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in football whats the point of wasting the first two plays with a rush - up the middle - not regular rush plays i get those | [
"Keep the defense honest, get a feel for the pass rush, open up the passing game. An offense that's too one dimensional will fail. And those rushes up the middle can be busted wide open sometimes for big yardage.",
"If you throw the ball all the time, then the defense will adapt to always cover for a pass. By doing a simple running play every now and then, you force the defense to stay close and guard against the run. Sometimes, the offense can catch the defense off guard by faking a run and freeing up their receivers.\n\nAlso, you don't have to gain massive yards on every single play. Sometimes, it works best to gain a few yards at a time. As long as you get the first down, you are in good shape.",
"In most cases the O-Line is supposed to make a hole for the running back to go through. If you run too many plays to the outside/throws the defense will catch on.\n\nAlso, 2 5 yard plays gets you a new set of downs.",
"I you don't like those type of plays, watch CFL. We only get 3 downs so you can't afford to waste one. Lots more passing."
] | [
"46 defense Description To stop a passing game, you can't stop it unless you put pressure on it. Now some people are good enough to put it on with a three-man rush; well, we're not. In fact, I don't know whether we're good enough to put it on with a four-man rush. If we have to send eight, we'll send eight, but we're not going to let you sit back there and pick us apart.\n— Buddy Ryan, 1986 NFL Films interview\nI had to use every bit of knowledge and experience and wisdom I had to come up with game plans to",
"especially if more yardage is needed to earn a first down and maintain possession.\nIn both professional and college football, the offense has 40 seconds (in the Alliance of American Football, 30) from the end of the previous play to run the next play. A team running out the clock will allow the play clock (which records the time remaining until a play must be run) to drain as much as possible before running its next play. In the NFL, this is particularly noteworthy due to the existence of the two-minute warning. If the trailing team has no timeouts remaining",
"Pass rush On defense in American football, rushing is charging across the line of scrimmage towards the quarterback or kicker in the effort to stop or \"sack\" them. The purpose is tackling, hurrying or flushing the quarterback, or blocking or disrupting a kick. In both college and professional football, getting a strong pass rush is an important skill, as even an average quarterback can be productive if he has lots of time to find an open receiver, even against a good secondary. To increase pressure, teams will sometimes use a pass-rushing specialist, who is usually a quick defensive",
"lead, hasten the half's end before the opponent can score.\nIf the leading team has the ball on first down with less than two minutes to go in the game and the opposing team has no timeouts remaining, the quarterback can often safely end the game by taking a knee thrice consecutively without risking injuries or turnovers. This is because at the end of each play, the offensive team can take up to 40 seconds to start running the next play. Other football leagues The CFL has a three-minute warning. Indoor American football leagues historically used a one-minute warning once a",
"by making them think it is being put into the game for a pass play, when the play is actually a run. James White of the New England Patriots is used as a third-down back, or as an extra wide receiver. His receiving statistics exceed his rushing statistics, with 2,164 yards and 19 touchdowns on 248 receptions, compared to just 856 yards and 7 touchdowns on only 207 carries. Blocking Running backs are also required to help the offensive line in passing situations, and, in the case of the fullback, running plays. Running backs will often block blitzing linebackers",
"carrying the ball does have the option to run, instead of risking an incomplete pass or an interception. This play is not as popular as it once was as defensive players are expected to cover receivers until the football crosses the line of scrimmage on running plays.\nThe running play that halfback options usually resemble is a sweep play. Sometimes the quarterback will run out of the backfield and become a receiving option for the running back. This can be effective because the quarterback usually does very little after handing off or pitching the ball to the running back on",
