrument. That being stated, each musician performs with an instrument differently, creating", "slower.\nIn order to play in faster tempos, the musician has to resort to combinations of slurrings, keeping in mind the difficulty implied by the change of octave, where there is a big break in-between the register, and in many instances it is more or less impossible to maintain an even tone.\nOne of the dolçaina's special features is the fact that the easiest and most natural way of playing a sound happens when the player tongues both the start and the end of the note, while on other wind instruments it is much easier to play without articulation. Easy articulation for", "link below for full answer to question) \"...if you know which kind of sound you must produce for this composition, your muscles automatically play what is needed for that. Because your brain dictates to your muscles much better than your teacher dictates to you. Sometimes of course I must make something technically more precise, but most important [is] your idea, how you must play in your brain.\"\nAlexander Markov is quoted as saying \"See I always felt about the music and the technical aspect of it, to me it's very much together, because I know some musicians, some violinists they isolate", "part of the normal evolution of any musician. A musician simply wants to play, regardless of his knowledge of the language. He is therefore obliged to learn the language that others have developed over decades and this language becomes more and more intelligible over time, just as a kid learns to write. Above all, the influence of the great pianists and musicians is mainly of value in showing one how to find one's own voice.\" \nIn his short autobiography, Le Monde la Musique (The World and its Music), Graillier cited a phrase from Pascal Anquetil, \"There floats through all his", "acoustics such as reverberation, isolation, and so on. I am convinced that in order for anyone to be an acoustics engineer in a musical environment, he has to be a musician. You have to understand the sort of environment that musicians require in a studio, control room or concert hall. Most of us have come across situations in theatres or halls where the orchestra can either hear everybody or each musician is straining to hear his neighbor just to stay in tune. It is the same situation with console manufacturers – the best builders are also users because they know", "and popular.\nSimply Music does not focus on mastering classical concert performance technique. Instead, Simply Music teachers encourage students to play expressively and comfortably, without tension. Pedagogy The Simply Music approach contrasts with many other music learning methods, where the ability to play music depends first on learning to read music. Moore terms these traditional methods reading-based and his approach playing-based.\nThe core playing-based piano pieces are presented in the Foundation Program, a series of 9 levels of 7-10 songs each. The pieces are designed to provide experience with many musical styles and genres, to build students’ physical dexterity at the piano,", "Melodic learning Melodic Learning is a multimodal learning method that uses the defining elements of singing (pitch, rhythm and rhyme) to facilitate the capture, storage and retrieval of information. Widely recognized examples of Melodic Learning include using the alphabet song to learn the alphabet and This Old Man to learn counting. Overview In 2004, Dr. Susan Homan, Dr. Robert Dedrick and then doctoral student, Marie C. Biggs of the University of South Florida's College of Education began researching the use of a non-standard approach to reading remediation that used repeated singing of grade leveled songs with struggling, middle school readers.", "modifying the hardness of the hammers). Keyboardists speak of playing harder and softer, or with more or less force. This may accurately describe the player's experience—but in the mechanics of the keyboard, velocity controls musical dynamics. The faster the player depresses the key, the louder the note. Players must learn to coordinate two hands and use them independently. Most music is written for two hands; typically the right hand plays the melody in the treble range, while the left plays an accompaniment of bass notes and chords in the bass range. Examples of music written for the left hand alone", "the technical aspect from playing violin and the music itself, but to me they work hand in hand so much. So for example, the more I get involved musically the more technically I am accurate.\" \nPamela Frank is quoted as saying \"Practicing technique separate from music, I really don't believe in--the way you play is the way you have practiced. If you have practiced mechanically, you will play mechanically. If you treat a scale like a great melody, when it shows up in the Beethoven concerto it will be a great melody.\"" ]

[ "> What's the point of screaming at people like that?\n\nIt is intended to rattle the recruits mentally, making them feel like they are incapable and useless. The idea is to break their self-esteem and then the group will be given tasks where the support of the entire unit is necessary to succeed. To drive the point home they will often employ collective punishment so every recruit has an interest in making sure their peers succeed.\n\nAll this has the goal of making the resulting soldiers psychologically dependent upon the military and their comrades. By creating this bond through surviving abuse it puts the soldiers in a better position to be confident in the support of their peers during combat, and for those peers to run into danger in the support of their comrades.\n\nSuch a technique makes great soldiers. It also arguably seriously messes people up when they get out of the military because in essence they have been psychologically abused to foster a bond with the military culture. Ex-military basically have a version of battered woman syndrome and need to relearn individuality and self-confidence outside of the military.", "Armies thrive on the discipline of individual soldiers. One soldier not doing his/her job can be responsible for getting the entire unit killed in battle.\n\nHaving a drill sargeant yell at you to run faster or do more pushups is a lot less frightening than being shot at, but if you can't handle being yelled at then how can anybody trust you to have their back when you're in real danger?", "The entire training process (boot camp/basic training) is designed to put recruits through extreme stress. They scream at you, make you do push ups, deprive you of sleep, etc. The idea is that if recruits can not handle the stress of being yelled at all the time than they definitely can't handle being shot at while not having slept and other stresses of combat. Being in a war zone obviously puts lots of stress on your mind and body. The purpose of basic military training is to force recruits to adapt to extreme stress and weed out the ones who can't.", "A veteran I know said the point of basic training is to break a person so that they can be built up from scratch into a proper soldier/sailor/airman/marine.", "If you can't handle being yelled at how can you expect to handle being in a fire fight? It's a stress test.", "Partly it is to develop the instinct of immediate obedience; when you're told to do something, you do it. On the battlefield, if you're hesitating or questioning an order rather than obey it, you are putting other people's lives at risk. \n\nPartly it is to simulate the stress and intensity of the battlefield. If you're becoming nervous and fumbly when someone is shouting at you, how will you handle it when bombs and bullets are going off in your face?\n\nPartly, especially early on, it is intended to disorient the recruits and break their civilian habits. \n\nPartly it is to impart a sort of \"us against them\" mentality, which helps develop the necessary teamwork and camaraderie that the army wants.", "Bottom line up front: it weeds out recruits who can't handle stress by making the situation as stressful as possible without being in a war.\n\nThe military can't win wars with soldiers unable to handle stress." ]

[ "commands respect throughout the Army. Currently, soldiers of appropriate rank (usually Staff Sergeants and Sergeants First Class ) may volunteer or be centrally selected by U.S. Army Human Resources Command to attend Drill Sergeant School. Those centrally selected are known as \"DA Selected\" meaning Department of the Army selected. Drill Sergeant School is ten weeks long and consists of exactly the same activities as basic training; drill and ceremony, basic rifle marksmanship, obstacle/confidence courses, and field training exercises, training management, and leadership. Certain aspects of the Basic Leader Course are included. Drill Sergeant candidates are held", "to the highest standards while going through the school as preparation for their tours of duty. The Drill Sergeant candidates are treated with a great deal of professionalism and not like recruits. Upon graduation, male Drill Sergeants wear the World War I campaign hat (nicknamed the \"Brown Round\") and female Drill Sergeants wear the olive drab Australian bush cap.\nAn Army Drill Sergeant's normal tour of duty (called being \"on the trail\") is two years with a possible one-year extension. Drill Sergeants may be assigned to units that conduct Basic Combat Training (BCT), reception, or One-Station Unit Training (OSUT).", "soldiers. One memorandum said:\nIn consideration of the small compensation that our enlisted men receive for their trouble and discomfort in their training as members of the militia, we desire that they be treated humanely and corrected in a kind manner whenever in drill they make a mistake as a result of their inexperience. We desire this so that they will carry through with this work all the more gladly and with joyous harts. For from the foregoing consideration, we consider this means to be the most effective to maintain their obedience and positive attitude toward this training. It appears to", "Williams hates being assigned to the Concert Party. Williams resents not only the lack of an active combat role, but also having to be in charge of men who perform what he considers to be effeminate duties (often deriding them as \"poofs\"), instead of being able to command men he considers to be \"real soldiers\". As a result, Williams is routinely found shouting orders at the men (both soldiers and native workers) in the manner of a drill sergeant, delighting in putting the enlisted men through endless drills, parades and PT sessions. His ultimate goal, and the focus of many", "are also required to be able to hit targets with most weapons they work with. Course of the training At the beginning of each basic training course, there are several days of 'integration', where drill instructors convert recruits from civilians to soldiers. These are usually considered the most difficult days of any basic training program, even though they are not physically draining. During these days, recruits receive no breaks and the discipline is at its highest level.\nWhile essentially each rifleman level and each corps training varies greatly, there are some commonalities between the entire army. All soldiers are issued weapons", "the training, one candidate relates, \"I think that any officer who can't run faster and farther and fight better than any man that he's supposed to be leading isn't worthy of leading those men across the road.\" All officer candidates learn to use weapons, drive trucks and motorcycles across rough terrain and tackle obstacle courses during field exercises. Hand-to-hand combat is also taught so that an enemy can be subdued in a lethal manner.\nWhen the course was completed, at a graduation ceremony, the new officers received their commission from Brigadier Milton Gregg VC, who had been instrumental in setting up", "are they getting acclimated with their new army surrounding when they meeting their drill instructor: Sergeant Hugh Dare, the irate husband/man on the street they encountered before. Sgt. Dare desperately attempts to teach the Stooges the standard military drill from the manual of arms. He then threatens them during bayonet practice.\nThe Stooges are sent to the front line, where they decide to take a long nap. After learning that Sgt. Dare has been captured by the enemy, they are instructed to detonate a laughing gas shell. After putting the laughing gas bomb in, Curly and Moe use a swab to", "Weapons Training \"Weapons Training\" is a piece of war poetry written by Bruce Dawe in 1970. A dramatic monologue spoken by a battle-hardened drill sergeant training recruits about to be sent off to the Vietnam War, its anti-war sentiment is evident but more oblique than in Dawe's other well-known war poem, \"Homecoming\", written two years earlier.\nDawe had direct experience with military life, having served in the Royal Australian Airforce from 1959 to 1968. Dennis Haskell, Winthrop Professor of English and Cultural Studies at University of Western Australia, has pointed that the drill sergeant's harsh tirade to the recruits with insults", "acknowledging serious problems, he questions the alleged \"near mutinous\" conduct of junior officers and enlisted men in combat. Investigating one combat refusal incident, a journalist declared, \"A certain sense of independence, a reluctance to behave according to the military's insistence on obedience, like pawns or puppets...The grunts [infantrymen] were determined to survive...they insisted of having something to say about the making of decisions that determined whether they might live or die.\" The morale and discipline problems and resistance to conscription (the draft) were important factors leading to the creation of an all-volunteer military force by the United States and the", "after their integration days and must carry them until the end of the basic training course. Many lessons are also common for all corps, such as moreshet krav (literally \"battle heritage\"), where soldiers are taught about past IDF operations.\nPhysical and verbal aggression are not permitted in the IDF basic training, which leaves drill instructors with a limited number of ways to hand out punishments. Physical punishments such as push-ups and running are common ways to punish for several discipline issues. Another method of punishment is giving detention - keeping a soldier several more days in the training base instead of", "regiment in his diary that \"it is evident that not only the officers, but that each individual soldier, knows perfectly what he has to do; the discipline is carried on without severity, the officers are attached to the men and the men to the officers.\" This had much to do with the method of training; unlike other regiments, officers drilled with the men and were expected to be familiar with drill routines, including weapons training. The ranks also received additional training, and were encouraged to develop initiative and self-direction; while skirmishing in the field they would need to react", "soldiers at the start of their training, with no authority over other ranks (except when appointed to carry out a role as part of training). Officer cadets are addressed to as \"Mister\" or \"Miss\" until the completion of the early stages of their training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (at which point cadets \"pass out\" and formally gain their commissions), thereafter other ranks (non-officers) will address them as \"Sir\" or \"Ma'am\".\nWhile cadet has always been a rank of limited authority and prestige (cadets and US Navy midshipmen have no authority over commissioned personnel, warrants, or officers, only subordinate cadets),", "into collective training at battalion and brigade-level. Training exercises, marches, drill and musketry practices followed but the standard of the exercises was limited and lacked realism, meaning that commanders did not benefit from handling their troops under battlefield conditions.\nSome soldiers had received training through the compulsory training scheme, while others had served as volunteers in the part-time forces before the war or as members of the British Army, but their numbers were limited. In contrast, the majority of officers initially appointed had previous military experience. This was largely through service in the pre-war militia, though, where there had been little", "military drill as part of the class requirements for the male students, as possible preparation if they were called to duty in the war that was happening in Europe. Hutchins felt differently and would not be stampeded into this idea. Hutchins felt at the outset that the University's unique function was to furnish trained leadership for the nation. To make the University simply another military camp for privates was in his view a gross misuse of its potentials, and he resisted it. Hutchins believed with an ever-changing warfare that the students would be better served in engineering to help", "several sergeants for deployment to the front lines, he decided to have his men draw straws. Keeble volunteered instead. Asked why, Keeble said, \"Somebody has to teach these kids how to fight.\"\nKeeble was assigned to George Company, 2nd Battalion, 19th Infantry Regiment, 24th Infantry Division. His combat experience and a genuine gift of leadership brought him a quick series of promotions to the level of master sergeant, leading the 1st Platoon.\nThe summer and fall of 1951 were particularly deadly for both sides as the war moved into its second year. The 24th Division was in the central area", "to take them into battle - they ain't ready, they are not 'good to go'.\" He was also critical of the 'elite' troops that were expected to lead the assault. Hackworth has repeatedly stated that the American military is weakened by a combination of senior officers who are primarily concerned about their own careers above the welfare and training of their troops, and a culture of misdirected and wasteful expenditure.\nIn May 2004, the New York Times reported that Mr William Lawson, the uncle of an Army reservist serving as a prison guard in Iraq, contacted SFTT by email on", "to use for the remainder of their military careers. It is very common for a drill instructor or (after boot camp) an inspecting officer to ask a question such as, \"What is your sixth general order?\" and expect an immediate (and correct) reply.", "build Army infantrymen since even for Army personnel a significant amount of training occurs not in Basic Combat Training but in the experience of years on the job. Instead, the program is designed to teach individuals assigned to Army units the basic skills required to stay alive should the worst scenario occur. In keeping with this, topics covered in the training include basic marksmanship (Navy personnel must qualify on the same course of fire as Army personnel), combat first aid, land navigation, urban operations and an introduction to Army culture. Perhaps most important is training in convoy and", "Student soldiers in the Korean War Definition The soldiers were typically high school students. In its narrowest sense, it often refers only to students who were forced to join them during the Japanese occupation period and Korean War. Generally, those studying found themselves exempt from the draft but in emergency situations, students were drafted into the army and engaged in the battle. Korean War It was the first time that the student soldier was conscripted because they had gathered in Suwon to organize the 'Emergency Student Soldier'. Some of them were wearing rifles and ammunition with their uniforms as they", "providing basic military training to a sizable group of young men who then return to civilian life and are retained on the reserve rolls until age forty-five. The army recognizes that it provides a public service by teaching large numbers of conscripts basic skills that can be valuable to the overall economy when the young men return to civilian life. Officer Recruitment Because the only entry into the regular officer corps is the Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras – Military Academy of the Black Needles (AMAN), its records provide an accurate picture of the officer corps. In the decades following", "Robert O. Tyler, was of a unit that generally guarded the forts around Washington, D.C. and participated in parades used to increase morale in the city in the time of war. However, they were also trained to be used as infantry if necessary. His reason for enlisting was reported in his eulogy printed in The New York Times, where Porter was purported to have said:\nIn order to secure success, the gentlemen, the educated and influential men of the North must join the service, and discipline, educate and lead its armies; that it would not be wise to entrust their", "are always getting written up for swearing, drinking, smoking, and fighting (the latter charge just as often against all comers as between themselves) and are disliked by the other drummers. Despite their reputations, they manage to get sent on campaign by personally fast-talking the colonel. \nIn Afghanistan, the unit has a terrible time adjusting to the climate and the rigors of campaign life. The men are also set on edge by the death of a private by sniper fire. On the day of the battle they take the center position between the Highlanders and the Ghurkhas. Their inexperience causes them", "was a notable shortage of officers, with a shortfall of 25% meaning that the War Office was unable to properly staff units, and there was a high proportion of breakdowns. In addition, the Army was perceived as old-fashioned and inefficient, as well as tainted by social bias.\nOn a more local level, Assistant Adjutant-General Colonel Frederick Hubert Vinden observed that there was a very high failure rate at Officer Cadet Training Units (OCTUs): he visited each board in 1941, and pinpointed failings in the Command Interview Board as making poor selections of officer candidates and thus causing the failures. Psychiatrist Eric", "the army, there was a need for large numbers of suitable candidates to train as officers. This training normally took place at an Officer Cadet Training Unit (OCTU) which was attached to the arm of the service in which the cadet would eventually serve. There were several OCTUs and therefore duplication of resources occurred and standards varied from unit to unit, so in the early part of 1942 it was decided to standardise the basic training and send all potential officer cadets to a pre-OCTU for up to eight weeks, before their attendance at their specialist OCTU. With a few", "male citizen who had completed all of his military training and experienced battle. \nThe instructor stressed discipline and exercise and saw to it that his students received little food and minimal clothing in an effort to force the boys to learn how to forage, steal and endure extreme hunger, all of which would be necessary skills in the course of a war. Those boys who survived the first stage of training entered into a secondary stage in which punishments became harsher and physical training and participation in sports almost non-stop in order to build up strength and endurance. ", "Cadet that he is on parade... Owing to the scarcity of officers, the shortage of equipment, and the necessity for calling in all rifles, the Government has decided to suspend all drill for the present, but we may hear of its revival in the near future. Nevertheless, the training the Cadets have received will stand them in good stead.'\nBy 1914, the company had been reformed as the 18th Battalion [18BTN] including a machine gun company. The Battalion was still co-located with the St Joseph's College Cadet Corps.\nAt or about the end of World War I, the Hall became the headquarters", "do a second tour of duty on the drill field. These volunteers still report to Drill Instructor School, but are referred to as course challengers, and are only required to complete a short refresher course. Multiple tour drill instructors, based on rank and experience, are usually assigned as Senior Drill Instructors, Series Chief Drill Instructors (MCRD San Diego) or Series Gunnery Sergeants (MCRD Parris Island), DI school instructors, Company First Sergeants, or Battalion Sergeants Major.\nWhile in Drill Instructor status, both male and female DIs wear a World War I campaign hat with their service and utility uniforms.\nFor their successful service,", "and 2017, recruits made 50 formal complaints of assault or ill-treatment. Allegations and charges Among the initial allegations reported in the Mail on Sunday on 12 August 2017 were that seventeen instructors from the Army Foundation College, having taken their trainees to battle camp in Kirkcudbright, had pushed cow dung into the recruits' mouths, held their heads under water, and kicked and punched them repeatedly during bayonet training. The recruits concerned were aged 17; the instructors were all corporals or sergeants, and included veterans of the Afghanistan War and Iraq War.\nThe instructors faced 40 charges of battery, actual bodily harm", "Rick Hillier was a beloved CDS at levels not previously seen in any previous person who filled that role. When speaking to troops on parade, he would frequently call them into a hollow circle around him rather than delivering a generic speech from a podium while they stood to attention. Hillier would regularly sit and eat with the troops in the mess; this at a time when most Generals insisted they be given their own mess separate from the others. At briefings, Hillier asked every person what they thought about a situation at hand – regardless of", "between the soldier and the officer by bringing the experience of a senior noncommissioned officer into a sort of \"on-the-job training\" for the junior company-grade officer, helping to enable the officer to prepare for subsequent increases in levels of command.\nOn occasion, when a sergeant first class is not available, either organically within the platoon or from another unit, a responsible Staff Sergeant (E-6) will probably be appointed to fill the platoon sergeant position instead. Here is an excerpt from the Army's Field Manual titled \"The Army Noncommissioned Officer Guide\" (FM 7-22.7).\n\"While the 'Platoon Sergeant' is a duty position, not" ]

[ "You eat shaved iron every time you have breakfast cereal. If you take total cereal, crush it up, add a little milk to make a broth consistancy, and stir it with a strong magnet, you will see actual iron shavings sticking to your magnet.\n\n_URL_0_", "If you ground it up enough, your body would be able to absorb it. However, the recommended daily intake of iron is only 18mg, so you would need a very small piece of iron or you would run the risk of iron overdose.\n\nHowever, iron supplments are usually provided as part of a compound, such as iron (II) fumarate, iron sulphite, or iron gylcinate, which are absorbed more readily by the body.", "A fun fact along side other peoples post: One of the benefits to cooking with a cast-iron skillet is that it increases the iron level in the food because little bits of the iron stick into the food itself." ]

[ "iron. Although a lower percentage of non-heme iron is absorbed by the body, greater total amounts of non-heme iron are concentrated in many non-meat sources of iron, and therefore breakfast cereals, eggs, nuts, seeds, and legumes (including soy foods, peas, beans, chickpeas, and lentils) are significant sources of iron, and a well-planned vegetarian diet should not lead to iron deficiency, but fruitarianism and raw foods diets should not be pursued for infants or children.\nMeat, including fish and poultry, and not dairy or eggs, is the only source of heme iron; intake of heme iron may be associated with colon cancer.", "Iron in heme is much more bio-available to humans (15-35% absorbed), so meats can be a powerful source of dietary iron. Non-heme iron is generally only 2-20% absorbed. However, most iron in an average human's diet comes from non-heme sources simply because higher amounts of plant based foods are consumed. Iron is held onto tightly by the body, and the only way for humans to expel extra iron is through blood loss. Therefore, iron is regulated at uptake, where a relatively low proportion of iron is absorbed. Hepcidin is a hormonal regulator of iron uptake in the intestine. On intestinal", "of iron(III) oxide hydroxide, inside a shell of the protein ferritin, from which it can be recovered as needed. \nInsufficient iron in the human diet causes anemia. Animals and humans can obtain the necessary iron from foods that contain it in assimilable form, such as meat. Other organisms must obtain their iron from the environment. However, iron tends to form highly insoluble iron(III) oxides/hydroxides in aerobic (oxygenated) environment, especially in calcareous soils. Bacteria and grasses can thrive in such environments by secreting compounds called siderophores that form soluble complexes with iron(III), that can be reabsorbed into the", " Iron-deficiency leads to anemia. In the environment, iron is highly abundant, but little of it is very bio-available. To be useful biologically, inorganic iron is usually reduced from ferric to ferrous by ferric reductases. Ferrous species tend to be more soluble near neutral pH. \"Free iron\" is cytotoxic, because it participates in Fenton chemistry to produce reactive oxygen species. Thus, an overabundance of iron can also be damaging, as demonstrated by the disease hemochromatosis.\nHumans usually source most of their iron consumption from either plant or animal sources. This iron can be heme (in animal meat) or non-heme (in plants).", "being absorbed each day, because the human body recycles its hemoglobin for the iron content. Diet Iron is pervasive, but particularly rich sources of dietary iron include red meat, oysters, lentils, beans, poultry, fish, leaf vegetables, watercress, tofu, chickpeas, black-eyed peas, and blackstrap molasses. Bread and breakfast cereals are sometimes specifically fortified with iron.\nIron provided by dietary supplements is often found as iron(II) fumarate, although iron(II) sulfate is cheaper and is absorbed equally well. Elemental iron, or reduced iron, despite being absorbed at only one-third to two-thirds the efficiency (relative to iron sulfate), is often added to foods such as", "gets the iron it requires from foods. If a person consumes too little iron, or iron that is poorly absorbed (non-heme iron), they can become iron deficient over time. Examples of iron-rich foods include meat, eggs, leafy green vegetables and iron-fortified foods. For proper growth and development, infants and children need iron from their diet. For children, a high intake of cow’s milk is associated with an increased risk of iron-deficiency anemia. Other risk factors for iron-deficiency anemia include low meat intake and low intake of iron-fortified products.\nThe National Academy of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances", "functions thanks to the relatively easy switching of the iron atom between the +2 and +3 states. Hemoglobin for example, carries oxygen in the blood by binding one molecule O\n2 to the iron atom, forming oxyhemoglobin. In the process, the iron(II) core of hemoglobin loses an electron to become iron(III), while the oxygen molecule is turned into the superoxide anion O−\n2.\nInsufficient iron in the human diet causes anemia. Animals and humans can obtain the necessary iron from foods that contain it in assimilable form, such as meat. Other organisms must obtain their iron from the environment. ", "Human iron metabolism Human iron metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that maintain human homeostasis of iron at the systemic and cellular level. Iron is both necessary to the body and potentially toxic. Controlling iron levels in the body is a critically important part of many aspects of human health and disease. Hematologists have been especially interested in systemic iron metabolism because iron is essential for red blood cells, where most of the human body's iron is contained. Understanding iron metabolism is also important for understanding diseases of iron overload, such as hereditary hemochromatosis, and iron deficiency, such", "\"shredded bites,\" and responded that iron powder is suitable for human consumption.\nThe evidence provided during the show followed David Catz's description of an experiment by Dr. Babu George, Sacred Heart University, in which iron is extracted from cereals. The description dates from 1984. As a result of this experiment being published and inquiries being made to the manufacturers, some companies have replaced the metallic iron in their products with an iron compound such as iron (III) phosphate, ferric phosphate. United Kingdom In May 2013, shoppers disapproved of the altered Special K formula, complaining that the cereal's flakes are too hard.", "iron oxides, and as a reducing agent in organic synthesis. Biological and pathological role Iron is required for life. The iron–sulfur clusters are pervasive and include nitrogenase, the enzymes responsible for biological nitrogen fixation. Iron-containing proteins participate in transport, storage and used of oxygen. Iron proteins are involved in electron transfer.\nExamples of iron-containing proteins in higher organisms include hemoglobin, cytochrome (see high-valent iron), and catalase. The average adult human contains about 0.005% body weight of iron, or about four grams, of which three quarters is in hemoglobin – a level that remains constant despite only about one milligram of iron", "Natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 2 Function Iron is not only essential for the human body, it is required for all organisms in order for them to be able to grow. Iron also participates in many metabolic pathways. Iron deficiency can lead to iron-deficiency anemia thus iron regulation is very crucial in the human body. In mammals The process of iron transportation consists of iron being reduced by ferrireductases that are present on the cell surface or by dietary reductants such as ascorbate (Vitamin C). Once the Fe³⁺ has been reduced to Fe²⁺, the DMT1 transporter protein transports the Fe²⁺ ions", "compounds, such as the cation ferrocenium, [Fe(C\n2H\n5)\n2]⁺ or [Fe³⁺][C\n5H−\n5]\n2.\nIron is almost always encountered in the oxidation states 0 (as in the metal), +2, or +3. Iron(III) is usually the most stable form in air, as illustrated by the pervasiveness of rust, an insoluble iron(III)-containing material. Iron(III) and life All known forms of life require iron. Many proteins in living beings contain bound iron(III) ions; those are an important subclass of the metalloproteins. Examples include oxyhemoglobin, ferredoxin, and the cytochromes. \nAlmost all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, store iron as microscopic crystals (3 to 8 nm in diameter)", "natural foods like spinach—but was, in fact, metallic iron. A Kellogg's telephone help desk employee was not willing to discuss the ingredients of their products in general, claiming it was a company secret; although, in the show, the company was not confronted with the findings. The nutritional experts in the show agreed that metallic iron should not be part of a diet. Metallic iron is speculated to damage organs. After the airing, the Dutch food authority nuanced the claims made in the TV program, claiming there are no health risks. They also challenged the claim that the cereal could contain", "with some exceptions (such as the yolk ferritin of the gastropod Lymnaea, which lacks an iron-responsive unit).\nFree iron is toxic to cells as it acts as a catalyst in the formation of free radicals from reactive oxygen species via the Fenton reaction. Hence vertebrates evolve an elaborate set of protective mechanisms to bind iron in various tissue compartments. Within cells, iron is stored in a protein complex as ferritin or hemosiderin. Apoferritin binds to free ferrous iron and stores it in the ferric state. As ferritin accumulates within cells of the reticuloendothelial system, protein aggregates are formed as hemosiderin. Iron", "Iron(II) lactate Uses It is used as a food additive with E number E585. It is an acidity regulator and colour retention agent, and is also used to fortify foods with iron. Safety It is toxic and may cause irritation. Avoid inhalation of dusts. Remove all contamination, rinse with plenty of water. May cause some health symptoms including nausea after ingestion both acute and delayed.", "as iron deficiency anemia. Importance of iron regulation Iron is an essential bioelement for most forms of life, from bacteria to mammals. Its importance lies in its ability to mediate electron transfer. In the ferrous state, iron acts as an electron donor, while in the ferric state it acts as an acceptor. Thus, iron plays a vital role in the catalysis of enzymatic reactions that involve electron transfer (reduction and oxidation, redox). Proteins can contain iron as part of different cofactors, such as iron-sulfur clusters (Fe-S) and heme groups, both of which are assembled in mitochondria. Cellular respiration Human cells", "Iron(II) fumarate Iron supplement Ferrous fumurate is often taken by mouth as an iron supplement.", "can dissolve the iron oxides, but without damaging the base metal as do stronger mineral acids. In the dissociated form, they may be able to chelate the metal ions, helping to speed removal.\nBiological systems create many and more complex organic acids such as L-lactic, citric, and D-glucuronic acids that contain hydroxyl or carboxyl groups. Human blood and urine contain these plus organic acid degradation products of amino acids, neurotransmitters, and intestinal bacterial action on food components. Examples of these categories are alpha-ketoisocaproic, vanilmandelic, and D-lactic acids, derived from catabolism of L-leucine and epinephrine (adrenaline) by human tissues and catabolism of", "to \"white heat\") and hammer it in a charcoal fire, causing the iron to absorb carbon from the charcoal. This technique had been developed empirically, as there is no evidence that ancient iron producers understood the chemistry involved. The rudimentary methods of carburisation used rendered the quality of the iron ore critical to the production of good steel. The ore needed to be rich in manganese (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), but also to contain very little, or preferably zero phosphorus, whose presence would compromise the steel's hardness. The ore mined in Carinthia (S. Noricum) fulfills", "Iron deficiency (plant disorder) Iron (Fe) deficiency is a plant disorder also known as \"lime-induced chlorosis\". It can be confused with manganese deficiency. Soil iron concentration is high, but can become unavailable for absorption if soil pH is higher than 6.5. Also, iron deficiency can develop if the soil is too waterlogged or has been overfertilised. Excess of elements such as manganese in the soil can interfere with plant iron uptake triggering iron deficiency.\nIron is needed to produce chlorophyll, hence its deficiency causes chlorosis. For example, iron is used in the active site of glutamyl-tRNA reductase, an enzyme", "again like chromium. Manganese is also poisonous; if enough is inhaled, it can cause irreversible neurological damage. Iron Iron (Fe) is an element in group 8. Iron is the most common on Earth among elements of the period, and probably the most well-known of them. Is is the principal component of steel. Iron-56 has the lowest energy density of any isotope of any element, meaning that it is the most massive element that can be produced in supergiant stars. Iron also has some applications in the human body; hemoglobin is partly iron. Cobalt Cobalt (Co) is an element in group 9. Cobalt", "Non-heme iron is more sensitive to both inhibitors and enhancers of iron absorption: Vitamin C is an iron absorption enhancer; the main inhibitors for most people are phytates (e.g. legumes and cereal grains), but other inhibitors include tannins (from tea and wine), calcium, and polyphenols.\nIron is an integral part in the chemical structure of many proteins and enzymes, which maintain good health. In humans, iron is an essential component of proteins involved in the transport of oxygen of red blood cells. Iron also helps regulate cell growth and cellular differentiation. Zinc Western vegetarians and vegans have not been found to", "of dietary iron in iron salt form (as in most supplements) varies somewhat according to the body’s need for iron, and is usually between 10% and 20% of iron intake. Absorption of iron from animal products, and some plant products, is in the form of heme iron, and is more efficient, allowing absorption of from 15% to 35% of intake. Heme iron in animals is from blood and heme-containing proteins in meat and mitochondria, whereas in plants, heme iron is present in mitochondria in all cells that use oxygen for respiration.\nLike most mineral nutrients, the majority of the iron absorbed", "so that under iron deficiency their translation is repressed by IRP2, preventing the unnecessary synthesis of storage protein and the detrimental export of iron. In contrast, TFR1 and some DMT1 variants contain 3' UTR IREs, which bind IRP2 under iron deficiency, stabilizing the mRNA, which guarantees the synthesis of iron importers. Iron overload The body is able to substantially reduce the amount of iron it absorbs across the mucosa. It does not seem to be able to entirely shut down the iron transport process. Also, in situations where excess iron damages the intestinal lining itself (for instance, when children eat", "in the bone marrow and liver. These stores are called ferritin complexes and are part of the human (and other animals) iron metabolism systems. Men store about 3.5 g of iron in their body, and women store about 2.5 g.\nIron is a mineral that is important in the formation of red blood cells in the body, particularly as a critical component of hemoglobin. About 70% of the iron found in the body is bound to hemoglobin. Iron is primarily absorbed in the small intestine, in particular the duodenum and jejunum. Certain factors increase or decrease absorption of iron. For example,", "while the iron is hot.\" Splicing two proverbs In a slightly different pattern of reshaping proverbs humorously, pieces of multiple proverbs can be spliced together, e.g. \"Never count the bear's skin before it is hatched\" and \"There's a good deal to be said for making hay while the iron is hot.\"", "and organometallic compounds, such as the neutral molecule ferrocene, Fe(C\n2H\n5)\n2 or [Fe²⁺][C\n5H−\n5]\n2.\nIron is almost always encountered in the oxidation states 0 (as in the metal), +2, or +3. Solid iron(II) salts are relatively stable in air, but in the presence of air and water they tend to oxidize to iron(III) salts that include hydroxide (HO⁻) or oxide (O²⁻ anions. Iron(II) and life All known forms of life require iron. Many proteins in living beings contain bound iron ions; those are an important subclass of the metalloproteins. Examples include hemoglobin, ferredoxin, and the cytochromes. \nThese proteins perform their vital", "or four times its bare cast iron counterpart. For those seeking to reduce iron in their diet, enameled cast iron limits the leaching of dietary iron into food. However, some of the benefits of bare cast iron, such as the ability to withstand searing heat and resist sticking, are lost through enameling. In addition, chipping of the enamel coating can occur if the pan is dropped, overheated, or cold water is added to a hot pot. Health effects An American Dietetic Association study found that cast-iron cookware can leach significant amounts of dietary iron into food. The amounts of iron", "Iron sucrose Chemical structure The chemical formula of iron sucrose is C₁₂H₂₉Fe₅Na₂O₂₃. The iron sucrose molecule is a polymer with two main molecules; sucrose (chemical formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) and an iron (III) hydroxide (Na₂Fe₅O₈•3(H₂O)). These two components are in solution together, but are not bound to one another. Iron sucrose is a type II complex, with two oxygen atoms bonded to each iron atom. When used for medicinal purposes, the iron complex is polymerized and the sucrose molecules combined to form a larger polysaccharide. The number of polymerizations does not have to be the same as the number of sucrose molecules", "iron across the basolateral end of the intestine cells. In contrast, ferroportin is post-translationally repressed by hepcidin, a 25-amino acid peptide hormone. The body regulates iron levels by regulating each of these steps. For instance, enterocytes synthesize more Dcytb, DMT1 and ferroportin in response to iron deficiency anemia. Iron absorption from diet is enhanced in the presence of vitamin C and diminished by excess calcium, zinc, or manganese.\nThe human body’s rate of iron absorption appears to respond to a variety of interdependent factors, including total iron stores, the extent to which the bone marrow is producing new red blood cells," ]

[ "1: dead skin\n\n2: your body's reaction to get rid of it.\n\nBonus: a lot of dust in your house is said dead skin." ]

[ "relative to the condition, a common view suggests that the initial cause of the itch may have passed, and that the illness is in fact prolonged by what is known as an itch-scratch-itch cycle. It states that scratching the itch encourages the release of inflammatory chemicals, which worsen redness, intensifies itchiness and increases the area covered by dry skin, thereby causing a snowball effect.\nSome authorities describe “psychogenic pruritus” or \"functional itch disorder\", where psychological factors may contribute to awareness of itching.\nIngestion of pinworm eggs leads to enterobiasis, indicative of severe itching around the anus from migration of gravid females from", "common dermatitis problems for flower pickers, packers, florists and gardeners, \"daffodil itch\", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, and erythema in the hands, often accompanied by subungual hyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure to calcium oxalate, chelidonic acid or alkaloids such as lycorine in the sap, either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction. It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others. N. pseudonarcissus and the cultivars \"Actaea\", \"Camparelle\", \"Gloriosa\", \"Grande Monarque\", \"Ornatus\", \"Princeps\" and \"Scilly White\" are known to do so.\nIf bulb extracts come into", "Antipruritic Antipruritics, also known as anti-itch drugs, are medications that inhibit the itching (Latin: pruritus) often associated with sunburns, allergic reactions, eczema, psoriasis, chickenpox, fungal infections, insect bites and stings like those from mosquitoes, fleas, and mites, and contact dermatitis and urticaria caused by plants such as poison ivy (urushiol-induced contact dermatitis) or stinging nettle.", "Acariasis Terminology There are several complications with the terminology:\nAcariasis is a term for a rash, caused by mites, sometimes with a papillae (pruritic dermatitis) or papule (papular urticaria), and usually accompanied by a hive (urticaria) and severe itching sensations. An example of such an infection is scabies or gamasoidosis.\nThe closely related term, mange, is commonly used with domestic animals (pets) and also livestock and wild mammals, whenever hair-loss is involved. Sarcoptes and Demodex species are involved in mange, but both of these genera are also involved in human skin diseases (by convention only, not called mange). Sarcoptes in humans is", "Mycosis fungoides Signs and symptoms Typical visible symptoms include rash-like patches, tumors, or lesions. Itching (pruritus) is common, perhaps in 20 percent of patients, but is not universal. The symptoms displayed are progressive, with early stages consisting of lesions presented as scaly patches. These lesions prefer the buttock region. The later stages involve the patches evolving into plaques distributed over the entire body. The advanced stage of mycosis fungoides is characterized by generalized erythroderma, with severe pruritus and scaling. Cause The cause of mycosis fungoides is unknown, but it is not believed to be hereditary or genetic in the vast", "rarely seen between the hairs. Excessive scratching of the infested areas can cause sores, which may become infected. Treatment The number of diagnosed cases of human louse infestations (or pediculosis) has increased worldwide since the mid-1960s, reaching hundreds of millions annually. There is no product or method which assures 100% destruction of the eggs and hatched lice after a single treatment. However, there are a number of treatment methods that can be employed with varying degrees of success. These methods include chemical treatments, natural products, combs, shaving, hot air, silicone-based lotions, and ethanol (ethyl alcohol).\nPediculosis is commonly treated", "including itch and gastrointestinal pain. The mechanism by which cathepsin S leads to itch and pain is consistent with the capacity of this cysteine protease to activate protease-activated receptors 2 and 4. Clinical significance Cathepsin S has been shown to be a significant prognostic factor for patients with type IV astrocytomas (glioblastoma multiforme), and its inhibition has shown improvement in survival time by mean average 5 months. This is because the cysteine enzyme can no longer act together with other proteases to break up the brain extracellular matrix. So the spread of the tumor is halted. Scientists have just announced", "Prurigo simplex Presentation The most common prurigo simplex symptoms are skin nodules resembling insect bites that are intensely itchy. These nodules are frequently scratched open, becoming lesions that continue to itch. Sometimes the skin thickens and becomes discolored around the nodules. The scalp, arms, legs and trunk of the body are the most frequent sites of the bumps and lesions. Itching can become severe and habitual, worsening the condition and possibly causing infections in the open sores. Treatment Treatment is challenging, with narrow band UVB or pimozide sometimes helpful. Prognosis Sometimes the nodules become less itchy and eventually disappear leaving", "It is easily recognized (see signs and symptoms, and gallery). Biopsies are sometimes necessary to confirm the diagnosis and differentiate it from other similar appearing lesions. Treatment Treatment is aimed at reducing itching and minimizing existing lesions because rubbing and scratching exacerbate LSC. The itching and inflammation may be treated with a lotions or steroid cream (such as triamcinolone or Betamethasone) applied to the affected area of the skin. Night-time scratching can be reduced with sedatives and antihistamines. Doxepin is often prescribed, as it offers both antihistamine properties and is also effective at reducing the (itch scratch cycle) associated with", "Cutaneous larva migrans Symptoms The infection causes a red, intensely pruritic (itchy) eruption. The itching can become very painful and if scratched may allow a secondary bacterial infection to develop. Cutaneous larva migrans usually heals spontaneously over weeks to months and has been known to last as long as one year. However, the severity of the symptoms usually causes those infected to seek medical treatment before spontaneous resolution occurs. Following proper treatment, migration of the larvae within the skin is halted and relief of the associated itching can occur in less than 48 hours (reported for thiabendazole).\nThis is separate from", "pathogens from the body. For example, scratching is induced by pruritogens that stimulate nociceptors on epidermal tissues. These pruritogens, like histamine, also cause other immune cells to secrete further pruritogens in an effort to cause more itching to physically remove parasitic invaders. In terms of intestinal and bronchial parasites, vomiting, coughing, and diarrhea can also be caused by nociceptor stimulation in infected tissues, and nerve impulses originating from the brain stem that innervate respective smooth muscles.\nEosinophils in response to capsaicin, can trigger further sensory sensitization to the molecule. Patients with chronic cough also have an enhanced cough reflex to pathogens", "Lichen simplex chronicus Signs and symptoms People burdened with LSC report pruritus, followed by uncontrollable scratching of the same body region, excessively. Most common sites of LSC are the sides of the neck, the scalp, ankles, vulva, pubis, scrotum, and extensor sides of the forearms. However, due to the stigma associated with chronic scratching, some patients will not admit to chronic rubbing or abrasion. The skin may become thickened and hyperpigmented (lichenified) as a direct result of chronic excoriation. Typically this period of increased scratching is associated with stressors. Diagnosis LSC is typically diagnosed by careful observation and history taking.", "irritation is thrush, a fungal infection. Vulvovaginal health measures can help to prevent many disorders including thrush. Infections of the vagina such as vaginosis and of the uterus may produce vaginal discharge which can be an irritant when it comes into contact with the vulvar tissue. Inflammation as vaginitis, and vulvovaginitis can result from this causing irritation and pain. Ingrown hairs resulting from pubic hair shaving can cause folliculitis where the hair follicle becomes infected; or give rise to an inflammatory response known as pseudofolliculitis pubis. A less common cause of irritation is genital lichen planus another inflammatory disorder. A", "reported in the northern suburbs of Cincinnati, Ohio by the Hamilton County Public Health Department.\nHumans typically report itching from mite bites within 10 to 16 hours after contact. The victims often do not recall being bitten. The rash that results from the bites is usually described as a red patch with a small blister in the center, most often found on the neck, face, arms, or upper torso. A secondary bacterial infection sometimes arises when the bite is scratched. The suggested treatments include the application of calamine lotion, an antihistamine cream such as diphenhydramine, or a corticosteroid cream; a suggested", "Dermatographic urticaria Signs and symptoms The condition manifests as an allergic-like reaction, causing a warm red wheal to appear on the skin. As it is often the result of scratches, involving contact with other materials, it can be confused with an allergic reaction, when in fact it is the act of being scratched that causes a wheal to appear. These wheals are a subset of urticaria (hives), and appear within minutes, in some cases accompanied by itching. The first outbreak of urticaria can lead to other reactions on body parts not directly stimulated, scraped, or scratched. In a normal case,", "mites\". They are also related to the scab mite Psoroptes, also a mite that infests the skin of domestic animals. Sarcoptic mange affects domestic animals and similar infestations in domestic fowls causes the disease known as \"scaly leg\". The effects of S. scabiei are the most well-known, causing \"scabies\", or \"the itch\". The adult female mite, having been fertilized, burrows into the skin (usually at the hands or wrists, but other parts of the body may also be affected), and lays its eggs.\nThe burrowing is carried out using the mouth parts and special cutting surfaces on the front legs. While", "Itching powder Itching powder is a powder or powder-like substance that induces itching when applied onto human skin. This is usually done as a practical joke or prank to an unsuspecting victim.\nThe cause of the irritation can be mechanical, such as products containing ground rose hips. Another common ingredient is Mucuna pruriens, a type of legume that produces seedpods coated with thousands of detachable spicules (needle-like hairs), the spicules contain an enzyme (mucunain) that causes severe itching, and they have been sold commercially as itching powder. Mucuna pruriens has been used to test the efficacy of anti-itch drugs.\nThe term \"itching", "Gamasoidosis Clinical signs The most common symptoms are \"itching and punctiform, erythematous papules\" with a size of \"1–3 mm\" and a \"central punctum\", the itching and irritation are reactions to the saliva the mites secrete when feeding.\nBites are normally located in groups around the neck and body areas covered by clothes (waist, trunk, upper extremities and abdomen), but can also be found on the legs, finger webs, axillae, the groin, and buttocks. If feeding occurs while a patient is sleeping, bedclothes and pillows may show red spots caused by droppings or crushed mites.\nD. gallinae is capable of infesting the ear", "severe itching, evolves into inflammation, non-colored bumps, and then blistering when scratched.", "Pinworm infection Signs and symptoms One-third of individuals with pinworm infection are totally asymptomatic. The main symptoms are itching in and around the anus and perineum. The itching occurs mainly during the night, and is caused by the female pinworms migrating to lay eggs around the anus. Both the migrating females and the clumps of eggs are irritating, but the mechanisms causing the intense pruritus have not been explained. The intensity of the itching varies, and it can be described as tickling, crawling sensations, or even acute pain. The itching leads to continuously scratching the area around the anus,", "fungus caused the meningitis. The medication was packaged and marketed by the New England Compounding Center (NECC) of Framingham, Massachusetts.\nAccording to the CDC, between May 21 and September 24, 2012, patients in 23 U.S. states received injections from three implicated lots of a steroid, preservative-free methylprednisolone acetate, for back pain, and some of these patients developed symptoms consistent with fungal meningitis. This form of meningitis can be caused by epidurally administered medications, but is not contagious by person-to-person contact. On October 9, authorities estimated as many as 14,000 patients may have been exposed to the contaminated drug.\nThe NECC said that", "especially severe symptomatically, and causes the condition scabies noted above.\nAnother genus of mite which causing itching but rarely causes hair loss because it burrows only at the keratin level, is Cheyletiella. Various species of this genus of mite also affect a wide variety of mammals, including humans.\nMite infestation sometimes implies an ectoparasitic, cutaneous condition such as dermatitis. However, it is possible for mites to invade the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts.\nMeSH uses the term \"Mite Infestations\" as pertaining to Acariformes. However, mites not in this grouping can be associated with human disease. (See \"Classification\", below.)\nThe term Acari refers to ticks and", "dogs and cats. The fungus is most prevalent in the Americas, India and southeastern Asia. It is endemic in certain areas of the United States. Infection is usually due to inhaling contaminated air. Pneumocystis Pneumocystis jirovecii (or Pneumocystis carinii) can cause a form of pneumonia in people with weakened immune systems, such as premature children, the elderly and AIDS patients. Stachybotrys Stachybotrys chartarum or \"black mold\" can cause respiratory damage and severe headaches. It frequently occurs in houses and in regions that are chronically damp. Endothermy Mammalian endothermy and homeothermy are potent nonspecific defenses against most fungi. Barrier tissues The", "of demodectic mange usually do not cause much itching but might cause pustules, redness, scaling, leathery skin, hair loss, skin that is warm to the touch, or any combination of these. It most commonly appears first on the face, around the eyes, or at the corners of the mouth, and on the forelimbs and paws. It may be misdiagnosed as a \"hot spot\" or other skin ailment.\nIn the more severe form, hair loss can occur in patches all over the body and might be accompanied by crusting, pain, enlarged lymph nodes, and deep skin infections.\nTypically, animals become infected through nursing", "pro-inflammatory actions of 12-HETE in humans may involve both types of G protein-coupled receptors. Itch perception 12(S)-HpETE and 12(S)-HETE induce itching responses when injected into the skin of mice; this has led to the suggestion that these metabolites contribute to the itching (i.e. clinical pruritus) which accompanies such conditions as atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, urticaria, chronic renal failure, and cholestasis. Since it mediates 12(S)-HETE-induced itching in the mouse model, BLT2 rather than GPR31 may mediate human itch in these reactions. Prostate cancer 12-HETE (stereoisomer not defined) is the dominant arachidonic acid metabolite in cultured PC3 human prostate cancer cells", "irritation.\nAnother cause of irritation in women is post menopausal vaginitis. The decline in the female sex hormones leads to development of dryness and itching in the vagina. This is often accompanied by painful sexual intercourse. Cracks and tears often develop on outer aspects of the labia which becomes red from chronic scratching. Post menopausal vaginitis can be treated with short term use of vaginal estrogen pessary and use of a moisturizer. Lungs Individuals who smoke or are exposed to smog or other airborne pollutants can develop a condition known as COPD. In this disorder, there is constant irritation of the", "Pébrine Pébrine, or \"pepper disease,\" is a disease of silkworms, which is caused by protozoan microsporidian parasites, mainly Nosema bombycis and, to a lesser extent, Vairimorpha, Pleistophora and Thelohania species. The parasites infect eggs and are therefore transmitted to the next generation. \nThe silkworm larvae infected by pébrine are usually covered in brown dots and are unable to spin silkworm thread. Louis Pasteur was the first one to recognize the cause of this disease when a plague of the disease spread across France.\nNosema bombycis is a microsporidium that kills all of the silkworms hatched from infected eggs and comes", "Pruritus ani Causes If a specific cause for pruritus ani is found it is classified as \"secondary pruritus ani\". If a specific cause is not found it is classified as \"idiopathic pruritus ani\". The irritation can be caused by intestinal parasites, anal perspiration, frequent liquid stools, diarrhea, residual stool deposits, or the escape of small amounts of stool as a result of incontinence or flatulence. Another cause is yeast infection or candidiasis. Some diseases increase the possibility of yeast infections, such as diabetes mellitus or HIV infection. Treatment with antibiotics can bring about a disturbance of the natural", "Mucuna Uses and ecology The pods of some species are covered in coarse hairs that contain the proteolytic enzyme mucunain and cause itchy blisters when they come in contact with skin; specific epithets such as pruriens (Latin: \"itching\") or urens (Latinized Ancient Greek: \"stinging like a nettle\") refer to this. Other parts of the plant have medicinal properties. The plants are used in herbalism against a range of conditions, such as urinary tract, neurological and menstruation disorders, constipation, edema, fevers, tuberculosis, ulcers, Parkinson's disease, and helminthiases like elephantiasis. Velvet bean (M. pruriens) is one of the most important sources of", "linear from brushing up against the plant. Causes of the Koebner phenomenon that are secondary to scratching rather than an infective or chemical cause include vitiligo, psoriasis, lichen planus, lichen nitidus, pityriasis rubra pilaris, and keratosis follicularis (Darier disease). History The Koebner phenomenon was named after the rather eccentric but renowned German dermatologist Heinrich Koebner (1838–1904). Koebner is best known for his work in mycology. His intense nature is illustrated by the following: in a medical meeting, he proudly exhibited on his arms and chest three different fungus infections, which he had self-inoculated, in order to prove the" ]