"(as with any play where the ball carrier is tackled in bounds). With the 40-second play clock in the NFL and NCAA, along with the two-minute warning in the NFL, a team can run off over two minutes with three straight kneel-downs if the defensive team has no more timeouts. The winning team can storm the field if up to 40 seconds remains in the game (35 in defunct Alliance of American Football), to let coaches shake hands with each other. (In the defunct AAF, as many as three straight \"victory formations\" from 105 seconds left in regulation can be",
"are allowed. The offense also has the option of running the ball to gain yardage, but a hand-off must occur behind the line of scrimmage in order for the offense to gain the run option. Defense The goal of the defense is to stop the opposing offensive unit from scoring. Before each play, one of the referees will mark off seven yards from the line of scrimmage, and the defense has the option to rush the quarterback from the seven yard mark after the ball is snapped. The defense is allowed to rush immediately (even if they are not seven",
"end or outside linebacker tasked with aggressively rushing the quarterback in obvious passing situations.\nOne of the most effective methods of rushing the passer is by using a stunt or twist, which is when defensive players quickly change positions at the snap of the ball and engage a different blocker than the offense expected. Defenses typically task three or four defensive lineman to rush the passer on most plays, but most will occasionally increase pressure by blitzing one or more non-lineman at the quarterback when a pass play in anticipated.\nA pass rush can be effective even if it does not sack",
"the opposing New York Giants. A related concept in football is the Hail Mary pass.\nIn rugby union the game does not end until the ball goes dead after time has expired – therefore if a side trailing by less than one score can maintain possession and keep the ball in play they have a chance of victory. A rule change in 2017 amended the rules so that if a penalty is awarded the ball can be kicked out and a line-out taken, even if time has elapsed. The rules in rugby league also allow for play after time has elapsed;",
"two in a 29–28 victory over the Atlanta Falcons. Berry also achieved an ordinary pick six earlier in the same game.\nIf the intercepting team can run out the clock, the intercepting player may down the ball immediately and not attempt to gain any yardage. This eliminates the chance of a fumble that could be recovered by the other team. There are also player safety implications: when the ball is turned over, the play is now suddenly and unexpectedly moving in the opposite direction. All of the players on offense are instantly susceptible to unexpected blocks, even if not attempting",
"the quarterback if it forces the passer to get rid of the ball before he wanted to, resulting in an incomplete pass or interception. To attack a strong pass rush, offenses can throw quicker short passes or run draw plays or screen passes, which are design to lure defenders into the offensive backfield and then quickly get a ball carrier behind them.",
"the backfield. On passing plays, a running back will often run a \"safe route,\" such as a hook or a flat route, that gives a quarterback a target when all other receivers are covered or when the quarterback feels pressured. Hall of Famer Lenny Moore was a halfback who played primarily as a pass receiver.\nSome teams have a specialist \"third down back\", who is skilled at catching passes or better at pass blocking and \"picking up the blitz,\" and thus is often put in the game on third down and long. It can also be used to fool the defense",
"known as \"passing plays\", while those where the gains are due to the player running with the ball are \"rushing plays\". Rules governing which players are eligible to receive a pass results in the offensive team being split into groups; the guards protect the quarterback, wide receivers and tight-ends are positioned at the line to run forward to receive passes, and the backs are positioned behind the line to receive the ball in a hand-off and then continue running forward for a rush.\nThe defensive team is not privy to which type of play will develop. To protect against common plays,",
"with a play even in situations where the game clock expires after the end of the previous play. However, a quarterback kneel is by far the most common play for winning teams to run with \"zeros on the clock\" at the end of a game, barring exceptional (but not unheard-of) situations where the head-to-head point differential in the opposing teams' season series (a key factor in tiebreakers) remains in doubt. History Prior to the mid-1970s, teams leading in the final moments of games generally ran quarterback sneaks (which brought the risk of injuries on low-yardage plays) or dive plays to",
"the end zone, but it was too far ahead and the pass fell incomplete. Defensive back Jimmy Smith and Crabtree both made contact prior to the ball arriving, but no penalty was called and the 49ers turned the ball over on downs with 1:46 left in the game.\nSan Francisco managed to force a three-and-out on the Ravens' next drive, but as they had only one timeout remaining, the Ravens were able to run the clock down to twelve seconds. On fourth down, and after the Ravens then called a timeout of their own, punter Sam Koch fielded the snap in",
"the number of timeouts the defense has remaining. For example, if there is one minute remaining on the game clock on first down, and the defense has one timeout left, the offense may use two successive quarterback kneels to completely run out the clock, and if the defense uses its timeout the offense can simply run a third kneel to run out the clock. However, if there is one minute remaining on the game clock on third down, then regardless of how many timeouts the defense has, quarterback kneels will not completely run out the clock and the offense must",
"even in passing situations, adding, \"If nobody's open, the broken play is probably the hardest play to stop in college football – in any football.\" Regular season In Michigan's 2011 season opener against Western Michigan, Robinson completed 9 of 13 passes for 98 yards and had 46 rushing yards on eight carries. The game was ended with 1:27 left in the third quarter due to inclement weather.\nIn Michigan's next game against Notre Dame, Robinson completed 11 of 24 passes for 338 yards with four touchdowns and had 108 yards rushing on 16 carries with a touchdown on a recovered fumble near",
"game ends because of a heavy rain, and all the kids run to the local store and hang out, waiting for the rain to end. All the kids leave, except for Cornbread, Earl and Wilford. Earl and Wilford get into a playful argument about how fast Cornbread can run home. It is decided that Cornbread should make it home in 25 seconds, so he runs off, after buying another soda for himself. Unknown to all of them, an assault suspect is in the neighborhood, and is dressed like Cornbread. The two police officers are hot on the suspect's trail, but lose",
"They go for the ballgame...touchdown! Touchdown! Michael Jenkins! On Fourth and One! Would you believe it?! Craig Krenzel strikes with a minute and a half left! Holy Buckeye!\n— Brent Musburger, calling the play on ABC television\nWhat was I thinking on that play? Well, one thing I had always believed was that, when the going gets the toughest, that you always call something that we know how to do. If it was a run, it was probably going to be an off-tackle, and if it was a pass, it was probably going to be",
"down the field to a touchdown that many observers described as \"accidental\". With just over a minute of time left in the game, the Giants called a running play and Manning handed off the ball to Ahmad Bradshaw with the hopes of stopping short of the goal line and forcing the Patriots to use their final time out, thus allowing the Giants to run out the clock. The Patriots, in turn, did not attempt to tackle Bradshaw in his run, and he then fell over the goal line despite making an attempt to stop. However, the remaining time was not",
"of that game. Trailing by three points, Brady lost control of the ball after being hit by Raiders cornerback and former Michigan teammate Charles Woodson. Oakland initially recovered the ball, but, citing the \"tuck rule,\" which states that any forward throwing motion by a quarterback begins a pass even if the quarterback loses possession of the ball as he is attempting to tuck it back toward his body, referee Walt Coleman overturned the call on instant replay, ruling it an incomplete pass rather than a fumble. Brady finished the game 32-of-52 for 312 passing yards and one interception.\nIn the AFC",
"Halfback option play The halfback option play is an unorthodox play in American and Canadian football. It resembles a normal running play, but the running back has the option to throw a pass to another eligible receiver before crossing the line of scrimmage.\nThe key to the play is fooling the defensive players, primarily the defensive backs. If the linebackers and/or the defensive line are fooled and believe the ball carrier is attempting a run, they will pursue the runner, abandoning their pass defense responsibilities and thereby leaving pass receivers uncovered. If the defensive backs are not fooled, the running back",
"the possibility existed that the Giants would run a play to stop short of the goal line, which would have forced the Patriots to use that timeout to stop the clock on any of the last two plays. The Giants could run the clock down, allow Tynes—who had not missed under 30 yards in four years—to kick a winning field goal, and give the Patriots only about 20 seconds of play left to score again. This also meant that the Patriots could call a defensive play where they would purposely allow the Giants to score a touchdown, which despite giving",