[ "As the kernel is heated, the moisture and oils are being heated inside. Since the outer shell of popping corn is strong and mostly impenetrable, there is no place for the heat and pressure to go and the insides are superheated. The starches inside, which are normally hard, begin to soften in a process called gelatinization. Interior pressure continues to rise until the kernel's shell ruptures. Steam rapidly expands causing the innards to expand in a foamy substance, which afterwards quickly cools into a crispy puff." ]

[ "popped corn. While the kernels may come in a variety of colors, the popped corn is always off-yellow or white as it is only the hull (or pericarp) that is colored. \"Rice\" type popcorn have a long kernel pointed at both ends; \"pearl\" type kernels are rounded at the top. Commercial popcorn production has moved mostly to pearl types. Historically, pearl popcorn were usually yellow and rice popcorn usually white. Today both shapes are available in both colors, as well as others including black, red, mauve, purple, and variegated. Mauve and purple popcorn usually have smaller and nutty kernels.", "Nebraska. According to the USDA, corn used for popcorn production is specifically planted for this purpose; most is grown in Nebraska and Indiana, with increasing area in Texas. As the result of an elementary school project, popcorn became the official state snack food of Illinois. Popping mechanism Each kernel of popcorn contains a certain amount of moisture and oil. Unlike most other grains, the outer hull of the popcorn kernel is both strong and impervious to moisture and the starch inside consists almost entirely of a hard type.\nAs the oil and the water within the kernel are heated, they", "of the product, it was popped by hand.\nPopcorn's accessibility increased rapidly in the 1890s with Charles Cretors' invention of the popcorn maker. Cretors, a Chicago candy store owner, created a number of steam-powered machines for roasting nuts and applied the technology to the corn kernels. By the turn of the century, Cretors had created and deployed street carts equipped with steam-powered popcorn makers.\nDuring the Great Depression, popcorn was fairly inexpensive at 5–10 cents a bag and became popular. Thus, while other businesses failed, the popcorn business thrived and became a source of income for many struggling farmers, including the Redenbacher", "a crank. This is to prevent burning of the kernels on the bottom and, under limited conditions, enables users to make sweetened popcorn by mixing sugar directly with the kernels before they pop.\nIn 1978, Presto introduced the Popcorn Pumper, a popper for consumer use in the home, which used hot air blown up through the kernels. By cooking without oil, it reduced the calories and fat in the finished product. It was also faster and easier than pan fry popping.\nHome popcorn makers are also available, which consist of an electrically heated circular tray with a powered stirring arm, into which", "Popcorn chicken Popcorn chicken is a dish consisting of small, bite-sized pieces of chicken that have been breaded and fried, and was originally developed by KFC. KFC Popcorn chicken was invented by food technologist Gene Gagliardi. It was test-marketed in the United States from March 1992, and had been launched nationwide by September 1992. It has been periodically available in KFC outlets. It was re-introduced in the US in 1998, and again in 2001. It was later re-introduced once again in 2015, under the name \"KFC Popcorn Nuggets\".\nIt is still available in the UK, Canada, Australia, Singapore and New Zealand.", "corn into the fireplace, which pops. Donald returns and pops a bowl of popcorn, but the chipmunks find a way to steal his bowl. The duck enters a fierce battle with the chipmunks for possession of the popcorn, which ends with Donald trying to burn down Chip and Dale's tree. The duo immediately find another box of popcorn, and pour it down on the fire, causing a whole shower of popcorn to cover the front of Donald's house. Concluding the short, a disgruntled Donald ends up having to clear popcorn out of his walkway.", "each U.S. state. The popcorn was also sold in Hy-Vee stores in seven states. Gene Mealhow stated that the popcorn's \"disappearing hull\" was appealing to people with digestive problems such as diverticulitis; one of the company's top-selling locations was Florida, which had a high population of older residents. Lynn Mealhow noted that unlike newer varieties of popcorn at that time, the company's heirloom variety did not taste right if popped in a microwave.\nIn 2003, Market Square Food Company Inc., based in Highland Park, Illinois, began purchasing raw popcorn from K&K Popcorn and popping it. The company would then package the", "KeHE, allowing for access to 30,000 U.S. grocery stores. A microwavable version of the company's popcorn was introduced in October 2014, at which point pre-popped flavored corn was also available, including white cheddar.\nKaitlyn Goalen of Tasting Table wrote that the company's \"petite kernels are reinventing our favorite silver-screen snack.\" In 2014, Evan S. Benn of the Miami Herald stated that Tiny but Mighty Popcorn was his favorite variety of newly emerging heirloom popcorns, writing, \"The popcorn has a sweet, nutty flavor, and because the kernels are so small, their hulls disintegrate when popped, so no pesky bits will stick between", "Tiny but Mighty Popcorn Kelty family Since 1854, the ancestors of Richard Kelty (1936-2015) had been growing a heirloom popcorn variety out of small kernels, whose hulls would disintegrate after being popped, resulting in a richer taste. The popcorn had been introduced to the Kelty family by Native Americans, who shared it with them. The Kelty family had never sold the popcorn, which was only grown for personal consumption.\nAfter Richard Kelty retired from the military in the mid-1970s, he obtained a handful of the corn from a relative and planted it on his farm in Urbana, Iowa. Eventually, Kelty and", "Popcorn maker A popcorn maker (also called a popcorn popper) is a machine used to pop popcorn. Since ancient times, popcorn has been a popular snack food, produced through the explosive expansion of kernels of heated corn (maize). Commercial large scale popcorn machines were invented by Charles Cretors in the late 19th century. Many types of small scale home methods for popping corn also exist.\nCommercial popcorn machines are commonly found in movie theaters and carnivals, producing popcorn in a pan of hot oil, which has approximately 45% of its calories derived from fat. Hot air popcorn poppers appeared for home", "Popcorn History Corn was domesticated about 10,000 years ago in what is now Mexico. Archaeologists discovered that people have known about popcorn for thousands of years. In Mexico, for example, remnants of popcorn have been found that date to around 3600 BC.\nPopping of the kernels was achieved by hand on the stove-top through the 19th century. Kernels were sold on the East Coast of the United States under names such as Pearls or Nonpareil. The term popped corn first appeared in John Russell Bartlett's 1848 Dictionary of Americanisms. Popcorn is an ingredient in Cracker Jack, and in the early years", "Commercial production is dominated by white and yellow. Terminology In the popcorn industry, a popped kernel of corn is known as a \"flake\". Two shapes of flakes are commercially important. \"Butterfly\" (or \"snowflake\") flakes are irregular in shape and have a number of protruding \"wings\". \"Mushroom\" flakes are largely ball-shaped, with few wings. Butterfly flakes are regarded as having better mouthfeel, with greater tenderness and less noticeable hulls. Mushroom flakes are less fragile than butterfly flakes and are therefore often used for packaged popcorn or confectionery, such as caramel corn. The kernels from a single cob of popcorn may form", "world's fair, F.W. Rueckheim introduced a molasses-flavored \"Candied Popcorn\", the first caramel corn; his brother, Louis Ruekheim, slightly altered the recipe and introduced it as Cracker Jack popcorn in 1896.\nCretors's invention introduced the first patented steam-driven popcorn machine that popped corn in oil. Previously, vendors popped corn by holding a wire basket over an open flame. At best, the result was a hot, dry, unevenly cooked snack. Cretors's machine popped corn in a mixture of one-third clarified butter, two-thirds lard, and salt. This mixture can withstand the 450 °F (232 °C) temperature needed to pop corn and it produces little smoke. A", "into the familiar crispy puff. Special varieties are grown to give improved popping yield. Though the kernels of some wild types will pop, the cultivated strain is Zea mays everta, which is a special kind of flint corn. Cooking methods Popcorn can be cooked with butter or oil. Although small quantities can be popped in a stove-top kettle or pot in a home kitchen, commercial sale of freshly popped popcorn employs specially designed popcorn machines, which were invented in Chicago, Illinois, by Charles Cretors in 1885. Cretors successfully introduced his invention at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. At this same", "popcorn under the label, \"The World's Tiniest Popcorn We Think.\" Market Square's popcorn went on sale in Iowa in December 2003, and was available in four flavors. Stores also continued to sell K&K's un-popped popcorn, which at that time was made without preservatives, as well as artificial colors and flavors.\nAs of 2013, the popcorn was available in most Fareway and Hy-Vee stores, as well as approximately 40 Whole Foods stores in the midwestern and eastern United States. A ready-to-eat version of the company's popcorn had also been launched by that time, and a deal had been signed with national distributor", "a special case, since it is designed to be cooked along with its various flavoring agents. One of these formerly common artificial-butter flavorants, diacetyl, has been implicated in causing respiratory illnesses in microwave popcorn factory workers, also known as \"popcorn lung\". Major manufacturers in the United States have stopped using this chemical, including: Orville Redenbacher's, Act II, Pop Secret and Jolly Time. Other uses Popcorn, threaded onto a string, is used as a wall or Christmas tree decoration in some parts of North America, as well as on the Balkan peninsula.\nSome shipping companies have experimented with using popcorn as a", "both butterfly and mushroom flakes; hybrids that produce 100% butterfly flakes or 100% mushroom flakes exist, the latter developed only as recently as 1998. Growing conditions and popping environment can also affect the butterfly-to-mushroom ratio.\nWhen referring to multiple pieces of popcorn, it is acceptable to use the term \"popcorn\".\nWhen referring to a singular piece of popcorn, the accepted terminology is kernel. Consumption Popcorn is a popular snack food at sporting events and in movie theaters, where it has been served since the 1930s. Cinemas have come under fire due to their high markup on popcorn; Stuart Hanson, a film historian", "known as \"old maids\" or \"spinsters\".\nAn early susceptor popcorn bag design was patented by the American company General Mills in 1981 (US Patent #4,267,420). Safety issues Care in package design is needed for food safety.\nA safety issue is that the cooking time given on the packaging does not apply to all microwave ovens. Setting the timer and coming back later, after the timer's alarm has sounded, could result in the popcorn being burnt and smoking badly. Microwave popcorn makers suggest that the person cooking the popcorn stay near the oven to observe the popcorn as it cooks, and take the", "the product for a month; the manager contacted the family 10 days later to request additional stock after it sold out. The company's popcorn was eventually carried in every Whole Foods store in Chicago. By 2000, the company's popcorn was advertised as being the world's smallest; Gene Mealhow stated, \"The smaller the kernel, the better the flavor.\"\nAs of 2002, K&K offered un-popped popcorn in bags ranging from one to five pounds, as well as a 50-pound option. A pre-popped variety was also offered in several flavors. At the time, K&K Popcorn was sold through mail order and was available in", "Popcorn.js Popcorn.js is an open source JavaScript library for HTML5 media developers, freely available under the MIT License. It uses the native HTMLMediaElement properties, methods and events, normalizes them into an API, and provides a plugin system. Extensible support for playing non-native media (ex: YouTube, Vimeo, SoundCloud) is available through the normalized API via wrappers. Popcorn.js is part of a Mozilla program to promote Web video creation via open standards, and though outside Web development communities, has been named by sources such as Wired.com as one of technologies with the greatest potential in the future of video online.", "ten-watt laser to pop a single kernel wrapped in aluminum foil, showing that popping corn is possible with a laser, then they tested a scaled-down model of a house. The popcorn was popped through induction heating because a sufficiently large laser was not available. The result was that the popcorn was unable to expand sufficiently to break glass, much less break open a door or move the house off its foundation. Instead, it ceased to expand and then simply charred.\nIt was also specifically stated in the program that a five-megawatt laser still did not exist, even in military applications, and", "Microwave popcorn Microwave popcorn is a convenience food consisting of unpopped popcorn in an enhanced, sealed paper bag intended to be heated in a microwave oven. In addition to the dried corn, the bags typically contain cooking oil with sufficient saturated fat to solidify at room temperature, one or more seasonings (often salt), and natural or artificial flavorings or both. With the many different flavors, there are many different providers. Design The bag is typically partially folded when it is placed in a microwave, and inflates as a result of steam pressure from the heated kernels.\nThe design of a microwave", "popcorn out when the time between pops is more than a few seconds.\nThe concern about microwave popcorn bags has increased in the last few years in terms of the waste and their harmful impacts on the environment. A study shows that food packaging accounts for almost two-thirds of the total volume of packaging waste. In addition, the coating materials used in microwave popcorn bags can have negative effects on the environment. Researchers have detected toxic chemicals in the bags, such as perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) and their potential precursors. PFCs are environmentally persistent, bioaccumulative, and potentially harmful. Among PFCs, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid", "Popcorn, Indiana History Popcorn took its name from Popcorn Creek. A local legend states a visitor from out of town compared the size of local farmers' corn to \"popcorn\" compared to their own.\nA post office called Popcorn was established in 1891, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1905.\nThe town is also known for a brand of kettle corn popcorn that takes the name of the town, but the company is not headquartered in the town. Geography Popcorn is located at 38°58′33″N 86°39′25″W.", "and peanuts covered in either the \"original\" caramel glaze or a \"butter toffee\" glaze. The original Fiddle Faddle box was the first snack box to feature a carrying handle. Screaming Yellow Zonkers Screaming Yellow Zonkers is popcorn with a sugary yellow glaze. Screaming Yellow Zonkers was introduced in 1969 as a nut-free alternative to existing caramelized popcorn products. Allan Katz was the creator of the original box and ad campaign. Screaming Yellow Zonkers was featured on the Food Network show Unwrapped in 2002, but has since been discontinued.", "PopCorn (video game) Legacy In 2013, Popcorn was remade by Frédérick Raynal for both Windows and mobile devices under the name Popcorn 1988. It contains a full remake of all 50 levels using the original game's visuals. However, it lacks the level editor featured in the original, which allowed for custom level sets.", "normal popcorn, cooked with white sugar and salt, traditionally in a large copper kettle. Once reserved for specialty shops and county fairs, kettle corn has recently become popular, especially in the microwave popcorn market. The popcorn maker is a relatively new home appliance, and its popularity is increasing because it offers the opportunity to add flavors of the consumer's own choice and to choose healthy-eating popcorn styles. Health risks Popcorn is included on the list of foods that the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends not serving to children under four, because of the risk of choking.\nMicrowaveable popcorn represents", "director of HBC. \nZonkers were geared toward those who enjoy sweetened popcorn without nuts, as opposed to products like Cracker Jack. Screaming Yellow Zonkers were kosher, but did contain dairy products.\nWhile the front of the package was simple and understated, the rest of the Zonkers box was completely covered with absurdist copy, accompanied by illustrations, informing the reader everything from \"how to wash Zonkers\" to \"how to mate them\". The bottom of the box explained how to determine if it were indeed the bottom: “Open the top, and turn the box upside down. If the Zonkers fall out, this is", "numerous incidents of faulty popcorn machines causing fires to break out in Event Cinema complexes including Adelaide and Rockhampton in September 2015, Perth in December 2015 and Sydney in August 2016.", "a consumer. On 16 January 2008, it was announced that Wayne Watson, a Denver man who developed \"popcorn lung\" after inhaling fumes from microwaved popcorn, was suing the Kroger grocery store chain and its affiliates. In the lawsuit, filed in U.S. District Court, Watson's attorney claimed that the companies \"failed to warn that preparing microwave popcorn in a microwave oven as intended and smelling the buttery aroma could expose the consumer to an inhalation hazard and a risk of lung injury.\" On 19 September 2012 a jury in U.S. District Court in Denver awarded $2.3 million in actual damages and" ]

[ "There are two kinds of spacing out. There is background processing - thinking about stuff that isn't apparent to you consciously, and basically resting your mind. \n\nFor most of evolutionary history, energy was the limiting factor for most species. Sleeping is not only helpful for repairing your body, but also for reducing your calorie burden. Spacing out is a kind of low energy state that is more alert than sleeping but less energy consuming than active thinking." ]

[ "the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.\nBeing in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts.\nIn October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found", "Living in this type of environment impacts the body in three important ways: loss of proprioception, changes in fluid distribution, and deterioration of the musculoskeletal system.\nOn 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.\nIn October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work", "Space adaptation syndrome Cause and remedy When the vestibular system and the visual system report incongruous states of motion, the result is often nausea and other symptoms of disorientation known as motion sickness. According to contemporary sensory conflict theory, such conditions happen when the vestibular system and the visual system do not present a synchronized and unified representation of one's body and surroundings. This theory is also known as neural mismatch, implying a mismatch occurring between ongoing sensory experience and long-term memory rather than between components of the vestibular and visual systems, emphasizing \"the limbic system in integration of sensory", "how space perception could be altered by experience, participants wore glasses that distorted the visual field by several degrees to the right. Participants were asked to look at an object, close their eyes, and try to reach out and touch it. At first, the subjects reached for the object too far to the left, but after a few trials were able to correct themselves.\nHelmholtz theorized that perceptual adaptation might result from a process he referred to as unconscious inference, where the mind unconsciously adopts certain rules in order to make sense of what is perceived of the world. An example", "by someone, there is no gas or the tube slips out of the bag, there is a high risk of severe hypoxia of the central nervous system\" (in survivors).\nBrain cells are very sensitive to reduced oxygen levels. Once deprived of oxygen they will begin to die off within five minutes.\nIf hypoxia results in coma, the length of unconsciousness is often indicative of long-term damage. In some cases coma can give the brain an opportunity to heal and regenerate, but, in general, the longer a coma, the greater the likelihood that the person will remain in a vegetative state until death.", "Boltzmann brain would suddenly appear from the vacuum (alongside an equivalent amount of virtual antimatter), remain only long enough to have a single coherent thought or observation, and then disappear into the vacuum as suddenly as it appeared. Such a brain is completely self-contained, and can never radiate energy out to infinity. Via nucleation Current evidence suggests that the observable Universe is not a Minkowski space, but rather a de Sitter universe with a positive cosmological constant. In a de Sitter vacuum (but not in a Minkowski vacuum), a Boltzmann brain can form via nucleation of non-virtual particles gradually assembled", "be hard detect the cause and effect of gravity on the body. Space seems to cause trouble for a number of body parts including bone, sometimes the eyes, and a classic problem is space sickness. Psychological studies The study also required the astronauts to keep a journal, and investigated the psychological effects of living in a confined space for an extended length of time. Kornienko said of his experiences on Expedition 23/24: \"The thing you miss there most of all is the Earth itself, I missed smells. I missed trees, I even dreamt of them. I even hallucinated. I thought", "the rib cage muscles and diaphragm. These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it. In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.\nIn pure central sleep apnea, the brain's respiratory control centers, located in the region of the human brain known as the pre-Botzinger complex, are", "reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization. Vacuum Human physiology is adapted to living within the atmosphere of Earth, and a certain amount of oxygen is required in the air we breathe. If the body does not get enough oxygen, then the astronaut is at risk of becoming unconscious and dying from hypoxia. In the vacuum of space, gas exchange in the lungs continues as normal but results in the removal of all gases, including oxygen, from the bloodstream. After 9 to 12 seconds, the deoxygenated blood reaches the brain, and it results in the loss of consciousness. Exposure to vacuum for", "low-level activity and another conscious state consisting of snowballing self-amplification and reverberation (p. 184). Subliminal stimuli fail to become conscious because by the time the higher layers try to amplify the signal, the original input stimulation has vanished (p. 193).\nDehaene suggests that noise fluctuations in neural activity can be amplified and give rise to randomness in our streams of thought (p. 190). Ch. 6: The Ultimate Test Dehaene discusses coma, vegetative states, minimally conscious states, and locked-in syndrome.\nRecent findings have shown that a few patients without any ability to move (not even to move their eyes) still show intact consciousness", "of pressure during the flight, but Ham's space suit prevented him from suffering any harm. Ham's lever-pushing performance in space was only a fraction of a second slower than on Earth, demonstrating that tasks could be performed in space. Ham's capsule splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean and was recovered by a rescue ship later that day. His only physical injury was a bruised nose. His flight was 16 minutes and 39 seconds long. Later life After the flight, Ham lived for 17 years in the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., before joining a small group of captive chimps at North Carolina", "indicated that some of the results may help explain why some astronauts suffer impaired vision during spaceflight: \"We used to think that in zero-gravity, fluid travelled upward and that the quality of blood improved, but it turns out that it is the other way around. The arteries of the brain come under duress and their capacity is reduced by 40 percent.\" The reduced bloodflow may be key to triggering orthostatic intolerance.", "in the strictest sense of the word, since it doesn't move, although it does obey the Three Laws of Robotics), without the same thing happening. The Brain then directs the building of a hyperspace ship.\nPowell and Donovan board the spaceship, and the spaceship takes off without them being initially aware of it. They also find that The Brain has become a practical joker: it hasn't built any manual controls for the ship, no showers or beds, either, and it only provides tinned beans and milk for the crew to survive on.\nShortly after their journey begins, and after many strange visions", "left her unable to position herself in space. Most indicative of her disability is that she often turned in the wrong direction when greeted by someone who she was not facing Heading disorientation Heading disorientation is marked by the inability to represent direction of orientation with respect to external environment. This is usually due to lesions in the posterior cingulate. Patients show no signs of visuo-spatial agnosia. Patients are able to determine their location using landmarks, but are unable to determine which direction to proceed from those landmarks in order to reach their destination. They are also impaired in map", "were one of the consequences of the death of the eponymous intelligence depicted in \"Space Brain\". The Brain controlled the space warps within its influence; after its death, they would become unpredictable and unstable. This would allow the Moon to be flung within range of Psychon immediately before the episode.", "part [of the brain] allows [a person] to leave something when it’s incomplete and return to the same place and continue from there,” while Brodmann Area 10, a part of the brain’s frontal lobes, is important for establishing and attaining long-term goals. Focusing on multiple dissimilar tasks at once forces the brain to process all activity in its anterior. Though the brain is complex and can perform a myriad of tasks, it cannot multitask well.\nAnother study by René Marois, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University, discovered that the brain exhibits a “response selection bottleneck” when asked to perform several tasks at", "known as the \"what\" stream. The dorsal stream is responsible for guiding our actions and recognizing where objects are in space, commonly known as the \"where\" or \"how\" stream. Once in the information is organized and sent through the pathways it continues to the other areas of the brain responsible for visual processing.\nThe most important function of the Occipital lobe is vision. Due to the positioning of this lobe at the back of the head it is not susceptible to much injury but any significant damage to the brain can cause a variety of damage to our visual perception system.", "capacity. Attention allows a person to identify and react to pertinent objects in space, while ignoring other irrelevant objects. Patients with visual extinction, especially those with unilateral damage to the right parietal lobe, may be unable to attend and orient to objects in collateral space, therefore presenting neglect to visual stimuli.\nA delay in reaction time is observed in many patients, but it is unknown whether this is a primary result of the stroke or resulting from the visual extinction. Detrimental social aspects may be repercussions of the stroke, which caused the visual extinction, but not from the visual extinction condition", "spot, conscious visual experience does not subjectively seem to have any holes in it. Some scientists and philosophers had argued, based on subjective reports, that perhaps the brain somehow \"fills in\" the holes, based upon adjacent visual information. Dennett had powerfully argued that such \"filling in\" was unnecessary, based on his objections to a Cartesian theater. Ultimately, however, studies have confirmed that the visual cortex does perform a very complex \"filling in\" process.\nThe impact of this is itself controversial. Some assume that this is a devastating blow against Dennett, while others have argued that this in", "missing brain tissue re-implanted for a short time. Walter, temporarily sane, was forced to reveal to Newton how he crossed over to the other universe, and nearly died because of it, driving Peter to great lengths to save him. In the episode \"Jacksonville\", Walter reactivated Olivia's Cortexiphan abilities, and she was able to identify objects from the other universe because of their distinctive \"glimmer\". When she looked at Peter, she saw that he projected the same glimmer, making her realize he is from the Other Side. But, she eventually promises Walter that she would not tell Peter", "become a staple of many science fiction stories, with many such stories involving a mad scientist who might remove a person's brain from the body, suspend it in a vat of life-sustaining liquid, and connect its neurons by wires to a supercomputer which would provide it with electrical impulses identical to those the brain normally receives. According to such science fiction stories, the computer would then be simulating a virtual reality (including appropriate responses to the brain's own output) and the person with the \"disembodied\" brain would continue to have perfectly normal conscious experiences without these being related to objects", "in Space is a radio surveillance operative who starts out boasting he \"can always get a strong signal\", but ends up losing the signal and then becoming deaf, cut off from all communication. In one interview, McCarthy discussed this character's similarity to Francis Ford Coppola's Harry Caul in The Conversation.\nMcCarthy created an art project around Cocteau's Orphée, at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London in 2004, which consisted of forty assistants cutting up text, projecting it onto the walls and then re-assembling it into cryptic messages which were transmitted around London and the world by radio and internet. This", "fourth dimension of space, preferring, rather, the statement \"on the molecular shakes of material bonds in the body, than the one on movements and vibrations outside of three-dimensional space.\" According to Hartmann, neither the sack nor the cage in which the medium can be contained will not be a hindrance to him: if he can pass through a substance in a state of sleep, \"nothing prevents him from appearing as a phenomenon in front of the audience, in spite of all these precautions.\"\nAfter the mentioning to the \"expansive action\" of the mediumistic nerve force that overcomes the \"cohesion of", "in nearly neutral buoyancy, which allows the brain to maintain its density without being impaired by its own weight, which would cut off blood supply and kill neurons in the lower sections.", "upset by Ménière's disease, superior canal dehiscence syndrome, an inner ear infection, by a bad common cold affecting the head or a number of other medical conditions including but not limited to vertigo. It can also be temporarily disturbed by quick or prolonged acceleration, for example riding on a merry-go-round. Blows can also affect equilibrioreception, especially those to the side of the head or directly to the ear.\nMost astronauts find that their sense of balance is impaired when in orbit because they are in a constant state of weightlessness. This causes a form of motion sickness called space adaptation syndrome.", "constricts the body to keep more blood in the head can mitigate the effects. Most spacecraft are designed to keep g-forces within comfortable limits. Space environments The environment of space is lethal without appropriate protection: the greatest threat in the vacuum of space derives from the lack of oxygen and pressure, although temperature and radiation also pose risks. The effects of space exposure can result in ebullism, hypoxia, hypocapnia, and decompression sickness. In addition to these, there is also cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and sub-atomic particles that are present in the surroundings. Decompression is a serious", "embellishments creating the sense that it's hurtling through a pocket of space-time created fresh out of Taylor's head.\"", "the effects of spaceflight on the myofibrillar component of skeletal muscle, the role of the neural components of skeletal muscle atrophy must not be understated. A functional disruption of neuronal control at the neuromuscular level, which seems to be paralleled by a reduction in the overall electrical activity of the muscle after spaceflight, raises the possibility that neuron-derived factors that play a role in the growth or maintenance of skeletal muscle may be disrupted. The hypothesis that microgravity causes a fundamental alteration in motor control has also been suggested. Studies conducted at JSC by the Exercise Physiology Laboratory showed that", "spaceflight. However, observations suggest that during the first 5–6 hours after spaceflight (the earliest time point at which the animals can be accessed), edema occurs in the target anti-gravity muscles such as the soleus and the adductor longus (AL). This is thought to occur by increased blood flow to the muscles when they become initially reloaded in opposition to gravity. In addition, in certain regions of the AL, there is some indication of fiber damage based on histological analyses of the myofibril integrity and protein alignment in the sarcomere. While these observations were noted in ~2.5% of the fibers of", "transhumanist Susan Schneider claims that at best, uploading would create a copy of the original person's mind. Susan Schneider agrees that consciousness has a computational basis, but this does not mean we can upload and survive. According to her views, \"uploading\" would probably result in the death of the original person's brain, while only outside observers can maintain the illusion of the original person still being alive. For it is implausible to think that one's consciousness would leave one's brain and travel to a remote location; ordinary physical objects do not behave this way. Ordinary objects (rocks," ]

[ "The general idea is that by offering a discount card, you will shop more frequently at that specific chain than others (although in reality, this isn't often the case). They may also collect your email to send you regular marketing ads, in hopes of bringing you in.\n\nIf the extra profit generated from you buying items at that store vs another store exceeds the discounts given on that trip, then the store benefits.", "Probably the biggest use is market research on what your buying habits are... when do most people go shopping? (so we can increase the cost of milk on that day). What do you buy most often (so we can increase the cost of that item).\n\nI'm cynical if you can't tell and I refuse to shop at Kroger for various reasons (this being prime among them). I think of it as way to screw people and charge them more for not having the card. (yes it's free but see paragraph one)" ]

[ "Cashier as a service Cashier as a service (CaaS) refers to using a third party service as payment. When a shopper buys merchandise online, oftentimes, the shopper does not pay the merchant directly, but rather through a third party – the cashier. The cashier is trusted by both the shopper and the merchant and is expected to allow for reliable and secure transfer of money. By paying a merchant through a cashier, shoppers are able to pay for merchandise without giving away their financial information to the merchants. Shopping online When using CaaS, shopping online involves three parties – the", "a cashier once before leaving. However, the design failed as an employee had to manually apply a coded sticker (identifying who made the sale) to the price tag of each item before customers left the store. Thus, this convenience plan was quickly abandoned by Burdines, and the company resumed using traditional cashier layouts.", "was one of the factors leading to the technique of just-in-time inventory management for retail, commercial and industrial undertakings.\nThe payment of consumer purchases at the retail checkout counter through the use of an electronic debit card was introduced across Canada in 1994. Known as Interac, the system allows the consumer to swipe his personal card and with the use of a personal identification number have the amount of the purchase electronically deducted from his or her bank account. The service has since become very popular. Waste disposal, recycling Although the concept of recycling waste materials was not new, the Blue", "cash can later be 'spent' by inserting the card into the retailer's card-reader and pressing a button to confirm the amount. Neither PIN entry nor a signature is required, which makes for a speedy transaction for the card's owner.\nOther competing cashless payment systems for micro-payments (small amounts) include Mondex.\nA more successful smart card electronic cash system is the Octopus card system in Hong Kong.", "Consignment Second-hand shops \"Consignment shop\" is an American term for shops, usually second-hand, that sell used goods for owners (consignors), typically at a lower cost than new goods. Not all second-hand shops are consignment shops, and not all consignment shops are second-hand shops. In consignment shops, it is usually understood that the consignee (the seller) pays the consignor (the person who owns the item) a portion of the proceeds from the sale. Payment is not made until and unless the item sells. Such shops are found around the world. They can be chain stores, like the Buffalo Exchange or individual", "Scribbler (card shop) Scribbler is a British chain of greetings card retail shops. As of July 2016, they have 33 outlets throughout the UK.\nScribbler were founded in 1981, and as of 2012, are still run by the original management team. Scribbler state that they are \"at the forefront of edgy humour and great design\".", "mark-ups were largely at the expense of its franchisees. By comparison, rival chain Dunkin' Donuts generally avoids selling equipment or materials to its franchisees which \"keeps company and franchisee interests aligned\", as well as having a royalty stream based on same-store sales.\nKrispy Kreme has been accused of channel stuffing by franchisees, whose stores reportedly \"received twice their regular shipments in the final weeks of a quarter so that headquarters could make its numbers\". The company was also dogged by questionable transactions and self-dealing accusations over the buybacks of franchisees, including those operated by company insiders. A report released in August", "companies use a type of debit card called a payroll card (tarjeta de nómina), in which they deposit their employee's payrolls, instead of paying them in cash or through checks. This method is preferred in many places because it is a much safer and secure alternative compared to the more traditional forms of payment. Netherlands In the Netherlands using EFTPOS is known as pinnen (pinning), a term derived from the use of a personal identification number (PIN). PINs are also used for ATM transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing", "products were bought, when and for how much (and sometimes by whom when a frequent shopper card can be used).\nHow other shoppers in a store can influence the shoppers in a target market are also of interest. For example, research by Martin (2012) in a retailing context found that male and female shoppers who were accidentally touched from behind by other shoppers left a store earlier than people who had not been touched and evaluated brands more negatively, resulting in the Accidental Interpersonal Touch effect Segmenting shoppers When conducting shopper segmenting, the market is divided into essential and measurable groups,", "can carry away. In many of these markets, vendors selling similar items group together. This has advantages for both buyer and seller, as it provides a wider variety of products than would a single merchant. It also lets shoppers know where to find a particular item. Certain goods are more prone to this such as produce, meat, and certain specialized or craft items. However, exceptions to this occur because a vendor cannot afford space in the area or because he or she is looking for convenience shoppers who are not looking to bargain. Most tianguis sellers, especially produce sellers, arrange", "selected retail outlets such as bookshops. Top ups may be made by credit or debit card, with the latter three mediums accepting cash payment. The card is designed to reduce the number of transactions at ticket offices and the number of paper tickets. Usage is encouraged by offering cheaper fares than the cash ticket option, although there is an initial once-only fee to purchase the card. Monthly and/or multiple trip travel is only available with the AT HOP card.\nThe card can be used only for fare payments and only on Auckland Transport routes; it cannot be used to pay for", "Second-hand shop A second-hand shop is a shop which sells goods that are not new. Temporary venues People will sell used goods right in front of their home in what is called a \"garage sale\". The products would be set up in front of the garage.\nIn the UK, people buy and sell at a car boot sale. Sellers will drive their vehicles to a large field, laden with products both used and new, and sell out of their boot.", "operator's cash machines) gradually increased. However, in 1990 Barclays announced they were introducing an acquirer fee for all non-Barclays cardholders at their cash machines. This would result in \"double charging\", where the customer was charged by both their card issuer and the machine operator. Public reaction against this proposal was very strong and a campaign launched by Nationwide Building Society and the UK tabloid newspapers resulted in issuer fees being removed altogether.\nInterchange fees remained. These are paid by the card issuer to the cash machine operator to cover the cost of the transaction. Their cost is absorbed by the card", "\"Pickers\" only. \nOver the years there have been similar cards offered by other companies in packets of chips like Pokémon, Digimon and Lord Of The Rings, however these have not been marketed under the Tazo brand in Australia and aren't considered an official Tazo product. Storage In most sets a folder to store to the Tazos have been offered either available at supermarkets, news agencies or online. Completing incomplete sets Usually at the end of the promotion, kids and collectors were able to obtain missing Tazos by sending in a list to the company with a cheque.", "the expense in checking the other store (gas, time, effort, etc.), it's simple and quick to search for other values of a card you'd like to buy or sell online. This ensures competition where all prices move quickly towards the market price.\nOne inefficiency that the market does have is that since the ticket is the main unit of in-game currency, the bid/ask spread on cards is effectively fixed at one ticket. This makes buying and selling of cards quickly somewhat inefficient; other effects are that cards which cost less than a ticket must be offered in bulk (or", "Merchant cash advance A merchant cash advance (MCA) was originally structured as a lump sum payment to a business in exchange for an agreed-upon percentage of future credit card and/or debit card sales. The term is now commonly used to describe a variety of small business financing options characterized by short payment terms (generally under 24 months) and small regular payments (typically paid each business day) as opposed to the larger monthly payments and longer payment terms associated with traditional bank loans. The term \"merchant cash advance\" may be used to describe purchases of future credit card sales receivables or", "around the world in many contexts. In stores, UPC barcodes are pre-printed on most items other than fresh produce from a grocery store. This speeds up processing at check-outs and helps track items and also reduces instances of shoplifting involving price tag swapping, although shoplifters can now print their own barcodes. Barcodes that encode a book's ISBN are also widely pre-printed on books, journals and other printed materials. In addition, retail chain membership cards use barcodes to identify customers, allowing for customized marketing and greater understanding of individual consumer shopping patterns. At the point of sale, shoppers can get product", "transaction, so there is no advantage for the customers to choose one transaction mode over another. Shops may add surcharges to the price of the goods or services in accordance with laws allowing them to do so. Banks consider the purchases as having been made at the moment when the card was swiped, regardless of when the purchase settlement was made. Regardless of which transaction type was used, the purchase may result in an overdraft because the money is considered to have left the account at the moment of the card swiping. Financial access Debit cards and secured credit cards", "Debit card cashback History The idea was originally that of British retail chain Tesco in order to reduce the amount of cash banking the stores needed to carry out, the customer service aspect being a side effect of this. Fees, operation and advantages The services are restricted to debit cards where the merchant pays a fixed fee for the transaction, it is not offered on payments by credit card because they would pay a percentage commission on the additional cash amount to their bank or merchant service provider.\nSome vendors enforce a minimum purchase amount or add a fixed fee when", "cash drawers, card swipes, and barcode scanners to meet a merchant's needs.\nRevel allows for a customizable point of sale solution and integrates with a variety of third party providers. Providers for payment include FirstData, Mercury Payments, LevelUp, Adyen and PayPal. Reporting is provided by companies including Avero, CTUIT, and RTI Connect. Revel's gift card providers include Givex, Mercury, PlasticPrinters, Synergy, and Valutec. The loyalty and reward program is provided by companies including LevelUp, Punchh, LoyalTree, and Synergy. Revel systems include Facebook and Twitter integration with online ordering options provided by companies including Zuppler, and Shopify. Revel's Managed Hosting is provided", "brand for EFTPOS. The system was launched in 1987, and in 2010 there were 258,585 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets. All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts.\nPIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per-transaction and monthly fees. Equens, an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it. Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks through who now offer competing contracts.", "sellers, where the ticket price is set freely by the seller. In exchange for a percentage of commission from each party involved, Ticketbis ensures that the transaction is done safely and correctly. History The company forms part of the secondary ticketing market, an active sector in the US since 2000. When the first platform for ticket reselling, Stubhub, was founded in San Francisco by Eric Baker and Jeff Fluhr, its success was so noteworthy that it was bought by e-commerce giant, eBay, for 310 million dollars 7 years later.\nIn 2009, Ander Michelena and Jon Uriarte decided to take the", "shoppers picked up their groceries all wrapped up or boxed accordingly when they paid. Technology The Keedoozle idea was too complicated, which led to its demise. Contemporary technology was unable to handle the concept. Circuits got mixed up easily and shoppers got the wrong merchandise. The conveyor belt system was not capable of handling such a high traffic load, especially at peak times.\nAnother reason given for these failures was that it was too far ahead of the buying habits of the public. One quote from journal Automation in Marketing said that it was just too much for the average mind", "retailers without any association to a national network such as Visa, MasterCard or Amex. The retailer has complete control over the issuing of the cards to their customers and the processing of the payment. By definition, decoupled debit cards are processed via the Federal Reserve ACH System as the mechanism for reaching a consumer’s checking account as a debit to their account for their purchase. The payment side of the product operates like an electronic check, but the product is more than just a payment card.\nWhen the Durbin Amendment became law in October 2011, there was new speculation that", "trading cards that lives exclusively online or as a digital counterpart of a physical card. In 2000, Topps established themselves in the digital space by launching a new brand of sports cards, called etopps. These cards were sold exclusively online through individual IPO's (initial player offering) in which the card is offered for usually a week at the IPO price. The quantity sold depended on how many people offered to buy but was limited to a certain maximum. After a sale, the cards were held in a climate-controlled warehouse unless the buyer requests delivery, and the cards could be traded", "item or good is transferred as normal, but the purchaser uses a debit card instead of money to pay. A debit card contains an electronic record of the purchaser's account with a bank. Using this card, the seller is able to send an electronic signal to the buyer's bank for the amount of the purchase, and that amount of money is simultaneously debited from the customer's account and credited to the account of the seller. This is possible even if the buyer or seller use different financial institutions. Currently, fees to both the buyer and seller for the use of", "Billpocket Overview The company provides a solution that converts a mobile device into a point of sale that allows the vendors to accept payments through credit cards or debit cards. The company is certified by banking institutions and is allied with financial institutions such as American Express, Visa, and mastercard.\nIn 2016, the company launched a bluetooth implemented card reader that operates on any smartphone or tablet with Android or iOS operating systems. Achievements Billpocket was among the 8 startups selected by Coca-Cola for the Latin America Bridge Program, a joint venture by Coca-Cola and their bottling partner Arca Continental.\nAlejandro Guízar", "Trade card A trade card is a square or rectangular card that is small, but bigger than the modern visiting card, and is exchanged in social circles, that a business distributes to clients and potential customers. Trade cards first became popular at the end of the 17th century in Paris, Lyon and London. They functioned as advertising and also as maps, directing the public to the merchants' stores (no formal street address numbering system existed at the time). Definition The term, trade card, refers to a varied group of items made of paper or of card of varying sizes and", "In 2002, ShopRite expanded that sale to twice a year when they introduced the Summer Can-Can Sale, held in July. Price Plus Club and beyond In 1989, ShopRite introduced the Price Plus Club Card, which eventually merged with the Check Cashing Card (for those that use it for that purpose as well); it is free of charge to acquire. Having a Price Plus Card enables shoppers to receive special weekly discounts, listed in circulars mailed with local newspapers. Most sales are chain-wide regardless of owner but sometimes in a particular region, valid for all area ShopRites, however some stores choose", "sold, at which time the cashier enters the amount which the customer wishes to put on the card. This amount is rarely stored on the card but is instead noted in the store's database, which is cross linked to the card ID. Gift cards thus are generally not stored-value cards as used in many public transport systems or library photocopiers, where a simplified system with no network stores the value only on the card itself. To thwart counterfeiting, the data is encrypted. The magnetic strip is also often placed differently than on credit cards, so they cannot be read or" ]

[ "Coming into your house you have two phases which are both 120VAC *relative to neutral* but are of inverse phase so they're 240VAC relative to each other.\n\nA floating neutral is when your neutral connection opens for some reason, a wire might break. When this happens, it means that the electricity can't flow in its normal path.\n\nIf an outlet was powered by a straight pull from the breaker box and has hot come from the breaker, go to the outlet, then neutral runs straight back, then losing neutral means that power stops flowing and nothing exciting happens\n\nIf your outlet is wired so the top and bottom plugs are different circuits then one is going to be Phase A and the other Phase B. This means that when the shared neutral breaks, any devices plugged in will go from seeing 120VAC to seeing 240VAC which will destroy many devices quickly." ]