"the game clock by shortening the first quarter to 12 minutes long. The Classic's committee, angered by the change (and an accusation that the clock had been slowed to allow a game-winning rally), asserted control over the game clock for future games so that such an incident could not happen again. The game also used a \"rally rule:\" after either team scored (by way of safety, touchdown, field goal, or returning blocked PAT attempts), if one of the two teams was losing by ten or more points, they would receive the kickoff, in order to keep the game close and",
"the serving player does not generally lose the point. Instead a \"chase\" is called where the ball made its second bounce and the server gets the chance, later in the game, to \"play off\" the chase from the receiving end; but to win the point being played off, their shot's second bounce must be further from the net (closer to the back wall) than the shot they originally failed to reach. A chase can also be called at the receiving (\"hazard\") end, but only on the half of that end nearest the net; this is called a \"hazard\" chase.\nThose areas",
"100 yards or more per game is likely to win, but the reality is winning teams rush the ball in defense of their leads, and not as a tactic to produce drives that lead to points unless they are markedly superior to their opponents. The larger field generally permits greater YAC (yards after catch) on each individual catch, where the NFL produces passing plays where there are either very few YAC yards (immediate tackle) or huge YAC yards (missed tackle or broken coverage for huge gains.) For this reason, Canadian teams usually prefer passing over rushing to a greater",
"backs being instructed to stay in coverage until the running back with the ball crosses the line of scrimmage. Another reason is that the passing ability of most running backs is usually poor in relation to the passing ability of a quarterback. However, certain teams and players do successfully run the option one to a few times a season; used sparingly it can be effective to make a game-changing play. In modern professional football history a halfback has only thrown more than one touchdown in two games: utility player Gene Mingo of the Denver Broncos threw two touchdowns as a",
"regulation, James caught an eighteen-yard pass and made a brilliant lateral to teammate Jerard Rabb running the opposite way, resulting in a game-tying touchdown with seven seconds left. The play required James to \"sell\" to the defense the notion that he was going to keep the ball and try for a first down, and also to lateral the ball at the last instant yet lead his teammate in full stride. A close look at the replay shows that had the lateral not been timed and delivered perfectly, the receiver would likely not have made it to the end",
"commonly known as the \"Victory Formation\", as the offense lines up in a tightly-protective \"V\" formation to minimize the chances of a fumble or other turnover. (The AAF lets teams run out the clock on three straight victory formations from 90 seconds left in regulation.)\nConversely, a team that faces the risk of the other team running out the clock may attempt to force its opponent to score so it can quickly get the ball back. In Super Bowl XLVI, for example, the New England Patriots were ahead of the New York Giants 17–15 with 1:04 left in the fourth quarter."
] |
Why are different tiers (regular < mid < premium) of gas' prices almost always 10 cents different? | [
"As someone who uses quality Premium, I wish this was true.",
"The difference is in how it burns though is what's critical for you as the end consumer. I drive a forced induction car, so air coming into my engine is compressed before it enters the cylinder where it's further compressed by the piston. The Regular, Mid, and Premium gas are rated by octane, which in the shortest definition is how well it resists ignition, meaning higher octane fuel won't ignite from high pressure or heat, until the spark plug fires. Now that being said, you can look at as a price gouge, as it's not too hard to make higher octane gas, but cars that need it are typically sports cars as their engines run hotter, higher compression, and forced induction. Tying it back into what I said in the beginning, since I drive a forced induction sports car I have to run premium, and gas stations/companies know people like me are going to shut up and pay the extra 30 cents a gallon to protect our engines from lower octane gas detonating in the engine.",
"> Is this just an arbitrary convention that undermines arguments of a rational basis for gasoline prices? \n\nYou already know the answer."