[ "Floating ground Most electrical circuits have a ground which is electrically connected to the Earth, hence the name \"ground\". The ground is said to be floating when this connection does not exist.\nConductors are also described as having a floating voltage if they are not connected electrically to another non-floating conductor. Without such a connection, voltages and current flows are induced by electromagnetic fields or charge accumulation within the conductor rather than being due to the usual external potential difference of a power source. Applications Electrical equipment may be designed with a floating ground for one of several reasons. One is", "Float voltage Float voltage is the voltage at which a battery is maintained after being fully charged to maintain that capacity by compensating for self-discharge of the battery. The voltage could be held constant for the entire duration of the cell's operation (such as in an automotive battery) or could be held for a particular phase of charging by the charger. The appropriate float voltage varies significantly with the chemistry and construction of the battery, and ambient temperature.\nWith the appropriate voltage for the battery type and with proper temperature compensation, a float charger may be kept connected indefinitely without damaging", "cause a large voltage drop in the neutral conductor. Portable appliances In North American and European practice, small portable equipment connected by a cord set is permitted under certain conditions to have merely two conductors in the attachment plug. A polarized plug can be used to maintain the identity of the neutral conductor into the appliance but neutral is never used as a chassis/case ground. The small cords to lamps, etc., often have one or more molded ridges or embedded strings to identify the neutral conductor, or may be identified by colour. Portable appliances never use the neutral conductor for", "the battery.\nHowever, it should be understood that the concept of a float voltage does not apply equally to all battery chemistries. For instance, lithium ion cells have to be float charged with extra care because if they are float charged at just a little over optimum voltage, which is generally the full output voltage of the lithium cell, the chemical system within the cell will be damaged to some extent. Some lithium ion variants are less tolerant than others, but generally overheating, which shortens cell life is likely, and fire and explosion possible other outcomes. It is important", "restriction of the ceramic substrate was that due to its sensitivity, only lead-free gasoline could be used. Ceramic substrate technology is now used by every automotive manufacturer in the world and is credited with reducing automotive pollutants by more than three billion tons worldwide.", "(gas barrier broken).\nIn an aircraft installation with a floating battery electrical system the regulator voltage is set to charge the battery at constant potential charge (typically 14 or 28 V). If this voltage is set too high it will result in rapid electrolyte loss. A failed charge regulator may allow the charge voltage to rise well above this value, causing a massive overcharge with boiling over of the electrolyte. Applications Sealed Ni–Cd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more cells. Small cells are used for portable electronics and toys (such as solar garden", "silicates or phosphates.\nG05 is a low-silicate, phosphate free formula that includes the benzoate inhibitor. Additives All automotive antifreeze formulations, including the newer organic acid (OAT antifreeze) formulations, are environmentally hazardous because of the blend of additives (around 5%), including lubricants, buffers and corrosion inhibitors. Because the additives in antifreeze are proprietary, the safety data sheets (SDS) provided by the manufacturer list only those compounds which are considered to be significant safety hazards when used in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Common additives include sodium silicate, disodium phosphate, sodium molybdate, sodium borate, denatonium benzoate and dextrin (hydroxyethyl starch).\nDisodium fluorescein dye is", "ship. Carbon neutrality A power unit based on advanced steam technology burning fossil fuel will inevitably emit carbon dioxide, a long-lasting greenhouse gas. However, significant reductions, compared to other combustion technologies, of other pollutants such as CO and NOₓ are achievable by steam technology, which does not involve explosive combustion, without the need for add-ons such as filters etc. or special preparation of fuel.\nIf renewable fuel such as wood or other biofuel is used then the system could be carbon neutral. The use of biofuel remains controversial; however, liquid biofuels are easier to manufacture for steam plant than for diesels", "fraction of a plate. Depolarizers are substances which are intended to remove the hydrogen, and therefore, they help to keep the voltage at a high level. However, this concept is outdated, since if enough depolarizer is present, it will react directly in most cases by getting electrons from the positive plate of the galvanic cell, i.e. there will be no relevant amount of hydrogen gas present. Therefore, the original concept of polarization does not apply to most batteries, and the depolarizer does not react with hydrogen as H₂. Still, the term is used today, however, in most cases, it might", "technology, GFCI. These devices break the electrical circuit if any stray current fails to return to the source connection. If GFCI devices are missing or faulty, it is possible for current to leak into the water. If a system is leaking current into the water, appliances will likely function as normal without any indication of a problem. Correctly functioning GFCI and ELCI devices will instantaneously detect the problem and disconnect the power source. \nSpecial attention is required toward electrical safety devices on boats. These safety devices can fail for various reasons. Since deterioration of insulation on", "reason of \"insufficient data to demonstrate safety.\" The EPA defines \"Unacceptable\" in this context as \"illegal for use as a CFC-12 substitute in motor vehicle air conditioners\". All of the refrigerants which EPA approved for motor vehicle use in place of CFC-12 (as of 28 September 2006) contain no more than 4% total flammable hydrocarbons (butane, isobutane, and/or isopentane). Therefore, it appears unlikely, for safety reasons, that EPA will approve 'Greenfreeze' or similar hydrocarbon-based refrigerants for automotive use. Latest and next steps In September 2007, the German Association of the Automotive Industry (VDA) officially announced its decision", "the float hangs below the top of the carburetor when disassembled, or similar. Floats can be made of different materials, such as sheet brass soldered into a hollow shape, or of plastic; hollow floats can spring small leaks and plastic floats can eventually become porous and lose their flotation; in either case the float will fail to float, fuel level will be too high, and the engine will not run unless the float is replaced. The valve itself becomes worn on its sides by its motion in its \"seat\" and will eventually try to close at an angle, and thus", "insulation. The Esky originally had a steel outside shell, and used cork for insulation. In the 1960s, a single layer of thick polystyrene was often used, but they were easily damaged or destroyed.\nThe lightweight construction makes most eskies float in water, and they have been recommended by safety specialists to be used as an improvised lifebuoy, if more specialised equipment is not available. Numerous people have been saved after using either the whole esky or the esky lid as flotation devices after boating accidents. Generic use In Australia, the 'esky' name has become, or as a legal matter nearly has", "Floating hinge A floating hinge is a hinge that, while able to behave as a normal hinge, enables one of the objects to move away from the other - hence float. In effect the hinge allows for two parallel axes of rotation, one for each object joined by the hinge, and each axis can be moved relative to the position of the other. Uses Floating hinges are used in flatbed scanners designed to scan thick objects such as books. A sheet of paper is placed on the glass, and the cover is lowered over it; the glass, the paper, and", "Dispersant A dispersant or a dispersing agent or a plasticizer or a superplasticizer is either a non-surface active polymer or a surface-active substance added to a suspension, usually a colloid, to improve the separation of particles and to prevent settling or clumping. Dispersants consist normally of one or more surfactants. Automotive Automotive engine oils contain both detergents and dispersants. Metallic-based detergents prevent the accumulation of varnish like deposits on the cylinder walls. They also neutralize acids. Dispersants maintain contaminants in suspension.\nDispersants added to gasoline prevent the buildup of gummy residues. Bio-dispersing Dispersants are used to prevent formation of biofouling", "the free surface effect, they are not a necessary condition. For example, in the cases of both the SS Normandie and MS al-Salam Boccaccio 98, gradual buildup of water from fire-fighting caused capsizing in a single continuous roll. Mitigation To mitigate this hazard, cargo vessels use multiple smaller bulk compartments or liquid tanks, instead of fewer larger ones, and possibly baffles within bulk compartments or liquid tanks to minimize the free surface effects on the craft as a whole. Keeping individual bulk compartments or liquid tanks either relatively empty or full is another way to minimize the effect and its attendant problems.", "produced enough net electricity to illuminate the ship's light bulbs and run its computers and television. Open Open-cycle OTEC uses warm surface water directly to make electricity. The warm seawater is first pumped into a low-pressure container, which causes it to boil. In some schemes, the expanding vapour drives a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The vapour, which has left its salt and other contaminants in the low-pressure container, is pure fresh water. It is condensed into a liquid by exposure to cold temperatures from deep-ocean water. This method produces desalinized fresh water, suitable for drinking water,", "Deck prism A deck prism is a prism inserted into the deck of a ship to provide light down below.\nFor centuries, sailing ships used deck prisms to provide a safe source of natural sunlight to illuminate areas below decks. Before electricity, light below a vessel's deck was provided by candles, oil and kerosene lamps—all dangerous aboard a wooden ship. The deck prism laid flush into the deck, the glass prism refracted and dispersed natural light into the space below from a small deck opening without weakening the planks or becoming a fire hazard.\nIn normal usage, the prism hangs below", "to make certain that the battery cell involved can be safely float charged, and that the charger circuit goes into float charge status when full charge is achieved.", "system. The method of symmetrical components is used to analyze unbalanced systems. Non-linear loads With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due to imbalance between the phases. Gas-discharge lamps and devices that utilize rectifier-capacitor front-end such as switch-mode power supplies, computers, office equipment and such produce third-order harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply phases. Consequently, such harmonic currents add in the neutral in a wye system (or in the grounded (zigzag) transformer in a delta system), which can cause the neutral current to exceed the phase current. Three-phase loads An important class of three-phase load", "in confined spaces. Nitrogen is odorless, colorless, and tasteless and may produce asphyxia without any sensation or prior warning.\nOxygen sensors are sometimes used as a safety precaution when working with liquid nitrogen to alert workers of gas spills into a confined space.\nVessels containing liquid nitrogen can condense oxygen from air. The liquid in such a vessel becomes increasingly enriched in oxygen (boiling point 90 K; −183 °C; −298 °F) as the nitrogen evaporates, and can cause violent oxidation of organic material.\nIngestion of liquid nitrogen can cause severe internal damage, due to freezing of the tissues which come in contact with it and to", "listed appliances often have components that use either 120, or both 120 and 240 volts, there is often some current on the neutral wire. This differs from the protective grounding wire, which only carries current under fault conditions. Using the neutral conductor for grounding the equipment enclosure was considered safe since the devices were permanently wired to the supply and so the neutral was unlikely to be broken without also breaking both supply conductors. Also, the unbalanced current due to lamps and small motors in the appliances was small compared to the rating of the conductors and therefore unlikely to", "Vacuum insulated evaporator Mandatory safety features To avoid explosions or other dangerous events, the VIE must be kept in an open space with no overhead wires (to prevent sparks from igniting surrounding materials, which will combust easier in the prescense of liquid oxygen) and ringed by a fence of non-combustible material. Parking vehicles, open flames, smoking, and other potentially hazardous activities are normally prohibited anywhere near the VIE.", "Carbon-neutral fuel Production Carbon-neutral fuels are synthetic hydrocarbons. They can be produced in chemical reactions between carbon dioxide, which can be captured from power plants or the air, and hydrogen, which is created by the electrolysis of water using renewable energy. The fuel, often referred to as electrofuel, stores the energy that was used in the production of the hydrogen. Coal can also be used to produce the hydrogen, but that would not be a carbon-neutral source. Carbon dioxide can be captured and buried, making fossil fuels carbon-neutral, although not renewable. Carbon capture from exhaust gas can make carbon-neutral fuels", "Floating dock (impounded) A floating dock, floating harbour or wet dock is a dock alongside a tidal waterway which maintains a 'constant' level, despite the changing tides. Operation At the most basic level, a floating dock is isolated from tidal water by a lock gate, at least, although in many dock systems the entrance is more complex than this. London The first wet dock was Howland Great Wet Dock or Greenland Dock, built in London at the end of the 17th century. This was not a commercial dock and had no warehouses, but was intended solely for ship replenishment and", "condition of a dispersion of a solid in a liquid in which each solid particle remains independent and unassociated with adjacent particles (much like emulsifier). A deflocculated suspension shows zero or very low yield value\".\nDeflocculation can be a problem in wastewater treatment plants as it commonly causes sludge settling problems and deterioration of the effluent quality.", "High-voltage shore connection A high-voltage shore connection (HVSC) is connection used to connect ships to the main grid, shutting engine of the ship and reducing carbon emissions. \nThe ship can use electric power for its consumption of energy. They are mostly used in the cruise ships which dock for longer time and hence save energy.", "reduced flammability and reducing shorts via preventing dendrites. Perfluoropolyether In 2014, researchers at University of North Carolina found a way to replace the electrolyte’s flammable organic solvent with nonflammable perfluoropolyether (PFPE). PFPE is usually used as an industrial lubricant, e.g., to prevent marine life from sticking to the ship bottoms. The material exhibited unprecedented high transference numbers and low electrochemical polarization, indicative of a higher cycle durability. Solid-state While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also", "could be used on vehicles in place of gas fuel tanks for a hydrogen-powered car. A current issue regarding hydrogen-powered vehicles is the on-board storage of the fuel. Current storage methods involve cooling and condensing the H₂ gas to a liquid state for storage which causes a loss of potential energy (25–45%) when compared to the energy associated with the gaseous state. Storage using SWNTs would allow one to keep the H2 in its gaseous state, thereby increasing the storage efficiency. This method allows for a volume to energy ratio slightly smaller to that of current gas powered vehicles, allowing", "it had crystallised.\nEspecially as automatic crystallisation ceased to make floating charges an effective form of priority, the next step by businesses was to contract for fixed charges over every available specific asset, and then take a floating charge over the remainder. It attempted to do this as well over book debts that a company would collect and trade with. In two early cases the courts approved this practice. In Siebe Gorman & Co Ltd v Barclays Bank Ltd it was said to be done with a stipulation that the charge was \"fixed\" and the requirement that proceeds be paid into" ]

[ "So the only way that the process of childbirth would change is through evolution of some kind. The only way evolution happens is if the genetically superior reproduce and those who aren’t die. Theoretically if there was a woman who could go through childbirth totally painlessly and she passed that trait on to her child, the child could pass the trait on and on until it made up the mass populous. This would take millions of years and to guarantee that all women experienced it, all who felt pain during childbirth would have to not reproduce. \n\n\nThink about it like this. Apples were high on the tree. All the long necked giraffes reached the apples, lived and eventually reproduced. All the shortnecked giraffes died and that’s why we only today see long necked giraffes.", "Doing so would require humans to get either smaller heads or wider pelvises. Smaller heads would mean less room for a brain, which is of course a huge detriment. The other option sounds good in theory, but makes bipedal walking much harder. Throw in the fact that modern medicine has pretty much removed any evolutionary pressure, because its not like pregnancy complication resulting in death are the norm. That said we did evolve a tiny bit to make childbirth easier. Instead of giving birth to a more grown and able bodied baby, we give birth to a useless significantly less developed baby, because they are smaller.", "> why is delivering children such a painful and uncomfortable process?\n\nHumans have the niche of being extremely intelligent bipedal hairless mammals. The bipedal and hairless part means we can walk and run very efficiently, while maintaining our body temperature via sweating. It is also very important when coupled with our intelligence in that it leaves our arms free to hold tools and to throw them accurately using our very capable vision processing areas of our large brains.\n\nBut the problem we have is our brains need to be big in order for us to be intelligent, and our hips need to be relatively narrow for our bipedal gait. But our brains go inside our skulls which must pass through our hips at birth! So our brains being big works directly against our hips being narrow.\n\nThis has pushed human babies to be born relatively prematurely which is why human infants are so useless at birth. This is OK because with our intelligence we can take care of them, and by being born early their heads are smaller and the skull not yet fused so it can pass through the hips. However it is all still pushed to the limit so the birth can be relatively painful and dangerous.\n\nEvolution doesn't really care about pain though and this state is the most effective given that we cannot have an intelligent redesign of how things work." ]

[ "example, using a birthing ball), hot and cold therapy (for example, using hot compresses and/or cold packs), and receiving one-on-one labor support like that provided by a midwife or doula. However, natural childbirth proponents maintain that pain is a natural and necessary part of the labor process, and should not automatically be regarded as entirely negative. In contrast to the pain of injury and disease, they believe that the pain of childbirth is a sign that the female body is functioning as it is meant to.\nBirth positions favored in natural childbirth—including squatting, hands and knees, or suspension in water—contrast with", "by which uterine contractions occur, but rather renders the woman insensible to the high degree of pain. With this finding, along with the statistical records of safely executed anesthetic administrations, the medical opposition to obstetric analgesia for pain annulment was suppressed.\nThe conflicting clinical interpretation of obstetric labor as natural pain, as opposed to discomfort induced by an abnormal or diseased condition, led obstetric practitioners and midwives alike to endorse laissez-faire treatment. Natural, animalistic functions of child rearing were determined thereafter not to require the assistance of obstetricians or subsequent labor analgesia. Following an era of natural philosophy, physicians evoked the", "of her cervix – primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a cesarean section.\nDuring the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding. Studies show that skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn immediately after birth is", "career, or give them an uncertain playing future. Pregnancy Damage can occur to the ligaments surrounding and bridging the pubic joint (symphysis) as a result of the hormone relaxin, which is secreted around the time of birth to soften the pelvic ligaments for labor. At this time repetitive stress or falling, tripping, and slipping can injure ligaments more easily. The hormone usually disappears after childbirth and the ligaments become strong again. In some women the weakness persists, and activities such as carrying their baby or stepping up even a small step can cause a slight but continuous separation or shearing", "labor, the woman is prone on the hands and knees. This allows the TBA to put pressure on the woman's rectum with her thumb while the woman pushes. In addition, it results in easier childbirth and prevents perineal tearing. Mothers who birth alone also like it because it is easy and does not require assistance from others. Placental delivery The most commonly used instruments for cord cutting include a sickle, knife, bamboo stick, and razor. These instruments are rarely washed thoroughly before and after being implemented. If placental delivery is not occurring, some methods used to remove the placenta include", "in the United States and United Kingdom began to demand drugs for pain relief during childbirth.\nThe term \"natural childbirth\" was coined by obstetrician Grantly Dick-Read upon publication of his book Natural Childbirth in 1933. In the book, Dick-Read defined the term as the absence of any intervention that would otherwise disturb the sequence of labor. The book argued that because of \"civilized\" British women fear birth the birthrate was dropping, and if women were not to fear birth, birthing would be easier since fear creates tension which, in turn, causes pain. In 1942, Dick-Read published Revelation of Childbirth (which was", "It also severely reduces bladder capacity, and increases pressure on the pelvic floor and the rectum.\nIt is also during the third trimester that maternal activity and sleep positions may affect fetal development due to restricted blood flow. For instance, the enlarged uterus may impede blood flow by compressing the vena cava when lying flat, which is relieved by lying on the left side. Childbirth Childbirth, referred to as labor and delivery in the medical field, is the process whereby an infant is born.\nA woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes", "organs. This had some relevance to some conditions as menopause, uterine and cervical problems, and childbirth could leave the mother in need of extensive surgery to repair tissue. But, there was also a large blame of the uterus for completely unrelated conditions. This led to many social consequences of the nineteenth century.", "Abuse during childbirth Abuse during childbirth (or obstetric violence) is the neglect, physical abuse and lack of respect during childbirth. This treatment is regarded as a violation of the woman's rights. It also has the effect of preventing women from seeking pre-natal care and using other health care services. Abuse during childbirth is one form of violence against women.\nInvestigations into the prevalence of these practices have been conducted by the World Health Organization. Their studies demonstrate that this is a global problem. Women experience disrespectful, abusive or neglectful treatment during their childbirth when the birth occurs in medical and health", "their physicians just once after delivery, six weeks after giving birth. Due to this long gap during the postpartum period, many health problems remain unchecked, which can result in maternal death. Just as women, especially women of color, have difficulty with access to prenatal care, the same is true for accessibility to postpartum care. Also, postpartum depression can also lead to untimely deaths for both mother and child. \nMaternal-fetal medicine does not require labor-delivery training in order to practice independently. The lack of experience can make certain doctors more likely to make mistakes or not pay close attention to certain", "a fetus is unable to move sufficiently in the womb. Mothers of children with the disorder often report that their baby was abnormally still during the pregnancy. The lack of movement in utero (also known as fetal akinesia) allows extra connective tissue to form around the joints and, therefore, the joints become fixed. This extra connective tissue replaces muscle tissue, leading to weakness and giving a wasting appearance to the muscles. Additionally, due to the lack of fetal movement, the tendons that connect the muscles to bone are not able to stretch to their normal length and this contributes to", "thought to complicate deliveries and women are discouraged by ob-gyns from taking them during childbirth. Therefore, Japanese births tend to be without pain medication. Furthermore, there is a more positive image of a women capable of natural birth.\nWithout pain medication, labor displays the woman's strength and responsibility. Some believe that not experiencing pain during birth hinders bonding between mother and baby.\nIf a Japanese woman would like an epidural during labor, she must give birth at one of the few private and expensive hospitals that provide them. Pursuing this option is still relatively rare in Japan today.\nMany midwives practice perineal massage", "postnatal care. All care after childbirth recovery is typically excluded, which includes pre-menopause and aging into old age. During childbirth, women typically die from severe bleeding, infections, high blood pressure during pregnancy, delivery complications, or an unsafe abortion. Other reasons can be regional such as complications related to diseases such as malaria and AIDS during pregnancy. The younger the women is when she gives birth, the more at risk her and her baby is for complications and possibly mortality.\nThere is a significant relationship between the quality of maternal services made\navailable and the greater financial standings of a country.", "no obvious reason after all other causes (such as hunger or pain) are ruled out, the crying may signify a beneficial stress-release mechanism, although not all sources agree with this. The \"crying-in-arms\" approach is a way to comfort these infants. Another way of comforting and calming the baby is to mimic the familiarity of the mother’s womb. Consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with a decline in frequency and duration of crying by the end of the first year, and individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. There", "is more uncomfortable due to a lack of privacy, the possibility of being attended by male staff, restrictions on who can accompany a woman in a delivery setting, and the authority of the hospital staff. There is also little distraction and the element of staying in bed that changes the dynamic of labor and the associated discomfort.\nPain management with analgesics varies across the country. Because temporary or chronic lack of resources may inhibit a reliable supply of pain medications in a health facility setting, analgesics are not routinely used during labor. Attendants and Support The Bariba of the north labor", "morbidity and frustration of women after delivery. In many women the childbirth trauma is manifested in advanced age when the compensatory mechanisms of the pelvic floor become weakened making the problem more serious among the aged population.\nThe anogenital distance is a measure of the distance between the midpoint of the anus and the underside of the scrotum or the vagina. Studies show that the human perineum is twice as long in males as in females. Measuring the anogenital distance in neonatal humans has been suggested as a noninvasive method to determine male feminisation and thereby predict neonatal and adult reproductive", "reduced in women offered active management of the third stage of labour, however there may be adverse effects and more research is necessary.\nThe habit is to cut the cord immediately after birth, but it is theorised that there is no medical reason to do this; on the contrary, it is theorized that not cutting the cord helps the baby in its adaptation to extrauterine life, especially in preterm infants. Microbiome The placenta is traditionally thought to be sterile, but recent research suggests that a resident, non-pathogenic, and diverse population of microorganisms may be present in healthy tissue. However, whether these", "Childbirth Signs and symptoms The most prominent sign of labour is strong repetitive uterine contractions. The distress levels reported by labouring women vary widely. They appear to be influenced by fear and anxiety levels, experience with prior childbirth, cultural ideas of childbirth and pain, mobility during labour, and the support received during labour. Personal expectations, the amount of support from caregivers, quality of the caregiver-patient relationship, and involvement in decision-making are more important in women's overall satisfaction with the experience of childbirth than are other factors such as age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, preparation, physical environment, pain, immobility, or medical interventions.", "baby's development. For example, a woman should avoid lying flat on her back after the fourth month of pregnancy, because the weight of the growing uterus puts pressure on major blood vessels.\" David Port states, \"Beginning early in the second trimester, doctors tend to discourage pregnant women from supine exercise. And the missionary position is exactly that kind of exercise, at least if the activity lasts more than a few fleeting moments.\"\nThe deep penetration and large hip thrusts of the missionary position can cause the man to reach orgasm quickly compared to other positions, which can be problematic if the", "the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend various levels of personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.\nCompared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting 24 hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the death of the mother, the child or both. This is because of both the relatively large fetal head circumference and the mother's relatively narrow pelvis. The chances", "year individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. She also notes: consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with decline in frequency and duration of infant crying. The sleep position is also important to prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome). Controversies in sleep training A key debate in sleep training revolves around getting the right balance between parental soothing and teaching the baby to self-soothe. Parents who practice attachment parenting think the parent should attend to the baby whenever he or she cries, and limit tears as much as", "the lithotomy position (woman in hospital bed on her back with legs in stirrups), which has consistently been shown to slow and complicate labor.\nMethods to reduce tearing during natural childbirth (instead of an episiotomy) include managing the perineum with counter-pressure, hot compresses, and pushing the baby out slowly. Preparation Some women take birth education classes such as Lamaze or the Bradley Method to prepare for a natural childbirth. Several books are also available with information to help women prepare. A midwife or doula may include preparation for a natural birth as part of the prenatal care services. However, a ", "essential for displaying maternal behaviors, but in mothers, the levels of glucocorticoids are elevated as to initiate lactation. Postpartum changes Changes in estrogen, oxytocin and prolactin in the early postpartum period cause changes in the structures of the maternal brain. In human mothers The amygadala, prefrontal cortex and hypothalamus begin to change during pregnancy due to the high levels of stress experienced by the mother during this time.\nIn human mothers there was a correlation between increased gray matter volume in the substantia nigra and positive emotional feelings towards the infant.\nOther changes such as menstrual cycle, hydration, weight and nutrition may", "women often delay assistance, which sometimes costs their life or the life of the baby. Oftentimes one of these main issues is obstructed labor. When women realize labor is not progressing normally they first seek female friends or traditional birth attendants. This can result in a further delay in seeking medical attention from someone who is trained to handle such complications.\nA study conducted in 2001 found that one common remedy used for obstructed labor in home births was herbs. As high as 80% of childbirths used herbs. Ugandan culture also sees the birthing process as a woman's affair and therefore", "Birth injury Difficult labor (dystocia) Difficult labor, also known as dystocia or obstructed labor, occurs when the child cannot easily pass through the birth canal. This can result in fetal distress or physical trauma to the child, especially broken clavicles and damage to the brachial plexus nerves. It can also deprive the child of oxygen as the umbilical cord is pinched, potentially causing brain damage or death.\nDifficult labor may occur because the baby is abnormally large (macrosomia), because the mother’s pelvis or birth canal is small or deformed, or because the baby is in an abnormal presentation for the birth", "the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life. Alternatives to intervention Instead of medical interventions, a variety of non-invasive methods are employed during natural childbirth to ease the mother's pain. Many of these techniques stress the importance of \"a mind-body connection,\" which the techno-medical model of birth does not. These techniques include hydrotherapy, massage, relaxation therapy, hypnosis, breathing exercises, acupressure for labor, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), vocalization, visualization, mindfulness and water birth. Other approaches include movement, walking, and different positions (for", "provide pelvic thrust. Spasticity and pain also create barriers to sexual activity; these changes may require couples to use new positions, such as seated in a wheelchair. A warm bath can be taken prior to sex, and massage and stretching can be incorporated into foreplay to ease spasticity.\nAnother consideration is loss of sensation, which puts people at risk for wounds such as pressure sores and injuries that could become worse before being noticed. Friction from sexual activity may damage the skin, so it is necessary after sex to inspect areas that could have been hurt, particularly the buttocks and genital", "its characteristics.\nT. Berry Brazelton has suggested that overstimulation may be a contributing factor to infant crying and that periods of active crying might serve the purpose of discharging overstimulation and helping the baby’s nervous system regain homeostasis.\nSheila Kitzinger found a correlation between the mother's prenatal stress level and later amount of crying by the infant. She also found a correlation between birth trauma and crying. Mothers who had experienced obstetrical interventions or who were made to feel powerless during birth had babies who cried more than other babies. Rather than try one remedy after another to stop this crying, she", "unwilling to accept the fact that there are different variations of sex. Sterling strongly believes that doctors are unethical in that they do not allow variations of sex and immediately assign a sex within a few hours of birth because there is not a way of telling whether the infant will be content with their assigned gender. Furthermore, “whatever treatment they choose…physicians… decide how to manage intersexuality act out of…deeply held beliefs about male and female sexuality [and] gender roles.” Sterling argues that the consequence of performing sexual reassignment surgery on intersex infants “[develops] a language that reinforces the", "Descriptions Pain in contractions has been described as feeling similar to very strong menstrual cramps. Women are often encouraged to refrain from screaming. However, moaning and grunting may be encouraged to help lessen pain. Crowning may be experienced as an intense stretching and burning. Even women who show little reaction to labour pains, in comparison to other women, show a substantially severe reaction to crowning.\nBack labour is a term for specific pain occurring in the lower back, just above the tailbone, during childbirth. Psychological During the later stages of gestation there is an increase in abundance of oxytocin, a hormone" ]

[ "The amount of American hate / bashing on Reddit is amazing.", "Don't act like we Americans don't notice this shit, too.", "They make it into a drama type show to get more people interested. Most Americans wouldn't watch it if it was like the British version because it's not \"interesting\" enough for them.", "Oh sorry, I thought this was r/ELI5, not /r/thinlyveiledwhiningmasqueradingasaquestion.", "This issue here is money. \n\nIn America, there is a big difference between Network television and Cable television:\n\n*Network television is broadcast over the airwaves, and can be picked up for free by any television with an antenna. Therefore, the only way that the large television networks (ABC, NBC, FOX, CBS) make money is through commercials. \n \n*Cable television is only available by subscription and people have to pay to view the channel's content.\n\nSince Networks are entirely dependent on commercials for revenue and they can charge more for commercials based on their ratings, Networks are obsessed with attracting the largest possible audience. There is a certain amount of moron viewers who want (need?) to be told what to think/feel. It's not necessarily that they are not able to do it on their own, but it is more enjoyable for them if they do not have to think or analyze what is happening. Even if this is 1% of the audience, the network cannot afford to leave them behind. Therefore, Network show strive to be as attractive and easily digested as possible to appeal to the least common denominator. \n\n\nThere are plenty of American tv shows that do not use cheezy dramatic cues/devices (Breaking Bad, the Sopranos, The Walking Dead, etc.) These shows are wildly popular in America, but are almost always on premium cable channels. Much like cable television in America, the BBC receives some (most?) of its funding independent from commercials. Since these content providers do not have to play down to the idiots of the population and are able to retain more artistic integrity as their revenue stream is more stable.\n\ntl;dr - Networks in America have to make content as easy to understand as possible to attract as many viewers as possible, including morons.", "Most American TV shows aren't like that though. Just silly reality shows are. I mean really, America has produced by far the most good TV of any country.", "American living in Switzerland here and I noticed many of the German/Swiss/Austrian/French/Italian channels have American TV Shows, trashy reality shows aside I think most Europeans are fans of popular TV shows. Most of what I watch here is dubbed with the respective countries language." ]

[ "in more recent years include The Apprentice and Deal or No Deal. Popular American television shows that are currently popular in the United Kingdom include The Big Bang Theory, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation series, Family Guy, Friends, Modern Family, Scrubs, The Simpsons, and South Park.\nThe BBC airs two networks in the United States, BBC America and BBC World News. The American network PBS collaborates with the BBC and rebroadcasts British television shows in the United States such as Doctor Who, Keeping Up Appearances, Masterpiece Theatre, Monty Python's Flying Circus, Nova. The BBC also frequently collaborates with American network HBO, showing", "the U.S. doubled between 1990 and 2000. Examples ABC's Battlestar Galactica: Saga of a Star World premiered to an audience of over 60 million people on September 17, 1978.\nPossibly the most-watched television movie of all time was ABC's The Day After, which premiered on November 20, 1983, to an estimated audience of 100 million people. The film depicted America after a nuclear war with the Soviet Union, and was the subject of much controversy and discussion at the time of its release due to its graphic nature and subject matter.\nAnother popular and critically acclaimed television movie was 1971's Duel, written", "America in Primetime Release and reception America in Primetime was met with favourable reviews. David Bianculli, a regular contributor to the NPR radio talk show Fresh Air, lauded the series, and called it \"the smartest TV show about television I've seen in about 20 years.\" In the Houston Chronicle, television writer David Wiegend praised the fact that viewers can not only learn about the history of television, but about the changes in American culture as well.\nEpisodes of America in Primetime originally aired in the United States on four consecutive Sundays in late 2011, on PBS. The episodes were also made", "series was transmitted in Latin America, Europe, Middle East and Asia. The series premiered on June 27, 2007 and its pilot episode had approximately 5.9 million viewers. The series had three successful seasons, one of the most successful series channel. We are you and I ended on November 13, 2008 and its final episode had an audience of about 9.8 million, the largest audience received by any final episode of a series of Boomerang Latin America.\nThe program was fully recorded in the city of Caracas and surrounding areas. Places like Sheryl house have been recreated and instead of recording in", "series was ranked by Mundo Estranho the Best TV Series of All Time. A 2015 Hollywood Reporter survey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people named Friends as their #1 favorite show. United States After the produced pilot lived up to NBC's hopes, the series premiered with the name Friends on September 22, 1994, in the coveted Thursday 8:30 p.m. time slot. The pilot aired between Mad About You and Seinfeld, and was watched by almost 22 million American viewers. The series was a huge success throughout its run and was a staple of NBC's Thursday night line-up, dubbed by", "66 countries. With an audience of over 81.8 million worldwide, it was the most watched television show on the globe and far surpassed the viewership figures of the leading TV dramas the previous two years (CSI and CSI: Miami). The following year, it placed second in the world after CSI.\nHouse episodes premiered on Fox in the United States and Global in Canada, which have identical schedules. The show was the third-most popular on Canadian television in 2008. That same year, House was the top-rated television program in Germany, the number 2 show in Italy, and number 3 in the Czech", "Best in TV: The Greatest TV Shows of Our Time Best in TV: The Greatest TV Shows of Our Time is a television countdown special that aired on September 18, 2012 as a special edition of 20/20 hosted by Barbara Walters. The special presented the results of nine categories from a poll conducted by ABC News and People magazine to determine what America thought were the best television shows of all time.", "recent American mini-series in the United Kingdom such as Band of Brothers, The Gathering Storm, John Adams, and Rome. Likewise, the American network Discovery Channel has partnered with the BBC by televising recent British mini-series in the United States such as Planet Earth and The Blue Planet, the latter popularly known as The Blue Planet: Seas of Life in the American format. The United States' public affairs channel C-SPAN, broadcasts Prime Minister's Questions every Sunday.\nOn some British digital television platforms, it is also possible to watch American television channels that are tailored for British audiences such as CNBC Europe, CNN", "Best Shows of All Time, on May 13, 2002.\nThe 50 entries, chosen and ranked by the editors of TV Guide, consist of regularly scheduled series spanning more than half a century of television. TV movies, miniseries and specials were not eligible.\nThe special aired at 10:00 pm and was viewed by 8.9 million people, giving it a 6 rating and a 10 share. Considering the cover story for this special issue of TV Guide, it was the only one of the six to be presented on television. Summary The earliest aired show appearing on the list is The Ed Sullivan Show,", "Universal Pictures, Walt Disney Pictures and Columbia Pictures) and movies of Slovenian and former Yugoslavian production. Series POP TV airs top series of American and European production, mainly focusing on Hollywood produced series.\nHouse, Desperate Housewives, Dexter, Lost, Sex and the City, Dirty Sexy Money, Monk, CSI, CSI: Miami, CSI: New York, ER, Friends, Kommisar Rex, Law and Order: Special Victims Unit, Grey's Anatomy, Ally McBeal, Fringe, Ugly Betty, Burn Notice, The Mentalist, Breaking Bad, House of Cards, Downton Abbey, Castle, Bones, and The Blacklist are some hit series that have aired on the channel.\nThe Oprah Winfrey Show, Rachael Ray, The", "has been both positive and negative depending upon the skill of the cast and writers, is the American media culture of 20+ episode seasons as opposed to the British which usually has fewer than 10 episodes per series. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, many British comedy series are aired on the ABC, which is the Australian equivalent of the BBC. British shows are also sometimes shown on the three commercial television networks in Australia; in particular Network Seven screened many popular UK sitcoms during the 1970s. In New Zealand, state-run Television New Zealand also broadcast many popular British series.", "of the 1990s imports included DuckTales, Batman, Family Ties, The Disney Hour, Katts and Dog, Nellie the Elephant and The Pink Panther Show. Daytime TV consisted of repeats and daytime soaps such as Little House on the Prairie, The New Adventures of Black Beauty, CHiPs, Delia Smith's Cookery Course, Emmerdale, Knots Landing, A Country Practice, Perry Mason, Carson's Law, The Love Boat, G. P., The Sullivans, Santa Barbara, Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased), Take the High Road, Forever Green and Highway to Heaven. American prime time show imported at the time included Star Trek: The Next Generation, Mancuso, F.B.I., The Cosby", "including BBC America and Comedy Central. Are You Being Served?, Keeping up Appearances and As Time Goes By became sleeper hits when they aired on the Public Broadcasting Service, while Absolutely Fabulous enjoyed a significant following when it aired on Comedy Central and The Office won a Golden Globe award in 2004 for \"Best Television Series—Musical or Comedy\", beating popular American favourites such as HBO's Sex and the City and NBC's Will & Grace. Most PBS stations affectionately refer to British sitcoms as \"Britcoms\".\nSeveral British sitcoms have been successfully remade for the American market. Notable examples include Steptoe and Son", "series ranked No. 38 on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time (becoming the only HBO comedy series to make the list) and was also included in Time's list of the \"100 Best TV Shows of All Time\". The Larry Sanders Show was also ranked by various critics and fans as one of the best TV comedies of the 1990s.\nThe original programs that HBO has developed since the early 1990s have earned the channel numerous nominations and wins at the Emmy and Golden Globe Awards. Two reasons for what is perceived as the higher quality of these shows", "The network's programming consists mainly of hit American series (such as The Amazing Race, The Big Bang Theory, Blue Bloods, Castle, CSI, Dancing with the Stars, Grey's Anatomy, The Mentalist, The Michael J. Fox Show, Unforgettable and The X Factor), but it has also had success with Canadian-made shows such as Due South, Power Play, Degrassi: The Next Generation, Corner Gas, Instant Star, The Eleventh Hour, Flashpoint, The Listener, Canadian Idol and MasterChef Canada. CTV also regularly produces and airs Canadian-made television movies, often based on stories from Canadian news or Canadian history, under the banners CTV Signature", "networks including NBC, Fox, Comcast, CW, Cox Communications, DirecTV, Dish Network and Time Warner Cable that reaches over 90 million households in the United States and maintained its broadcast affiliates in 54 countries around the world. To date, the popular teen series has been renewed and running its seventh season.", "earliest. Starting with the 2005–2006 season, their list was based on their traffic light system as well as Nielsen Media Research ratings of viewership among children ages 2–17 of certain shows. Popular shows that have frequently been praised as the most family-friendly programs on television include George Lopez, 7th Heaven, Touched by an Angel, Home Improvement, Family Matters, Sabrina the Teenage Witch, Boy Meets World, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, American Idol, Dancing with the Stars, NBC Sunday Night Football, Deal or No Deal, and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire. Popular shows frequently named \"Worst of the Season\"", "North America (TV series) Cast The series is narrated by Tom Selleck. Production The footage in North America was taken from environments throughout the continent, mainly from Canada, the United States, and Central America. Filming took three years. Critical reception North America received a 71 out of 100 from Metacritic, indicating generally positive reviews.\nRobert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times stated that the special effects were \"corny\" at times; however, he commended the filming, stating that the documentary was \"gorgeous from first to last.\"\nAfter viewing the first episode, Television Blend's Kelly West stated \"North America dazzle[s] us with beautiful landscape", "26 countries. Two series were produced in the US for The National Network (now Paramount Network) and a version was also shown on Nickelodeon. Series were also produced in many European countries. Although the series had various directors and producers, all were produced in the UK by Mentorn and executive produced by Tom Gutteridge and Steve Carsey. The initial series were staged in various film studios around London but the stage and pit area became too large to fit into any of the conventional studios, so filming was later moved to an aircraft hangar at RAF Newton.\nViewing figures dropped significantly", "the series in the United States (and Americanized it by editing content and saying that some of the people were from the United States instead of parts of the United Kingdom), airing its first episode on 13 July.\nIt also aired in Brazil in 2005 on the cable channel Multishow. It was broadcast with subtitles with no editing whatsoever.\nAfter six episodes, however, pressure from Asian American groups led Fox to drop the show. In early 2004, the show found a new American home on Comedy Central. Re-runs moved once again on 6 March 2006 to G4 Videogame TV as part of", "country ever to reach first place in the seasonal ratings.\nIdol remains the most recent U.S. television program to date to lead the national prime time ratings and attract at least 30 million viewers for at least two television seasons. It became as the most watched program on U.S. television by seasonal average viewership in the 2000s decade, as well as the most recent program scheduled to have successfully established a graveyard slot on U.S. television since the end of NBC's Friends in 2004 and the subsequent decline of the network's previously dominant \"Must See TV\" Thursday timeblock. By 2005, reality", "shows in the country being rebroadcast from, or made with the express intent of export to, the United States. There have been exceptions to this (see, for instance, the long-running Definition). Unlike reality television franchises, international game show franchises generally only see Canadian adaptations in a series of specials, based heavily on the American versions but usually with a Canadian host to allow for Canadian content credits (one of those exceptions was Le Banquier, a Quebec French-language version of Deal or No Deal which aired on TVA from 2008 to 2015). The smaller markets and lower revenue opportunities for Canadian", "All American is aired as a web-only series on TVNZ OnDemand. It released the same episode as the US at 8pm Thursdays (NZDT), 5 hours after it is aired in the US, during season one. Season two will be released on the same day as the US at 7pm Tuesdays (NZDT), 4 hours after it is aired in the USA.", "audience ever for a new series following the Super Bowl since the advent of people meters in 1987, the largest audience ever to watch the premiere episode of a reality series, the most watched new series premiere overall on television since Dolly on September 27, 1987 (39.47 million), and the third largest post-Super Bowl audience behind Friends Special on January 28, 1996, and Survivor: The Australian Outback on January 28, 2001. The premiere episode of Undercover Boss remains both as the highest rated and most watched single episode of the 2010s on U.S. television. Broadcast In its home country (the United", "(The Book), they wrote that this series or its original Japanese counterpart would have made their list of the top 100 greatest shows of all time had they not excluded foreign television from the list, citing their lack of sufficient knowledge for television outside the United States. Home video releases DVDs of the three television seasons were released in 2002 by Voyager Entertainment, entitled The Quest for Iscandar, The Comet Empire and The Bolar Wars. Each season is contained on six discs, and each disc included bonus footage or material. The discs are available individually or as collections, in three", "in the United States are currently held by NBCUniversal, which typically airs the films on USA Network and Syfy. The film series has accrued nearly 1.3 billion viewings since its television debut—the highest-watched franchise in television broadcast history. Critical response All the films have been a success financially and critically, making the franchise one of the major Hollywood \"tent-poles\" akin to James Bond, Star Wars, Indiana Jones and Pirates of the Caribbean. The series is noted by audiences for growing visually darker and more mature as each film was released. However, opinions of the films generally divide book fans, with", "audiences on air and online. Bill Gorman of TVByTheNumbers, an American television website, commented on the article by saying \"Not sure if this is a glimpse of things to come for the US version of Big Brother or not.\"\nExecutives from Endemol, the production company for Big Brother worldwide, defended the format which is transmitted in 41 territories and noted the season premiere of the 11th season in America won its timeslot with year-to-year growth. Other comparisons noted was the finale of ninth season of Italy's Grande Fratello pulled 7.9 million viewers with a 36% audience share and how in Argentina", "ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox, as well as others including Comedy Central, Disney Channel, HBO, PBS, and the History Channel. TV shows available include current programming such as Flight of the Conchords, 24, Desperate Housewives, and Family Guy, as well as new shows such as Important Things with Demetri Martin and classic shows including The Addams Family, I Dream of Jeannie, and Flipper.", "States on 1 January 2011. Nickelodeon included House of Anubis in its 10 March 2011 press release for its annual Upfront presentation to advertisers and media.\nThe series is the first original series produced for the flagship U.S. Nickelodeon channel to be produced outside of North America. The series is structured in a different manner from other live-action television series in that each episode consists of two eleven-minute segments, a format commonly used in half-hour animated series (although the events of each subsequent segment pick up from the events of the previous segment); and the series' episodes are formatted to be", "the 2009–10 season, but earned an average of $272,694 and $213,617 respectively, compared to $150,708 for NCIS. UK, Ireland and Australia usage In the United Kingdom and other countries, these sets of episodes are referred to as a \"series\". In Australia, the broadcasting may be different from North American usage; however, the terms series and season are both used and are the same. For example, Battlestar Galactica has an original series as well as a remake, both are considered a different series each with their own number of individual seasons.\nAustralian television does not follow \"seasons\" in the way that US television" ]

[ "It's basically painting a transparent picture on top of the black-and-white, and the B/W image provides much of the shading. \n\nIn the days before photoshop, you had actual transparent inks with limited tints to choose from, and that's why old hand-colorized photos often look more cartoony.\n\nNow, you can pick from a vast range of colors until it more or less matches what you would expect: a white person with fair hair will probably have skin in X color range, unpainted wood furniture is going to be a shade of brown, jeans are almost certainly blue, a military uniform from that era is going to be this particular color, etc. \n\nPlus if you have experience with B/W photography you might have a sense for how some colors will translate to film; they often have a particular range of grey due to the characteristics of a given film.\n\nSo accurate colorizing mostly comes down to digital painting skill and having a sense for how things would look.", "What makes you think they do an accurate job?", "I'd also like to know why every *single* person has blue eyes when they DO colorize it.", "They just sort of guess what the color would have been and then add that in. In some cases they've seen the subject of the photo in real life or have historical evidence, so they know exactly which colors to make it.", "Most black and white photography is somewhat gray scaled. With enough experience, once can predict the colors based on the pattern and gray scale, relative to its surroundings and application of every day life. You know certain flowers bloom a certain color,so that could be a starting point. And there are a few different ways it happens, but that was the way my grandfather explained how they did it to all his old photographs and movies.", "It depends on the type of photograph and who's asking them to do it (like if a family member asks, they can provide worlds of info.) If you get a random photo of, lets say, a woman in the 1940s and shes modestly dressed in a hat and a dress, chances are the dress would be a shade of red/green/blue/yellow if there's a print on the dress and its flowers, well, green or yellow would be the way to go. Shoes, 90% of the time will be black, if its a light colored shoe, its going to be a tan or a white. lets also say shes holding a purse, generally a brownish or black if its dark grey or a white/tan if its light grey. Now depending on the photograph you will automatically gain an idea of what colors *would* be there, not really the colors that *are* there.\n\nIf you want a better explanation, go to r/colorizedhistory. The folks there, especially u/zuzahin do insane amounts of research into the time periods of the photographs they color. Just ask, they will be happy to tell you why they chose a particular color for a particular item. For instance, I did one of Audie Murphy a while back - _URL_0_ - Every medal is the actual color of the ones he earned, the uniform is the actual color of the uniforms of the day, the buttons as well. Looking at older photographs of him, eyecolor and general skintone can be found. (folks skin tends to get a muddier hue as they get older) so I compensated for his youth. However, knowing his story, and his torment, I colorized it to represent more of what he was going through internally. This is where artistic licence, for me, takes over... unless someone is paying you to do a colorization.\n\nEdited for der grammuh" ]

[ "photographs such as a background shot (rocks and a waterfall) one or more human figures, and more often than not a product shot (a cigarette pack) to produce a \"strip in\". Using the same dyes for photographically printing the images and for retouching meant that colour matching by eye would not show up differently when rephotographed.", "the photograph to get better details in highlights and shadows. Toning changes the color of the photograph. Black and white photographs can be changed to sepia, red, orange and even blue. Toning can be used to help make the photograph last long. Cropping is used to decide what is left out in the final print. Dodging Dodging is a very important part of the manipulation process. Dodging holds back exposure in order to make it light. Dodging can be used by hand or specific tools such as black cardboard or opaque materials so that shadows can lighten the image.", "These early colorings were primarily grey/green, but as his skill and expertise continued, myriad colors and shades were added.\nIn hand-coloring, the entire photographic image can be seen through a translucent color film, with no image details obscured by the color medium. But in hand-painting, opaque colors are applied to black and white photographs, to cover or alter portions of the photographic image. The same paint, sometimes in a deeper color, was also used to paint the color into the photograph. Photography technique and style Sawyer's first photographs were originally printed from glass negatives on a platinum paper (\"platinotypes\"). After World", "color motion picture film, information about the color of the light at each image point is also captured. This is done by analyzing the visible spectrum of color into several regions (normally three, commonly referred to by their dominant colors: red, green and blue) and recording each region separately.\nCurrent color films do this with three layers of differently color-sensitive photographic emulsion coated on one strip of film base. Early processes used color filters to photograph the color components as completely separate images (e.g., three-strip Technicolor) or adjacent microscopic image fragments (e.g., Dufaycolor) in a one-layer black-and-white emulsion.\nEach photographed color component,", "human eye interprets the patterned areas as if they were smooth tones. At a microscopic level, developed black-and-white photographic film also consists of only two colors, and not an infinite range of continuous tones. For details, see Film grain.\nJust as color photography evolved with the addition of filters and film layers, color printing is made possible by repeating the halftone process for each subtractive color – most commonly using what is called the \"CMYK color model\". The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create another optical effect, full-color imagery. History While there were earlier mechanical", "images can be reformatted as wireframe or ribbon, colour or greyscale, stereo or mono using the Output Options menu. The background colour of the images can also be toggled from black to white.", "sub-pixels which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the RGB color model. Subtractive color The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for additive color synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red; magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue.", "an important criterion while choosing subjects to photograph, or for selecting from previously photographed images. Photographers would thus not only choose colorful scenes, but put colorfully costumed people in them.\nThe method is especially popular in brightening up photographs with drab or earth-toned backgrounds, or to focus attention on a subject. Hence, it is popular mainly in landscape photography, but has use in portrait photography as well, for example in National Geographic photographs of the Maasai people of Africa, who traditionally wear a red robe.\nThis method grew increasingly popular as color photography technology improved, and was spurred on by color film", "photograph, i.e. a black-and-white photographic print to which color has been added by hand. Other names are hand-painted photograph and hand-tinted photograph.", "filming blonde people against a blue or greenscreen as their translucent hair will absorb the backing screen color. Such ‘colorspill’ can be removed and replaced with several options to achieve a more realistic result.\nAnother problem is chromakeying images that were created on film stock is that some film stocks have a distinct ‘film grain’ to them. A large amount of film grain will often cause rough edges around the foreground object. Rough edges can be minimized to achieve a smoother transition between the edges of the ‘chroma keyed’ foreground object and the user selected background image. History The Primatte algorithm", "less stimulated, he drew an analogy to black-and-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies (\"slides\") made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene.\nThe first color photograph made according to Maxwell's prescription, a set of three monochrome \"color separations\", was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown", "be hand tinted. Colour photography was originally rare and expensive and again often containing inaccurate hues. Color photography became more common from the mid-20th century.\nHowever, black-and-white photography has continued to be a popular medium for art photography, as shown in the picture by the well-known photographer Ansel Adams. This can take the form of black-and-white film or digital conversion to grayscale, with optional digital image editing manipulation to enhance the results. For amateur use certain companies such as Kodak manufactured black-and-white disposable cameras until 2009. Also, certain films are produced today which give black-and-white images using the ubiquitous C41 color", "the concept originated. How it works Bipack color refers to the type of camera load that is used for the effect. Bipack photography refers to two strips running through the camera at once, for the purpose of recording two different spectra of light, generally.\nColor photography begins with any standard camera. Special magazines or adapters must be provided to accommodate two separate rolls of film. Two films are loaded, passing through the photographing aperture with the emulsions towards each other. The front film is orthochromatic, to record the blue-green portion of the picture. On the surface", "Bipack color In bipack color photography for motion pictures, two strips of black-and-white 35 mm film, running through the camera emulsion to emulsion, are used to record two regions of the color spectrum, for the purpose of ultimately printing the images, in complementary colors, superimposed on one strip of film. The result is a multicolored projection print that reproduces a useful but limited range of color by the subtractive color method. Bipack processes became commercially practical in the early 1910s when Kodak introduced duplitized film print stock, which facilitated making two-color prints.\nBipack photography was, from about 1935 to 1950, the most", "which produces black and white pictures despite being sensible to all the colours. It was shot in a particular way: the background had to be blue, while yellow-orange lights lighted the foreground elements. Due to colour separation, a matte appeared naturally in the specially lit areas. Using a bi-pack camera or an optical printer, it was then combined with the shot of the desired background, which was toned to be the same yellow-orange colour.\nLater, rear projection (also known as process shooting) was used. Although the method already existed before the thirties, it was not until then that it was systematized", "1960s, the term is loosely applied to the creation of any such images.\nEven though Kodachrome was already unnaturally bright, photographers ... splashed the strongest possible colors in their pictures so that they would be more effective in print. One result was that the staff photographers - who were constantly being sent to colorful places to slake what was seen as the public's unquenching thirst for colorful scenes - would often find themselves needing more color to take advantage of the color film and would resort to placing the people in costume.\nAs color photography became popular and commonplace, color frequently became", "excellent colour reproduction possible by this method, as demonstrated by the work of Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky. The principle of reproducing a full range of colour by three-colour analysis and synthesis is based on the nature of human colour vision and underlies nearly all practical chemical and electronic colour imaging technologies. Sutton's ribbon image is sometimes called the first colour photograph. There were, in fact, earlier and possibly better colour photographs made by experimenters who used a completely different, more purely chemical process, but the colours rapidly faded when exposed to light for viewing. Sutton's photographs preserved the colour information in black-and-white", "Finlay colour process The Finlay colour process was an early additive colour photography process devised by Englishman Clare L. Finlay which could produce a picture in natural colour with a single exposure. Description The Finlay colour process was based on the theory of scientist Clerk Maxwell, who discovered in 1861 that all the colours in nature could be matched by the proper admixture of the three primary colours. It was on this principle that Mr. Finlay made a screen of geometric pattern comprising red, green and blue-violet squares in regular sequence. Patented by Finlay in 1906 and introduced in 1908", "that of the standard black-and-white plane.\nCare would be taken to avoid photographing objects of purple, lavender or pink coloring, as bipack color generally cannot reproduce these colors in printing.\nAfter processing the two negatives, the red and cyan records were printed separately on a single strip of Eastman or DuPont duplitized stock. Since the red negative was reversed in camera (that is, its emulsion away from the lens), there was no optical printing required to focus the image, and thus contact printing on both emulsions took place. Both sides were toned by floating each side in a tank with the", "to \"on\" to form white.\nWith the advent of teletext, research was done into which primary and secondary light colors and combinations worked best for this new medium. Cyan or yellow on black was typically found to be optimal from a palette of black, red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan and white.\nThe opposite color scheme, dark-on-light color scheme, was originally introduced in WYSIWYG word processors, to simulate ink on paper. \nWhile the debate of whether it is easier or healthier to read text on a dark background was disputed by vision and perception researchers, there was similar dispute between users. \nThe", "its lower cost and its \"classic\" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography. It is important to note that monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen print process first used more than 170 years ago, produces brownish tones.\nMany photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital", "He uses Photoshop to color his cover work. He initially colored his covers after inking them traditionally, but beginning with Wonder Woman (Vol 2) #195, he switched methods to one in which he renders the greyscale stage in pencil, pen and marker like a painting, and then uses Photoshop's Layer tool to colorize each element in the image separately.\nHughes sometimes uses colored markers to embellish parts of a convention sketch, as when he uses red for female characters' lips, or a silver pen to render scenes set in outer space. When rendering an entire sketch in grey tones or full", "The drawings are photographed and the negatives then processed onto the cels instead of the typical photography. It also means that a line on an animated character can be in color instead of just black, though xerography at this point can be done in color too. This is known as self-colored lines. Examples This process was used on Disney's animated features such as The Black Cauldron, The Great Mouse Detective, Oliver & Company, The Little Mermaid, and the Cosgrove Hall film The BFG.", "The red-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image.\nThis is also known as the CMYK color model. The \"K\" is a black component normally added in ink-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition.\nAt first it may", "LRGB LRGB, short for Luminance, Red, Green and Blue, is a photographic technique used in amateur astronomy for producing good quality color photographs by combining a high-quality black-and-white image with a lower-quality color image.\nIn amateur astronomy, it is easier and cheaper to obtain good quality, high signal-to-noise ratio images in black and white. The LRGB method is used to work around this to get good color images. The color information from the color image is combined with the overall brightness from the black-and-white image.\nThe theory behind the effectiveness behind LRGB techniques has been related to the way humans see color.", "model It is possible to achieve a large range of colors seen by humans by combining cyan, magenta, and yellow transparent dyes/inks on a white substrate. These are the subtractive primary colors. Often a fourth ink, black, is added to improve reproduction of some dark colors. This is called the \"CMY\" or \"CMYK\" color space.\nThe cyan ink absorbs red light but transmits green and blue, the magenta ink absorbs green light but transmits red and blue, and the yellow ink absorbs blue light but transmits red and green. The white substrate reflects the transmitted light back to the viewer. Because", "technique exploits the fact that most objects in real-world scenes have a colour whose blue-colour component is similar in intensity to their green-colour component. Zbigniew Rybczyński also contributed to bluescreen technology. An optical printer with two projectors, a film camera and a 'beam splitter', was used to combine the actor in front of a blue screen together with the background footage, one frame at a time. In the early 1970s, American and British television networks began using green backdrops instead of blue for their newscasts. During the 1980s, minicomputers were used to control the optical printer. For the film The", "Hand-colouring of photographs Hand-colouring (or hand-coloring) refers to any method of manually adding colour to a black-and-white photograph, generally either to heighten the realism of the photograph or for artistic purposes. Hand-colouring is also known as hand painting or overpainting.\nTypically, watercolours, oils, crayons or pastels, and other paints or dyes are applied to the image surface using brushes, fingers, cotton swabs or airbrushes. Hand-coloured photographs were most popular in the mid- to late-19th century before the invention of colour photography and some firms specialised in producing hand-coloured photographs. Pre-1900 Monochrome (black and white) photography was first exemplified by the daguerreotype", "image very close to the finished work. \nThis process produces a blue or black image on a white paper. It is a monochromatic copying process.", "visual side-effects. If the original image is a photograph, it is likely to have thousands, or even millions of distinct colors. The process of constraining the available colors to a specific color palette effectively throws away a certain amount of color information.\nA number of factors can affect the resulting quality of a color-reduced image. Perhaps most significant is the color palette that will be used in the reduced image. For example, an original image (Figure 1) may be reduced to the 216-color \"web-safe\" color palette. If the original pixel colors are simply translated into the closest available color from the" ]

[ "Multiple ways, and by the way it's not just autistic *children* who can benefit from service animals.\n\nAmong other things:\n\n* service animals can detect the early signs of a meltdown or shutdown, which are things often (but not exclusively) triggered by sensory overstimulation, and can provide a prompt to leave the situation causing that overstim\n* they can provide active stimulation to aid with grounding\n* they can help reinforce ritual, which is frequently important for autistic people", "One of the major issues that autistic people have is that they cannot process new information quickly, have problems with crowds of people, and have difficulty controlling their panic response in new situations. So having something like a pet that can help to keep them calm and focus their attention slightly when in such a situation will help them have the time to process without panicking." ]

[ "Additionally, children with autism demonstrated increased verbal abilities and social interaction during therapy sessions when animals were present compared to traditional therapy sessions without them. The Difference Between Service and Therapy Dogs Service dogs are trained to assist patients in their day to day physical needs. Service dogs help those with disabilities pursue everyday life with safety and independence. Many service dogs have a \"no petting\" policy while they are on the job to keep them from being distracted from their task. Unlike service dogs, therapy dogs are trained to provide psychological or physiological comfort to patients in all different", "Autism service dog An autism service dog is a service dog trained to assist a person with autism to help them gain independence and the ability to perform activities of daily living similar to anyone else. For the most part, these dogs are trained to perform tasks similar to those of service dogs for other sensory processing disorders. About The first autism service dog was trained by National Service Dogs and placed with a child on the autism spectrum in 1997. Autism is a disability with symptoms that can vary from person to person. Training for autism service", "orienting, social communication, and joint attention. One of her best known studies compared the sensorimotor skills and play behaviors of autistic children with children who had intellectual disability. The study, one of several conducted in collaboration with Judy Ungerer, aimed to identify deficits specific to autism. The researchers observed autistic children to be impaired in their imitation of gestures and vocalizations and to show less diverse functional and symbolic play.\nAnother important line of research focused on autistic children's social interactions with their caregivers as well as with unfamiliar adults. This work, in collaboration Peter C. Mundy, Connie Kasari and others,", "their parents.\nAs a result of his work for the Child Research Project, the Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH) was created in 1971 and he was made co-director in 1972. It is a \"pioneering\" program for assisting with autism spectrum disorder education, research and service delivery for children and adults. The TEACCH program lead to many advances in knowledge of autism. Schopler showed that most autistic children did not suffer from mental disorders, as was believed by many at the time. He also proved that parents of autistic children could be effective collaborators in the", "also developed another software called Autisto that asks questions and provides answers using only images, animations and sound. This software is targeted to help teach kids with Autism. Autistic kids have significant problems in reading and hence they need special means of teaching through images and sound. GetVidya distributes Autisto free of cost to Autism centers and schools catering to children with special needs. As the software is open source the teacher has immense flexibility to put any image or sound she wishes. This makes learning very empathetic. The teachers can put images related to the kid's parents, siblings and", "it is possible for severely disabled autistics to be autism rights advocates. She says that when the critics assume that intelligent and articulate autistic people do not have difficulties like self-injurious behavior and difficulty with self-care, they affect the opinions of policy makers and make it more difficult for intelligent and articulate autistic people to get services. Baggs cites an example of an autistic person who was denied services when it was discovered that she could type. Autism therapy is often unethical Aspies For Freedom stated that the most common therapies for autism are unethical, since they focus on extinguishing", "house unsupervised. When autism service dogs are paired with children, the dog takes commands from the parents, not the child. Autism service dogs also alert parents of dangerous situations regarding the children they work with. Autism service dogs can help open the door for children and keep them from becoming over-stimulated.\nSome children with autism have been reported to have an increased sense of independence because of their interactions with the autism service dog.\nSometimes a child harness - attached to an autism service dog - is worn by a child with autism. Vulnerable adults with autism may also wear such", "nursing homes, mental institutions, hospitals and in the home. Assistance dogs can assist people with many different disabilities; they are capable of assisting certain life activities and help the individuals navigate outside of the home.\nAs with all other interventions, assessing whether a program is effective as far as its outcomes are concerned is easier when the goals are clear and are able to be specified. There are a range of goals for animal assisted therapy programs relevant to children and young people, including enhanced capacity to form positive relationships with others. It is understood that pets provide benefits to those", "programs.\nConversely, various major figures within the autistic community have written biographies detailing the harm caused by the provision of ABA, including restraint, sometimes used with mild self stimulatory behaviors such as hand flapping, and verbal abuse. The Autistic Self Advocacy Network campaigns against the use of ABA in autism. Discrete trial training Many intensive behavioral interventions rely heavily on discrete trial teaching (DTT) methods, which use stimulus-response-reward techniques to teach foundational skills such as attention, compliance, and imitation. However, children have problems using DTT-taught skills in natural environments. These students are also taught with naturalistic teaching procedures to help generalize", "and questionnaire tool is intended to be used by many organizations in Wales to identify and commend businesses that are \"ASD Aware\". Inclusive recreation Inclusive recreation, also called Adaptive Recreation Autistic pride Autistic pride refers to pride in autism and shifting views of autism from \"disease\" to \"difference\". Autistic pride emphasizes the innate potential in all human phenotypic expressions and celebrates the diversity various neurological types express.\nAutistic pride asserts that autistic people are not sick; rather, they have a unique set of characteristics that provide them many rewards and challenges, not unlike their non-autistic peers.", "help for misused, abused, unwanted and neglected horses and ponies as well as to offer help for young people with physical and mental problems. This original remit was later widened into care for all domestic animals except cats, dogs and donkeys which have their own specific charities. Their mission statement says that they provide assistance for the care and welfare of the animals, provide activities on a wide range of animal topics aimed at informing, advising, educating and enabling participants to develop their knowledge of animals, provide placements for people referred from education psychological services, social work, children's homes, and", "NEADS Inc. NEADS Inc., formerly National Education for Assistance Dog Services, is a nationwide American 501(c)3 nonprofit program that provides trained service dogs to deaf and disabled Americans. History NEADS (formerly National Education for Assistance Dog Services and also formerly Dogs for Deaf and Disabled Americans) began in 1976 as The Hearing Ear Dog Program, on the Lenox, Massachusetts campus of Holliston Junior College. With seed money from the Medfield Lions Club, students in the Animal Care Program determined that hearing dogs could be trained to become \"ears\" for people who are deaf or hearing impaired. In 1987, after training", "with mental health conditions, but further research is required to test the nature and extent of this relationship with an animal as a pet and how it differs between pets, emotional support animals, service animals, and animal-assisted therapy. Cognitive Rehabilitation Treatment Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) survivors with cognitive impairments can benefit from AAT as part of a comprehensive and holistic rehabilitation treatment plan. Pediatric care Therapists rely on techniques such as monitoring a child's behavior with the animal, their tone of voice, and indirect interviewing. AAT can be used in children with mental health problems, can be used as a", "play-based approach for parents and therapists to use with autistic children. There is evidence for the success of this program with children suffering from autistic spectrum disorders.\nLawrence J. Cohen has created an approach called Playful Parenting, in which he encourages parents to play with their children to help resolve emotional and behavioral issues. Parents are encouraged to connect playfully with their children through silliness, laughter, and roughhousing.\nIn 2006, Garry Landreth and Sue Bratton developed a highly researched and structured way of teaching parents to engage in therapeutic play with their children. It is based on a supervised entry level", "research is done by people who operate the dolphin-assisted therapy programs. Conditions Benefit from Animal-Assisted Therapy Based on current research, there are many conditions/disorders that can benefit from animal-assisted therapy (AAT) in diverse settings around the world. Those conditions include psychological disorder, developmental disorder, dementia, cancer, chronic pain, advanced heart failure, etc. Animal-assisted therapy is commonly used for psychological disorder. Disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD), autism spectrum disorder(ASD), post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD) are part of psychological disorders that can benefit from animal-assisted therapy. Effectiveness In recent decades, an increased number of research indicates the social,", "develop or relearn the skills and concepts a blind or visually impaired person needs to travel safely and independently through his or her environment. O&M specialists provide services across the life span, teaching infants and children in preschool and school programs, as well as adults in a variety of community-based and rehabilitation settings. Although O&M specialists are primarily responsible for O&M training, their work may not always be done directly with the child. When the child is very young, for example, the O&M may provide consultation to the teacher of students with blindness or visual impairment, occupational therapists, physical therapists,", "disabled student in determining the possible range of aids and supports that are needed to facilitate the student's placement in the regular educational environment\". It is a structure that can determine the best course of action in teaching a student with special needs and can help to integrate that student into a general classroom, both of which serve the student's educational progress. A teacher can determine the proper placement of a student in inclusive education through tests, studies, and interviews with counselors and family members. Based upon the arrangement of homework assignments, team projects, and basic communication with other students", "errorless learning to instruct young autistic children how to speak.\nFerster's work also influenced the work of other pioneers of behavioral research, such as Donald M. Baer and Sidney Bijou, who together founded the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis at the University of Kansas. Another well-known researcher was Ivar Lovaas, who applied Ferster's procedures to autistic children at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and developed early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), or 6.5 hours per day of what he called, \"discrete trial training\" (DTT). Early childhood and family life Ferster was born November 1, 1922 in Freehold, New Jersey, the", "care for autistic children\".", "multisensory integration in simple terms means the ability to use all of ones senses to accomplish a task. Occupational therapists sometimes prescribe sensory treatments for children with Autism however in general there has been little or no scientific evidence of effectiveness. Animal-assisted therapy Animal-assisted therapy, where an animal such as a dog or a horse becomes a basic part of a person's treatment, is a controversial treatment for some symptoms. A 2007 meta-analysis found that animal-assisted therapy is associated with a moderate improvement in autism spectrum symptoms. Reviews of published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and", "is very passionate about autism research and awareness as well as the humane treatment of animals. Rambin is also involved with Surf for Life, an organization that creates educational and cultural development projects in coastal communities around the world.", "to treat conditions such as LKS like the Children's Hospital Boston and its Augmentative Communication Program. It is known internationally for its work with children or adults who are non-speaking or severely impaired. Typically, a care team for children with LKS consists of a neurologist, a neuropsychologist, and a speech pathologist or audiologist. Some children with behavioral problems may also need to see a child psychologist and a psychopharmacologist. Speech therapy begins immediately at the time of diagnosis along with medical treatment that may include steroids and anti-epileptic or anti-convulsant medications.\nPatient education has also proved to", "member of the Disabled Children's Partnership alongside 27 other charities, working towards better health and social care for disabled children, young people and their families.\nThe charity also leads the children and families work of the Jo Cox Commission on Loneliness and is a partner of End Child Poverty. Fundraising Action for Children raises money through corporate partnerships, fundraising events (such as sponsored runs) and through its partnership with the British Methodist Church.\nThe charity is also involved with several large fundraising events, including Byte Night – an IT industry event which raises money to prevent youth homelessness – and Never Mind", "Americans with Disabilities Act The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) allows people with disabilities to bring their service animals in public places. However, the ADA only extends these protections to dogs that have been \"individually trained\" to \"perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability,\" which is the definition of service animals under 28 C.F.R. § 36.104. Since emotional support animals are typically not trained for an individual's specific disability and since emotional support animals might not be dogs, they do not receive the protections of the ADA. A public place can therefore deny an emotional", "compassion and empathy when pets were used in the classroom. Additional findings have shown that classroom pets, not only improve compassion and empathy but also teach children to have respect for the living things in the world around them.\nClassroom pets can also have a positive effect on the socio-emotional development of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). After engaging in animal-assisted activities for 8-weeks, children with ASD displayed an increase in social skills and a decrease in social withdrawal. Academic development Teachers conveyed that classroom pets contribute to the academic development of students and have identified pets as", "terminology, and note that 'assistance dog' is the term adopted by organisations who train and provide assistance dogs, and the disabled people who partner with assistance dogs. Assistance dog training Assistance dogs have traditionally been trained by charities and other organisations who then partner a disabled person with a trained dog when the dog has completed its training programme at about the age of 2. Increasingly, more disabled people are self-training their own assistance dogs, whereby the disabled person selects their own dog (often referred to as a 'prospect') and the dog is trained by the disabled person who also", "often face several problems that other service dog handlers typically do not experience. While guide dogs for the blind, hearing-impaired guide dogs, and dogs that assist those who use wheelchairs are well-known to the public, however, dogs for psychiatric conditions are not. This hinders the public’s understanding of the role played by each of these types of animals, as well as their perceptions regarding the legitimacy of their integration. Further adding to this issue is that many people with psychiatric conditions do not appear to have anything externally wrong with them, and because of the heavy social stigma of mental", "of autistic individuals are considered a detriment to social and professional success and should therefore be reduced or eliminated through therapy.\nAdvocates with this view include both autistic adults and parents of autistic children, but contain a higher percentage of parents when compared to those adopting the neurodiversity paradigm. These advocates believe that medical research is necessary to address the \"autism epidemic,\" reduce suffering, and provide the best outcomes for autistic individuals. In addition to etiological research, other areas of focus may include biology, diagnosis, and treatment, including medication, behavioural and psychological interventions, and the treatment of co-existing medical conditions.\nAdvocacy groups", "Animal-assisted therapy Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is an alternative or complementary type of therapy that involves animals as a form of treatment. It falls under the realm of Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI). AAI is general term that encompasses any intervention or treatment that includes an animal in a therapeutic context such as Emotional-Support Animals, Service/Assistance Animals (i.e., trained animals that assist and support with daily activities), and Animal Assisted Activity (AAA). AAT contains sub-sections based on the type of animal, the targeted population, and how the animal is being incorporated into the therapeutic plan. The most commonly used types of AAT", " The Therapy Dog program sees a volunteer and their dog make visits to an institution, often on a weekly basis. Before beginning the handler and their dog undergo extensive testing to ensure the animal has the right temperament for the program. There are many benefits to animal-assisted therapy, including decreased blood pressure and heart rate in patients as well as a chance for positive social interaction. We Can Help SJAC provides elementary school students in grade 3 with the We Can Help Program, which provides children with an introduction to first aid skills and basic injury prevention messages, is" ]

[ "> This makes no sense because downloads are not limited like physical copies of books are.\n\nDownloads are limited in the sense that the library has to pay for every copy of a book that they own, including digital copies. So they pay the publisher $X for permission to lend some fixed number of digital copies. And the reader software is set up to that the borrower isn't able to retain possess of that copy forever.\n\nIf that weren't the case, then book sales would drop essentially to nothing, since everyone could just get a free copy of any book whenever they wanted for as long as they wanted.", "Publishers want them to be limited though. Otherwise, people could just borrow as many books as they wanted and it'd be no different than buying them. They work out licenses with library on how many digital copies can be \"loaned\" out at a time. I'm not sure if it's the library or the publisher that sets limits on how long they can be borrowed though." ]

[ "books intended for the rigors of library use and are largely serials and paperback publications. Though many publishers have started to provide \"library binding\" editions, many libraries elect to purchase paperbacks and have them rebound in hard covers for longer life. Conservation and restoration Conservation and restoration are practices intended to repair damage to an existing book. While they share methods, their goals differ. The goal of conservation is to slow the book's decay and restore it to a usable state while altering its physical properties as little as possible. Conservation methods have been developed in the course of taking", "desire of some publishing houses to restrict the use of digit materials such as e-books purchased by libraries. Whereas with printed books, the library owns the book until it can no longer be circulated, publishers want to limit the number of times an e-book can be checked out before the library would need to repurchase that book. \"[HarperCollins] began licensing use of each e-book copy for a maximum of 26 loans. This affects only the most popular titles and has no practical effect on others. After the limit is reached, the library can repurchase access rights at a lower cost", "every person leaving the library without the library administrator's knowledge or consent. One simple option is to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in conjunction with the library's database. Another possible enhancement would be to give each book a new code every time it is returned. In future, should readers become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal could be made difficult if the tags are so small that they fit invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by the publisher. Museums RFID technologies are now", "or some combination of the three. Many people choose to rebind books, from amateurs who restore old paperbacks on internet instructions to many professional book and paper conservators and restorationists, who often in the United States are members of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC).\nMany times, books that need to be restored are hundreds of years old, and the handling of the pages and binding has to be undertaken with great care and a delicate hand. The archival process of restoration and conservation can extend a book's life for many decades and is necessary to", "want to see books live forever.\" Pointing out that even digital books have a physical home on a hard drive somewhere, he sees saving the physical artifacts of information storage as a way to hedge against the uncertainty of the future. (Alongside the books, Kahle plans to store the Internet Archive's old servers, which were replaced in 2010.) He began by having conventional shipping containers modified as climate-controlled storage units. Each container can hold about 40,000 volumes, the size of a branch library. As of 2011, Kahle had gathered about 500,000 books. He thinks the warehouse is large", "it is a somewhat time-consuming and dull technique. Bindings of the books are not removed and the books are scanned non-intrusively two pages at a time for the purpose of converting into digital ebook files later. Moreover, this project aims at developing an electronic catalogue database of the library's contents in order to retrieve the data efficiently for research work and to keep the collection intact.", "to preserving access, libraries have traditionally made it difficult to rewrite or suppress printed material. The existence of an indeterminate but large number of identical copies on a somewhat tamper-resistant medium under many independent administrations meant that attempts to alter or remove all copies of a published work would likely both fail and be detected. Web publishing, based on a single copy under a single administration, provides none of these safeguards against subversion. Web publishing is, therefore, an amenable tool for rewriting history. By preserving many copies under diverse administration, by automatically auditing the copies at intervals against each other", "involving online marketplace for pre-owned digital music.\nE-books have the same issue. Because the first sale doctrine does not apply to electronic books, libraries cannot freely lend e-books indefinitely after purchase. Instead, electronic book publishers came up with business models to sell the subscriptions to the license of the text. This results in e-book publishers placing restrictions on the number of times an e-book can circulate and/or the amount of time a book is within a collection before a library's license expires, then the book no longer belongs to them.\nThe question is whether the first-sale doctrine should be retooled to reflect", "books are not the best possible means of storing information, because \"access to the libraries is not always easy and delays in the transmission of books often discourage the most tenacious workers, to the detriment of scientific progress....Travel by scholars, the international exchange of scientific books between libraries, the copies or extracts requested from abroad, are seriously under-resourced.\" Thus there is a need for \"a new form of book that will help overcome these major inconveniences.\" They proposed that a solution to the problem lay in photography, and proceeded to explain how a single card measuring 12.5 X 7.5 cm, providing", "of books and newspapers by the institutions that, to his mind, should be held responsible for their preservation. He brings to light the tension between preservation and access: which should be the priority? Are libraries responsible for keeping books whole, for retaining books that may be in danger of falling apart, or are they mandated to do whatever is in their power to increase access to their holdings, possibly moving them to other mediums through methods such as microfilm or digitization, and sometimes destroying them in the process? Baker claims these goals need not conflict: \"Why can't we have the", "a cafe and the waiter picks it up, you have lost possession. When you return to recover the book, even though the waiter has possession, you have a better right to possession and the book should be returned. This example demonstrates the distinction between ownership and possession: throughout the process you have not lost ownership of the book although you have lost possession at some point; or instead, the book may have been owned by a third party (such as a lending library) throughout, despite the changes in possession. Obtaining possession Possession requires both control and intention. It is obtained", "are often a gamble: they can become best sellers, but they are much more likely to disappear in a flood of returns from bookstores. By contrast, backlist books usually have predictable sales and revenues.\" United States In the US, backlist and midlist publications were negatively affected by the US Supreme Court decision in the 1979 case Thor Power Tool Company v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue. This decision reinterpreted rules for inventory depreciation, changing how book publishers had to account for unsold inventory each year, and their ability to depreciate it. Because stocks of unsold books could no longer be", "if the items retrieved happened to be ones that were already read, or unwanted, patrons could not return them on the same day. Only one or two items could be checked out at a time, and daily fines were relative to the size of the books, as was the checkout period.\n\nEventually, a small open shelf was created in 1901 so patrons could have access to certain general interest books. Although patrons enjoyed this new addition, it caused some issues for staff as the number of missing items increased dramatically within one year. As a result, inventories were taken one to", "to be read and that this hardware will not be available in a few decades from the time the document was created. For example, it is already the case that disk drives capable of reading 5¼-inch floppy disks are not readily available.\nThe digital dark age also applies to the problems which arise due to obsolete file formats. In such a case, it is the lack of necessary software which causes problems when retrieving stored documents. This is especially problematic when proprietary formats are used, in which case it might be impossible to write appropriate software to read the file. Magnetic", "years, procedures for digitizing books at high speed and comparatively low cost have improved considerably with the result that it is now possible to digitize millions of books per year. Google book-scanning project is also working with libraries to offer digitize books pushing forward on the digitize book realm. Copyright and licensing Digital libraries are hampered by copyright law because, unlike with traditional printed works, the laws of digital copyright are still being formed. The republication of material on the web by libraries may require permission from rights holders, and there is a conflict of interest between libraries and the", "of titles so a consortium of libraries can benefit from a reduced cost in replication so they may maintain their circulating collections. Maintained by OCLC, the submissions are processed at the OCLC Preservation Service Center and OCLC retains the digital copies produced as to defer any copyright issues away from the repositories subscribing to the service. Future As libraries move into the digital era, preservation practices attempt to move with them. Current and future projects in preserving brittle volumes are more likely to involve scanning and digitization than microfilming. A recent example of such a program is the Digitizing", "the Library will scan itself. It is estimated that it will take approximately six years for Google to complete the scanning process; without Google, the U-M Library was on pace to have their entire collection scanned in about 1000 years. All costs for the project are borne by Google, and the company has developed special scanning technology to ensure that the books are not damaged during the process. All books that are out of copyright will be available for the public to read online; those still in copyright will be searchable, but only brief excerpts will be available to read.", "is the preferred method, despite an estimated five-year longevity for most computer files. As proper archival-quality digitization requires use of large, uncompressed TIFF files, storage can be a significant cost, especially for public libraries. Moreover, copyright law restrains the ability to digitize all brittle books. While the library is authorized to make a copy of a book it cannot obtain through reasonable means, having a digital copy offers the possibility of unauthorized distribution if circulated in this format. Photocopies Many repositories, such as the University of Kansas, opt for preservation-quality photocopies. A list-serv is utilized for the posting", "Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a conveyor belt, which reduces staff time. This can all be done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for library staff assistance. With portable readers, inventories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds.\nHowever, as of 2008 this technology remains too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost of €50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500", "after which time the items may be removed from the collection with the approval of a regional library. Items marked for disposal must be offered first to the regional, then to other depositories (44 U.S.C. § 1912). All depository libraries, including regional libraries, may dispose of items that have been superseded or issued later in bound form (44 U.S.C. § 1911). If an item has been deselected, the library must still retain the publications it possesses from that item number for five years before they may be discarded. Libraries may not financially benefit from the disposal of depository publications. Electronic documents After 1996, government", "preserve books that sometimes are limited to a small handful of remaining copies worldwide.\nTypically, the first step in saving and preserving a book is its deconstruction. The text pages need to be separated from the covers and, only if necessary, the stitching removed. This is done as delicately as possible. All page restoration is done at this point, be it the removal of foxing, ink stains, page tears, etc. Various techniques are employed to repair the various types of page damage that might have occurred during the life of the book.\nThe preparation of the \"foundations\" of the book could mean", "with the ever-changing world outside, the library will remain stable and dependable. Preservation is a great help in this regard. Through digitization and reformatting, preservation librarians are able to retain material while at the same time adapting to new methods. In this way, libraries can adapt to the changes in user needs without changing the quality of the material itself. Through preservation efforts, patrons can rest assured that although materials are constantly deteriorating over time, the library itself will remain a stable, reliable environment for their information needs. Another sacred ability of the library is to provide information and a", "collection increased enormously, and it became necessary to store it away. While it is archived it is not possible to visit it.", "Library theft Theft from libraries of books, historical documents, maps and other materials from libraries is a significant problem. One study commissioned in the UK estimated the average loss rate of libraries to theft at 5.3%.\nIt is typically prevented by installing electronic article surveillance alarms at the doors. Library materials are tagged and if the tag is not deactivated it sounds an alarm. In some libraries with older or rare materials, readers are not allowed to take coats or bags into the reading area except for a few items in a clear plastic bag. Security cameras are not commonly", "copy by voting with the majority. If the reader's browser no longer supports the format in which the copy was collected, a format migration process can convert it to a current format. These limits on the use that may be made of preserved copies of copyright material have been effective in persuading copyright owners to grant the necessary permission.\nThe LOCKSS approach of selective collection with permission from the publisher, distributed storage, and restricted dissemination contrasts with, for example, the Internet Archive's approach of omnivorous collection without permission from the publisher, centralized storage, and unrestricted dissemination. The LOCKSS", "two complete copies of their published works to the library—this requirement is known as mandatory deposit. Nearly 15,000 new items published in the U.S. arrive every business day at the library. Contrary to popular belief, however, the library does not retain all of these works in its permanent collection, although it does add an average of 12,000 items per day. Rejected items are used in trades with other libraries around the world, distributed to federal agencies, or donated to schools, communities, and other organizations within the United States. As is true of many similar libraries, the Library of Congress retains", "don't need to buy any books because you can get free books from library. The building also contains ACM Lab and free WiFi service. Yes you can get High Speed internet service for free in here. So the world of knowledge is open for you. The contents of the central library are updated consistently to keep up with technological trends.", "size, file type, and when they were last opened. Users can also arrange their books into collections.\nUsers may also download books through the use of the Kobo Bookstore. Adding books to a wishlist, purchasing books, and browsing through the library can be done on the Kobo itself thanks to the Wi-Fi chip. Once purchased, books are saved in the cloud and can be redownloaded at any time if the user has deleted the book from his/her device. This feature also allows for reading location, bookmarks, highlights, and notes to be synced across many devices.\neBooks compatible with the Kobo Aura HD", "to know why,\" and how the library, though spending 750,000 dollars a year on security, is not particularly focused on securing or protecting the books, DVDs and CDs in its collection.", "Book rebinding Book rebinding is the renewal or replacement of the cover of a book. Typically, this requires restitching or renewal of the glue which holds the pages in place.\nCollectors of antique books such as incunabula would often have them rebound. This might be done to improve their appearance by rebinding in a more fashionable colour or to assert ownership by having the book rebound in uniform covers which were stamped with an insignia such as a coat of arms. One prominent collector who had this done was Earl Spencer. For example, when he acquired a medieval psalter of 1457," ]

[ "He has a small sensor in his mouth and uses his cheek muscle to type with it. His computer also has the ability to predict and correct words for him." ]

[ "Hawking had to write all his lines on his computer, while the staff recorded them by placing a microphone in front of the computer's speaker. \"It's easy to do a fake Stephen Hawking in your comedy TV show\", Selman said in the DVD commentary for the episode. \"Any computer can sound just like his computer, but every line that we wrote for him, he typed in himself and we recorded with our microphones as if it had come out of a regular mouth.\" Some of Hawking's lines were difficult to record. In particular, the word \"Fruitopia\" was difficult for Hawking's", "questions and give answers without any algorithms for English questions, and he would be effectively aware of what was being said and the purposes it might serve. Searle would pass the Turing test of answering the questions in both languages, but he is only conscious of what he is doing when he speaks English. Another way of putting the argument is to say that computer programs can pass the Turing test for processing the syntax of a language, but that the syntax cannot lead to semantic meaning in the way strong AI advocates hoped.\nIn the literature concerning artificial", "usually requires the speaker to speak slowly, distinctly and to separate each word with a short pause. This system can replace or supplement other input devices such as keyboards and different pointing devices. The software has been developed to provide a fast method of writing without using a keyboard and can help people with various disabilities. The system works by analysing sounds and converting them to text. It knows how the language is usually spoken and decides what the speaker is most probably saying. The most powerful systems should recognise around 95% of clear speech correctly. Several voice recognition applications", "computer lecturer is operating the computer and providing all the responses. The original ELIZA program, providing basic but often surprisingly human-like responses to questions, was written at MIT by Joseph Weizenbaum in the 1960s.", "Human Speechome Project The Human Speechome Project (\"speechome\" as an approximate rhyme for \"genome\") is an effort to closely observe and model the language acquisition of a child over the first three years of life.\nThe project was conducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Media Laboratory by the Associate Professor Deb Roy with an array of technology that is used to comprehensively but unobtrusively observe a single child – Roy's own son – with the resulting data being used to create computational models to yield further insight into language acquisition.", "In this sense, Collins is taking the alternative to the 'thinking machine' first proposed by Alan Turing in 1950 (and now known as the Turing Test) in which so-called intelligence in a machine is defined as the ability to hold a conversation. In the Turing Test, the conversation is conducted via keyboards and the challenge for the AI community is to produce a computer that can give answers that are indistinguishable from those produced by a real human. Given that such interactions are by their very nature open-ended and context-dependent Collins argues that only a fully socialised intelligence will be", "artificial intelligence using machine learning technology. Exploiting audio surveillance techniques to eavesdrop on and record conversations at the installation site, Dewey-Hagborg wrote algorithms to then isolate word sequences and grammatical structures into commonly used units. Influenced by Hebbian theory, she programmed the sculpture's computer to generate speech based on the most frequently occurring language structures in any given recording period. Over time, the least frequently elicited words or units would fade or be dropped from the sculpture's spoken vocabulary. The remaining units, stored in the sculpture's memory, were then spoken at random intervals.\nThe piece also reflected the writings of psychologist", "CeVIO Creative Studio Overview It allows audio creation software for speech and voice synthesizing. Speech and Song are this program's main features. The Speech portion offers a large dictionary of words to which Sato Sasara, Suzuki Tsudumi, and Takahashi speak from and are accurate in the Japanese language, though you have the option to manually edit it yourself if need be. The Speech portion was created with help of the HTS method, this method is famous in the VOCALOID fanbase because this method created the online synthesizers Sinsy, Open J-Talk, Renoid Player, and many more. The Speech portion offers different", "the first computer program for speech synthesis while working with IBM. The program was intended to be used in Kubrick's 2001, but the two parties eventually parted ways and the film crew employed an actor to read the lines. Personal life In March 1992, Gerstman died of lung cancer. Gerstman was 61.", "Voder The Bell Telephone Laboratory's Voder (from Voice Operating Demonstrator) was the first attempt to electronically synthesize human speech by breaking it down into its acoustic components. It was invented by Homer Dudley in 1937–1938 and developed on his earlier work on the vocoder. The quality of the speech was limited; however, it demonstrated the synthesis of the human voice, which became one component of the vocoder used in voice communications for security and to save bandwidth.\nThe Voder synthesized human speech by imitating the effects of the human vocal tract. The operator could select one of two basic sounds", "his hands to drive a wheelchair deteriorated. Hawking used a variety of different chairs from that time, including a DragonMobility Dragon elevating powerchair from 2007, as shown in the April 2008 photo of Hawking attending NASA's 50th anniversary; a Permobil C350 from 2014; and then a Permobil F3 from 2016.\nHawking's speech deteriorated, and by the late 1970s he could be understood by only his family and closest friends. To communicate with others, someone who knew him well would interpret his speech into intelligible speech. Spurred by a dispute with the university over who would pay for the ramp needed for", "special software, that allowed him to control his wheelchair-mounted computer using his limited and small movement ability. This personalized system allowed him to remain mobile, do research, produce his written work. Prof. Hawking also used augmentative and alternative communication technology to speak and an environmental control device to access equipment independently.\nA small amount of modern research indicates that utilizing a standard computer mouse device improves fine-motor skills. Hearing impairment While sound user interfaces have a secondary role in common desktop computing, these interfaces are usually limited to using system sounds such as feedback. Some software producers take into", "program's instructions, and produce Chinese characters as output. If the computer had passed the Turing test this way, it follows, says Searle, that he would do so as well, simply by running the program manually.\nSearle asserts that there is no essential difference between the roles of the computer and himself in the experiment. Each simply follows a program, step-by-step, producing a behavior which is then interpreted by the user as demonstrating intelligent conversation. However, Searle himself would not be able to understand the conversation. (\"I don't speak a word of Chinese,\" he points out.) Therefore, he argues, it follows", "for speech recognition projects. VoxForge is a free speech corpus and acoustic model repository that was built with the aim of collecting transcribed speech to be used in speech recognition projects. VoxForge accepts crowdsourced speech samples and corrections of recognized speech sequences. It is licensed under a GNU General Public License (GPL). Voice control and keyboard shortcuts Speech recognition usually refers to software that attempts to distinguish thousands of words in a human language. Voice control may refer to software used for sending operational commands to a computer or appliance. Voice control typically requires a much smaller vocabulary and thus", "a single microphone that loses location information, mixing all the sounds. This makes it impossible for the brain to use spatial information to perform its filtering function, increasing listener fatigue by forcing participants to concentrate on both what the speaker is saying and on determining who is saying it.\nVoxeet's technology reproduces these natural mechanisms using audio picked up by multiple microphones. Voxeet builds a virtual 3D audio space that mimics natural sounds without extra effort from the brain.", "with meanings and intentions. For a computer, on the other hand, speech is essentially a series of digital values. However, despite these differences, the core problem of speech recognition is the same for both humans and machines: namely, of finding the best match between a given speech sound and its corresponding word string. Automatic speech recognition technology attempts to simulate and optimize this process computationally.\"\nPrograms embodying ASR normally provide a native speaker model that the learner is requested to imitate, but the matching process is not 100% reliable and may result in a learner's perfectly intelligible attempt to pronounce a", "generate a response from the computer. By this method, words typed by a user trigger the computer to recognize specific patterns and reply accordingly, through a process known as keyword spotting. Speech-based interactive approach Recent technologies have placed more of an emphasis on speech-based interactive systems. These systems, such as Siri of the iOS operating system, operate on a similar pattern-recognizing technique as that of text-based systems, but with the former, the user input is conducted through speech recognition. This branch of linguistics involves the processing of the user's speech as sound waves and the interpreting of the acoustics and", "PlainTalk Technology Apple's text-to-speech uses diphones. Compared to other methods of synthesizing speech, it is not very resource-intensive, but limits how natural the speech synthesis can be. American English and Spanish versions have been available, but since the advent of Mac OS X, Apple has shipped only American English voices, relying on third-party suppliers such as Acapela Group to supply voices for other languages (in OS X 10.7, Apple licensed a lot of third-party voices and made them available for download within the Speech control panel).\nAn application programming interface known as the Speech Manager enables third-party developers to use speech", "In order for the system to learn this, they exposed it to many hours of Spanish audio together with the corresponding English text. The different layers of neural networks, replicating the human brain, were able to link the corresponding parts and subsequently manipulate the audio waveform until it was transformed to English text. Robotics Different from the traditional robotics, robotics researched by the Google Brain Team could automatically learn to acquire new skills by machine learning. In 2016, the Google Brain Team collaborated with researchers at Google X to demonstrate how robotics could use their experiences to teach themselves more", "computer.\" He \"started to get more ambitious,\" and thought he \"could make the computer converse\" if enough data is entered, attempting to create an artificial intelligence language algorithm. However, he realized this was not possible on computers at the time, so he created \"dialogue for the computer beforehand\" where the player \"could type in some words, and the computer would reply back with some reaction.\" Another concept was that, in contrast to other \"very linear\" stories in adventure games at the time, his idea was for branching, non-linear storytelling, where \"the main scenario should only take up about 20% of", "so on until the conversation ends.\nBlock then asks the reader to imagine a computer which had been programmed with all the sentences in theory, if not in practice. Block argues that such a machine could continue a conversation with a person on any topic because the computer would be programmed with every sentence that it was possible to use so the computer would be able to pass the Turing test despite the fact that — according to Block — it was not intelligent.\nBlock says that this does not show that there is only one correct internal structure for generating intelligence", "John Makhoul John Makhoul is a Lebanese-American computer scientist who works in the field of speech and language processing. Dr. Makhoul's work on linear predictive coding was used in the establishment of the Network Voice Protocol, which enabled the transmission of speech signals over the ARPANET. Makhoul is recognized in the field for his vital role in the areas of speech and language processing, including speech analysis, speech coding, speech recognition and speech understanding. He has made a number of significant contributions to the mathematical modeling of speech signals, including his work on linear prediction, and vector quantization. His", "item. In order not to overload the model, no detailed modeling of the neuromuscular system is done. The Maeda articulatory speech synthesizer is used in order to generate articulator movements, which allows the generation of a time-varying vocal tract form and the generation of the acoustic speech signal for each particular speech item.\nIn terms of artificial intelligence the articulatory model can be called plant (i.e. the system, which is controlled by the brain); it represents a part of the embodiement of the neuronal speech processing system. The articulatory model generates sensory output which is the basis for generating feedback information", "limit their use of the mouse and keyboard, but still want to maintain or increase their overall productivity. Windows Vista With Windows Vista voice control, a user may dictate documents and emails in mainstream applications, start and switch between applications, control the operating system, format documents, save documents, edit files, efficiently correct errors, and fill out forms on the Web. The speech recognition software learns automatically every time a user uses it, and speech recognition is available in English (U.S.), English (U.K.), German (Germany), French (France), Spanish (Spain), Japanese, Chinese (Traditional), and Chinese (Simplified). In addition, the software comes with", "Knight writes that the US military initially funded Chomsky's linguistics because they were interested in machine translation. Later their focus shifted and Knight cites Air Force Colonel Edmund Gaines’ statement that: \"We sponsored linguistic research in order to learn how to build command and control systems that could understand English queries directly.\"\nIn his book review, Robert Barsky poses the question not answered in Knight's book: \"Machine Translation research is turned into a project dedicated to 'command and control systems'. Really? And how did Chomsky contribute to that MT project?\" \nSince finishing Decoding Chomsky, Knight has produced documents from the MITRE", "or configuring it as a hub for home automation. \nThis feature of the speech recognition is available in English, among other languages. In July 2018, the Google Home version of Assistant gained support for multiple actions triggered by a single vocal shortcut command. \nAt the annual I/O developers conference on May 8, 2018, Google's SEO announced the addition of six new voice options for the Google Assistant, one of which being John Legend's. This was made possible by WaveNet, a voice synthesizer developed by DeepMind, which significantly reduced the amount of audio samples that a voice actor was required to", "accuracy, which begins by providing instructions to adjust the microphone for optimal performance. Speech recognition uses a speech profile to store information about a user's voice.\nUsers can configure speech recognition settings, including pronunciation sensitivity in voice command mode, accuracy and recognition response time in dictation mode, and microphone settings through the Speech control panel applet. The Regional and Language Options applet provides Language toolbar and additional settings. Speech recognition engines are available for the English, Japanese, and Simplified Chinese languages. Microsoft recommended its SideWinder Game Voicechat device as a microphone to use with speech recognition. Security Excel, PowerPoint, and Word", "increase their social participation. Talking Keyboards Low cost systems can also include a keyboard and audio speaker combination without a dynamic display or visual screen. This type of keyboard sends typed text direct to an audio speaker. It can permit any phrase to be spoken without the need for a visual screen that is not always required. One simple benefit is that a talking keyboard, when used with a standard telephone or speakerphone can enable a voice impaired individual have 2 way conversation over a telephone. Output The output of a SGD may be digitized and/or synthesized: digitized systems", "own research on the topic to flesh out this framework with anecdotes and examples. The speechwriter will also consider the audience for the speech, which can range from a town-hall meeting of community leaders to an international leaders' forum. Then the speechwriter blends the points, themes, positions, and messages with his or her own research to create an \"informative, original and authentic speech\" for the executive. \nThe speechwriter then presents a draft version of the speech to the executive (or the executive's staff) and makes notes on any revisions or changes that are requested. If the speechwriter is familiar with", "the general run of lecturer, who might read from a sheaf of tattered pages in a monologue or employ distracting bombast—or make failed attempts at humor—a driven Williams would engage his auditors with rapid-fire volleys in a conversational voice off the cuff without lectern, text, or notes. He knew what he wanted to say, and he said it without missing a beat. He used simple declaratory sentences with hardly a dependent clause and no filler-type utterances such as 'uh', 'as it were', or 'you know'. If transcribed, his fast 50-minute expositions might have required twice the pages of those of" ]

[ "It will do whatever it is programed to do in that situation. Self driving cars are not true conscious A.I - they are just really, really complex \"if...then\" programs. If it gets into a situation where an accident is unavoidable, it will do what its programing tells it to do in that situation.\n\nAs far as liability, we don't know yet. It's possible that the programer would be liable for the accident but we'll need a court case to set precedent before we really know.", "I think that currently, self-driving cars are not equipped to make moral or ethical decisions. They aren't concerned with hurting humans or not, because they don't know what humans are or that they even exist.\n\nIt simply sees obstacles, and does it's best to avoid running into them. Doesn't matter what that obstacle is. If there are multiple courses of action, it will pick the one least likely to cause it to hit something.", "AI systems typically assign each outcome a score based on a variety of criteria, and pick the best score. \n\nFor example, one alternative my have a 90% chance of avoiding an accident (+10 points) but would injure 4 people (-4 points) if there was an accident. That outcome would have a score of 6 points, and be compared with other outcomes.\n\n > And ... what liability issues could arise from whatever decision the algorithm makes?\n\nThat is a legal matter that has yet to be resolved. It will likely require legislation that grants some degree of immunity to the people who design the software.", "As said nelsewhere, it depends on what it is programmed to do. \n\nIt would make sense to do the less invasive action possible, which could in fact result in higher human injury in a few cases. \n\nFor example if it finds itself driving over petrol that then catches fire and thus detects a series of malfunctions, it would most likely stop, and this could well mean the occupants have a higher risk of injury and death than if the car accelerates out of there to a safer place. \nThis way the person liable for the burns is whomever started the fire, not the car. \n\nIt's a matter of ownership of the actions. If you decide to take an action that results in a loss of life you are liable, however if you decide to NOT take an action that results in the loss of life then whomever created the dangerous situation is to blame. \n\nThis is exactly why in the [\"trolley dilemma\" thought experiment](_URL_0_) on both examples I answer that I would not take action.", "These thought experiments are so trite and contrived as to be useless except as an academic exercise. Real self-driving cars have driven millions of miles on roads and thus far have only been involved in collisions wherein they have been hit from behind by human-operated vehicles. In only one case can the self-driving car be blamed for the collision, and even that case is debatable, and was at a very low speed.\n\nThe question presumes a driver who is almost by definition behaving irresponsibly prior to the situation described. Human drivers do this routinely, but there's no good reason for computer drivers to do so. If the driver can't see around an obstacle close to the vehicle's path, it should obviously not go so fast that it would be impossible to stop before colliding with a pedestrian (or whatever) should one appear. Human drivers are generally incapable of exercising adequate caution, paying attention consistently, and judging their own capabilities accurately. For computers, these tasks are trivial.\n\nIn practice, in almost all situations, the answer to the question of \"what will the computer driver do?\" is simple: stop the car as quickly as possible without losing control. And the computer will also be much better at that task than its human counterparts, because it will more alert (detecting the problem sooner), quicker to act (no moving a foot from one pedal to another), and better able to control the vehicle's brakes near the limit (no need for inefficient anti-lock brakes if you know how hard you can brake without causing a wheel to slip.\n\nFurthermore, it's likely that when a self-driving car does get into a situation where a collision seems unavoidable, it will be because of major system failure (the computer doesn't have full control of the vehicle). And whether or not that's the case, it's probably going to be all about minimizing injuries, rather than deciding who lives and who dies. Reducing speed is the most important thing for that.", "In a perfect world, the decision would NOT be a lone decision. with in a group of self driving vehicles, all vehicles would come to a single decision based on the others in that immediate group. This would be similar to the aircraft collision avoidance systems. As 2 aircraft are on a collision course, they communicate and make a mutually beneficial decision......One aircraft will descend and the other will ascend.\n\nThere have been instances where the pilot ignored the computed path an it didn't end well.\n\nwhat it comes down to is less damage less injury.....the key in such a situation would be communications and more automation.", "It will be interesting to see what happens, because a car could actually compute the safest way to navigate while being involved in a crash.\n\nDoes it turn slightly so it hits the oncoming vehicle at a different angle to lessen the impact and reduce rollover/additional vehicle involvement?\n\nDoes it turn to spin the car harder to prevent it from drifting into another oncoming vehicle? etc\n\nAll of this stuff might go a long way to actually preventing serious injury in accidents that would normally be caused by a panicked driver." ]

[ "vehicle systems included tools to automatically adjust vehicle speed using headway sensor data, to alert the driver if a sensor detects an object with high probability of collision, to alert the driver when the car is not centered on its lane, and tools monitoring fuel usage. The study showed a decrease of safety risk up to 42% due to timely alert of the driver or an automatic adjustment of speed, and that over 90% of accidents involve driver behaviour as a contributing factor. The data included assessment of risk in different positions on the road relative to intersections and visibility.", "It compares the driver's intended direction (determined by the measured steering wheel angle) to the vehicle's actual direction (determined through measured lateral acceleration, vehicle rotation, and individual road wheel speeds).\nESC intervenes only when it detects a probable loss of steering control, such as when the vehicle is not going where the driver is steering. This may happen, for example, when skidding during emergency evasive swerves, understeer or oversteer during poorly judged turns on slippery roads, or hydroplaning. During high-performance driving, ESC can intervene when unwanted, because steering input may not always be indicative of the intended direction of travel (such", "for example their likelihood of being involved in a motor vehicle accident. On average, drivers regard accidents as much less likely in \"high-control\" situations, such as when they are driving, than in \"low-control\" situations, such as when they are in the passenger seat. They also rate a high-control accident, such as driving into the car in front, as much less likely than a low-control accident such as being hit from behind by another driver. Explanations Ellen Langer, who first demonstrated the illusion of control, explained her findings in terms of a confusion between skill and chance situations. She proposed that", "vehicle detours around a stationary object) and the limited time available after the forward collision warning.\nSeveral news started reporting that Autopilot may not detect stationary vehicles at highway speeds and it cannot detect some objects. Raj Rajkumar, who studies autonomous driving systems at Carnegie Mellon University, believes the radars used for Autopilot are designed to detect moving objects, but are \"not very good in detecting stationary objects\". Both NTSB and NHTSA dispatched teams to investigate the crash. Hod Lipson, director of Columbia University's Creative Machines Lab, faulted the diffusion of responsibility concept: \"If you give the same responsibility to", "report appears on a section of main road between two junctions instead of at its exact location. The limited precision can make a significant difference as to how navigation devices interpret the incident, potentially leading to an occasional poor route choice.\nIn the US and elsewhere, systems such as CARS (Condition Acquisition and Reporting System) can pinpoint event locations or their start and end points with one-metre precision. These real-time data are published in XML for access by companies such as Google and TomTom. These incident reports can be delivered to mobile phones and handheld devices in vehicles. However, major real-world", "the driver receives from the car. Exceptions Studies suggest that the search for a word within a randomly ordered list—in which the reaction time increases linearly according to the number of items—does not allow for the generalization of the scientific law, considering that, in other conditions, the reaction time may not be linearly associated to the logarithm of the number of elements or even show other variations of the basic plane.\nExceptions to Hick's law have been identified in studies of verbal response to familiar stimuli, where there is no relationship or only a subtle increase in the reaction time associated", "needed to allow a vehicle traveling at design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Typically the design sight distance allows a below-average driver to stop in time to avoid a collision. Decision sight distance Decision sight distance is used when drivers must make decisions more complex than stop or don't stop. It is longer than stopping sight distance to allow for the distance traveled while making a more complex decision. The decision sight distance is \"distance required for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or hazard in a roadway environment", "Automotive navigation system An automotive navigation system is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a satellite navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on a road. When directions are needed routing can be calculated. On the fly traffic information can be used to adjust the route.\nDead reckoning using distance data from sensors attached to the drivetrain, a gyroscope and an accelerometer can be used for greater reliability, as GPS signal loss and/or multipath can occur due to urban canyons", "There is a question of validity—whether results obtained in the simulator are applicable to real-world driving. One review of research studies found that driver behavior on a driving simulator approximates (relative validity) but does not exactly replicate (absolute validity) on-road driving behavior. Another study found absolute validity for the types and number of driver errors committed on a simulator and on the road. Yet another study found that scores on a driving simulator assessment predicted involvement in crashes where the driver was at least partially at fault within five years after the simulator session. Some research teams are using automated", "speed, direction of travel, longitudinal and transverse vehicle acceleration, status of the lights, turn signals and braking, etc.) and records them for some time before they are automatically cleared.\nIn the case of an accident (this is detected by a strong acceleration of the vehicle as a result of an impulse), certain periods of time (usually in the two-digit seconds range) remain permanently stored before and after an event. This makes it much easier to reconstruct events after an accident, so that if necessary the question of fault can be clarified.\nMany vehicles of authorities (such as police or ambulance) are equipped", "reduces cost and complexity.\nThe next level of Drive Pilot (code-named Intelligent Drive) featured on the 2017 E-Class enables the car to negotiate bends on the motorway, while maintaining a safe distance from slower moving vehicles in front at up to speeds of 130 mph (210 km/h). The system is not a hands free operation and an audible alert will prompt the driver into regaining control if the car detects their attention has wandered.\nThe Steering Pilot function uses visible road markings to navigate bends at speeds of up to 81 mph (130 km/h). The car is able scan the surrounding area as well as the", "comfort. One example is to predict the likelihood of a vehicle in a neighbouring lane moving in front of the controlled vehicle. One system predicts a lane change up to five seconds before it occurs. Mercedes Distronic Plus In 1999, Mercedes introduced Distronic, the first radar-assisted adaptive system, on the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W220) and the CL-Class. Distronic adjusts the vehicle speed automatically to the car in front in order to always maintain a safe distance to other cars on the road.\nIn 2005, Mercedes refined the system (\"Distronic Plus\") making the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W221) the first car to receive the upgraded", "our example, if the blindfolded passenger knew how the car was pointed and what its velocity was before he was blindfolded and if he is able to keep track of both how the car has turned and how it has accelerated and decelerated since, then he can accurately know the current orientation, position, and velocity of the car at any time. Error All inertial navigation systems suffer from integration drift: small errors in the measurement of acceleration and angular velocity are integrated into progressively larger errors in velocity, which are compounded into still greater errors in position.\nSince the new position", "(MPH) country to a KiloMetres per Hour (KMH) one and vice versa, particularly if it is difficult or impossible to adjust the system to use the correct measurement.\nIt is also possible to use computer vision to determine the assured clear distance ahead. Dead reckoning Dead reckoning (DR) uses a mechanical system linked to the vehicle’s driving assembly in order to predict the path taken by the vehicle. By measuring the rotation of the road wheels over time, a fairly precise estimation of the vehicle’s speed and distance traveled can be made. Dead reckoning requires the vehicle to begin at a", "A camera system could notice driver behavior such as brake lights and/or a turn signal. This could allow a following car to interpret a turn signal by an exit as not requiring the following car to slow down, as the leading car will exit. Multi-sensor systems could also take note of traffic signs/signals and not, e.g., violate a red light while following a vehicle that crossed before the signal changed. Predictive systems Predictive systems modify vehicle speed based on predictions of other vehicles' behavior. Such systems can make earlier, more moderate adjustments to the predicted behavior, improving safety and passenger", "is much slower than the reaction time to changes that occur towards the center of the driver's visual field. Furthermore, drivers are also able to recognize more relevant changes as opposed to irrelevant ones. Research on the effects of change blindness while driving could provide insight into potential explanations of why car accidents occur. Military Military command and control personnel who monitor multiple displays have a delayed time to accurately identify changes due to the necessity of verifying the changes, as well as the effective 'guessing' on some trials. Due to the fact that control personnel have delayed reaction because", "collision dynamics themselves on the other. Higher-class systems also offer a possibility for measuring the rotational movements as well as the vehicle speed. The latter can e.g. be calculated from the signal of the vehicle's wheel speed sensor. The recording of any signals that are available on the vehicle's own CAN bus, is possible with higher-class devices as well as the detection of a GPS signal for position and speed determination. Depending on the manufacturer, about 20 to 30 s are recorded before and 10 to 15 s after an event.\nAre known today (as of 2018) in the German-speaking countries essentially two", "is continuous and tracks the vehicle's position and orientation. This ensures that the path generated can be followed by the vehicle, unlike the paths generated by A* for Field D*, which both produce sharp turns, and do not consider the geometry or movement constraints of the vehicle.", "between vehicles, they are not accurate when used for the sorts of collision angles that occur when a vehicle collides with a roadside feature; by contrast, the FSM was designed for such collisions. History The FSM is based on research performed at Southwest Research Institute in 1980 and published in 1981 in the paper entitled \"Collision Risk Assessment Based on Occupant Flail-Space Model\" by Jarvis D. Michie. The FSM (coined by Michie) was accepted by the highway community and published as a key part of the \"Recommended Procedures for the Safety Evaluation of Highway Appurtenances\" published in 1981 in National", "car was on track for a total of six laps. Post-race Two days after the race, di Grassi called for a Global Positioning System (GPS) and accelerometer monitored automated warning system to caution drivers about an incident on the track in response to the sixteen car accident on the qualification race's first lap. The proposal was heavily criticised on social media by drivers and motor racing fans who perceived the proposal as a system to slow the cars. Di Grassi later explained that G-force sensors and accelerometers can determine whether a car has crashed, \"By GPS positioning you can say", "allowing it to travel in either direction at full speed. Sensors and batteries The ART is equipped with various sensors to assist the driver in following the route on a virtual track, or to make detours in the case of traffic jams. A Lane Departure Warning System helps to keep the vehicle in its lane and automatically warns, if it drifts away from the lane. A Collision Warning System supports the driver on keeping a safe distance with other vehicles on the road and if the proximity reduces below a given level, it alerts the driver by a warning", "to the blind, small children, the elderly, runners, cyclists, and other pedestrians, as they may have only one or two seconds, depending on the context, to audibly detect the location of approaching hybrid cars when the vehicles operate at very slow speeds. This research project was funded by the National Federation of the Blind.\nThe experiment consisted of making audio recordings of a Toyota Prius and combustion engine Honda Accord approaching from two directions at 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) to ensure that the hybrid car operated only with its electric motor. Then test subjects in a laboratory listened to the", "for information exchange between the cars for better route selection and accident reports.", "They are also two to six times more likely to get into an accident.\nResearch indicates driver performance is adversely affected by concurrent cell phone use, delaying reaction time and increasing lane deviations and length of time with eyes off the road. It can also cause \"inattention blindness\", in which drivers see but do not register what is in front of them.\nTeen drivers are especially at risk. About 1.2 million and 341,000 crashes in 2013 involved talking and texting, respectively. Other diversions include music, games, GPS, and social media, etc.These and inexperience make a potentially deadly combination. The dangers of driving", "Traffic psychology Accident research In addition to behavior research, accident research is also a component in traffic psychology, looking at driving methodology, individual differences, characteristics of personality, temporary impairments, and relevant capabilities, the driver as an information processor (includes perception and reaction times), human factors on highway accidents, and the pedestrian (identifying vulnerability, causes and prevention of accidents). Neuropsychology Linking brain regions, networks, and circuits with behaviors involved in operating a vehicle is one of the more salient topics of research within traffic psychology. Seven separate brain networks have been identified in driving simulations as being of importance to the", "what to pay attention to can be random or nonrandom. For example, when driving, drivers are able to focus on the traffic lights rather than on other stimuli present in the scene. In such cases it is mandatory to select which portion of presented stimuli is important. A basic question in psychology is when this selection occurs. This issue has developed into the early versus late selection controversy. The basis for this controversy can be found in the Cherry dichotic listening experiments. Participants were able to notice physical changes, like pitch or change in gender", "the vehicles ahead, and alerts the driver visually and audibly. If the driver fails to act, more alerts will be sounded and the car will actively brake itself. According to the IIHS, the Legacy prevented a collision while traveling at 25 mph towards a stopped obstacle. When the car was first released for the 2015 model year, Lane Departure with Sway warning was included in the Eyesight package. This function watched the driver's position within the lane lines, and alerted the driver if they were drifting out of the lane (if a turn signal was used, this alert was not activated),", "measurement from a second vehicle 1 mile away when pointed down a straight roadway. Once again falling back on the training and certification requirement for consistent and accurate visual estimation so that operators can be certain which object's speed the device has measured without distance information, which is unavailable with continuous wave radar.\nSome sophisticated devices may produce different speed measurements from multiple objects within the field of view. This is used to allow the speed-gun to be used from a moving vehicle, where a moving and a stationary object must be targeted simultaneously, and some of the most", "Euler spiral Track transition curve To travel along a circular path, an object needs to be subject to a centripetal acceleration (e.g.: the moon circles around the earth because of gravity; a car turns its front wheels inward to generate a centripetal force). If a vehicle traveling on a straight path were to suddenly transition to a tangential circular path, it would require centripetal acceleration suddenly switching at the tangent point from zero to the required value; this would be difficult to achieve (think of a driver instantly moving the steering wheel from straight line to turning position, and the", "adaptation', whereby drivers who are exposed to greater numbers of cyclists on the road begin to drive more safely around them. Though an attractive concept for cycling advocates, it has not been empirically validated. Other combined modelling and empirical evidence suggests that while changes in driver behaviour might still be one way that collision risk per cyclist declines with greater numbers, the effect can be easily produced through simple spatial processes akin to the biological herding processes described above. \nWithout considering hypotheses 1 or 3, Jacobsen concluded that \"A motorist is less likely to collide with a person walking and" ]

[ "\"The answer hinges on the fact that spicy foods excite the receptors in the skin that normally respond to heat. Those receptors are pain fibers, technically known as polymodal nociceptors. They respond to temperature extremes and to intense mechanical stimulation, such as pinching and cutting; they also respond to certain chemical influences. The central nervous system can be confused or fooled when these pain fibers are stimulated by a chemical, like that in chile peppers, which triggers an ambiguous neural response.\"\n\nSource: _URL_0_" ]

[ "spiciness or hotness) Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors. Some such plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers, piperine from black pepper, gingerol from ginger root and allyl isothiocyanate from horseradish. The piquant (\"hot\" or \"spicy\") sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as Ethiopian,", "the spice during breakfast can increase energy expenditure by 23% immediately after meal ingestion. Capsaicin, also known as hot pepper, is a primary ingredient in chilli peppers and red hot peppers. Hot peppers have been reported to induce thermogenesis at the cellular level.\nAs well, capsaicin induces satiety as a result of oral and gastro-intestinal contribution. Lower energy and fat intake were observed under short-term conditions; however, the effect of the spice was reduced over prolonged exposure. Increased satiety was observed when oral contribution of capsaicin was measured in addition to the gastro-intestinal exposure, indicating the sensory effect of hot peppers", "increase warmness and dryness in the body and are the signs and also the cause of dry and warm Mizaj as someone with warm and dry Mizaj is more prone to get angry or excited. People who consume too much warm and dry food stuff might be affected by anger and excitement more often.\nTherefore, all lifestyle tips for warm and dry Mizaj (temperament) would apply to anger and excitement as two psychiatric conditions. Eating spicy, sweat, salty, deep fried and roasted food stuff especially in warm seasons would trigger anger and excitement.\nPleasure and worry are warm and wet while fear,", "The various Mizaj of the day and night are the reasons behind mood swings and pain or discomfort varying during the day and night. Flavors Flavors have temperaments and accordingly would cause warmness, coldness, dryness and wetness in the body. One can simply decide the Mizaj of a food item or a drink by tasting them to a great extent.\nTasteless food items, also called watery, are cold and wet. Every insipid food item such as lettuce, dairy products such as yoghurt, or doogh (a yogurt-based beverage) and citrus fruits which are not too much sour or sweet are cold and", "or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation. Salmonella contamination A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007-2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and present at table", "a burning effect on other sensitive areas, such as skin or eyes. The degree of heat found within a food is often measured on the Scoville scale. Because some people enjoy the heat, there has long been a demand for capsaicin-spiced products like curry, chili con carne, and hot sauces such as Tabasco sauce and salsa.\nIt is common for people to experience pleasurable and even euphoric effects from ingesting capsaicin. Folklore among self-described \"chiliheads\" attributes this to pain-stimulated release of endorphins, a different mechanism from the local receptor overload that makes capsaicin effective as a topical analgesic. Research and", "mild to hot. The Scoville scale measures the pungency of chili peppers, as defined by the amount of capsaicin they contain.\nPungency is not considered a taste in the technical sense because it is carried to the brain by a different set of nerves. While taste nerves are activated when consuming foods like chili peppers, the sensation commonly interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory fibers in the mouth. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes that lack taste receptors (such as the nasal cavity, genitals, or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to", "which is why spicy foods cause nasal drip. The zygomatic sends signals to the lacrimal nerve that activate the lacrimal gland; which is the reason that spicy foods can cause tears. Both the lesser palatine and the zygomatic are maxillary nerves (from the trigeminal nerve).\nThe special visceral afferents of the vagus nerve carry taste from the epiglottal region of the tongue.\nThe lingual nerve (trigeminal, not shown in diagram) is deeply interconnected with chorda tympani in that it provides all other sensory info from the ⅔ of the tongue. This info is processed separately (nearby) in rostal lateral subdivision of nucleus", "eye or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. Asian countries within the sphere of, mainly, Chinese, Indian, and Japanese cultural influence, often wrote of pungency as a fifth or sixth taste. Coolness Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, anethol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived", "are preferred by scientists as they eliminate the potential ambiguity arising from use of the words \"hot\" and \"spicy\", which can also refer to temperature and the presence of spices, respectively.\nFor instance, a pumpkin pie can be both hot (out of the oven) and spicy (due to the common inclusion of spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, mace, and cloves), but it is not pungent. (A food critic may nevertheless use the word \"piquant\" to describe such a pie, especially if it is exceptionally well-seasoned.) Conversely, pure capsaicin is pungent, yet it is not naturally accompanied by a hot temperature", "with normal taste reception. The pungent feeling caused by allyl isothiocyanate, capsaicin, piperine, and allicin is caused by activation of the heat thermo- and chemosensitive TRP ion channels including TRPV1 and TRPA1 nociceptors.\nThe pungency of chilies may be an adaptive response to microbial pathogens.", "Peruvian, Hungarian, Indian, Korean, Indonesian, Lao, Malaysian, Mexican, New Mexican, Singaporean, Southwest Chinese (including Szechuan cuisine), Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\nThis particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly; the sensation interpreted as \"hot\" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the", "in nature to this condition is gustatory rhinitis, which involves rhinorrhea induced by certain foods, such as spicy foods.", "pungent agents.\nThe pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Filipino (particularly Bicolano), Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines. Mechanism Pungency is sensed via chemesthesis, the sensitivity of the skin and mucous membranes to chemical substances. Substances such as piperine and capsaicin can cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve stimulation together", "specifying how many grams of bean curd and meat, and the serving would be weighed out and cooked as the diner watched. It arrived at the table fresh, fragrant, and so spicy hot, or la, that it actually caused sweat to break out.\"\nIn Japan, the dish was introduced and popularized by the Sino-Japanese chef Chen Kenmin. His son, Chen Kenichi, made it more popular as it was one of his trademark dishes on the television program Iron Chef. Characteristics Authentic mapo doufu is powerfully spicy with both conventional \"heat\" spiciness and the characteristic málà (numbing spiciness) flavor of Sichuan cuisine.", "like paprika, or hot sauce to give it a spicy taste. This is especially common in fast food restaurants and chains such as KFC. The dish is traditionally served with mashed potato, gravy, macaroni and cheese, coleslaw and biscuits.\nThe dish is renowned for being greasy, especially when coming from fast food outlets. It has even been reported that some of those who enjoy eating the food limit themselves to eating it only a certain number of times a year, to keep their fat intake reasonably low. Out of the various parts of the animal used in fried chicken, the wings", "Cucumber is sometimes eaten to cool the mouth with particularly spicy dishes. They often feature as a garnish, especially with one-dish meals. The plain rice, sticky rice or the khanom chin (Thai rice noodles) served alongside a spicy Thai curry or stir fry, tends to counteract the spiciness.\nWhen time is limited or when eating alone, single dishes, such as fried rice or noodle soups, are quick and filling. An alternative is to have one or smaller helpings of curry, stir fries and other dishes served together on one plate with a portion of rice. This style of serving food is", "is not due to the sweat itself but instead to an allergy-producing protein secreted by bacteria found on the skin.\nCholinergic urticaria (CU) is one of the physical urticaria which is provoked during sweating events such as exercise, bathing, staying in a heated environment, or emotional stress. The hives produced are typically smaller than classic hives and are generally shorter-lasting.\nMultiple subtypes have been elucidated, each of which require distinct treatment.\nTannic-acid has been found to suppress the allergic response along with showering.", "back of the throat, up the nose, then eventually moves to the roof of the mouth and finally the tongue where the pain is intense, at which point there can be gustatory sweating and tears from the eyes. Some tasters note the strong, fruity Fatalii flavour, which is quite distinct, as being almost identical to the yellow version. Others find it milder.\nHot chili aficionados who have tasted all four colour varieties report the heat increasing from the white, which has pronounced citrus lime and lemon flavours, through yellow, then red, then to the hottest and sweetest being the chocolate or", "often spicy meal is a source of pride and recalls the taste of a good home. Cabbages (napa cabbages, bomdong, headed cabbages) and radishes (Korean radishes, ponytail radishes, gegeol radishes, yeolmu radishes) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables. Other kimchi vegetables include: aster, balloon flower roots, burdock roots, celery, chamnamul, cilantro, cress, crown daisy greens, cucumber, eggplant, garlic chives, garlic scapes, ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots, Korean parsley, Korean wild chive, lotus roots, mustard greens, onions, perilla leaves, bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins, radish greens, rapeseed leaves, scallions, soybean sprouts, spinach, sugar beets, sweet potato vines, and tomatoes. Seasonings Brining", "food is an important consideration. Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins. Milder spices, such as black pepper, pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins—such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper-crusted ahi tuna.\nFats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate. When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a", "experience. Heat can accentuate some flavors and decrease others by varying the density and fase equilibrium of a substance. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example are soft drinks. In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. Starchiness A 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch (specifically, a glucose oligomer)", "or spices.\nAs the Oxford, Collins, and Merriam-Webster dictionaries explain, the term \"piquancy\" refers to mild pungency and flavors and spices that are much less strong than chilli peppers, including, for example, the strong flavor of some tomatoes. In other words, pungency always refers to a very strong taste whereas piquancy refers to any spices and foods that are \"agreeably stimulating to the palate\", in other words to food that is spicy in the general sense of \"well-spiced\". Applications Pungent substances have been used as analgesics and for flavoring foods. In foods Pungency is often quantified in scales that range from", "used in the Sahel. Called karité in French, which comes from the Arabic word ghartī, it is prized for the rich mouthfeel it imparts.\nThere are certain ingredients that go with certain countries as well. In Ghana, the most commonly used ingredients are hot pepper, ginger, and maize. Ghanaians use hot pepper because they believe the hot peppers will cool the body and cleanse/purify it. (Salm, 106-108). In Senegal, the main ingredients are among many others gumbo, hot pepper, rice, millet, peanut, ginger, tamarind leaves, and baobab fruit, and cooking oil (Ross, 75). Those are the few that have a", "surface of the skin, apocrine glands secrete sweat into the pilary canal of the hair follicle.\nBefore puberty, the apocrine sweat glands are inactive; hormonal changes in puberty cause the glands to increase in size and begin functioning. The substance secreted is thicker than eccrine sweat and provides nutrients for bacteria on the skin: the bacteria's decomposition of sweat is what creates the acrid odor. Apocrine sweat glands are most active in times of stress and sexual excitement.\nIn mammals (including humans), apocrine sweat contains pheromone-like compounds to attract other organisms within their species. Study of human sweat has revealed differences between", "a part of a regular breakfast meal. In Chongqing, stinky tofu on the street is usually fried and dipped in a mixture of, typically, coriander (cilantro) leaves, scallions, chili powder, Sichuan pepper and oil. Stinky tofu is also sometimes dipped in Sichuan spicy hot pot. In Beijing, there is a form that is sold in jar as a curd.\nIn Anhui, the perceived deliciousness of stinky tofu depends mainly on its spiciness: the spicier it is, the more it suits the local favor. Chinese legend says that stinky tofu was invented by a man from Anhui province, and indeed it is", "hot drinks (over 65 °C or 149 °F) and ingestion of caustic substances. High levels of dietary exposure to nitrosamines (chemical compounds found both in tobacco smoke and certain foodstuffs) also appear to be a relevant risk factor. Unfavorable dietary patterns seem to involve exposure to nitrosamines through processed and barbecued meats, pickled vegetables, etc., and a low intake of fresh foods. Other associated factors include nutritional deficiencies, low socioeconomic status, and poor oral hygiene. Chewing betel nut (areca) is an important risk factor in Asia.\nPhysical trauma may increase the risk. This may include the drinking of very hot drinks. Adenocarcinoma", "are most often eaten as fillets or steaks. Larger species, such as the great barracuda, have been implicated in cases of ciguatera food poisoning. Those who have been diagnosed with this type of food poisoning display symptoms of gastrointestinal discomfort, limb weakness, and an inability to differentiate hot from cold effectively.\nWest Africans smoke them for use in soups and sauces. Smoking protects the soft flesh from disintegrating in the broth and gives it a smoky flavour.", "dietary fibre. Flavor Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from piperine derived both from the outer fruit and the seed. Black pepper contains between 4.6 and 9.7% piperine by mass, and white pepper slightly more than that. Refined piperine, by weight, is about one percent as hot as the capsaicin found in chili peppers. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains aroma-contributing terpenes, including germacrene (11%), limonene (10%), pinene (10%), alpha-phellandrene (9%), and beta-caryophyllene (7%), which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, as the fermentation and other processing removes", "vegetable, and the hot spicy), as well as for dried and ground spice made from them (named paprika in both U.S. English and Commonwealth English). Also, fruit and spice can be attributed as papryka ostra (hot pepper) or papryka słodka (sweet pepper). In Polish, the term pieprz (pepper) instead means only grains or ground black pepper (incl. the green, white, and red forms), but not capsicum. Sometimes, the hot capsicum spice is also called chilli. Similarly, Hungarian uses the word bors for the black pepper.\nIn Czech and Slovak, the term paprika is too used for all kinds of capsicums. For" ]

[ "An NHL goal is 6 feet wide by 4 feet wide. I doubt there's many people actually large enough to block that entire area. And if there is someone that big, I doubt they'd be able to stand up and skate their way out to the net.", "Also take into consideration that the NHL does have restrictions on pad size. Lets say you put a big sumo wrestler in goal, he would have a lot of exposed area. Would you want to repeatedly take 100 MPH slap shots to unprotected part of your body?", "Assuming you did find someone large enough to block the entire opening (you won't), they'd still have to stand. They are not allowed to lay down in front of the net for the entire game.", "There was an [article](_URL_0_) about it and there does not appear to be any current rules against it.\n\nHowever there are a number of problems with the main one being that while the size of the man isn't regulated the size of the pads is. On someone so massive, 800+ pounds, there would be a LOT of area exposed to 100MPH pucks and slashes from angry players. Even in the experiment in the article the goalie didn't cover the entire net and had to move around and with all that weight even basic movement was very tiring.\n\nThe second reason is the NHL would consider it a dick move and create some rules before it became too game breaking.\n\nEdit: Third reason is because you have to have a physical to be allowed on the ice. No doctor would certify a 1,000 pound person to play hockey.", "Nobody is big enough to block the whole goal, and goalies are actually pretty athletic. The bulk you see is as much pads as actual person. They need to be quick and fearless (possibly a little bit crazy too). \n\nNext time you watch an NHL game, watch how much the goalie moves. He's constantly moving, evaluating and adjusting to the puck. He's also got to be quick enough to catch the puck, or smack it away or dive on it." ]

[ "the NHL, a team always has at least three skaters on the ice. Thus, ten-minute misconduct penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the ice unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a two-and-ten or five-and-ten). In this case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute", "If the illegal participant prevents a score, it is an unfair act and the score is awarded. Ice hockey Too many men on the ice is a bench penalty in ice hockey called when a team has more than the legal number of players (six, including the goalie, if not already short handed) on the ice at one time. This term is normally used even in women's ice hockey, although occasionally the word men may be replaced by players. The penalty for the infraction is two minutes in the penalty box served by the player chosen by the offending coach", "NHL coming from a poor background by using hand-me-down equipment, but he fears that \"hockey is becoming an opportunity only for the people who can pay their way in\", and suggested a return to wooden sticks for minors.", "ice. Additional penalties will be delayed until one of the earlier penalties has expired (see stacked penalties below).\nIn leagues which play with a shorthanded overtime (with only three or four attackers on the ice), should a team be penalized with only three players on the ice, an additional skater is added to the other team instead, until a five-on-three is produced. If a penalty in this situation expires without a goal being scored, the penalized player will be allowed back on the ice and will play normally until there is a stoppage; both teams will then be reduced back", "Hockey Canada Officiating Program Penalties A penalty in ice hockey is a punishment for inappropriate behavior. Most penalties are enforced by detaining the offending player within a penalty box for a set number of minutes during which the player can not participate in play. The offending team usually may not replace the player on the ice, leaving them short-handed (as opposed to full strength) or penalty killing until the penalty expires and the player returns to the ice. The opposing team is said to be on a power play, having one player more on the ice than the short-handed team.", "Penalty (ice hockey) A penalty in ice hockey is a punishment for an infringement of the rules. Most penalties are enforced by sending the offending player to a penalty box for a set number of minutes. During the penalty the player may not participate in play. Penalties are called and enforced by the referee, or in some cases, the linesman. The offending team may not replace the player on the ice (although there are some exceptions, such as fighting), leaving them short-handed as opposed to full strength. When the opposing team is said to be on a power play,", "a team always has at least two skaters on the rink. Ten-minute misconduct penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the floor unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a two-and-ten or five-and-ten). In that case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute misconduct begins. In", "to replace the penalized player on the ice; the player will return directly to the ice once the penalty has expired. This creates a power play during which the penalized team will have one player fewer than their opponent and is said to be \"short-handed\". If two players on a team are in the penalty box at the same time, the situation is called a \"five on three\" (as is customary, the goalies are not counted in this expression) or \"two-man advantage\". Additional players may be penalized, but a team will never play with fewer than three skaters on the", "serious injury, these hits can have penalties ranging from a minor two-minute penalty to a major and game misconduct, along with a $100 fine in the NHL. In women's ice hockey, any body checking is a penalty and is also not allowed in leagues with young children. Men's amateur leagues typically allow checking unless stipulated otherwise in league rules. Some intramural university leagues do not permit body checking, in order to avoid injury and incidents of fighting. \"Leaning\" against opponents is an alternative to body checking but can be penalized for holding if abused. Many studies have been done regarding", "The following season the NHL tested and later mandated a change to its rinks to have a curved glass at the end of the player benches to deflect similar impact. Personal life Before he was drafted in the NHL, Chára's coaches in his native Slovakia attempted to persuade him to play basketball, due to his height. Also as a result of his height, Chára uses sticks two inches longer than NHL regulations, and receives a waiver from the NHL to do so.\nChára married his long-time girlfriend Tatiana Biskupicová on July 14, 2007, in a Catholic church in Nemšová, Slovakia. Tatiana", "NHL adopted the existing NHA set of rules. The NHL's rules are the basis for rules governing most professional and major junior ice hockey leagues in North America. Infractions of the rules, such as offside and icing, lead to a stoppage of play and subsequent face-offs, while more serious infractions leading to penalties to the offending teams. The league also determines the specifications for playing equipment used in its games.\nThe league has regularly modified its rules to counter perceived imperfections in the game. The penalty shot was adopted from the Pacific Coast Hockey Association to ensure players were not being", "team is given a \"bench minor\" penalty (assessed against the team, rather than an individual player), then any skater who was on the ice at the time of the infraction may serve the penalty. In rare cases, when the offending player suffers an injury on the same play, whoever is on the ice at the time of the penalty may also serve the penalty, as was the case of Game 2 of the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals' series during the 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs, when Phil Kessel served a penalty in place of Tom Kühnhackl.\nA team with a numerical", "be \"toned down\" at future games. More specifically, they have been asked not to touch the glass of the penalty box or perform handstands against it anymore. There has been no confirmation as to whether or not the NHL league contacted Forsyth and Sullivan directly, or whether the Nashville Predators filed a complaint towards the league during the 2011 playoffs. Although the Hockey Night in Canada analysts have different perspectives towards Forsyth and Sullivan, Eric Francis said he believes that the Green Men are paying fans and have a right to be there. \"They have done nothing wrong. All they're", "1985–86 NHL season League business On June 13, 1985, the NHL board of governors voted 17–4 in favour of amending a penalty rule. Previously, coincidental minor penalties would result in 4-on-4 play. The amendment allowed teams to substitute another player to keep the play 5-on-5. It was seen by many as a shot at trying to slow down the high-flying Edmonton Oilers. Wayne Gretzky was quoted as saying, \"I think the NHL is making a big mistake. I think the NHL should be more concerned with butt-ending, spearing, and three-hour hockey games than getting rid of 4-on-4 situations.\" It wasn't", "delayed penalty was called on Washington, and Carolina removed their goalie from the net to get an extra skater. Wallin was chased out of the offensive zone by Alexander Ovechkin and tried to deke around a passing referee. When he did this, Wallin lost control of the puck and it sailed more than 100 feet into Carolina's open net.\nOn 7 February 2010, it was announced that Wallin was traded to the San Jose Sharks along with a fifth round draft pick in exchange for a second round draft pick that originally belonged to the Buffalo Sabres in the 2010 NHL", "player must still serve the second time block. These rules used to be in college hockey as well, until the 2010-2011 season, when it was changed so that the penalty would still be imposed even if a goal was scored. Major penalties, misconduct penalties and match penalties, which are not affected by goals, are enforced in the usual manner, in both college hockey and the NHL, whether or not a goal is scored.\nThe offending player or players are sent to the penalty box where they must remain until the penalty has expired. Typically a team will not be allowed", "two players will be sent to the penalty box: the offender and a teammate of his, frequently one who was on the ice at the time. The team is allowed to immediately substitute for the offender, so there is only a one-man disadvantage. Once the boarding penalty ends, the teammate can return to the ice, and both teams are at full strength again while the offender remains in the penalty box until the first stoppage in play after his/her ten minutes have elapsed. This is according to USA Hockey Rule 404(a) and NHL Rule 28. In the event the other", "penalty is a major, most adult leagues allow deferring placing the substitute player into the penalty box so long as he is in place before the major penalty expires (but the team must still play shorthanded). In such cases, only a player from the penalty box can emerge in place of the offender after the end of the major penalty.\nMisconduct penalties are usually called to temporarily take a player off the ice and allow tempers to cool. They are sometimes also assessed in conjunction with fighting majors, giving the offending player(s) the opportunity to calm down as they sit out", "protect two goaltenders and two skill players. Originally, Gretzky was not eligible to be protected; under the rules of the time, he normally would have been placed in the Entry Draft pool.\nHowever, Pocklington had signed him to a 21-year contract in 1979. Pocklington used the contract to force the NHL to admit the Oilers: he promised the league Gretzky would fill every arena, but that since he was under a personal services contract to Pocklington, the only way Gretzky would enter the NHL was as an Oiler. The NHL relented, allowing the Oilers to protect Gretzky.\nIn the expansion draft,", "enforced until general managers voted to enforce it in the 2013–14 season. Some reporters suggested that enforcing uniform rules was the National Hockey League's attempt to reduce freak accidents where a player's body was cut by skate blade while others said the league was laying down rules for eventually selling advertising space that would display prominently on the entire jersey. In a September 2013 pre-season game between the Carolina Hurricanes and the Columbus Blue Jackets, Alexander Semin became the first player penalized for this infraction. After receiving an official's initial warning in that game, his jersey became tucked in again", "had to put a big fat zero on their aptitude test by pulling one the dumbest tricks in sports. They hauled their team off the ice. Loktev knew the conditions before he came. Nobody loves playing in Philadelphia. Once he accepted a game with the Flyers, under NHL rules, with an NHL referee, he was in the same boat as the Toronto Maple Leafs or Vancouver Canucks when they come to town. Loktev wanted his team to know what's it's like to play the Flyers in Philly under NHL conditions. Well...that's what it's like.\" Legacy A little more than a", "season.\nIn an effort to reduce the number of disallowed goals due to the skate-in-the-crease violation, the goal crease shape and size was significantly reduced. In spite of this, goaltenders and defensive systems continued to dominate the league, as only two teams, the Toronto Maple Leafs and the New Jersey Devils, averaged more than three goals scored per game. In addition, no player reached the 50-goal plateau. A total of 160 shutouts were recorded for the second-straight regular season.", "The USA Hockey casebook specifically states that the imposition of such a penalty would be unusual, and the player would typically first be asked to leave the referee's crease before the imposition of the penalty. The NHL has a similar rule, also calling for a misconduct penalty. Traditionally, captains and alternate captains are the only players allowed to approach the referee's crease. Zones The blue lines divide the rink into three zones. The central zone is called the neutral zone or simply centre ice. The generic term for the outer zones is end zones, but they are more commonly referred", "by normal means. A delayed penalty is one in which the a penalty is called but play is not yet stopped because the opposing team retains the puck. The goaltender of the non-offending team will often go to the players' bench upon seeing the arm signal to allow an extra attacker on the ice until the play is stopped. Annual Certification All On-Ice Officials in Canada are required to register for a clinic and pass an exam in order to be eligible to officiate Hockey in Canada. Clinics can be found and registered for on the Hockey Canada Clinic", "offending player is sent to the penalty box and their team has to play with one less player on the ice for a designated amount of time. Minor penalties last for two minutes, major penalties last for five minutes, and a double minor penalty is two consecutive penalties of two minutes duration. A single minor penalty may be extended by a further two minutes for causing visible injury to the victimized player. This is usually when blood is drawn during high sticking. Players may be also assessed personal extended penalties or game expulsions for misconduct in addition to the penalty", "involve a skater's lower extremities. Helmets, padding, and possibly friendly or parental supervision are highly recommended or enforced by law.\nScholars Glenn Keays and Alex Dumas found media reports of five longboard-related deaths in Canada and the United States during 2012, and four in 2013. A number of municipalities—most notably Vancouver—have considered banning or restricting longboarding, expressing concern with the speeds longboarders can reach.", "the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2006.\n\nDefenceman Mike Commodore created a stir early on in the lockout when he stated during a radio interview for The Fan 960 in Calgary that he would accept a salary cap if it meant resolving the lockout. \nI'll risk the slap on the wrist. I don't want to spend however long my career lasts playing here in the American Hockey League, so I think whatever it takes. It's got to be give and take on both sides, not one side can be making all the money. But if (a salary cap is)", "him with their skate or a malicious hit. In addition to the offending player being immediately ejected (and usually subject to suspension), another player must serve a five-minute major penalty in the penalty box in addition to any other penalties imposed. The only exception is if a match penalty is against a goaltender, in which case the replacement goaltender can enter the ice immediately and a non-goaltender player serves the penalties. Match penalties may also be automatically flagged for review and supplementary discipline, depending on the league or association.\nPrior to 2000, a gross misconduct was normally issued for", "among his team's leaders in both goals and penalty minutes. He claimed to have been involved in at least fifty incidents during his career in which a player left the ice on a stretcher. In the season when Ottawa unsuccessfully attempted to have him banned from the NHL, Cleghorn led the league in penalty minutes with 80. According to some accounts, Evelyn Byng, Viscountess Byng of Vimy, was so mortified by Cleghorn's style that she donated the Lady Byng Trophy to the NHL in 1924 in a bid to encourage more sportsmanlike play.\nCleghorn's physicality made him a feared defender away", "However, NHL officials maintained that Hull's two shots in the goal mouth constituted a single possession of the puck since the puck deflected off Hasek. The rule was changed for the following season, allowing players to be inside the goaltender's crease as long as they do not interfere with the goaltender.\nThe next year was a disappointing season. The team struggled in the regular season, due to injuries to Hasek as well as other tired and discouraged players. Doug Gilmour was acquired from the Chicago Blackhawks at the trade deadline and sparked the Sabres to a playoff berth. However, Gilmour was" ]

[ "Because they are genetically programmed to. It's evolution. Individuals that do not try to survive are not able to live long enough to reproduce - or in some species' cases, to care for their young either (imagine a mother dying and leaving her babies helpless).\n\nTrying to survive doesn't mean you need any special awareness of what death means though. All you need is to be programmed to run at the sight of a particular predator. Your computer is programmed to run millions of things, even your programs literally try to survive without crashing, but it doesn't mean your computer needs to be self-aware to perform those tasks. Self-awareness is not required for a survival instinct.\n\nAt its most basic level, it's programming that says \"Bad thing detected. Flee from or kill bad thing.\"\n\nIt's wrong to even say they have motivation (for most animals), it's simply just what they do. It's like asking why your car tries to survive. It's a false question. Motivation isn't a factor.\n\nFor your more intelligent animals, survival is a motivator because survival means avoiding pain and suffering. They aren't really thinking \"I want to survive\" so much as they are thinking \"I want to avoid horrible pain\".", "Does a falling ball \"know\" it's trying to return to Earth? Or does it just do what it must?\n\nAnimals behave out of instinct. When hungry, they are driven to eat. At a certain time of year, they are driven to mate. When startled, they automatically flee. They don't know the effects of these actions, but that isn't necessary.", "You need to remember that animals are VERY different to humans. \nA lot of the stuff we take for granted is totally alien to them. Measurements for one thing. A cow doesn't care if it's Sunday. \nThey might have a notion of 'Its now warm and light so I can find food. < And later > Now there is less light and cold, So I'll sleep', but what does 3pm mean to them? Nothing. \n\nEqually, An animal won't 'Ask for' or 'Demand' stuff, nor will it issue orders or instructions to its peers. It probably dosen't even see them as peers. It wouldn't have 'Questions' 'Laws' 'Political correctness' 'Politeness' 'Etiquette' or anything like that. \n\nLets reduce it to a basic scenario. When we point our finger human beings follow the direction of the finger whilst cats look at the end of the finger.\n\nThere is a quote from Wittgenstein: \n'If a lion could talk, we could not understand him' \n\nIts frame of reference would be so far removed from our own, That would not be able to understand what they are talking about, and they wouldn't not understand what we are talking about. \n\nSo they may not understand death - Or they may - We don't know what their frame of reference is.", "What makes you think that animals dont know that they will die? \nOf course they might not conciously think about it like humans, but for example, alot of animals know when they are nearing death. \nAlso, survival is a broader term for many aspects of living. Eating when you are hungry, running / fighting when you are in danger, tending wounds when something hurts. These are all part of survival, but they do not require you to actively think about not dying. Being hungry sucks, so you go eat.", "survival is built into our DNA through natural selection, a principle first coined by Darwin (and Wallace). Basically, populations could grow exponetially, however there are limited resources and there are variations that arise within all populations of organisms (through mutations, and interaction with the environment over time). Those with the favorable variations (ex: deer's reflex to take flight when startled by a noise or visual) are more likely to survive, and thus spread their favorable trait to the next generation (through sexy stuff)." ]

[ "amount of threats and need approximately the same amount of protection (at the relative timescale of the animals) as large animals with fewer natural enemies that grow more slowly (e.g. that many small carnivores that could not eat even a very young human child could easily eat multiple very young blind meerkats). This criticism also argues that when a carnivore eats a batch stored together, there is no significant difference in the chance of one surviving depending on the number of young stored together, concluding that humans do not stand out from many small animals such as mice in selection", "supply, waste predator energy and risk them being injured. Nonetheless, researchers say animals surplus kill whenever they can, in order to procure food for offspring and others, to gain valuable killing experience, and to create the opportunity to eat the carcass later when they are hungry again.", "down and die for our dinner? Organisms have evolved to do everything in their power to avoid being extinguished. How long would any lineage be likely to last if its members effectively didn't care if you killed them? Animals killed in crop harvesting Steven Davis, a professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the least harm principle does not require giving up all meat. Davis states that a diet containing beef from grass-fed ruminants such as cattle would kill fewer animals than a vegetarian diet, particularly when one takes into account animals killed by agriculture.\nThis conclusion has", "animals in the enclosure to search for prey as in their natural environment. However, in some cases animals in zoos need to be fed with other live animals, because they would not eat non-living food items. Whenever this has to be done however, the prey should have, as in natural conditions, a possibility to hide and it must be assured that the prey animal is killed as quickly as possible without pain and suffering. Whenever the animals accept dead prey or food items, they are not to be given live animals as food.\nIndeed, most contemporary zoos led by professionals are", "human suicide was seen as. Although it is impossible to determine what drives animals to self-destruction, some specific traits associated with human suicide can be successfully transferred to animals. Scientists have been unable to explain whether animals are able to consciously end their own lives.\nAristotle describes a case of a horse committing suicide in his History of Animals. Self-destruction Some species of social insects will commit suicide in an act of altruism through autothysis. These insects will sacrifice themselves if the colony is in danger, to alert the colony of danger, or if they become diseased they will sacrifice themselves", "enters the home. Animals lucky enough to survive until they are discovered are often in poor condition due to lack of resources such as food and water. Abandonment Pets are abandoned for a variety of reasons. Often, when abandoned, pets are forced to fend for themselves, and become feral. In particular, cats and dogs go to colonies. Feral cats are said to outnumber feral dogs. Feral cats are difficult to deal with, as often they become impossible to socialize enough to be re-introduced to a new human owner. In general, only some newly abandoned cats and very young feral kittens", "explode, covering their enemies with sticky goo.\nThere have been anecdotal reports of dogs, horses, and dolphins killing themselves, but little scientific study of animal suicide. Animal suicide is usually put down to romantic human interpretation and is not generally thought to be intentional. Some of the reasons animals are thought to unintentionally kill themselves include: psychological stress, infection by certain parasites or fungi, or disruption of a long-held social tie, such as the ending of a long association with an owner and thus not accepting food from another individual.", "only being badly frightened, and then suddenly being in a different room. They will not do anything or get less frightened when Raimi dispossesses them, so they can be possessed again at any time.\nAnimals also cannot be used for combat, but are vital to reach some areas. Due to their size, rats and dogs (rabbits and roaches in multiplayer) can crawl through some small holes and reach the room on the other side. Bats can fly to otherwise unreachable areas. Other animals are tools to make a human host possessable. The only exception to animals being useless for combat situations", "possessed by those finding themselves in a wilderness survival situation, making the risks (including use of energy) outweigh the benefits.\nCockroaches, flies and ants can contaminate food, making it unsafe for consumption. Mind preparedness The mind and its processes are critical to survival. The will to live in a life-and-death situation often separates those that live and those that do not. Stories of heroic feats of survival by regular people with little or no training but a strong will to live are not uncommon. Among them is Juliane Koepcke, who was the sole survivor among the 93 passengers when her", "current changes, in order to better absorb and process nutrients). Self-preservation is therefore an almost universal hallmark of life. However, when introduced to a novel threat, many species will have a self-preservation response either too specialised, or not specialised enough, to cope with that particular threat. An example is the dodo, which evolved in the absence of natural predators and hence lacked an appropriate, general self-preservation response to heavy predation by humans and rats, showing no fear of them. Correlations “Existential, psychiatric, social, and, to a lesser degree, physical variables are highly correlated with the will to live”. Existential issues", "range of animals, e.g. lizards, birds, rodents, and sharks, behave as if dead as an anti-predator adaptation, as predators usually take only live prey.\nIn beetles, artificial selection experiments have shown that there is heritable variation for length of death-feigning. Those selected for longer death-feigning durations are at a selective advantage to those at shorter durations when a predator is introduced. Birds often feign death to escape predation; for example tonic immobility in quail reduces the probability of attacks by cats.\nDeath feigning may also play a role in reproduction, for example, in the nursery web spider, the male sometimes feigns death", "survive, but humans do not. Third, he considers the fact that animals are killed in the harvesting process. These animals, he suggests, are killed for human survival, but as fewer are killed than would be killed were humans eating meat, they do not possess a concrete right to life. Despite this, political communities must take steps to ensure that fewer animals are killed in harvest.\nAfter looking at agriculture, Cochrane considers the relationship between animals and genetic engineering. The question of whether an animal has a right not to be genetically engineered, he suggests, makes no sense, as live animals are", "is almost unheard of.\nAnimals were also severely affected by Roog's judgement. Although rendered wild and \"mad\", they still retain their instinct, though their relations with humans would be changed forever. Some became human pets others retained their freedom away from human habitation. Despite this separation, animals are respected and would form part of Serer temism.\nHumans were the least affected. The only thing they have lost was their original size and duration of life. Along with being giants, the first humans were believed to have had larger eyes and bigger bones than the present. Roog did not touch the human spirit.", "homes are often left without food or water. Some do not survive because of the lack of resources and are found dead when realtors or banks enter the premises. The animals are put in harm's way, and it is often believed it is done as a way to retaliate against those who took the home away. Shelters Many animals left at a shelter are euthanized due to lack of space and financial resources for these animals. Shelters unable to raise additional funds to provide for the increased number of incoming animals have no choice but to euthanize them, sometimes within", "time, the death of an animal could lead to an inability to complete required tasks and cause a farm to fail. This was important because it could, in turn, lead to eviction and poverty and, in extreme cases, loss of human life. For the same reasons, farmers also asked Biddy to help with other problems related to daily life, such as restoring a spring well or fixing a problem with the farm's butter production.\nAt some point Biddy acquired a bottle that became as famous as she was. She would frequently look into the bottle, which contained some sort of dark", "boredom and foot problems (Lemonic, McDowel, and Bjerklie 50). Also, animals can have a shorter life span when they are in these types of enclosures. Causes can be human diseases, materials in the cages, and possible escape attempts (Bendow 382). However, when zoos take time to think about the animal's welfare, zoos can become a place of refuge. There are animals that are injured in the wild and are unable to survive on their own, but in the zoos they can live out the rest of their lives healthy and happy (McGaffin). In recent years, some zoos have chosen", "to travel through areas that animals could survive.", "in groups have increased vigilance, and even solitary animals are capable of rapid escape when needed. Even if it does make a capture, its prey may attract competing predators, giving it a chance to escape in the struggle. It may also strike a non-vital organ: some species have deceptive appearances such that one part of their body resembles another, such as insects with false heads. This makes consumption (or fatal wound)s less probable, giving the prey a second chance at escaping.\nPredators may have extensive capabilities in finding prey, but even when they are successful in doing so they may not", "the reproductive fitness of others outweighs the reproductive fitness of the individual. There are examples of animals dying in defense of their family or colony, such as the case of pea aphids increasing their chances of death as a response to parasitism. Vervet monkeys will alert others when a predator is near, consequently drawing attention to itself and increasing their likelihood of being attacked.\nMany animals that appear to be depressed or grieving begin to exhibit self-destructive behavior that sometimes ends in death, but this is not considered suicide, as the achieving of death was not necessarily the purpose or", "and from bringing more and more captive animals into the cycle of being born, contracting parasites, ageing, falling ill and dying; eating and being eaten.\nDavid Benatar emphasizes that his asymmetry applies to all sentient beings, and mentions that humans play a role in deciding how many animals there will be: humans breed other species of animals and are able to sterilize other species of animals.\nMagnus Vinding argues that the life of wild animals in their natural environment is generally very bad. He draws attention to phenomena such as dying before adulthood, starvation, diseases, parasites, infanticide, predation and being eaten alive.", "that would promote the survival \"of herbivorous rather than carnivorous species.\"\nPeter Vallentyne suggests that, while humans should not eliminate predators in nature, they can intervene to help prey in more limited ways. In the same way that we help humans in need when the cost to us is small, we might help some wild animals at least in limited circumstances. Potential conflict between animal rights and environmentalism It has been argued that the common environmentalist goal of preserving the natural order is not in line with the goal of looking after the welfare of sentient animals. It has been further", "For example, animals that eat fruit have the option of eating unripe fruit right away, or waiting, delaying gratification, until it becomes ripe. The interruption risk plays a part here, because if the individual forgoes the unripe fruit, there is a chance that another individual may come along and get to it first. Also, in extractive foraging, such as with nuts and shellfish, the outer shell creates a delay. However, animals that can store food and defer eating are more likely to survive during harsh conditions, and thus delaying gratification may also incur an evolutionary advantage.\nIt is likely that there", "by Connolly, animals are given a stroke and maintained on anesthesia and analgesia for 12–18 hours. Then, when anesthesia is removed, animals that are not self-caring are euthanized. All other animals may be kept alive for three days, in accordance with established ethical guidelines. Then, if animals are not self-caring, they are euthanized. Animals that are self-caring at 72 hours may be kept alive for up to 10 days.\nA USDA investigation of the Columbia baboons found \"no indication that the experiments...violated federal guidelines.\" Further, the Dean of Research at Columbia's School of Medicine noted that Connolly stopped the experiments because", "that cause[s] suffering to animals.\" A more comprehensive 1934 decree stipulated that animals not be overworked or kept where they cannot breathe properly, move, or rest, or are deprived of air or light, and that animals be given a quick death (whether or not they are for human consumption). The decree also prohibits abandoning a sick, injured or mutilated animal and failing to provide an animal with \"all that is necessary\", including veterinary assistance. Lawyers from the Public Ministry or from animal protection organizations are allowed to assist animals in court, giving animals a degree of legal", "to grow and survive. The lack of these elements will cause a growth limitation factor in the said microsite and also survival issues. Same applies to animals but however in animals they can immigrate to other areas that favors their growth and survival while those who can not will be limited in fitness.", "is not worthwhile, by distraction, by using defensive structures such as spines, and by living in a group. Members of groups are at reduced risk of predation, despite the increased conspicuousness of a group, through improved vigilance, predator confusion, and the likelihood that the predator will attack some other individual.\nSome prey species are capable of fighting back against predators, whether with chemicals, through communal defence, or by ejecting noxious materials. Many animals can escape by fleeing rapidly, outrunning or outmanoeuvring their attacker.\nFinally, some species are able to escape even when caught by sacrificing certain body parts: crabs can shed a", "animals can resist without eating for long time, live more than comparable epigean species, reproduce late in their lifespan, and produce less and bigger eggs. Evolution and ecology Subterranean fauna have evolved in isolation. Stratigraphic barriers, such as rock walls and layers, and fluvial barriers, such as rivers and streams, prevent or hinder the dispersal of these animals. Consequently, subterranean fauna habitat and food availability can be very disjunct and precludes the great range of observed diversity across landscapes. Threats to subterranean fauna Floodwaters can be detrimental to subterranean species, by dramatically changing the availability of habitat, food and connectivity", "Animal suicide Animal suicide refers to any kind of self-destructive behavior displayed by various species of animals, resulting in their death. Although contradicting the natural progression of life and an animal's evolutionary instinct for survival, some situations may lead to an animal inducing their own death. Animal suicide in the defense of the group could be instantaneous or altruistic self-removal once an animal becomes diseased. There are anecdotal reports of grieving pets displaying such behaviour after the death of their owner, or monogamous animals refusing to feed after the death of their mate.\nSome parasites manipulate the behavior of their host,", "newly intelligent animal species, equipped with weapons and technology salvaged from the ruins of human civilization, began to struggle for territory. Horses were apparently not affected, and serve as a means of transportation in the technologically impoverished world of Earth A.D.\nBy this time, most surviving humans are acting bestial, with very limited reasoning ability. Most have only the most rudimentary ability to speak, although they can be trained. The precise cause of the loss of reasoning ability is ambiguous in the original series. The animals treat humans as beasts, using them for labor or as pets.\nKamandi is the last survivor", "of most machairodonts.\nMany modern cats show this mixture of traits. Lions are able-bodied hunters, but will steal when they are given the opportunity. Tigers and cougars bury their kills and return later to keep eating, even days later. All cats prefer killing the sick or injured, and there is a fine line between an animal so sick it cannot move and a dead animal. The abundance of Smilodon skeletons in the La Brea tar pits in California supports the hypothesis, as well. The animals caught in the pits would have been dying or dead, the kind of meal a true" ]

[ "Generally yes, anything generated by an algorithm can be reproduced if you know the \"initial\" settings. Numbers generated this way are referred to as \"psuedorandom\". \n\nThere do, however, exist various dedicated hardware solutions that allow computers to pick truly random numbers. They work by basically installing in the computer some sort of sensor that can detect random properties of nature. \n\nAn example might be some sort of detector that picks up low levels of radiation. While we can make statistical predictions of radioactive decay over time, the actual decay of individual particles is truly random, and cannot be predicted with perfect accuracy. A sensor designed to measure those tiny random variations and feed them to a computer could generate truly random numbers." ]

[ "Pseudorandomness History The generation of random numbers has many uses (mostly in statistics, for random sampling, and simulation). Before modern computing, researchers requiring random numbers would either generate them through various means (dice, cards, roulette wheels, etc.) or use existing random number tables.\nThe first attempt to provide researchers with a ready supply of random digits was in 1927, when the Cambridge University Press published a table of 41,600 digits developed by L.H.C. Tippett. In 1947, the RAND Corporation generated numbers by the electronic simulation of a roulette wheel; the results were eventually published in 1955 as A Million Random", "random numbers; the original ERNIE used a gas neon diode. In contrast, pseudorandom numbers, although sometimes simply referred to as random, are produced deterministically by the algorithm used to generate them. The randomness of ERNIE's numbers derived from random statistical fluctuations in the physical processes involved. ERNIE's output was independently tested each month by the Government Actuary's Department, the draw being valid only if it was certified to be statistically consistent with randomness. At the end of its life it was moved to Bletchley Park's National Museum of Computing. \nERNIE 5, the latest model, was brought into service in March", "is necessary to generate random numbers (as values of variables). The problem is that the computer is highly deterministic machine—basically, behind each process there is always an algorithm, a deterministic computation changing inputs to outputs; therefore it is not easy to generate uniformly spread random numbers over a defined interval or set.\nA random number generator is a device capable of producing a sequence of numbers which cannot be \"easily\" identified with deterministic properties. This sequence is then called a sequence of stochastic numbers.\nThe algorithms typically rely on pseudorandom numbers, computer generated numbers mimicking true random numbers, to generate a realization,", "can be truly random to prevent tell-tale repetitions, but not long enough to prevent the attacker from recovering, say, a \"randomly\" produced key.\nRandom numbers typically go through several layers of hardware and software before they are used. Bits may be generated in a peripheral device, sent over a serial cable, collected in an operating system utility and retrieved by a system call. The subverted bits can be substituted at any point in this process with little likelihood of detection.\nA hardware circuit to produce subverted bits can be built on an integrated circuit a few millimeters square. The most sophisticated hardware", "random numbers. It attempts to constantly replenish the pool, depending on the level of importance, and so will issue a random number. In computational complexity In theoretical computer science, a distribution is pseudorandom against a class of adversaries if no adversary from the class can distinguish it from the uniform distribution with significant advantage.\nThis notion of pseudorandomness is studied in computational complexity theory and has applications to cryptography.\nFormally, let S and T be finite sets and let F = {f: S → T} be a class of functions. A distribution D over S is ε-pseudorandom against F if for", "one possible outcome of a process.\nMethods for obtaining random numbers have existed for a long time and are used in many different fields (such as gaming). However, these numbers suffer from a certain bias. Currently the best methods expected to produce truly random sequences are natural methods that take advantage of the random nature of quantum phenomena.", "acceptable. Their use may be tempting, but in reality, they permit easier attacks than attacking the cryptography.\nSince most cryptographic applications require a few thousand bits at most, slow random number generators serve well—if they are actually random. This use of random generators is important; many informed observers believe every computer should have a way to generate true random numbers. Literature, music and art Some aesthetic theories claim to be based on randomness in one way or another. Little testing is done in these situations, and so claims of reliance on and use of randomness are generally poorly based in definite", "difficult\" to predict, one can generate true random numbers to use as the initial value (i.e., the seed), and then use the pseudo-random number generator to produce numbers for use in cryptographic applications. Such random number generators are called cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators, and several have been implemented (for example, the /dev/urandom device available on most Unixes, the Yarrow and Fortuna designs, server, and AT&T Bell Laboratories \"truerand\"). As with all cryptographic software, there are subtle issues beyond those discussed here, so care is certainly indicated in actual practice. In any case, it is sometimes impossible to avoid the", "m, and the constants a and b, where x' = ax +b (mod m), given only five consecutive values. Even if a better random number generator is used, it might be insecure (e.g., the seed might be guessable), producing predictable keys and reducing security to nil. (A vulnerability of this sort was famously discovered in an early release of Netscape Navigator, forcing the authors to quickly find a source of \"more random\" random numbers.) For these applications, truly random numbers are ideal, and very high quality pseudo-random numbers are necessary if truly random numbers, such as coming from a hardware", "are generated via a formula based on the previously generated value, and thus are not truly random. Locations $4E and $4F, which the system cycles the values of continuously while waiting for user keystrokes, can be PEEKed to provide truly random values to use as a seed (when negated) for RND.\nLike other implementations of Microsoft BASIC, Applesoft discards spaces (outside of strings and comments) on program lines. LIST adds spaces when displaying code for the sake of readability. Since the LIST code will add a space before AND after every tokenized keyword, it often produces two spaces in a row", "(the names are given here in alphabetical order; much of the research was independent, and the unity of the concept of randomness was not understood at the time). The main idea is to consider a universal Turing machine U and to measure the complexity of a number (or string) x as the length of the shortest input p such that U(p) outputs x. This approach revolutionized earlier ways to determine when an infinite sequence (equivalently, characteristic function of a subset of the natural numbers) is random or not by invoking a notion of randomness for finite objects. Kolmogorov complexity became", "need for true (i.e., hardware-based) random number generators.\nSince a requirement in cryptography is high entropy, any published random sequence is a poor choice, as are such sequences as the digits in an irrational number such as the φ or even in transcendental numbers such as π, or e. All are available to an enterprising attacker. Put another way, in cryptography, random bit streams need to be not only random, but also secret and hence unpredictable. Public or third-party sources of random values, or random values computed from publicly observable phenomena (weather, sports game results, stock prices), are almost never cryptographically", "Random number generators All modern machines are designed using pseudo random number generators (\"PRNGs\"), which are constantly generating a sequence of simulated random numbers, at a rate of hundreds or perhaps thousands per second. As soon as the \"Play\" button is pressed, the most recent random number is used to determine the result. This means that the result varies depending on exactly when the game is played. A fraction of a second earlier or later, and the result would be different.\nIt is important that the machine contains a high-quality RNG implementation, because all PRNGs must eventually repeat their number sequence,", "Random number table History Tables of random numbers have the desired properties no matter how chosen from the table: by row, column, diagonal or irregularly. The first such table was published by L.H.C. Tippett in 1927, and since then a number of other such tables were developed. The first tables were generated through a variety of ways—one (by L.H.C. Tippett) took its numbers \"at random\" from census registers, another (by R.A. Fisher and Francis Yates) used numbers taken \"at random\" from logarithm tables, and in 1939 a set of 100,000 digits were published by M.G. Kendall and B. Babington Smith", "Applications of randomness Randomness has many uses in science, art, statistics, cryptography, gaming, gambling, and other fields. For example, random assignment in randomized controlled trials helps scientists to test hypotheses, and random numbers or pseudorandom numbers help video games such as video poker.\nThese uses have different levels of requirements, which leads to the use of different methods. Mathematically, there are distinctions between randomization, pseudorandomization, and quasirandomization, as well as between random number generators and pseudorandom number generators. For example, applications in cryptography usually have strict requirements, whereas other uses (such as generating a \"quote of the day\") can use a", "random values are required in cryptography, the goal is to make a message as hard to crack as possible, by eliminating or obscuring the parameters used to encrypt the message (the key) from the message itself or from the context in which it is carried. Pseudorandom sequences are deterministic and reproducible; all that is required in order to discover and reproduce a pseudorandom sequence is the algorithm used to generate it and the initial seed. So the entire sequence of numbers is only as powerful as the randomly chosen parts—sometimes the algorithm and the seed, but usually only", "Randomization function Uses Randomizing functions are used to turn algorithms that have good expected performance for random inputs, into algorithms that have the same performance for any input.\nFor example, consider a sorting algorithm like quicksort, which has small expected running time when the input items are presented in random order, but is very slow when they are presented in certain unfavorable orders. A randomizing function from the integers 1 to n to the integers 1 to n can be used to rearrange the n input items in \"random\" order, before calling that algorithm. This modified (randomized) algorithm will have", "small expected running time, whatever the input order. Randomness In theory, randomization functions are assumed to be truly random, and yield an unpredictably different function every time the algorithm is executed. The randomization technique would not work if, at every execution of the algorithm, the randomization function always performed the same mapping, or a mapping entirely determined by some externally observable parameter (such as the program's startup time). With such a \"pseudo-randomization\" function, one could in principle construct a sequence of calls such that the function would always yield a \"bad\" case for the underlying deterministic algorithm. ", "Hardware random number generator Uses Unpredictable random numbers were first investigated in the context of gambling, and many randomizing devices such as dice, shuffling playing cards, and roulette wheels, were first developed for such use. Fairly produced random numbers are vital to electronic gambling and ways of creating them are sometimes regulated by governmental gaming commissions.\nRandom numbers are also used for non-gambling purposes, both where their use is mathematically important, such as sampling for opinion polls, and in situations where fairness is approximated by randomization, such as military draft lotteries and selecting jurors. Cryptography The major use for hardware random", "Random group In mathematics, random groups are certain groups obtained by a probabilistic construction. They were introduced by Misha Gromov to answer questions such as \"What does a typical group look like?\"\nIt so happens that, once a precise definition is given, random groups satisfy some properties with very high probability, whereas other properties fail with very high probability. For instance, very probably random groups are hyperbolic groups. In this sense, one can say that \"most groups are hyperbolic\". The few-relator model of random groups The simplest model of random groups is the few-relator model. In this model, a number of", "samples and random permutations can be reduced to simply selecting random numbers, random number generation methods are now most commonly used, both hardware random number generators and pseudo-random number generators.", "A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates is a random number book by the RAND Corporation, originally published in 1955. The book, consisting primarily of a random number table, was an important 20th century work in the field of statistics and random numbers. It was produced starting in 1947 by an electronic simulation of a roulette wheel attached to a computer, the results of which were then carefully filtered and tested before being used to generate the table. The RAND table was an important breakthrough in delivering random numbers, because", "but the random numbers generated by this means are expensive. The method is inherently slow, and is unusable for most computing applications.\nOn 29 April 1947, RAND Corporation began generating random digits with an \"electronic roulette wheel\", consisting of a random frequency pulse source of about 100,000 pulses per second gated once per second with a constant frequency pulse and fed into a five-bit binary counter. Douglas Aircraft built the equipment, implementing Cecil Hasting’s suggestion (RAND P-113) for a noise source (most likely the well known behavior of the 6D4 miniature gas thyratron tube, when placed in a magnetic field). ", "of random element in which a single outcome is selected from some family of functions, where the family consists some class of all maps from the domain to the codomain. For example, the class may be restricted to all continuous functions or to all step functions. The values determined by a random function evaluated at different points from the same realization would not generally be statistically independent but, depending on the model, values determined at the same or different points from different realisations might well be treated as independent. Random process A Random process is a collection of random variables,", "to generate a series of random numbers, some of which may be discarded or used to determine the magnitude of the result. However, some games (such as the Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game and Nobilis) use no random factor at all. These instead use direct comparison of character ability scores to difficulty values, often supplemented with points from a finite but renewable pool. These \"resource points\" represent a character's additional effort or luck, and can be used strategically by the player to influence the success of an action.", "A true random sort is provided by the Unix utility shuf. Sort by version The GNU implementation has a -V --version-sort option which is a natural sort of (version) numbers within text. This happens to work for ip addresses.", "of random numbers, which included the diehard tests.\nHe also developed some of the most commonly used methods for generating random numbers and using them to produce random samples from various distributions. Some of the most widely used being the multiply-with-carry, subtract-with-borrow, xorshift, KISS and Mother methods for random numbers, and the ziggurat algorithm for generating normally or other unimodally distributed random variables. Life He was Professor Emeritus of Pure and Applied Mathematics and Computer Science at Washington State University and Professor Emeritus of Statistics at Florida State University.\nMarsaglia died from a heart attack on February 15, 2011, in Tallahassee.", "predictable, data encrypted with pseudorandom numbers is potentially vulnerable to cryptanalysis. Hardware random number generators produce sequences of numbers that are assumed not to be predictable, and therefore provide the greatest security when used to encrypt data. Early work One early way of producing random numbers was by a variation of the same machines used to play keno or select lottery numbers. These mixed numbered ping-pong balls with blown air, perhaps combined with mechanical agitation, and used some method to withdraw balls from the mixing chamber (U.S. Patent 4,786,056). This method gives reasonable results in some senses,", "of each length. Whether any particular string is random, however, depends on the specific universal computer that is chosen.\nThis definition can be extended to define a notion of randomness for infinite sequences from a finite alphabet. These algorithmically random sequences can be defined in three equivalent ways. One way uses an effective analogue of measure theory; another uses effective martingales. The third way defines an infinite sequence to be random if the prefix-free Kolmogorov complexity of its initial segments grows quickly enough — there must be a constant c such that the complexity of an initial segment of length", "order of their random numbers. This will generate a random permutation, unless any of the random numbers generated are the same as any others (i.e. pairs, triplets etc.). This can be eliminated either by adjusting one of the pair's values randomly up or down by a small amount, or reduced to an arbitrarily low probability by choosing a sufficiently wide range of random number choices. If using efficient sorting such as mergesort or heapsort this is an O(n log n) average and worst-case algorithm. In online gambling These issues are of considerable commercial importance in online gambling, where the randomness" ]

[ "Scar tissue is different to normal skin. It contains more collagen than regular tissue, and doesn't structure the same as regular skin, which is why it looks so different. It's also less flexible.\n\nThe benefits to having scar tissue is the body can recover from wounds exceptionally quickly - many animals can't create scar tissue, and so wounds can remain open longer and are more susceptible to infection and other problems. Conversely, other animals can regenerate entire limbs whereas we can't.\n\nInterestingly, the collagen in your scar tissue is constantly replaced. If your body stops producing collagen (due to certain illnesses), your scars' wounds can actually reopen.\n\nThe scar is difficult to get rid of because the tissue has been created in a less structured/ordered form than your regular skin (because it was deployed quickly to help heal the wound), but some medical procedures exist to reduce that effect.", "Scars are a normal and natural part of the healing process. When the body heals, collagen protein which is found in normal and healthy tissue in a randomish (basketweave) pattern, forms in a more organized way. This allows for healing but because it is different than the normal skin - it stands out. Over time some scars will almost disappear and sometimes corrective cosmetic surgery can be done to further minimize their appearance. A general rule of thumb is: if the full thickness of skin (all the different layers) have been disrupted - there will be a scar. If the wound is managed well, it will scar less.", "Scars are part of your normal skin, and while they are remodeled over time, this is a very slow process. The bigger the scar, the longer it takes to be remodeled. That's why major scars will usually never heal back to normal." ]

[ "Scar free healing Scar versus scar free healing Scarring takes place in response to damaged or missing tissue following injury due to biological processes or wounding: it is a process that occurs in order to replace the lost tissue. The process of scarring is complex, it involves the inflammatory response and remodelling amongst other cell activities. Many growth factors and cytokines are also involved in the process, as well as extracellular matrix interactions. Mast cells are one cell type which act to promote scarring.\nScarring during healing can create both physical and psychological problems, and is a significant clinical burden which", "is why the scar free healing concept is of interest. Some of the problems in scar healing lie in the physical outcome of the process: for example when collagen is abnormally organised in scar tissue. In scars the collagen is arranged in parallel bundles of the collagen fibres whilst healthy scar free tissue has a \"basket weave\" structure (Figure 1). The difference in collagen arrangement along with a lack of difference in the dermal tissue when healing has taken place with or without scarring is indicative of regenerative failure of normal skin. Severe scarring resulting from these collagen deposits is", "Scarification Methods Scarification is not a precise practice; variables, such as skin type, cut depth, and how the wound is treated while healing, make the outcome unpredictable. A method that works on one person may not work on another. The scars tend to spread as they heal, so outcome design is usually simple, the details being lost during healing. Abrasion Scars can be formed by removing layers of skin through abrasion. This can be achieved using an inkless tattooing device, or any object that can remove skin through friction (such as sandpaper).\nChemical scarification uses corrosive chemicals to remove skin and", "original function is challenging in the context of scarring. Scar-free healing is yet to be observed in healthy post gestational humans, despite being seen in human embryos. Currently, it is only possible to reduce scar visibility, and the NHS suggests a number of different methods of doing this including corticosteroid injections, skin creams, silicone gels, pressure dressings, dermal fillers, radiotherapy and laser therapy. Although these methods do reduce a scars visible appearance, they do not result in a scar free appearance. Billions of pounds is spent on wound maintenance and healing on the NHS every year.", "scarring or disfigurement, due to a life changing incident.", "induce scarring. The effects of this method are typically similar to other, simpler forms of scarification; as a result there has been little research undertaken on this method. Dangers/cautions Scarification produces harm and trauma to the skin; thus it is considered to be unsafe by many. Infection is a concern. Not only do the materials for inducing the wounds need to be sanitary, but the wound needs to be kept clean, using antibacterial solutions or soaps often, and having good hygiene in general. It is not uncommon, especially if the wound is being irritated, for a local infection to", "restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\nSome people have an inherited tendency to this type of scarring, for example, those with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. It is not possible to completely prevent hypertrophic scars, so those with a history of them should inform their doctor or surgeon if they need surgery. Scar therapies may speed up the process of change from a hypertrophic scar to a flatter, paler one.", "damage, which is the damaging of blood vessels or nerves in the dermis or dermal layer. This is more likely to happen when the piercing is done by someone who is not a professional. If the piercing is too deep, the skin layers may pull together, resulting in embedding. Shallow piercings will result in migration or rejection. The last risk is bacterial infection, which occurs when the equipment used is not sterilized, or the piercing is not well cared for during the healing process. Pus and inflammation may develop if the piercing becomes infected, however, careful cleaning and aftercare can", "Between 2014 and 2015 in England and Wales, 19,239 people sustained a burn injury which required hospital care. In addition to the significant financial cost, the cost of scars is immense to the patients too. One study into the quality of life of patients with scars found that over half of the participants felt stigmatised by their scars and felt their personal relationships deteriorated. In addition to this, 68% tried to hide their scars, whilst reporting their work life, self-confidence and ability to communicate with others had been negatively affected. Future research and advances in scar-free healing", "Hypertrophic scar Cause Mechanical tension on a wound has been identified as a leading cause for hypertrophic scar formation.\nWhen a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also", "subsequently getting milder. The lesions the disease makes will either dry out, or burst, followed by healing. If the infected area is not touched, scars usually do not occur. The immunocompromised may have a hard time recovering, and have more frequent recurrences.", "skin injuries are common: the absence of grown hair makes nicks, scratches and bruises heal faster because of the reduced microbial population on shaved skin.", "healing is intentionally delayed so that a visible scar develops after some time.", "disposable bag and wash your hands after. Wound healing Wound healing is a complex and fragile process in which the skin repairs itself after injury. It is susceptible to interruption or failure that creates non-healing chronic wounds. Radiation Radiation induces skin reactions in the treated area, particularly in the axilla, head and neck, perineum and skin fold regions. Formulations with moisturising, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and wound healing properties are often used, but no preferred approach or individual product has been identified as best practice. Soft silicone dressings that act as barriers to friction may be helpful. In breast cancer, calendula cream", "periwound skin. They can create a gateway for infection as well as cause wound edge deterioration preventing wound closure. Pathophysiology Chronic wounds may affect only the epidermis and dermis, or they may affect tissues all the way to the fascia. They may be formed originally by the same things that cause acute ones, such as surgery or accidental trauma, or they may form as the result of systemic infection, vascular, immune, or nerve insufficiency, or comorbidities such as neoplasias or metabolic disorders. The reason a wound becomes chronic is that the body's ability to deal with the damage", "recovery time and the healing of the wound. Just like other surgeries, cosmetic surgery may require incisions to be made to the skin, in one or more places of the body. These wounds will be required to heal post operation, therefore leaving the patient at risk of poor wound healing which may be due to numerous causes such as infection requiring antibiotics. Medical conditions Medical conditions can impact on the level of risk involved with cosmetic surgery as there can be underlying effects caused by different medications. For example, blood thinning medication can cause excessive bleeding due to the bloods", "the wound bed, and subsequent chemical binding of available water that is necessary for their replication. Self-adaptive dressings protect periwound skin from extrinsic factors and infection while regulating moisture balance over vulnerable skin around the wound. Treating trauma and painful wounds Persistent chronic pain associated with non-healing wounds is caused by tissue (nociceptive) or nerve (neuropathic) damage and is influenced by dressing changes and chronic inflammation. Chronic wounds take a long time to heal and patients can suffer from chronic wounds for many years. Chronic wound healing may be compromised by coexisting underlying conditions, such as venous valve backflow,", "Burn scar contracture Treatment Burn scar contractures do not go away on their own, although may improve with the passage of time, with occupational therapy and physiotherapy, and with splinting. If persistent the person may need the contracture to be surgically released. Techniques may include local skin flaps (z-plasty) or skin grafting (full thickness or split thickness). There are also pharmacy and drug-store treatments that can be used to help scar maturation, especially silicone gel treatments. Prevention of contracture formation is key. For instance, in the case of a burned hand one would splint the hand and wrap", "the human eye. After seven months the area was checked again and it was once again noted that no scar could be seen. \nIn 1997, it was proven that wounds created with an instrument that are under 2mm can heal scar free, but larger wounds that are larger than 2mm healed with a scar.\nIn 2013 it was proven in pig tissue that full thickness micro columns of tissue, less than 0.5mm in diameter could be removed and that the replacement tissue, was regenerative tissue, not scar. The tissue was removed in a fractional pattern, with over 40% of a square", "of skin lesions may be life-threatening. Pathophysiology Individuals are predisposed to develop SCARs in response to a given drug based on the types of human leukocyte antigen (i.e. HLA) proteins and T cell receptors that they express; their ability to process an instigating drug or the drug's metabolite(s); and other less well-defined factors. These predispositions are a consequence of the HLA allele and T cell receptor variants that individuals express in their antigen presentation immune pathways; their ADME, i.e. efficiency in Absorbing, Distributing to tissues, Metabolizing, and/or Eliminating a drug or drug metabolite; and other less well-defined factors. T cell", "Brain healing Scar formation Apart from a small amount in the blood vessels, there are no fibroblasts in the brain. A scar is formed by fibroblasts producing collagen to repair an area, which will later contract. If scars did form in the brain, the contraction would cause even more damage. Formation of a glial membrane Around the edge of necrosis, astrocytes proliferate. These cells extend processes, and form a delicate rim of gliosis around the margin of damage. The empty space left by brain tissue fills up with cerebrospinal fluid. Functional recovery Brain injury will commonly be accompanied by acute", "trauma. Severe contusions may involve deeper structures and can include nerve or vascular injury. Abrasions are superficial injuries to the skin no deeper than the epidermis tissue layer, and bleeding, if present, is minimal. Minor abrasions generally do not scar, but deeper abrasions generally bleed and may scar. Lastly, sports-related lacerations are caused by blunt trauma and result in burst-type open wounds, often with jagged irregular edges. Facial lacerations are the most variable of the soft tissue injuries that athletes can sustain. They can occur intraorally and extraorally, vary from a superficial skin nick to a through and through lip", "in time required to close wounds, incidence of infection (suture canals through the skin's epidermal, dermal, and subcutaneous fat layers introduce additional routes of contamination), and finally cosmetic appearance.\nSome rock climbers use cyanoacrylate to repair damage to the skin on their fingertips. Similarly, stringed-instrument players can form protective finger caps (in addition to calluses) with cyanoacrylates. While the glue is not very toxic and wears off quickly with shed skin, applying large quantities of glue and its fumes directly to the skin can cause chemical burns.\nWhile standard \"superglue\" is 100% ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate, many custom formulations (e.g., 91% ECA, 9%", "develop around the wound. The scarification worker needs to have detailed knowledge of the anatomy of human skin, in order to prevent tools from cutting too deep, burning too hot, or burning for too long. Scarification is not nearly as popular as tattooing, so it is harder to find workers experienced in scarification. Precautions are typically taken during brandings, such as wearing masks and other personal protective equipment, because it is possible for diseases to be transmitted through the air, from the skin when the skin is burning.", "and rectal have also resulted from chronic inflammation and scarring. Skin disease About 25% of patients have cutaneous lesions, with tense vesicles or bullae, mainly on the face, neck, and scalp. Healing of erosion is either with or without atrophic scars. Cutaneous lesions of cicatricial pemphigoid presents in 2 subtypes: (1)presents as generalized eruption of tense bullae without scarring (2) presents as localised blisters on an erythematous base, resulting in atrophic scarring. Cicatricial pemphigoid is also associated with malignancy. Malignancy — CP with antibodies directed against laminin 332 (previously known as laminin 5 and epiligrin) has been associated with an", "may make a smaller incision. This may lead to a smaller scar. Another potential benefit is less post-operative pain because less bone is removed. Also, a quicker operation and shorter recovery period may be a result of less bone being removed during the operation and the soft tissue may sustain less trauma. Also, the rehabilitation process may be more progressive. More specific benefits of UKA are that it may improve range of motion, reduce blood loss during surgery, reduce the person’s time spent in the hospital, and decrease costs.\nIn 2018, two of the most significant benefits of UKA or partial", "injecting the drug subcutaneously, which is highly damaging to tissue and frequently leads to chronic ulcers. Children who are repeatedly seen for a wound that does not heal are sometimes found to be victims of a parent with Munchausen syndrome by proxy, a disease in which the abuser may repeatedly inflict harm on the child in order to receive attention.\nPeriwound skin damage caused by excessive amounts of exudate and other bodily fluids can perpetuate the non-healing status of chronic wounds. Maceration, excoriation, dry (fragile) skin, hyperkeratosis, callus and eczema are frequent problems that interfere with the integrity of", "to scars or disfigurement or temporary or permanent disability.\nExplanation 2.- For the purposes of section 326 A and this section, permanent or partial damage or deformity shall not be required to be irreversible.'.", "scarring.\nLaser surgery — This is generally a last resort treatment, as it is expensive and painful, but may be necessary for large, hard-to-cure warts.\nCauterization — This may be effective as a prolonged treatment. As a short-term treatment, cauterization of the base with anesthetic can be effective, but this method risks scarring or keloids. Subsequent surgical removal if necessary, also risks keloids and/or recurrence in the operative scar.", "the skin and the surrounding lymphatic vessels. Malignant wounds can be painful and cause isolation due to the effect on self-esteem due to changes in body image as a result of malignant wounds. Infection Infection results when the wound’s micro-organisms overcome the immune system’s natural defense to fight off replicating micro-organisms. Chronic wounds that persist for more than 12 weeks should be evaluated for delayed healing, increase exudate, foul odor, additional areas of skin breakdown or slough on the wound bed, and bright red discoloration of granulation tissue, which may be indicative of infection." ]

[ "Because it's cheaper to have it made in other countries.", "Its not the technology; remember, much of that technology was invented here in the US. Plain and simple, a shirt (and just about anything) from Mexico, Thailand, or Bangladesh is $2-3 cheaper wholesale than American made (in general. Source: former screen printing business owner). The general public says they don't care, but we vote with our wallets. Nobody wants to pay more. \n\nIf you don't like child labor to be involved in your purchases, be an active consumer and buy stuff made in the US or Canada. That's the only way to change it." ]

[ "children are in the employment of which 170 million of them are engaged in textiles and garments industry in developing countries. In hopes of earning a living, many girls in these countries, such as Bangladesh and India, are willing to work at low wages for long working hours, said Sofie Ovaa, an officer of Stop Child Labour (Moulds, 2013). Most fashion manufacturing chains employ low-skilled labour and as child labour are easier to manage and even more suitable than adult labour for certain jobs such as cotton picking, it becomes a particular problem in sweatshops as they are vulnerable with", "discovers child labour was used by its supplier in its branded clothes, the contractor must remove the child from the workplace, provide them with access to schooling and a wage, and guarantee the opportunity of work on reaching a legal working age.\nIn 2007, The New York Times reported that GAP, after the child labour discovery, created a $200,000 grant to improve working conditions in the supplier community. H&M and Zara In December 2009, campaigners in the UK called on two leading high street retailers to stop selling clothes made with cotton which may have been picked by children. Anti-Slavery International", "In developing countries, such as Zambia, secondhand clothing is sorted, recycled and sometimes redistributed to other nations. Some of the scraps are kept and used to create unique fashions which enable the locals to construct identity. Not only does the trade represent a great source of employment for women as well as men, it also supports other facets of the economy: the merchants buy timber and other materials for their stands, metal hangers to display clothing, and food and drinks for customers. Carriers also find work as they transport the garments from factories to various locations. The secondhand clothing trade", "children as they would dress themselves. Good quality, well designed, garments are now a priority for a growing number of parents and children's clothing is getting a prime place in top label stores and high-end fashion retail outlets. Dresses are also getting separately designed for boys and girls at a very early age. Function Function and design must meet at the right proportions in children's clothes for it to be popular and accepted. Fabric choices, openings and fastenings, fit and ease, trimmings used are all major considerations when designing children's wear. Some other factors a designer designing for children's", "what constitutes as child labour within the household due to the cultural acceptance of children helping run the family business. In the end, there is a consistent challenge for the national government to strengthen its grip politically on child labour, and to increase education and awareness on the issue of children working below the legal age limit. With children playing an important role in the African economy, child labour still plays an important role for many in the 20th century. Australia From European settlement in 1788, child convicts were occasionally sent to Australia where they were made to work. Child", "Child labour laws and initiatives Almost every country in the world has laws relating to and aimed at preventing child labour. International Labour Organization has helped set international law, which most countries have signed on and ratified. According to ILO minimum age convention (C138) of 1973, child labour refers to any work performed by children under the age of 12, non-light work done by children aged 12–14, and hazardous work done by children aged 15–17. Light work was defined, under this Convention, as any work that does not harm a child's health and development, and that does not interfere with", "forms of Child Labour (TECL) was, regarding its activities in South Africa during its first phase (2004–2008), essentially an executing agency for key elements of the Child Labour Programme of Action. Background The South African Constitution provides that children under 18 have a right to be protected from work that is exploitative, hazardous, inappropriate for their age, detrimental to their schooling, or detrimental to their social, physical, mental, spiritual, or moral development. The term 'work' is not limited to work in economic activities (e.g. paid employment) but includes chores or household activities in the child's household (such as collecting wood", "experience, or because there is inadequate training or supervision.\nChild labor is the employment of children under an age determined by law or custom. This practice is considered exploitative by many countries and international organizations. Child labor was utilized to varying extents through most of history, but entered public dispute with the beginning of universal schooling, with changes in working conditions during industrialization, and with the emergence of the concepts of workers' and children's rights. Child labor is still common in some places. Even after passing child labor legislation, developing countries in particular still feature informal economies made up of child", "garment industry is the largest employer of child labour in the formal sector. The industry expanded rapidly from 1983 to 1999, becoming the country's largest source of export earnings. Bangladesh is in the top ten largest garment exporters in the world. The garment industry not only increased economic earning but also increased available jobs in urban settings, especially for women. As a result, the incidence of child labourers in urban areas increased. The majority of labourers in the garment industry hired are girls and women. Bangladesh garment factories have been accused of forcing girls as young as 13 to work", "or forced labor, armed conflict, trafficked children, pornography, and other illicit activities).\nAfrica has the world's highest incidence rates of child labour. A report by the United Nations' International Labour Organization reveals that in 2016 nearly 1 out of every 5 children partakes in child labor. The problem is severe in sub-saharan Africa where more than 40% of all children aged 5–14 labour for survival, or about 48 million children.\nAlthough poverty is generally considered as the primary cause of child labour in Africa, recent studies show that the relationship between child labour and poverty is not as simple as a", "idea of a woman dressing 'like a child'. The maternity clothing designer Liz Lange declared \"She shouldn't have to dress like a child just because she's having a child; it's one thing to put a toddler in a sailor suit but it's another thing completely to condemn a grown woman to such a fate.\"", "(such as selling food), or doing odd jobs. Children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work). Other children do jobs such as assembling boxes or polishing shoes. However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour in the twenty-first century occurs in the informal sector, \"selling on the street, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses — far from the reach of official inspectors and from media scrutiny.\"", "wear either larger, looser clothing or buy secondhand maternity clothes via yard sales and also consignment clothing stores. Also, some products, such as button extenders or Ingrid & Isabel's Bellaband wrap, are intended to work with the woman's non-maternity clothing, to reduce the need for specialized clothing.", "trade. Overall, child labor can take many forms, including domestic servitude, work in agriculture, service, and manufacturing industries. Also, according to several researchers, most children are forced into cheap and controllable labor, and work in homes, farms, factories, restaurants, and much more. Trafficked children may be sexually exploited, used in the armed forces and drug trades, and in child begging. In terms of global trends, the ILO estimates that in 2004–2008, there was a 3% reduction in the incidence of child labor; this stands in contrast to a previous ILO report which found that in 2000–2004, there was a 10%", "industries, but their importance has significantly declined since the 1960s. Eswatini also exports textiles, but thousands of textile workers lost their jobs in 2015 when the country was removed from the U.S. fair trade agreement, due to human rights concerns. Sex work Commercial sexual exploitation is one of the most severe forms of child labour, with orphans being particularly vulnerable. The majority of children involved in sex work in Eswatini live away from their place of birth. Young girls are trafficked to South Africa, trading sex for food. High rates of prostitution and other forms of sex work spread infectious", "stigma against child labor than forced labor in general. Consumers in the United States are willing to suspend the importation of textiles made with child labor in other countries but do not expect their exports to be suspended by other countries, even when produced using forced labor. Seafood With increasing media scrutiny of the conditions of fishermen, particularly Southeast Asia, the lack of transparency and traceability in the seafood industry prompted new efforts. In 2014, Fair Trade USA created its Capture Fisheries Program that led to the first instance of Fair Trade fish being sold globally in 2015. The program", "not forced; but did so because they needed to help their family survive financially. Due to poor employment opportunities for many parents, sending their children to work on farms and in factories was a way to help feed and support the family. Child labour first started to occur in England when household businesses were turned into local labour markets that mass-produced the once homemade goods. Because children often helped produce the goods out of their homes, working in a factory to make those same goods was a simple change for many of these youths. Although there are many counts of", "own country to work as domestic workers, often in conditions of extreme exploitation. A number of international laws have been ratified to address human trafficking of women and children.\nMaternity protection measures are put in place to insure that women will not be discriminated against in the workplace once they return from having a child. They should also not be exposed to any health hazards while they are pregnant and at work. They are allowed time off for maternity leave as well, which allows them to bond with their child; this aspect of development is crucial for infants to gain proper", "and the children often had to wear inappropriate clothing, such as shorts in the winter, as there was no funding for new clothes.\nScientology put forward a number of justifications for making the children do such work. They were told that the labor was an exchange for being able to live on the Ranch, earning their way rather than getting things for free, which was something that only criminals sought. The hard labor was said to be a way to train the children to take pride in their work, face tough situations and handle MEST (the physical world), which would make", "of child trafficking is often forced child labour. Child labour refers specifically to children under a stipulated minimum age, usually 14 at the lowest, being required to work. UNICEF estimates that, in 2011, 150 million children aged 5–14 in developing countries were involved in child labour. Additionally, UNICEF states that current rates indicate that at least 100 million children will still be forced to work by 2020. Within this number, the ILO reports that 60% of child workers work in agriculture. The ILO also estimates that 115 million children are engaged in hazardous work, such as the sex or drug", "to harmful labor is the lack of schools and poor quality of schooling. Child labour laws in Africa Most African governments have formally adopted the three International Labour Organization (ILO) Conventions. In addition, many have signed a memorandum of \nunderstanding with ILO to launch a programme under the International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC).\nNigeria, for example, is now an active member of IPEC. It is also implementing the West Africa Cocoa Agriculture Project. Nigeria's Child Rights Act is now part of its Labour Act, and it prohibits exploitative labour from children. Some states, like Anambra, have also", "the ready-made garment (RMG) industry. Based on the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics Labor Force Survey estimated there were about 5.7 million 10- to 14-year-old children engaged in Child labour in Bangladesh. This number may have been as high as 15 million children. In 1993 employers in Bangladesh' ready-made garment (RMG) industry dismissed 50,000 children (c. 75 percent of child workers in the textile industry) out of fear of economic reprisals of the imminent passage of the Child Labor Deterrence Act (the Harkin Bill after Senator Tom Harkin, one of the US Senators who proposed the bill). The act which banned", "Child labour in Eswatini Child labour in Eswatini is a controversial issue that affects a large portion of the country's population. Child labour is often seen as a human rights concern because it is \"work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development,\" as defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO). Additionally, child labour is harmful in that it restricts a child's ability to attend school or receive an education. The ILO recognizes that not all forms of children working are harmful, but this article will focus on", "will help reduce child labour. Efforts to reduce child labour NGO groups against child labour have been raising awareness of the exploitation of children in Pakistan. Several organizations are working in Pakistan to reduce child labour. Factories are now registered with provincial social security programs which offer free school facilities for children of workers and free hospital treatment. Football stitching By the late 1990s, Pakistan had come to account for 75 percent of total world production of footballs (or “soccer\" balls in the US), and 71 percent of all soccer ball imports into the United States. The International", "\"garments\" as one of 11 other products in Argentina. Furthermore, in one of its reports on the worst forms of child labor, The U.S. Department of Labor states that \"Argentina has not adopted a list of hazardous occupations that are prohibited to children, and appears to lack programs that target working children in all relevant sectors.\" Rural In Argentina, one of the first protections of the farm laborer was born in 1940 with the enactment of the Estatuto del Peón [Statute of farm laborers] which gave wage laborers (jornaleros) all the rights of workers (trabajadores). Later, complementary laws were added.", "of its products. Inditex, the owner of Zara, said its code of conduct banned child labour. Silk weaving A 2003 Human Rights Watch report claimed children as young as five years old were employed and worked for up to 12 hours a day and six to seven days a week in the silk industry. These children, HRW claimed, were bonded child labour in India, easy to find in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.\nIn 2010, a German news investigative report claimed that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) had found up to 10,000 children working in the 1,000 silk factories in 1998. In", "and reduce child labour includes the global response that came into force in 1979 by the declaration of the International Year of the Child. Along with the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations, these two declarations worked on many levels to eliminate child labour. Although many actions have been taken to end this epidemic, child labour in Africa is still an issue today due to the unclear definition of adolescence and how much time is needed for children to engage in activities that are crucial for their development. Another issue that often comes into play is the link between", "in factories such as cotton textiles, there were large numbers of children working in the field of agriculture and domestic production.\nWith such a high percentage of children working, the rising of illiteracy, and the lack of a formal education became a widespread issue for many children who worked to provide for their families. Due to this problematic trend, many parents developed a change of opinion when deciding whether or not to send their children to work. Other factors that lead to the decline of child labour included financial changes in the economy, changes in the development of technology, raised", "Organization (ILO), the tripartite body representing governments, labor, and employees. Of these, 120 million children are working full-time to help support their impoverished families. Although child labor is most common in developing countries, it is found throughout the world, including in the United States. Many of these children are forced into the workforce to become beggars, farm hands, and factory workers. They are exposed to conditions extremely harmful to their physical and mental well-being. ILRF has helped develop programs to fight child labor and is involved in monitoring conditions in various regions of the world. ", "Studies show that in the quest for lower unit labor costs, export-oriented facilities create poor working conditions. History Work in international factories has become an option for women in developing countries. This opportunity, which has increased since the latter part of the 1960s, represents the production of goods to be sold explicitly to more developed countries.\nIn the late 1950s and early 1960s, developing countries emerged as the sites to relocate labor-intensive manufacturing industries, as they were moved away from developed countries. This expansionism has forced developing countries to create and sell assembled products and other goods to more" ]

[ "First thing's first, neither ship can travel at the speed of light. As long as they have mass, it just can't happen. This isn't some silly nitpicky thing, it's fundamental to the theories of relativity, and it really honestly doesn't make sense to talk about massive things travelling at the speed of light.\n\nBut in any case, your question works just as well if they're both going at, say, 0.9c. Now, the reason that the speeds don't add up is that whoever told you they should was wrong. Speeds don't actually work like that. Weird, huh?\n\nWhat's actually the case is speeds really add in a slightly different way, given [here](_URL_0_). As long as the speeds are small compared to the speed of light, they add more or less in the inuitive way with one plus the other. But as they increase towards c, the rest of the mathematics is essential to the description and velocities turn out not to add linearly after all.\n\nEdit: Just to be clear, this all depends on what frame of reference you ask the question from. Are you on a spaceship, or directly between the two ships, or standing to the side, or what? If you're on a spaceship and they're both going at 0.9c relative to the stationary frame watching them, you'll see the other one approaching at about 0.994c. But if you're standing 'stationary' in between them, you can calculate their relative velocity to be 1.8c, even though neither ship will measure the other to be travelling that fast.", "> ...but how the hell do the speeds not add up??\n\nThey do add up, but in a way you might not expect. The reason they add up differently than you might expect is that you are using a model of 3D space with an independent time dimension (Newtonian model); in fact, we don't live in a 3D world of space plus 1D time, we live in a 4D world of space-time (Einsteinian model). The chief difference is that the three dimensions of space are not independent from time, all 4 interact.\n\nThis seems very mind-bending at first, but here is the key to understanding it. Imagine you are a 2D person living in a wall surface. That is your world, and you cannot conceive of a 3rd dimension. I might say, hey 2D person, check out my ball! You'd say, where? I'd say, ah, you can't see outside your wall, let me put my ball on your surface so you can see it. Well, my ball would only touch your wall at one point and you'd say, ah, nice point. No, no, I say, this isn't a point, it's a ball. here, let me show you. So I start pushing my ball through the wall. You see the point grow into a circle—well, not actually a circle, it's only a circle from *my* perspective looking at the wall. From your perspective, you'd say, ha, nice semicircle. (You would see a curved line segment and have to walk completely around it, then you would say, ah, nice circle.)\n\nOk, so now we're comfortable with 2D you. So now what I do is I set up a light in my room, and I'm going to take out a meter stick and hold it in front of the wall so a shadow is cast. You see the shadow and walk around it and say, ah ha, that's a meter long. Great! Now let's look at some rotations.\n\nLet's call your wall the x-y plane, just so we can establish some directions. It turns out that I'm holding the meter stick along the x-axis. So now I rotate the meter stick so that it's at 45 degrees in x-y. You say, ok, it rotated, still a meter long.\n\nWait. Why do you think it's a meter long? If you think about it, in the x direction before, it was a meter. Now, if you look at the length of the shadow along the x-axis, it's 0.85 meters, and it's 0.85 meters along the y-axis. This adds up to ~1.7 meters. How can it be that you and I only see it as being a meter long? Well, this is simple stuff, right? It's because we don't just add x and y, you have to use the Pythagorean theorem to say x^2 + y^2 = L^2 ... now we can see that L is 1. It would be silly just to add the x and y components like that...what were we thinking!\n\nWhy is it so silly, though? Well, because we know that x and y *interact*. They are not independent dimensions. When something is rotated so that it extends into both dimensions, we know that the total length of that thing is not simply calculated by summing the thing's projection in both dimensions. *How* do we know this, though? You and I might both accept that x and y interact, fine, but they could interact in all sorts of ways...how do we know they interact in *this particular* way?\n\nIf you think about it, you'll be able to convince yourself that this makes sense because we know something is preserved: the overall length of the meter stick. No matter how it's rotated, it must always be 1 meter long. Knowing that, we have identified an invariant, and since we know the length of the thing never varies, we figure out how it extends in two dimensions. Great!\n\nOk, now I rotate the stick in z. Wait, you say, the shadow just got *shorter* for you. To you, this seems very strange indeed. We just went through a whole bunch of reasoning saying that the length of the stick is invariant, and here now the shadow changes overall length. This can't be! Well, it turns out it's ok, because I explain to you that even though you can't see it (or even conceive of it), there is a third spatial dimension and I've rotated the stick into that dimension. If you're clever, you can convince yourself that the actual meter stick is still 1 meter long even though its shadow is shorter. You can measure its extension in x and y directly, and then you can calculate its extension in z even though you can't see that dimension directly. You can do all this because the meter stick is still 1 meter long, and you've identified that as the invariant. Furthermore, you know that z is related to x and y the same way that x and y are related to each other, so you don't simply just add them all up to make 1, you have to use the Pythagorean theorem.\n\nHere is what you need to know about relativity. Time is a dimension that relates to 3D space, just like z relates to x-y for the 2D man in the wall. If you do experiments, you can observe that \"speed\" actually rotates a thing into this unseen time dimension. To us and our Newtonian way of looking at things, it *appears* as though the thing just gets shorter in the direction of motion, just like the shadow for the 2D man gets shorter. Where did that extra length go? It's still there, it's just rotated into a dimension we can't observe directly.\n\nNow think about how the 2D man in the wall measures stuff. He carries around a 2D meter stick. Before, he knew the shadow of our meter stick was 1 meter long because he compared it to his 2D stick. But when we rotated our meter stick in the z, it got shorter according to his meter stick. His meter stick can only tell him about lengths that extend in x and y, it can't tell him about the \"real\" length in 3D. Likewise, we can't go around measuring things in a way that only take account of 3 out of 4 interacting dimensions. (If time was totally independent, this would work just fine...but it's not.)\n\nSo instead, we must measure things in all 4 dimensions. Unfortunately, 2D man has no idea how to know if he's dealing with a 3D meter stick, or something of some other length that just *looks* like a thing that's 1 meter long. In order to figure this out, he has to get control of a 3D meter stick and rotate it in all different ways in all 3 dimensions, and if the longest he can ever make it is 1 meter, then he knows that's how long it is in 3D and he has his meter stick. He has found something with a 3D length of 1 meter, and he knows that 3D length is invariant.\n\nWe need the same thing in space-time. Fortunately, we have it in light. By experiment, we know that light always travels at c relative to everything. So, we can define our meter stick in terms of how long it takes light to get from one point to another. As long as we measure distances this way, everyone can measure the 3D space between those two points, and then, just like the 2D man calculating z, different observers that disagree on the 3D distance between those two points can know that, actually, in 4D, they are the same distance apart. And, they can calculate the extension into that time dimension just like 2D man does with z.", "> Two spaceships are travelling towards each other at speed of light..\n\n**AHHHH!**", "I think a lot of the already posted answers have misunderstood one important point in your question:\n > And an outside observer still observer the relative speed in between them to be c.\n\nThat part is not necessarily true, but you have to specify that both spaceships are traveling in opposite directions at speeds near c *realtive to the outside observer*. If I saw a spaceship approching me from the right at .9c, and another approching me from the left at .9c, then I would observe the space between them to dimnish by 1.8c. The crucial point is that neither of the *spaceships themselves* would observe the other to move at above c -- while you can indeed never observe something to have a speed greater than c relative to yourself, you can still observe things moving at up to (not inclusive) 2c relative to each other. \n\nThis would also be true if two spaceships both travelled from earth in opposite directions: if both acheived speeds above .5c, then us here on earth would observe the distance between the spaceships to increase at a rate corresponding to more than c. Each spaceship, however, would always observe the other spaceship as having a speed less than c, relative to themselves. A consequence of this would be that earth would observe the distance between the spaceships as being greater then what the spaceships would observe it to be, as from earth it would appear the distance between the ships has increased at above c, but from each ship it will always appear to increase slower.\n\nShit, this got kind of long. **tl;dr:** an *outside observer* could observe the relative speed between two ships to be greater than c (but less than 2c), but the *ships themselves* would observe their relative speed to be below c.", "Speed = Distance / Time\n\nSo if we set a maximum value for speed (the speed of light) then distance and time must get distorted to make up for it. That's why we see [length contraction](_URL_2_) and [time dilation](_URL_2_).\n\nFrom your point of view the spaceships appear shorter and time on board would be moving slowly (or frozen if they were moving at the speed of light)" ]

[ "appear different in the two frames. Planetary reference frame From the planetary frame of reference, the ship's speed will appear to be limited by the speed of light—it can approach the speed of light, but never reach it. If a ship is using 1 g constant acceleration, it will appear to get near the speed of light in about a year, and have traveled about half a light year in distance. For the middle of the journey the ship's speed will be roughly the speed of light, and it will slow down again to zero over a year at the end", "the singularity at the speed of light.\n\"Inversion\" is the means of faster-than-light space travel. Instead of breaking the barrier of the speed of light, spaceships in Primary Inversion go around it. By adding an imaginary component to their velocity, or \"inverting\", they enter a superluminal universe, allowing for near-instantaneous travel. However, because the ship must come close to the speed of light to invert, travel still takes time. In addition, various space-time calculation errors add complications. The Skolians' military advantage is based on the fact that the pilots can communicate with technology induced \"telepathy\" while in inversion and arrive in", "In mid-journey any matter the ship strikes will be impacting at near light speed, so the impact will be dramatic. Interstellar traveling speeds If a space ship is using constant acceleration over interstellar distances, it will approach the speed of light for the middle part of its journey when viewed from the planetary frame of reference. This means that the interesting effects of relativity will become important. The most important effect is that time will appear to pass at different rates in the ship frame and the planetary frame, and this means that the ship's speed and journey time will", "theory, from the point of view of the traveller.\nAccelerating to speeds closer to the speed of light with a relativistic rocket would allow the on-ship travel time to be drastically lower, but would require very large amounts of energy. A way to do this is space travel using constant acceleration. Traveling to the Andromeda Galaxy, 2 million light years away, would take 28 years on-ship time with a constant acceleration of 1g and a deceleration of 1g after reaching half way, to be able to stop.\nGoing to the Andromeda Galaxy at this acceleration would require 4 100 000 kg fuel per", "going to the Andromeda Galaxy with constant acceleration means that either the payload has to be very small, the spaceship has to be very large or it has to collect fuel or receive energy on the way through other means (e.g. using a Bussard ramjet). Possible faster-than-light methods The Alcubierre drive is a hypothetical concept that is able to impulse a spacecraft to speeds faster than light (the spaceship itself would not move faster than light, but the space around it would). This could in theory allow practical intergalactic travel. There is no known way to create the space-distorting wave", "approaching space vessel.\nVerdeschi wants to confer with Koenig, but the treatment is not complete. Currently at a distance of over 90 million miles distant, Maya states that, even moving at the speed of light, the ship could not arrive before then. However, it is travelling faster than light and is upon them in minutes. Verdeschi calls for a visual; the ship is an impressive—and familiar—design. It is a Superswift, an Earth ship designed for interstellar travel. The project was shelved by the World Space Commission as no one could devise a practical faster-than-light propulsion system—at", "that occur in sound when an object is moving away or toward something. But the speeds found are only estimated minimums, as in reality their speeds may be larger than the speeds found by the researchers. \"One of the newfound exiles is moving in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major at about 1.25 million mph with respect to the galaxy. It is 240,000 light-years away. The other is headed toward the constellation Cancer, outbound at 1.43 million miles per hour and 180,000 light-years away.\"\nIn the late 2000s, a diffuse glow from the intergalactic medium, but of unknown origin, was", "one was found in 2014, and the fifth was seen in 2015. Time-of-flight measurements In September 2011, OPERA researchers observed muon neutrinos apparently traveling faster than the speed of light. In February and March 2012, OPERA researchers blamed this result on a loose fibre optic cable connecting a GPS receiver to an electronic card in a computer. On 16 March 2012, a report announced that an independent experiment in the same laboratory, also using the CNGS neutrino beam, but this time the ICARUS detector, found no discernible difference between the speed of a neutrino and the speed of light. In", "various applications. 2013 research at NASA's Johnson Space Center, however, shows that faster-than-light travel with the Alcubierre drive requires dramatically less energy than previously thought, needing only about 1 metric ton of exotic mass-energy to move a spacecraft at 10 times the speed of light, in contrast to previous estimates that stated that only a Jupiter-mass object would contain sufficient energy to power a faster-than-light spacecraft.\nAccording to Tough, an extraterrestrial civilization might want to send various types of information to humanity by means of artifacts, such as an Encyclopædia Galactica, containing the wisdom of countless extraterrestrial cultures, or perhaps an", "huge multiples of the speed of light.\nThe faster-than-light travel was also explained in Isaac Asimov's Foundation series and became a familiar term thereafter particularly since the concept was also used by the Star Wars films as well as other fictional intergalactic narratives.\nHyperspace commonly designates one class of technology, where infinite speeds are possible; a ship may jump to hyper space or star drive \"clutching at the very fabric of time itself\" thus making travel that would normally take thousands of years possible in no time at all. One example of narrative descriptions for hyperspace was John E. Stith's conceptualization in", "The driver of the train sees the ball approaching at 80 km/h and then departing at 80 km/h after the ball bounces elastically off the front of the train. Because of the train's motion, however, that departure is at 130 km/h relative to the train platform; the ball has added twice the train's velocity to its own.\nTranslating this analogy into space: in the planet reference frame, the spaceship has a vertical velocity of v relative to the planet. After the slingshot occurs the spaceship is leaving on a course 90 degrees to that which it arrived on. It will still have a", "once been theorized that Northstar could fly at 99% of the speed of light: 186,282 miles per second (299,792 km/s), although this has never been attempted because he would do irreparable damage to the environment. While Northstar can withstand Mach 10 speeds, traveling any faster would carry complications with breathing and damage caused by wind and air resistance to his body. When Aurora, his sister, and Northstar are in contact with each other, usually by holding hands, they can also vary the rate of acceleration of his molecules to release a cascade of photons creating a momentary burst of", "with the sails. As photons reflected off the surface of the sails, they would transfer momentum to them. As there would be no air resistance to oppose the velocity of the spacecraft, acceleration would be proportional to the number of photons colliding with it per unit time. Sunlight amounts to a tiny 5×10⁻⁴ m/s² acceleration in the vicinity of the Earth. Over one day, the spacecraft's speed would reach 45 m/s (100 mph); in 100 days its speed would be 4,500 m/s (10,000 mph), in 2.74 years 45,000 m/s (100,000 mph).\nAt that speed, a craft would reach Pluto, a very distant dwarf planet in the solar", "separated arbitrarily far apart in both space and time, and in principle allows near-instantaneous travel between them. Warp drive A theoretical principle for a faster-than-light (FTL) warp drive for spaceships has been suggested, involving negative energy. The Alcubierre drive comprises a solution to Einstein's equations of general relativity, in which a bubble of spacetime is moved rapidly by expanding space behind it and shrinking space in front of it.", "us.\nIn 1913, Willem de Sitter argued that if this was true, a star in a double-star system would usually have an orbit that caused it to have alternating approach and recession velocities, and light emitted from different parts of the orbital path would then travel towards us at different speeds. For a nearby star with a small orbital velocity (or whose orbital plane was almost perpendicular to our line of view) this might merely make the star's orbit seem erratic, but for a sufficient combination of orbital speed and distance (and inclination), the \"fast\" light given off during approach would", "in perception or reality. Faster-than-light Travel at velocities greater than the speed of light is impossible according to the known laws of physics, although apparent FTL is not excluded by general relativity. The Alcubierre drive provides a theoretical way of achieving FTL, although it requires negative mass, which has not yet been discovered. Nevertheless, Harold G. White at NASA has designed the White–Juday warp-field interferometer to detect a microscopic instance of a warping of space-time according to the Alcubierre drive. Fictional examples The following is a listing of some of the most widely known vessels in various science fiction franchises.", "fact, only the two-way speed had been measured. Rømer's measurement The first experimental determination of the speed of light was made by Ole Christensen Rømer. It may seem that this experiment measures the time for light to traverse part of the Earth's orbit and thus determines its one-way speed, however, this experiment was carefully re-analysed by Zhang, who showed that the measurement does not measure the speed independently of a clock synchronization scheme but actually used the Jupiter system as a slowly-transported clock to measure the light transit times.\nThe Australian physicist Karlov also showed that Rømer actually measured the speed", "Spaceship (cellular automaton) Description The speed of a spaceship is often expressed in terms of c, the metaphorical speed of light (one cell per generation) which in many cellular automata is the fastest that an effect can spread. For example, a glider in Conway's Game of Life is said to have a speed of , as it takes four generations for a given state to be translated by one cell. Similarly, the lightweight spaceship is said to have a speed of , as it takes four generations for a given state to be translated by two cells. ", "velocity of v, but in the horizontal direction. In the Sun reference frame, the planet has a horizontal velocity of v, and by using the Pythagorean Theorem, the spaceship initially has a total velocity of √2v. After the spaceship leaves the planet, it will have a velocity of v + v = 2v, gaining around 0.6v.\nThis oversimplified example is impossible to refine without additional details regarding the orbit, but if the spaceship travels in a path which forms a hyperbola, it can leave the planet in the opposite direction without firing its engine. This example is also one of many", "or less) and on impulse #32 (the last) all units move. The former instance means that speed-32 seeking weapons one hex from their targets hit automatically without possibility of interception, targets at the range limit of overloaded torpedoes (8 hexes) cannot escape before taking fire, and no ships have opportunity to turn fresh shields toward attackers before they can fire weapons. The latter instance means that even the slowest units in play make a move on the turn's final impulse.\nSecond, it is assumed that while faster than light starships produce prodigious amounts of energy just for the needs of propulsion,", "Intergalactic travel Difficulties Due to the distances involved, any serious attempt to travel between galaxies would require methods of propulsion far beyond what is currently thought possible in order to bring a large craft close to the speed of light.\nAccording to the current understanding of physics, an object within space-time cannot exceed the speed of light, which means an attempt to travel to any other galaxy would be a journey of millions of earth years via conventional flight.\nManned travel at a speed not close to the speed of light, would require either that we overcome our own mortality with technologies", "there can be no interaction between two ships even when both are in hyperspace. This effect can be used as a plot device; because they are invisible to each other while in hyperspace, ships will encounter each other most often around contested planets or space stations. Hyperdrive may also allow for dramatic escapes as the pilot \"jumps\" to hyperspace in the midst of battle to avoid destruction.\nIn many stories, for various reasons, a starship cannot enter or leave hyperspace too close to a large concentration of mass, such as a planet or star; this means that hyperspace can only be", "Earth (or Tellus, as it is called in the novels) and Ultra Prime on Klovia, in the second galaxy, and its possession of the inertialess (or \"free\") drive made it possible for its forces to deploy anywhere in known space rapidly.\nOther forms of faster-than-light travel included Hyper-Tubes, which were man-made wormholes which both the Boskonians and Galactic Patrol frequently used, and N-Space corridors which were gateways to a parallel universe. Both sides of the war frequently used literal planets accelerated to relativistic speeds and \"fired\" through wormholes as a primary strategic weapon, in effect intergalactic ICBMs. Later the Boskonian Empire", "to travel from the Sun to the Earth as 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometers (186,000 mi) per second.\nIn 1788, Pierre-Simon Laplace used Cassini's ephemerides and those produced by other astronomers in the preceding century to create a mathematical theory explaining the resonant orbits of Io, Europa, and Ganymede. The ratios of the orbital periods of the inner three Galilean moons are simple integers: Io orbits Jupiter twice every time Europa orbits once, and four times for each revolution", "the rocket is never lit then SpaceShipOne can glide down to the ground. This is another major abort mode, in addition to being flown deliberately in glide tests.\nThe rocket engine is ignited while the spacecraft is gliding. Once under power, it is raised into a 65° climb, which is further steepened in the higher part of the trajectory. The maximum possible acceleration is about 4 g.\nBy the end of the burn the craft is flying upwards at some multiple of the speed of sound, up to about 900 m/s (3,000 ft/s) and Mach 3.5, and it continues to coast upwards unpowered (i.e.", "slightly longer than it would to cross the same distance at the speed of light, but ship-time is just a few hours for those on board. It cannot apparently be used for trips within a solar system. Trips can begin or end close to a planet, but if used without a \"retemporalizer\", there are drastic physical effects at the end of long trips, at least according to the Shing, whose information may be suspect. It is also lethal if the traveler is pregnant.\nCity of Illusions mentions automatic death-machines that work on the same principle as the ansible", "main challenges in interplanetary travel is producing the very large velocity changes necessary to travel from one body to another in the Solar System.\nDue to the Sun's gravitational pull, a spacecraft moving farther from the Sun will slow down, while a spacecraft moving closer will speed up. Also, since any two planets are at different distances from the Sun, the planet from which the spacecraft starts is moving around the Sun at a different speed than the planet to which the spacecraft is travelling (in accordance with Kepler's Third Law). Because of these facts, a spacecraft desiring to transfer to", "1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.", "powered photon rocket may accelerate at a maximum of perhaps 1/10,000 m/s² (0.1 mm/s²) which is 10⁻⁵g. The velocity change would be at the rate of 3,000 m/s per year of thrusting by the photon rocket.\nIf a photon rocket begins its journey in low earth orbit, then one year of thrusting may be required to achieve an earth escape velocity of 11.2 km/s if the vehicle is already in orbit at a velocity of 9,100 m/s. Upon escaping the Earth's gravitational field the rocket will have a heliocentric velocity of 30 km/s in interplanetary space. Eighty years of steady photonic thrusting would be then required", "a comparable speed – like the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope. Evans also features prominently in Bill Bryson's A Short History of Nearly Everything which quotes him as saying \"There's something satisfying, I think, about the idea of light travelling for millions of years through space and just at the right moment as it reaches Earth someone looks at the right bit of sky and sees it. It just seems right that an event of that magnitude should be witnessed.\"\nSupernova 1983N, spotted by Evans in 1983 in the galaxy M83 long before it reached its peak, turned out to be the" ]

[ "The short answer is: If it's clean, you can.\n\nWeather we can eat a food raw or not depends on if it carries things that might make us sick, or might have picked up something that would make us sick. \n\nIn particular, with Sushi, fish is processed in methods that separate the \"dirty\" bits quickly, and completely. (gutting a fish) That leave you with clean, safe, slabs of fish to work with. Also, things that make fish sick, don't necessarily make people sick. Importantly, care is taken so the surfaces of the deceased fish are kept clean.\n\nSomething such as beef, isn't processed as cleanly, or quickly. And cleaning and speerating the cuts isn't as clean. They also can be made sick by the same things that make us sick. \n\nIf you treat \"meat\" right, raw meat is just fine for you. Steak Tartare, and Carpaccio are both rare preparations of beef. If you take the same sort of care that you do with fish, you \"can\" eat meat raw. \n\nRare steak, is essentially raw in the middle. The advantage there is by quickly cooking the outside, you kill the bugs that might be on the meats surface. \n\nThere are also other ways of making meat \"clean\" that don't involve cooking. Pickling, salting, smoking, all could still be \"raw\" food, depending on how you define it.", "[Carpaccio](_URL_1_) and [tartare](_URL_0_) are very common dishes of raw meats.", "You can. In Germany and France it is very common to eat raw beef and pork. It is actually pretty yummy. You just have to be careful.\n\nIn japan it is popular for people to eat all kinds of raw meat. Chicken, pork, beef... whatever.\n\nThe USA is very strict on not eating raw meat but that is also because it pays so little attention to how animals are actually treated and raised.\n\nNow I want some raw ground beef and pork with some cucumber and onion...", "FYI sushi doesn't mean raw fish. That would be *sashimi*. Sushi is basically rice rolled in seaweed. Other stuff, mainly vegetables and *fish*, may be added.", "In Japan, I have eaten raw: fish, beef, lamb and horse. The chefs know how to minimize sepsis so that it's not dangerous to eat.." ]

[ "and products made from raw milk, and raw eggs.\nStudies have associated raw food dieting with loss of body weight and low bone mass.\nOne review stated that \"Many raw foods are toxic and only become safe after they have been cooked. Some raw foods contain substances that destroy vitamins, interfere with digestive enzymes or damage the walls of the intestine. Raw meat can be contaminated with bacteria which would be destroyed by cooking; raw fish can contain substances that interfere with vitamin B1 (anti-thiaminases)\" Role of cooking in human evolution Richard Wrangham, professor of biological anthropology at Harvard University, proposes", "Raw meat Raw meat generally refers to any type of uncooked muscle tissue of an animal used for food. In the meat production industry, the term ‘meat’ refers specifically to mammalian flesh, while the words ‘poultry’ and ‘seafood’ are used to differentiate between the tissue of birds and aquatic creatures. Raw meat diseases Every year in the United States, 6.5 million to 33 million cases of illness are diagnosed due to microbial pathogens, with about 9,000 deaths occurring annually as well. According to a multi-state study published in the America Journal of Preventative Medicine, the annual cost of disease", " Japanese people would eat fish in every one of their meals. In traditional Japanese cuisine, oil and fat are usually avoided within the cooking process, because Japanese people were trying to keep a healthy lifestyle.\nPreserving fish became a sensation; sushi was originated as means of preserving fish by fermenting it in boiled rice. Fish that are salted and then placed in rice are preserved by lactic acid fermentation, which helps prevent proliferation of the bacteria that bring about putrefaction. During the 15th century, advancement and development helped shorten the fermentation of sushi to about one to two weeks. Sushi", "meat is called sakura (桜) or sakuraniku (桜肉, sakura means cherry blossom, niku means meat) because of its pink color. It can be served raw as sashimi in thin slices dipped in soy sauce, often with ginger and onions added. In this case, it is called basashi (馬刺し). Basashi is popular in some regions of Japan and is often served at izakaya bars. Fat, typically from the neck, is also found as basashi, though it is white, not pink. Horse meat is also sometimes found on menus for yakiniku (a type of barbecue), where it is called baniku (馬肉, literally", "meat, beef, carabao, pork, and chicken. Unlike fish kinilaw, meat kilawin are not eaten raw but are cooked by boiling or grilling or both. They are usually done rare to medium rare, though in some cases the meat are fully cooked. Meat-based kilawin are also traditionally eaten with papaít (literally \"bittering agent\"), usually the bile extracted from the gall bladder or by squishing the chewed grass in an animal's stomach.\nIngredients used in seafood and meat kinilaw must be fresh and properly cleaned, as there are health hazards involved with consuming raw seafood and partly cooked meat.\nOther ingredients that can be", "using both chopsticks and spoon. The noodles and toppings on ramen should be eaten with chopsticks while the soup should be drunk with a spoon. Sushi Sushi is one of the most famous dishes of Japan, which comes with many different varieties, and therefore there is a certain dining etiquette to follow. It is allowed to eat sushi with bare hands, however, sashimi is eaten with chopsticks. When shoyu (lit. soy sauce) is served together with nigiri-sushi (lit. sushi with a fish topping), pick up the sushi and dip the part of the fish topping into the shoyu, not the", "flavor, but not for any benefit of cooking. Before cooking, a cotto salame is considered raw and not ready to eat.\nThree major stages are involved in the production of salami: preparation of raw materials, fermentation, and ripening and drying. Minor differences in the formulation of the meat or production techniques give rise to the various kinds of salami across different countries. Preparation Before fermentation, raw meat (usually pork or beef depending on the type of salami that is produced) is ground (usually coarsely) and mixed with other ingredients such as salt, sugar, spices and yeast, and, if the", "materials are indeed foodstuffs, but because it is not distributed as food, and because it is a health hazard to consume and is not particularly appetizing, it is generally not eaten.\nKatanuki was once a regular good carried in carts by tekiya (peddlers) on ennichi (auspicious Shinto days when festivals are often held), but at present, this is becoming less common. A long time ago, it was a side-show at picture story shows (駄菓子屋).\nAside from carts, the molds are sometimes sold at small candy stores, though this is rare.", "also refrain from eating eggs.\nAn egg that naturally contains a spot of blood may not be eaten under Jewish and Islamic tradition, but eggs without any blood are commonly consumed (and are not considered to be meat, so may be eaten with dairy). Elephants Buddhist monks and lay people are forbidden from eating elephant meat.\nElephant meat is also not considered Kosher by Jewish dietary laws because elephants do not have cloven hooves and they are not ruminants.\nHindus strictly avoid any contact with elephant meat due to the importance of the god Ganesha who is widely worshipped by Hindus. Fish Speak", "Raw animal food diets Foods included in raw animal food diets include any food that can be eaten raw, so including raw, unprocessed meats/organ-meats/raw eggs, raw dairy, and aged, raw animal foods such as century eggs, fermenting meat/fish/shellfish/dairy(such as kefir), as well as, to a lesser extent, nuts/sprouts/plants/fruits, but generally not raw grains, raw beans, raw soy etc., because of digestibility and toxicity issues and also because paleolists tend to reject neolithic or domesticated foods. Raw foods on such diets have not been heated at temperatures above 104 °F (40 °C). “Raw Animal Foodists” believe that foods cooked above", "Raw foodism Raw foodism, also known as rawism or following a raw food diet, is the dietary practice of eating only or mostly food that is uncooked and unprocessed. Depending on the philosophy, or type of lifestyle and results desired, raw food diets may include a selection of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, eggs, fish, meat, and dairy products. The diet may also include simply processed foods, such as various types of sprouted seeds, cheese, and fermented foods such as yogurts, kefir, kombucha, or sauerkraut, but generally not foods that have been pasteurized, homogenized, or produced with the use of synthetic", "(the Quran forbids it, Sura 2:173 and 16:115 ) other foods not in a state of purity are also considered haram. The criteria for non-pork items include their source, the cause of the animal's death, and how it was processed.\nMuslims must also ensure that all foods (particularly processed foods), as well as non-food items like cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, are halal. Frequently, these products contain animal by-products or other ingredients that are not permissible for Muslims to eat or use on their bodies. Foods which are not considered halal for Muslims to consume include blood and intoxicants such as alcoholic beverages.", "is undetermined whether raw food was the cause. The FDA recommends cleaning and disinfecting all surfaces that come in contact with raw meat, as well as thorough hand washing to reduce the risk of infection. Veterinary position Veterinary associations such as the American Veterinary Medical Association, British Veterinary Association and Canadian Veterinary Medical Association have warned of the animal and public health risk that could arise from feeding raw meat to pets and have stated that there is no scientific evidence to support the claimed benefits of raw feeding.\nVeterinary associations often organize debates and panel to further the understanding of", "A characteristic of traditional Japanese food is the sparing use of red meat, oils and fats, and dairy products. Use of ingredients such as soy sauce, miso, and umeboshi tends to result in dishes with high salt content, though there are low-sodium versions of these available. Meat consumption As Japan is an island nation surrounded by an ocean, its people have always taken advantage of the abundant seafood supply. It is the opinion of some food scholars that the Japanese diet always relied mainly on \"grains with vegetables or seaweeds as main, with poultry secondary, and red meat in slight", "fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah (\"funeral prayer\") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food. Social responsibilities", "Quran by means of the verb ahalla (to make lawful), with God as the stated or implied subject. Foods Several food companies offer halal processed foods and products, including halal foie gras, spring rolls, chicken nuggets, ravioli, lasagna, pizza, and baby food.Halal ready meals are a growing consumer market for Muslims in Britain and America and are offered by an increasing number of retailers. Vegetarian cuisine is halal if it does not contain alcohol.\nThe most common example of haram (non-halal) food is pork (pig meat products). While pork is the only meat that categorically may not be consumed by Muslims", "Kuai (dish) History Raw fish and meat dishes, known collectively as kuai, were first documented in China in the Zhou dynasty (1045–256 BC), and are mentioned in the Classic of Poetry, Classic of Rites, Analects and Mencius. A related preparation method is xuan (軒), which involve slicing the raw meat in large thin pieces in the manner of carpaccio, however the term kuai was used to refer to this method. Kuai is the preferred preparation of raw beef and lamb, or fish such as the carp, while meat from wild deer and boar were prepared as xuan. Thinness in the", "raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.\nThe Belgian or Dutch dish filet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. Kibbeh nayyeh is a similar Lebanese and Syrian dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat", "confectionary food, is a main component in ritual activities for the traditional Chinese gods in Tang Dynasty. Development During the Kamakura era in Japan, Japanese monks mot only brought back different kinds of food from China, but also brought back the tradition of drinking tea while eating sweet snacks. Due to the fact that meat-eating is not a popular trend in Japan as well as the religious beliefs, most of the food with meat as main ingredients has been transformed into red bean and wheat flour products. After some improvements in the taste and ingredients of collon, it is further", "by boiling, burning, preserving in salt or vinegar, or freezing overnight. Even Japanese people never eat raw salmon or ikura (salmon roe), and even if they seem raw, these foods are not raw but are frozen overnight to prevent infections from parasites, particularly anisakis.\nBelow are some life cycles of fish parasites that can infect humans:", "Buddhist traditions in which a sanctity of life, both human and animal, is cherished, meat is often consumed as a form of sustenance due to lack of vegetation readily available. For example, Tibetan medicine emphasizes the necessity to acquire and sustain a balance between the bodily fluids of wind (rlung), phlegm (bad kan), and bile (mkhns), in which a meatless diet would disturb and eventually lead to fatigue. The 18th century Tibetan religious leader Jigmé Lingpa suggested that Tibetan Buddhists who wish to consume meat, but also do not want to sacrifice their religious beliefs, should recite a prayer", "feature a heavy porridge with soup and stew known as tuwo da miya. The soup and stew are usually prepared with ground or chopped tomatoes, onions, and local spices.\nSpices and other vegetables, such as spinach, pumpkin, or okra, are added to the soup during preparation. The stew is prepared with meat, which can include goat or cow meat, but not pork, due to Islamic food restrictions. Beans, peanuts, and milk are also served as a complementary protein diet for the Hausa people.\nThe most famous of all Hausa food is most likely Suya, a spicy shish kebab like skewered meat which", "including south Japan, south Fujian, Guangdong in China, and Hong Kong. In the Hokkien-speaking area, they are considered delicacies and good for health. The meat of Synanceia is white, dense and sweet, and the skin is also edible. They are usually cooked with ginger into a clear soup, and sometimes served raw as sashimi.", "involves the cooking of meats such as whole sheep over an open fire. In Argentina, an asado (Spanish for \"grilled\") is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on which a whole animal or smaller cuts are grilled. Raw food preparation Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in a raw state. Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat, and sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood. Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made", "and shōjin ryōri (shōjin means \"devotion\", ryōri means \"cuisine\") in Japan, and by many other names in other countries. Due to the understanding of animals as conscious and suffering beings, many Buddhists do not kill animals and many also do not eat meat (other than that from those who died naturally, and from species where the consumption of brethren is not troubling to the still living). Certain major Mahayana sutras show the Buddha forcefully denouncing meat-consumption and advocating vegetarianism (vegetarianism in Buddhism). Some Mahāyāna Buddhists in China and Vietnam also avoid eating strong-smelling plants such as onion, garlic, chives, shallot, and", "and gizzards, fungi, bamboo buds, pigs' tripe, and bean sprouts stewed with spices.\" In 1898, it is described as \"A Hash of Pork, with Celery, Onions, Bean Sprouts, etc.\"\nDuring his travels in the United States, Liang Qichao, a Guangdong (Canton) native, wrote in 1903 that there existed in the United States a food item called chop suey which was popularly served by Chinese restaurateurs, but which local Chinese people do not eat, because the cooking technique is \"really awful\".\nIn earlier periods of Chinese history, chop suey or chap sui in Cantonese, and za sui, in Mandarin, has the different meaning", "damaged or bruised; and precut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice.\nAll fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage.\nFruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods. Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood, or eggs.\nAll cut,", "not eat”. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.\nTraditionally, there is a distinction between northern and southern Chinese Islamic cuisine despite both using mutton and lamb. Northern Chinese Islamic cuisine relies heavily on beef, but rarely ducks, geese, shrimp or seafood, while southern Islamic cuisine is the reverse. The reason for this difference is due to availability of the ingredients. Oxen have been long used for farming and", "famine and flood and meat was preserved with salt, vinegar, curing, and fermenting. The flavor of the meat was enhanced by cooking it in animal fats though this practice was mostly restricted to the wealthy.\nBy the time of Confucius in the late Zhou, gastronomy had become a high art. Confucius discussed the principles of dining: \"The rice would never be too white, the meat would never be too finely cut... When it was not cooked right, man would not eat. When it was cooked bad, man would not eat. When the meat was not cut properly, man would not eat.", "the following fruits: apples, wood-apples, bananas, figs, pomegranates, gooseberries, lemons, and watermelons. Orange juice and green vegetables are also recommended for their sattvic nature. Many pehlwan eat meat due to it's high protein content. Famed pehlwan Dara Singh used to eat more than a pound of meat everyday.\nIdeally, wrestlers are supposed to avoid sour and excessively spiced foods such as chatni and achar as well as chaat. Mild seasoning with garlic, cumin, coriander, and turmeric is acceptable. The consumption of alcohol, tobacco, and paan is strongly discouraged. Techniques It has been said that most of the moves found in the" ]

[ "On TV, when the price of gas goes up, they say they have no choice but to sell it higher in gas stations too.\n\nBut when the price goes down, they say that they had already bought a lot of gas when it was higher so they cannot lower the prices immediately or they'd lose money on it.\n\nThere is probably a good explanation for it but my guess is that it's another of these \"Heads I win, Tails, you lose\" situation ;)", "This kind of pricing is called \"sticky downward\" and often happens in cases of limited competition. When the price of production goes up, the price to the consumer goes up. When the price of production goes down, the price to the consumer is held constant and the reduced demand is managed by not producing as much. The excess value per unit is kept as profit, as long as the producer can do so.\n\nBut because there is SOME competition, there will be a gradual reduction in prices, as some producers and resellers will reduce their prices over time to try to gain more of a market share.\n\nTake gas as an example. Let's say due to some event the price of oil spikes up, and so the price of gas increases by a dollar. For the most part, people will still need to buy SOME gas. I'm not biking ten miles each way to and from work every day, though some people will choose to walk or bike, so I will still need to buy enough gas for my commute. It may make me decide against taking a road trip I was going to take, though, reducing total demand (and thereby reducing the sellers' revenue).\n\nAs oil goes down, the cost to produce gas goes down, but the gas stations will still like to sell at the higher price as much as they can. I still need to buy enough gas to commute, so I pretty much have to pay their price. But say the Sheetz I usually go to is selling for $4.259/gal, and the Exxon just a couple blocks up the road which WAS at $4.259 drops their price to $4.209 to try to get my business. In my own case this would work. I'll drive a couple blocks to save $.05/gal. So the Sheetz may respond by dropping their price to $4.199, and the Exxon may then drop to $4.179, etc. It will eventually reach equilibrium, it just takes more time.", "There are a lot of gov't regulations that state what the gas stations (and their suppliers) can and can't do with prices. They are only really allowed so much flexibility.\n\nImagine the oil as coke (soda, not the drug). Now let's say Coca-Cola decides they want to charge forty dollars for a box of the concentrated Coca-Cola flavoring used in a fountain. (I don't know the actual measures here, so don't take these as legitimate numbers, more just hypothetical) Now, that box can make 100 22 oz cups, and a fast food place buys two of those boxes. They have 4400 oz of soda they just spent $80 on. Not counting the cost of water and employees, they need to sell each oz at $0.02 to make back the cost ($0.44 for a 22 oz cup, probably being sold at $0.55). Now imagine what happens when Coca-Cola decides to charge more for that box, the cost per cup has to rise. The store still buys the same amount of product, but because they are charging a higher price (let's say, $0.88, sold at $1.10 after markup) they don't sell it as quickly. Well, they eventually sell off the soda they bought at a higher price. During that time, Coca-Cola has lowered the cost of the box back to the original price. That leads to, after a little delay, the cost lowering and the same profit being made.\n\nThis happens in a bunch of things really, ever notice when a grocery store starts charging more for tomatoes or bread? Then you notice the prices go down after a time? It's the same thing, they are keeping the same profit margin, just having to sell it at a higher price to do so, then the higher priced good doesn't sell as quickly, but eventually they do get it cheaper and lower the prices again. We just notice it a lot more with fuel because there's so much talk about fuel.", "They do track reasonably well to oil prices. Take a look a the 10 year [graph of oil prices](_URL_0_) and the (separate) [10 year graph of gasoline prices](_URL_1_). (you'll have to select the 10 year span yourself)\n\nSo...on the macro scale, they do track together. On the smaller scale pricing has to contend with immediate availability, prices of their crude in inventory, availability of refining capacity and season supply/demand etc.", "The best answer is this, if you hold this bar of soap, now drop it, now keep trying to get it off the floor while I gang rape you in the shower. I am the gas giants. Your welcome.", "For the most part, they are just looking for any excuse to raise the price and get away with it. It only comes back down as people start to drive less and they sell less gas." ]

[ "not caused significant changes in oil prices and that fundamental supply and demand factors provide the best explanation for the crude oil price increases. The report found that the primary reason for the price increases was that the world economy had expanded at its fastest pace in decades, resulting in substantial increases in the demand for oil, while the oil production grew sluggishly, compounded by production shortfalls in oil-exporting countries.\nThe report stated that as a result of the imbalance and low price elasticity, very large price increases occurred as the market attempted to balance scarce supply against growing demand, particularly", "oil market changed significantly. Before 2005 a small increase in oil price lead to an noticeable expansion of the production volume. Later price rises let the production grow only by small numbers. This was the reason to call 2005 a tipping point.\nAfter the destruction of Hurricane Katrina in the United States, gasoline prices reached a record high during the first week of September 2005. The average retail price was, on average, $3.04 per U.S. gallon. The average retail price of a liter of petrol in the United Kingdom was 86.4p on October 19, 2006, or $6.13 per gallon. ", "this is yet another cycle and oil prices will recover sooner rather than later.\nA 2016 survey of the academic literature finds that \"most major oil price fluctuations dating back to 1973 are largely explained by shifts in the demand for crude oil\". As the global economy expands, so does demand for crude oil. The authors note that the price of oil has also increased at times due to greater \"demand for stocks (or inventories) of crude oil... to guard against future shortages in the oil market. Historically, inventory demand has been high in times of geopolitical tension in the Middle", "a lack of refining capacity would only seem to explain high gasoline prices not high crude oil prices. Indeed, if the refineries were unable to process available crude oil then there should be a crude oil glut that would reduce crude prices on international crude oil markets. Then again, sharp changes in crude oil prices can also be due to stock market volatility and fear over the security of future supplies, or, on the other hand, an anticipation by investors of a rise in the value of crude oil once refining capacity picks up again.\nAs for the global usefulness", "prices. However, as crude and gasoline prices continued to rise between 2007 and 2008 this practice became so contentious that in June 2008 the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, the Federal Reserve, and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) decided to create task forces to investigate whether this took place.\nA crude oil contango occurred again in January 2009, with arbitrageurs storing millions of barrels in tankers to profit from the contango (see oil-storage trade). But by the summer, that price curve had flattened considerably. The contango exhibited in Crude Oil in 2009 explains the discrepancy between the headline spot price", "of $45 on September 11, 2001 only to drop again to a low of $26 on May 8, 2003. The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. By March 3, 2008 the price of oil reached $103.95 a barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange.\nAlthough the oil price is largely determined by the balance between supply and demand—as with all commodities—some commentators including Business Week, the Financial Times and the Washington Post, argued that the rise in oil prices prior to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was due to speculation in futures markets.\nFor a dissenting view of", "earlier but 96.8 cents above a year earlier. On June 24, the price of gas was $3.62.8 and expected to go much lower due to the opening of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. U.S. oil prices fell below $90 before rising again, and Brent crude fell 2%.\nIn August, the same pessimistic economic news that caused stock prices to fall also decreased expected energy demand. On August 8, oil fell over 6%, in its largest drop since May, to $81, its lowest price of the year.\nDuring October, the price of oil rose 22%, the fastest pace since February, as worries over the", "Price of oil The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Select (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and/or refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils", "the Gaza Strip. From mid January to February 13, oil fell to near $35 a barrel. 2010 On May 21, 2010, the price of oil had dropped in two weeks from $88 to $70 mainly due to concerns over how European countries would reduce budget deficits; if the European economy slowed down, this would mean less demand for crude oil. Also, if the European economic crisis caused the American economy to have problems, demand for oil would be reduced further. Other factors included the strong dollar and high inventories. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, gas prices nationwide averaged", "prices, but it may mitigate the decline in oil production by retaining a partial amount of Iraq's oil reserves. As a direct consequence, the oil production capacity was diminished to 2 million barrels (320,000 m³) per day. 2004 to 2008: rising costs of oil After retreating for several months in late 2004 and early 2005, crude oil prices rose to new highs in March 2005. The price on NYMEX has been above $50 per barrel since March 5, 2005. In June 2005, crude oil prices broke the psychological barrier of $60 per barrel.\nFrom 2005 onwards, the price elasticity of the crude", "from $35 to $140 per barrel ($220 to $880/m³), causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market. Taxes Taxes are the next biggest contributor to gasoline prices at around 12%. In the United States, both state and federal taxes apply to gasoline. In addition, other taxes may be placed on gas including applicable state sales taxes, gross", "embargo, the rupture of the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, and Iranian Nationalization of the oil industry resulted in further never-before-seen price increases. Each case was followed by a marked recession in the US economy.\nIn 2008, oil prices rose briefly, to as high as $145 per barrel, and U.S. gasoline prices jumped from $1.37 to $2.37 per gallon in 2005, causing a search for alternate sources, and by 2012, less than half the US oil consumption was imported. However, as of January 2015, the price of oil has decreased to around $50 per barrel. Consumption and production In the twentieth century, oil production", "13, prices had fallen to $113 a barrel. By the middle of September, oil price fell below $100 for the first time in over six months, falling below $92 in the aftermath of the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy.\nA stronger US dollar and a likely decline in European demand were suggested to be among the causes of the decline. By October 24, the price of crude dropped to $64.15, and closed at $60.77 on November 6. By the end of December, 2008, oil had bottomed out at $32. 2009 In January 2009, oil prices rose temporarily because of tensions in", "U.S. economy decreased, leading to predictions of $4 by early 2012. As of November 8, the price reached $96.80. Gas prices were not following the increase, due to lower demand resulting from the economy, the normal decrease in travel, lower oil prices in other countries, and production of winter blends which cost less. The average rose slightly to $3.41. 2012 The CIBC reported that the global oil industry continued to produce massive amounts of oil in spite of a stagnant crude oil market. Oil production from the Bakken formation was forecast in 2012 to grow by 600,000 barrels every year", "these price increases to many factors, including reports from the United States Department of Energy and others showing a decline in petroleum reserves, worries over peak oil, Middle East tension, and oil price speculation.\nFor a time, geopolitical events and natural disasters indirectly related to the global oil market had strong short-term effects on oil prices. These events and disasters included North Korean missile tests, the 2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon, worries over Iranian nuclear plants in 2006 and Hurricane Katrina. By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of the global", "the causes, which include the flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities to speculation and monetary policy or the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast-growing world economy and thus positions taken on those markets, such as Chinese increasing presence in Africa. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states.\nIn January 2008, oil prices surpassed $100 a barrel for the first time, the first of many price milestones to", "curve.\nFor example, the oil crisis of the 1970s caused more nations to start producing their own oil due to dramatic price increases of oil. Since more nations started to produce oil, the short-run supply curve shifted more to the right meaning there was more supply of oil.\nA price mechanism affects every economic situation in the long term. Price Mechanism plays a vital role in determining prices in a capitalist economy. Another example of the effects of a price mechanism in the long run involves fuel for cars. If fuel becomes more expensive, then the demand for fuel would not decrease", "and distribution/marketing accounted for 12% and 14% respectively.\nAfter Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita, gas prices started rising to record high levels. In terms of the aggregate economy, increases in crude oil prices significantly predict the growth of real gross domestic product (GDP), but increases in natural gas prices do not.\nIn August 2005, after the damages from Hurricane Katrina ran up gas prices, on August 30th, a day after Katrina's landfall, prices in the spot market, which typically include a premium above the wellhead price, had surged past $11 per gigajoule ($12 per million British thermal units), and on 22 September", "fact that the banks have deep pockets, and so the means to significantly sway prices, and unlike traditional market participants, neither produced oil nor ever took physical possession of actual barrels of oil they bought and sold. Journalist Kate Sheppard of Mother Jones called it \"a development that many say is artificially raising the price of crude\". However, another source stated that, \"Just before crude oil hit its record high in mid-2008, 15 of the world's largest banks were betting that prices would fall, according to private trading data...\"\nIn April 2011, a couple of observers - Brad Johnson of the", "prices as a result fell to as low as $7 per barrel. Reduced demand OPEC had relied on the price inelasticity of demand of oil to maintain high consumption, but underestimated the extent to which other sources of supply would become profitable as prices increased. Electricity generation from coal, nuclear power and natural gas; home heating from natural gas; and ethanol blended gasoline all reduced the demand for oil. USA New passenger car fuel economy in the US rose from 17 miles per US gallon (14 L/100 km) in 1978 to more than 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km) in 1982, an", "price since July 2004. On December 30 with U.S. supplies still high, light sweet crude fell to $36.60, while Brent crude reached $36.46. Oil ended the year down 30%. 2016 On January 6, 2016, the price of WTI crude hit another eleven-year low, as it dropped to $32.53 a barrel for the first time since 2009. On January 12, in its seventh losing day, crude oil dropped below $30 for the first time since December 2003. OPEC encouraged production cuts, which helped prices go up before U.S. crude fell to $26.05, its lowest price since May 2003. Prices started rising", "increase in price will do the opposite. This works well for most assets but it often works in reverse for stocks due to the mistake many investors make of buying high in a state of euphoria and selling low in a state of fear or panic as a result of the herding instinct. In case an increase in price causes an increase in demand, or a decrease in price causes an increase in supply, this destroys the expected negative feedback loop and prices will be unstable. This can be seen in a bubble or crash.", "increase (bottoming at $35 and topping $80 in the year) and the various tradeable instruments for Crude Oil (such as rolled contracts or longer-dated futures contracts) showing a much lower price increase. The USO ETF also failed to replicate Crude Oil's spot price performance. Interest rates If short-term interest rates were expected to fall in a contango market, this would narrow the spread between a futures contract and an underlying asset in good supply. This is because the cost of carry will fall due to the lower interest rate, which in turn results in the difference between the price of", "became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade. The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman. Speculation during the 2008 crisis In June 2008 Business Week reported that the surge in oil prices prior to 2008 had led some commentators to argue that at least some of the rise was due to speculation in the futures markets. However, although speculation can greatly raise the oil price in the short run, in the long run fundamental market conditions will determine the oil price. Storing oil is expensive, and all speculators must", "The price difference between WCS and WTI was as wide as US$50 a barrel in October. As the international price of oil recovered from the December \"sharp downturn\", the price of WCS rose to US$28.60. According to CBC News, the lower global price of oil was related to declining economic growth as the China–U.S. trade war continued. The price rose as oil production was cut back by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and Saudi Arabia. According to U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) report, oil production rose by 12% in the U.S., primarily because of shale oil. As a", "2006, Hurricane Katrina, and various other factors. By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of the global recession. The recession caused demand for energy to shrink in late 2008, with oil prices falling from the July 2008 high of $147 to a December 2008 low of $32. Oil prices stabilized by October 2009 and established a trading range between $60 and $80.\nThe price of oil nearly tripled from $50 to $147 from early 2007 to 2008, before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008. Experts debate", "2005, the day before Rita's landfall, the spot price had risen to $14 per gigajoule ($15 per million British thermal units).\nIn the fifteen years prior to the 1973 oil crisis, gasoline prices in the U.S. had lagged well behind inflation. Crude oil Crude oil is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from the ground, and transport it. Between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil. Prices leapt", "rise in gasoline prices, the first time that they have gone over $3 per gallon. One Congressman asks if the oil companies are taking advantage. One chairman of a committee decides not to swear in the CEOs of the oil companies, alleviating them of the requirement to tell the truth. Senator Gordon H. Smith, R-Ore., observes that no Gulf crude is used on the West Coast, yet gas prices spiked there as well. On November 10, 2005, the Chevron Oil Company is quoted as saying, \"If the U.S. petroleum industry doesn't reduce its refining capacity, it will never see any", "to $3.17. On March 1, 2011, a significant drop in Libyan production and fears of more instability in other countries pushed the price of oil over $100 a barrel in New York trading, while the average price of gas reached $3.37. Despite Saudi promises, the sour type oil the country exported could not replace the more desirable sweet Libyan oil. On March 7, 2011, the average price of gas having reached $3.57, individuals were making changes in their driving.\nThe weakened U.S. Dollar resulted in a spike to $112/barrel with the national average of $3.74/gallon – with expectations of damaging the", "what consumers pay at the pump, and why gas prices seem to 'rocket up' but feather down.\"\nLeibowitz was the one commissioner to dissent on a 2007 FTC Report on Spring/Summer 2006 Nationwide Gasoline Price Increases, which found that the increase could be explained by market forces. Leibowitz suggested that the plausible explanation for the increase in gasoline prices, that the Commission found, was not necessarily the only explanation. \"The question you ask determines the answer you get,\" he wrote, \"whatever theoretical justifications exist don't exclude the real world threat that there was profiteering at the expense of consumers.\" " ]

[ "Alright, the only word in there you gotta worry about is 'induction'. 'Motor' just means it moves stuff, and 'linear' just means it moves stuff in a straight line (or close to it). \nAs for 'induction': When you've got electricity moving, it can create a magnetic field (i.e. what magnets make). That magnetic field can move stuff like you could with a magnet if you work the electric current just right. How do you work it just right? Well you basically line up a row of electromagnets (i.e. magnets you can turn off and on, or those pink things in figure 23 in that pdf) ~~and turn them on/off as they move along the iron stator (basically a chunk of iron that's attracted to magnets) so that the magnets are always getting pulled forward.~~ \nThis kind of motor has two main advantages. One is that since nothing needs to be touching, you reduce friction, so things can go faster. The other is that the motor doesn't need much in the way of moving parts since it's all electricity, so things don't wear out as fast. \nDoes that help? \nEDIT: See later post. Read a few things wrong in my first read of the pdf.", "Look at a row of movie marqee \"chase\" lights.\nIt is fundamentally the same thing, except instead of light bulbs it uses electro magnets, and the \"lit\" one draws the magnet to it, and as it \"chases\", the next one activates, drawing the magnet." ]

[ "element ( the \"field winding\") which may be connected by brushes or slip rings to an external source of electric current. In an induction motor, the \"field\" winding of the rotor is energized by the slow relative motion between the rotating winding and the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator winding, which induces the necessary exciting current in the rotor.", "induction motors but sometimes use drive tires. Linear induction motor The linear induction motor is a simple but powerful type of electric motor used to propel the cars. Rather than using a standard enclosed spinning rotor and drive wheels, there is a long flat magnetic pole plate with closely spaced electric coils. This pole plate mounts on the track underneath the car and a matching metal plate attached to the car moves across the magnetic pole faces. By applying a multiphase alternating current to the poles, the pole plate induces eddy currents into the moving plate and can be used", "frictionless property an electromagnetic propulsion system encompasses. Functioning of a linear induction motor begins with an AC force that is supplied to the coil windings within the primary coil assembly. This creates a traveling magnetic field that induces a current in the reaction plate, which then creates its own magnetic field. The magnetic fields in the primary coil assembly and reaction plate alternate, which generates force and direct linear motion. Spacecraft There are multiple applications for EMP technologies in the field of aerospace. Many of these applications are conceptual as of now, however, there are also several applications that range", "current is passed through a metal sabot across sliding contacts that are fed from two rails. The magnetic field this generates causes the metal to be projected along the rails. Piezo electric Piezoelectric drive is often used to drive small linear motors. Low acceleration The history of linear electric motors can be traced back at least as far as the 1840s, to the work of Charles Wheatstone at King's College in London, but Wheatstone's model was too inefficient to be practical. A feasible linear induction motor is described in the U.S. Patent 782,312 (1905 - inventor Alfred Zehden of Frankfurt-am-Main),", "as supplied for fixed-speed application from the AC power grid or for variable-speed application from VFD controllers. An AC motor has two parts: a stationary stator having coils supplied with AC to produce a rotating magnetic field, and a rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. Cage and wound rotor induction motor An induction motor is an asynchronous AC motor where power is transferred to the rotor by electromagnetic induction, much like transformer action. An induction motor resembles a rotating transformer, because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of", "motors may be used as generators, turning mechanical energy into electric current. Induction generators operate by mechanically turning their rotor faster than the synchronous speed, giving negative slip. A regular AC asynchronous motor usually can be used as a generator, without any internal modifications. Induction generators are useful in applications such as minihydro power plants, wind turbines, or in reducing high-pressure gas streams to lower pressure, because they can recover energy with relatively simple controls. They do not require an exciter circuit because the rotating magnetic field is provided by induction from the stator circuit. They also do not require", "the stator \"leads\" the rotor pole, pulling it forward. Rather than using a mechanical commutator to switch the winding current as in traditional motors, the switched-reluctance motor uses an electronic position sensor to determine the angle of the rotor shaft and solid state electronics to switch the stator windings, which enables dynamic control of pulse timing and shaping. This differs from the apparently similar induction motor that also energizes windings in a rotating phased sequence. In an SRM the rotor magnetization is static (a salient 'North' pole remains so as the motor rotates) while an induction motor has slip, and", "Reciprocating electric motor A reciprocating electric motor is a motor in which the armature moves back and forth rather than circularly. Early electric motors were sometimes of the reciprocating type, such as those made by Daniel Davis in the 1840s. Today, reciprocating electric motors are rare but they do have some niche applications, e.g. in linear compressors for cryogenics and as educational toys. History Daniel Davis was an early maker of reciprocating electric motors.\nAs can be seen in these examples, early motors of this type often followed the general layout of the steam engines of the day, \nsimply replacing the", "Linear induction accelerator Linear induction accelerators utilize ferrite-loaded, non-resonant magnetic induction cavities. Each cavity can be thought of as two large washer-shaped disks connected by an outer cylindrical tube. Between the disks is a ferrite toroid. A voltage pulse applied between the two disks causes an increasing magnetic field which inductively couples power into the charged particle beam.\nThe linear induction accelerator was invented by Christofilos in the 1960s. Linear induction accelerators are capable of accelerating very high beam currents (>1000 A) in a single short pulse. They have been used to generate X-rays for flash", "rotor and those with the highest current on the stator.\nThe field coils can be mounted on either the rotor or the stator, depending on whichever method is the most cost-effective for the device design.\nIn a brushed DC motor the field is static but the armature current must be commutated, so as to continually rotate. This is done by supplying the armature windings on the rotor through a commutator, a combination of rotating slip ring and switches. AC induction motors also use field coils on the stator, the current on the rotor being supplied by induction in a squirrel cage.\nFor generators,", "Linear alternator Theory When a magnet moves in relation to an electromagnetic coil, this changes the magnetic flux passing through the coil, and thus induces the flow of an electric current, which can be used to do work. A linear alternator is most commonly used to convert back-and-forth motion directly into electrical energy. This short-cut eliminates the need for a crank or linkage that would otherwise be required to convert a reciprocating motion to a rotary motion in order to be compatible with a rotary generator. Applications The simplest type of linear alternator is the Faraday flashlight. This is a", "but there is no electrical connection between the two and the rotor current is generated by induction. The rotor winding is connected to a commutator which is in contact with a pair of short-circuited brushes which can be moved to change their angular position relative to an imaginary line drawn through the axis of the stator. The motor can be started, stopped and reversed, and the speed can be varied, simply by changing the angular position of the brushes. Voltage Most commutator motors are limited to about 1,500 volts because higher voltages give rise to a risk of", "perfect 90-degree angle as taught in so many beginners textbooks, to compensate for self-induction. Repulsion induction motors These are single-phase AC-only motors with higher starting torque than could be obtained with split-phase starting windings, before high-capacitance (non-polar, relatively high-current electrolytic) starting capacitors became practical. They have a conventional wound stator as with any induction motor, but the wire-wound rotor is much like that with a conventional commutator. Brushes opposite each other are connected to each other (not to an external circuit), and transformer action induces currents into the rotor that develop torque by repulsion.\nOne variety, notable for having an adjustable", "the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Polyphase induction motors are widely used in industry.\nInduction motors may be further divided into Squirrel Cage Induction Motors and Wound Rotor Induction Motors (WRIMs). SCIMs have a heavy winding made up of solid bars, usually aluminum or copper, joined by rings at the ends of the rotor. When one considers only the bars and rings as a whole, they are much like an animal's rotating exercise cage, hence the name.\nCurrents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics.", "motor is a type of electric motor based upon the change in shape of a piezoelectric material when an electric field is applied. Piezoelectric motors make use of the converse piezoelectric effect whereby the material produces acoustic or ultrasonic vibrations to produce linear or rotary motion. In one mechanism, the elongation in a single plane is used to make a series of stretches and position holds, similar to the way a caterpillar moves.\nAn electrically powered spacecraft propulsion system uses electric motor technology to propel spacecraft in outer space, most systems being based on electrically powering propellant to high speed, with", "motor's armature current is supplied through stationary brushes in contact with the revolving commutator, which causes required current reversal, and applies power to the machine in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates from pole to pole. In absence of such current reversal, the motor would brake to a stop. In light of improved technologies in the electronic-controller, sensorless-control, induction-motor, and permanent-magnet-motor fields, externally-commutated induction and permanent-magnet motors are displacing electromechanically-commutated motors. Motor supply A DC motor is usually supplied through slip ring commutator as described above. AC motors' commutation can be either slip ring commutator or externally commutated type,", "and the motors used on some maglev systems, as well as many other linear motors. Induction In this design, the force is produced by a moving linear magnetic field acting on conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a loop, a coil or simply a piece of plate metal, that is placed in this field will have eddy currents induced in it thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in accordance with Lenz's law. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the magnetic field sweeps through the metal. Homopolar In this design a large", "of rotation of the lead screw. By connecting linkages to the nut, the motion can be converted to usable linear displacement. Most current actuators are built for high speed, high force, or a compromise between the two. When considering an actuator for a particular application, the most important specifications are typically travel, speed, force, accuracy, and lifetime. Most varieties are mounted on dampers or butterfly valves.\nThere are many types of motors that can be used in a linear actuator system. These include dc brush, dc brushless, stepper, or in some cases, even induction motors. It all depends on", "Shaded-pole synchronous motor Shaded-pole synchronous motors are a class of AC motors.\nLike a shaded pole induction motor, they use field coils with additional copper shading coils (see the illustration) to produce a weakly rotating magnetic field. But unlike a shaded pole induction motor (which uses a squirrel cage rotor), the synchronous version of this motor uses a magnetized rotor. This rotor rotates synchronously with the rotating magnetic field: if the rotor begins to lag behind the rotating field, driving torque increases and the rotor speeds up slightly until the rotor's position within the rotating field is a point where torque", "in a magnetic field that drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete", "Self-induction – The magnetic fields in each coil of wire join and compound together to create a magnetic field that resists changes in the current, which can be likened to the current having inertia.\nIn the coils of the rotor, even after the brush has been reached, currents tend to continue to flow for a brief moment, resulting in a wasted energy as heat due to the brush spanning across several commutator segments and the current short-circuiting across the segments.\nSpurious resistance is an apparent increase in the resistance in the armature winding, which is proportional to the speed of the armature,", "of the 19th century induction motors were widely applied on the growing alternating-current electrical distributions systems. Structure The motor rotor shape is a cylinder mounted on a shaft. Internally it contains longitudinal conductive bars (usually made of aluminium or copper) set into grooves and connected at both ends by shorting rings forming a cage-like shape. The name is derived from the similarity between this rings-and-bars winding and a squirrel cage. \nThe solid core of the rotor is built with stacks of electrical steel laminations. Figure 3 shows one of many laminations used. The rotor has a larger number of slots", "linear motor design. The low-acceleration, high speed and high power motors are usually of the linear synchronous motor (LSM) design, with an active winding on one side of the air-gap and an array of alternate-pole magnets on the other side. These magnets can be permanent magnets or electromagnets. The Shanghai Transrapid motor is an LSM. Synchronous In this design the rate of movement of the magnetic field is controlled, usually electronically, to track the motion of the rotor. For cost reasons synchronous linear motors rarely use commutators, so the rotor often contains permanent magnets, or soft iron. Examples include coilguns", "the effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a torque on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the motor. \nAt high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.\nDifferent number of stator and armature fields as well as", "armature winding, when the shaft has made one-half complete turn, the winding is now connected so that current flows through it in the opposite of the initial direction. In a motor, the armature current causes the fixed magnetic field to exert a rotational force, or a torque, on the winding to make it turn. In a generator, the mechanical torque applied to the shaft maintains the motion of the armature winding through the stationary magnetic field, inducing a current in the winding. In both the motor and generator case, the commutator periodically reverses the direction of current flow through", "of the main reasons why three phase systems dominate in the world electric power supply systems.\nRotating magnetic fields are also used in induction motors. Because magnets degrade with time, induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet) which follow the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. In these motors, the short circuited turns of the rotor develop eddy currents in the rotating field of the stator which in turn move the rotor by Lorentz force. These types of motors are not usually synchronous, but instead necessarily involve a degree of 'slip' in order that the current may be", "to reverse motor windings' current in synchronism with rotation. Permanent magnet DC motor A PM (permanent magnet) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the", "induction motor consists of a row of stator coils with the same function as the circular stator coils in a conventional induction motor. When energized, the motor accelerates the carriage along the track. Only the section of the coils surrounding the carriage is energized at any given time, thereby minimizing reactive losses. The EMALS' 300-foot (91 m) LIM will accelerate a 100,000-pound (45,000 kg) aircraft to 130 kn (240 km/h; 150 mph). Energy storage subsystem During a launch, the induction motor requires a large surge of electric power that exceeds what the ship's own continuous power source can provide. As of 1994, the EMALS energy-storage", "Induction coil An induction coil or \"spark coil\" (archaically known as an inductorium or Ruhmkorff coil after Heinrich Rühmkorff) is a type of electrical transformer used to produce high-voltage pulses from a low-voltage direct current (DC) supply. To create the flux changes necessary to induce voltage in the secondary coil, the direct current in the primary coil is repeatedly interrupted by a vibrating mechanical contact called an interrupter. Invented in 1836 by Nicholas Callan, with additional research by Charles Grafton Page and others, the induction coil was the first type of transformer. It was widely used in", "picking up ferromagnetic metal with a magnet.) To sustain rotation, the stator field must rotate in advance of the rotor poles, thus constantly \"pulling\" the rotor along. Some motor variants run on 3-phase AC power (see the synchronous reluctance variant below). Most modern designs are of the switched reluctance type, because electronic commutation gives significant control advantages for motor starting, speed control and smooth operation (low torque ripple).\nDual-rotor layouts provide more torque at lower price per volume or per mass.\nThe inductance of each phase winding in the motor varies with position, because the reluctance also varies with position. This presents" ]

[ "That's a really good question, as if deals with the metaphysical in a physical context; basically, the universe will end before time ends, so we have no real way of knowing. However, one could argue that time will end when physical existence ends; in that case, the end of time will come with the end of the Universe.", "It’s hard to say. Time isn’t steady, it’s fluid and changes depending on things like where you are (in relation to a strong source of gravity) and how fast you’re going. If you go the speed of light, time doesn’t exist. If you go close to a super massive black hole, time can be infinitely slow. As for if time will ever end, it depends on if/how the universe ends. If the universe keeps expanding, it will get to the point where it expands so fast nothing will be able to touch anymore, at which time, time will be irrelevant", "Well... time itself is a human-made construct, so “time” will exist as long as humans choose to use it.\n\nAs for the future in general, there’s no evidence of every type of matter ever ceasing to exist all at once, meaning it will be infinite." ]

[ "no point will the actual measure of the line become infinite. Likewise, time itself, whether measured by minutes or millennia, cannot comprise an actual infinity. Therefore, the temporal world cannot have existed forever.\nIn a follow up article, \"Talking About God\", Goldblatt teases out the ramifications of his conclusion about the impossibility of an actual infinity with respect to the concept of an infinite God. Since we know that the temporal world cannot have existed forever, it therefore must have come into existence \"in the beginning\". It cannot have come into existence without an efficient cause (since that would violate the", "its own entropy. This is known among physicists as the 'heat death' of the universe... The universe cannot have existed for ever, otherwise it would have reached its equilibrium end state an infinite time ago. Conclusion: the universe did not always exist.\"\nMore recently though physicists have proposed various ideas for how the universe could have existed for an infinite time, such as eternal inflation. But in 2012, Alexander Vilenkin and Audrey Mithani of Tufts University wrote a paper claiming that in any such scenario past time could not have been infinite.\nIt could however have been \"before any nameable time\", according", "The End of Time (book) The End of Time: The Next Revolution in Our Understanding of the Universe, also sold with the alternate subtitle The Next Revolution in Physics, is a 1999 popular science book in which the author Julian Barbour argues that time exists merely as an illusion. Autobiography The book begins by describing how Barbour's view of time evolved. After taking physics in graduate school, Barbour went to Cologne for Ph.D work on Einstein's theory of gravity. However he became preoccupied with the idea proposed by Ernst Mach that time is nothing but change. A remark by Paul", "on forever. Time, the \"devourer\" ends by devouring itself. At the end of time, Time will be changed into space again. [...] This ultimate timeless point is simultaneously the end of the cycle of manifestation and the beginning of the next.[...] Before this ultimate transformation, in the latter days of the present cycle certain final developments must take place. Since quantity has particularly to do with matter, the Reign of quantity must also be the reign of materialism. The age of miracles ceases, the world becomes less permeable to the influences of the higher planes of reality.\n\nJohn Griffin also writes", "Eternal return Premise The basic premise proceeds from the assumption that the probability of a world coming into existence exactly like our own is nonzero. If space and time are infinite, then it follows logically that our existence must recur an infinite number of times.\nIn 1871 Louis Auguste Blanqui, assuming a Newtonian cosmology where time and space are infinite, claimed to have demonstrated eternal recurrence as a mathematical certainty. Classical antiquity In ancient Egypt, the scarab (dung beetle) was viewed as a sign of eternal renewal and reemergence of life, a reminder of the life to come. (See also Atum", "also The flow of time).\nThese arguments often center on what it means for something to be unreal. Modern physicists generally believe that time is as real as space – though others, such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless realm containing every possible now or momentary configuration of the universe, called 'platonia' by Barbour.\nA modern philosophical theory called presentism views the past and the future as human-mind interpretations of movement instead of real parts of time (or \"dimensions\") which coexist with the", "time only exists within our universe and the universe came to be spontaneously ... and with it, brought time into existence, there’s simply no 'before' to consider.\" Further, Hawking believed the universe could reach an end point, either through an eventual cosmic \"crunch or an expansion\" ... \"In the interim ... We are all time travelers, journeying together into the future. But let us make that future a place we want to visit”), the possibility of time travel (“asking if time travel is possible is a 'very serious question' that our current understanding cannot rule out\"), and God (“knowing the", "stretches infinitely both into the future and into the past, which therefore proves that God did not create the universe at one specific point in time. Ghazali counters this by first stating that if the world was created with exact boundaries, then in its current form there would be no need for a time before the creation of the world by God. The second argument Ghazali makes is that because humans can only imagine the time before the creation of the world, and your imagination is a fictional thing, that all the time before the world was created is", "a Roman Catholic priest. Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time, viz., that matter is eternal. A beginning in time was \"repugnant\" to him. Lemaître, however, thought that\nIf the world has begun with a single quantum, the notions of space and time would altogether fail to have any meaning at the beginning; they would only begin to have a sensible meaning when the original quantum had been divided into a sufficient number of quanta. If this suggestion is correct, the beginning of the world happened a little before the beginning of space", "When it is no longer a vehicle for reintegrating a primordial situation [...] that is, when it is desacralized, cyclic time becomes terrifying; it is seen as a circle forever turning on itself, repeating itself to infinity.\"\nWhen the world becomes desacralized, the traditional cyclic view of time is too firmly entrenched to simply vanish. It survives, but in a profane form (such as the myth of reincarnation). Time is no longer static, as for the Karadjeri, for whom almost every action imitates a mythical model, keeping the world constantly in the mythical age. Nor is time cyclical but sacred, as", "is said to be infinite. Some of it is past, some present, and some future. But the whole of time is present, as we say that the year is present on a larger compass. Also, the whole of time is said to belong, though none of its parts belong exactly.", "Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose. (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means—at any point in spacetime—time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.)\nA God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing. Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created. Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will Another pair of alleged incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or free will. Omniscience concerning the past and present", "exists\" and argues in his 12th-century Guide for the Perplexed (2:13) that \"time itself is part of creation\" and that therefore, \"when God is described as existing before the creation of the universe, the notion of time should not be understood in its normal sense\". The 15th-century Jewish philosopher Joseph Albo argued similarly in his Ikkarim that there are two types of time: \"Measured time which depends on motion, and time in the abstract\", the second of which has no origin and is \"the infinite space of time before the universe was created\". Albo argued that \"although it is difficult", "infinite time and finite mass: \"The number of all the atoms that compose the world is immense but finite, and as such only capable of a finite (though also immense) number of permutations. In an infinite stretch of time, the number of possible permutations must be run through, and the universe has to repeat itself. Once again you will be born from a belly, once again your skeleton will grow, once again this same page will reach your identical hands, once again you will follow the course of all the hours of your life until that of your incredible death.\"", "hypothesized \"open\" or \"flat\" universe that continues expanding indefinitely, either a heat death or a Big Rip is expected to eventually occur. If the cosmological constant is zero, the universe will approach absolute zero temperature over a very long timescale. However, if the cosmological constant is positive, as appears to be the case in recent observations, the temperature will asymptote to a non-zero positive value, and the universe will approach a state of maximum entropy in which no further work is possible.\nIf a Big Rip does not happen long before that, the \"heat death\" situation could be avoided if there", "Time (Baxter novel) Plot summary Time is set on Earth, the inner part of the Solar System and various other universes onwards from the 21st century. The novel covers a wide range of topics, including the Doomsday argument, Fermi paradox, genetic engineering, and humanity's extinction.\nThe book begins at the end of space and time, when the last descendants of humanity face an infinite but pointless existence. Due to proton decay, the physical universe has collapsed, but some form of intelligence has survived by embedding itself into a lossless computing substrate where it can theoretically survive indefinitely. However, because", "time\". If there is no arrow of time, there is no becoming, but only being. \"Creation\" becomes something that is equally inherent in every instant. Criticism and reviews Julian Barbour's research has been published in academic journals and monographs, whereas The End of Time was aimed a more general and philosophically minded public. A number of professional philosophers have responded to the book. There is no general agreement that the ideas expressed elsewhere have any predictive power and thereby constitute a scientific theory.\nDeveloping ideas from his book, in 2009 Barbour wrote an essay On the Nature of Time which", "if the Universe formed and then collapsed quickly, there would not be enough time for life to form. Another example would be a Universe that expanded too quickly. If a Universe expanded too quickly, it would become almost empty. The idea of many Universes is called the many-worlds interpretation.\nInflationary models and the idea of a theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity also are discussed in this chapter.\nEach particle has many histories. This idea is known as Feynman's theory of sum over histories. A theory that unifies quantum mechanics and gravity should have Feynman's theory in it. To find the", "time is the length of time elapsed until the return. It is exceedingly long, likely longer than the life of the universe, and depends sensitively on the geometry of the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. The recurrence theorem may be perceived as apparently contradicting the second law of thermodynamics. More obviously, however, it is simply a microscopic model of thermodynamic equilibrium in an isolated system formed by removal of a wall between two systems. For a typical thermodynamical system, the recurrence time is so large (many many times longer than the lifetime of the universe) that, for", "problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat. Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10⁻⁴³ seconds, the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the density of the universe must have been within one part in 10¹⁴ of its critical value, or it would not exist as", "development of order in the universe, rooted in the asymmetric processes of expansion and cooling, project an ‘arrow of time’ . That is, the expanding universe is a sustained process which as it proceeds yields changes of state which do not appear, over the universe as a whole, to be reversible. The changes of state in a given system, and in the universe as a whole, can be earmarked by observable periodicities to yield the concept of time.\nGiven the challenges confronting humans in determining how the Universe may evolve over billions and trillions of our years, it is", "has a fifty percent chance of occurring in the next few billion years. Another, overlapping, proposal is to posit that an observer no longer physically exists when it passes outside a given causal patch, similar to models where a particle is destroyed or ceases to exist when it falls through a black hole's event horizon. Guth and Vanchurin have pushed back on such \"end of time\" proposals, stating that while \"(later) stages of my life will contribute (less) to multiversal averages\" than earlier stages, this paradox need not be interpreted as a physical \"end of time\".", "challenge our acting as if time were real but not too real—we act as if it is somewhat real otherwise there would be no causal relations, but not so real that laws change. Unger holds that time is so real that laws of nature are also subject to its force and they too must change. There are no eternal laws upon which change occurs, rather time precedes structure. This position gives the universe a history and makes time non-emergent, global, irreversible, and continuous.\nBringing these two thesis together, Unger theorizes that laws of nature develop together with the phenomenon they explain.", "an eternity, never beginning nor stopping. Nunc stans, Latin for \"abiding now,\" is the belief that time itself doesn't exist, and that any distinctions between now, before and the future have either fallen away or don't exist.", "of all the heavens,\nEternity must vibrate\nTo its capricious impulses.\"\nThe deeper meaning of this long poem (916 verses) is that everything dies but is also reborn, \"animals, humans and plants,\" and even suns: \"Yes, the immortal star has been killed! / But the Infinite gives it life again. \" There is an idea of permanent creation and perpetual rebirth in a collision of merging worlds. At the end of his life, François Brousse confides in the presence of his friends :\n\"When I was a child, my father had asked me:\nWhat do you want to create?\nI answered him :\nAuroral Poetry.\nHe told me :\nThat is extremely", "past were infinitely long, it would entail the existence of actual infinites in reality.\nCraig and Sinclair also argue that an actual infinite cannot be formed by successive addition. Quite independent of the absurdities arising from an actual infinite number of past events, the formation of an actual infinite has its own problems. For any finite number n, n+1 equals a finite number. An actual infinity has no immediate predecessor.\nThe Tristram Shandy paradox is an attempt to illustrate the absurdity of an infinite past. Imagine Tristram Shandy, an immortal man who writes his biography so slowly that for every day that", "philosophers believe that the universe was infinite, and was an illusion to humans. Plato believed that time was made by the Creator at the same instant as the heavens. He also says that time is a period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle believed that time correlated to movement, that time did not exist on its own but was relative to motion of objects. he also believed that time was related to the motion of celestial bodies; the reason that humans can tell time was because of orbital periods and therefore there was a duration on time.\nThe Vedas, the", "into being, nor is perishable, and is entirely of one sort, without change and limit, neither past nor future, entirely included in the present. For it is as impossible that it can become and grow out of the existent, as that it could do so out of the non-existent; since the latter, non-existence, is absolutely inconceivable, and the former cannot precede itself; and every coming into existence presupposes a non-existence. By similar arguments divisibility, motion or change, as also infinity, are shut out from the absolutely existent, and the latter is represented as shut up in itself, so that it", "on the fact that the universe is expanding rather than contracting, and the fact that a few processes in particle physics actually violate time-symmetry, while they respect a related symmetry known as CPT symmetry. In the case of the cosmological arrow, most physicists believe that entropy would continue to increase even if the universe began to contract (although the physicist Thomas Gold once proposed a model in which the thermodynamic arrow would reverse in this phase). In the case of the violations of time-symmetry in particle physics, the situations in which they occur are rare and are only known to", "the works of Heinrich Heine, who once wrote:\n[T]ime is infinite, but the things in time, the concrete bodies, are finite. They may indeed disperse into the smallest particles; but these particles, the atoms, have their determinate numbers, and the numbers of the configurations which, all of themselves, are formed out of them is also determinate. Now, however long a time may pass, according to the eternal laws governing the combinations of this eternal play of repetition, all configurations which have previously existed on this earth must yet meet, attract, repulse, kiss, and corrupt each other again...\nNietzsche calls the idea \"horrifying" ]