] | [
"have traditionally been three to four times the price in the United States, with prices during 2000–2005 of €1.00/litre (about $1.42 per litre ($5.4/US gal) while the US had prices around $1.50 per US gallon ($0.40/l).\nAfter a large increase until the summer of 2008, the end of 2008 experienced a strong decline linked with a sharp economic downturn, with the average price of fuel in the US at $1.613 per US gallon ($0.426/l) (29 December 2008). However, the price of fuel in Europe is still more than double the US price at $1.85 per litre ($7.0/US gal). Russia and some neighboring countries",
"protection price per gallon. If the national monthly average price of gas or diesel – as determined by the US Department of Energy – exceeds the customer’s protection price, Pricelock pays the difference. If the national monthly average price lands at or below the company’s protection price, the company does not receive a payout. Customers are not purchasing fuel from Pricelock and are not required to show receipts.",
"drink prices by increments of about 10 cents every few minutes depending on their popularity. Popular drinks become more expensive, while unpopular drinks become cheaper.",
"gas that could be subject to taxation. The maximum tax for oil was based on a price of $18 per barrel, but the market price rose to $112 per barrel as of May 2011. The maximum tax for natural gas was based on a price of $1.35 per 1000 cubic feet, but the market price for that volume of gas in May 2011 was $4.35. Other states were receiving much more tax and royalty revenue as a result of these high prices. Legislation enacted in 2010 established a rate of 0.24% (an increase from 0.19%) for the oil and gas",
"fuel cards for customers with a lower fuel consumption are ordered not directly from an oil company, but from an intermediary. Many premium brands have fully automated pay-at-the-pump facilities. Premium gas stations tend to be highly visible from highway and freeway exits, utilizing tall signs to display their brand logos. Discount brands Discount brands are often smaller, regional chains or independent stations, offering lower prices on gasoline. Most purchase wholesale commodity gasoline from independent suppliers or from the major petroleum companies. Lower-priced gas stations are also found at some supermarkets (Albertsons, Kroger, Ingles, Lowes Foods, Giant, Weis Markets, Safeway, Hy-Vee,",
"the face of rising prices took place in the various countries where there was rationing of gasoline during the 1973 energy crisis.\nA reason for setting the price lower than would clear the market may be that there is a shortage, which would drive the market price very high. High prices, especially in the case of necessities, are undesirable with regard to those who cannot afford them. Traditionalist economists argue, however, that high prices act to reduce waste of the scarce resource while also providing incentive to produce more.\nRationing using ration stamps is only one kind of non-price rationing. For example,",
"from 25% to 50%. An additional premium may be paid by strategic investors who are motivated by synergistic motives.\nNon-marketable, minority level is the lowest level on the chart, representing the level at which non-controlling equity interests in private companies are generally valued or traded. This level of value is discounted because no ready market exists in which to purchase or sell interests. Private companies are less \"liquid\" than publicly traded companies, and transactions in private companies take longer and are more uncertain. Between the intermediate and lowest levels of the chart, there are restricted shares of publicly traded companies.\nDespite a",
"Third World demand, and West Texas Intermediate crude was up 19% to $103.24. The average price of gas was $3.53.\nOn April 24, gasoline was $3.85 compared to $3.86 a year earlier; it had been two years since gas prices were lower than the previous year. Crude oil prices were down; West Texas Intermediate was $103.55 a barrel, down from over $107 late in March, and Brent Crude $118.16 after peaking above $128 in March.\nAfter falling to its lowest price since October 2011, Benchmark crude rose 5.8% to $82.18 on June 29, with Brent crude up 4.5% to $95.51. European bailout",
"from $35 to $140 per barrel ($220 to $880/m³), causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market. Taxes Taxes are the next biggest contributor to gasoline prices at around 12%. In the United States, both state and federal taxes apply to gasoline. In addition, other taxes may be placed on gas including applicable state sales taxes, gross",
"Governments use price floors to keep certain prices from going too low.\nTwo common price floors are minimum wage laws and supply management in Canadian agriculture. Other price floors include regulated US airfares prior to 1978 and minimum price per-drink laws for alcohol. While price floors are often imposed by governments, there are also price floors which are implemented by non-governmental organizations such as companies, such as the practice of resale price maintenance. With resale price maintenance, a manufacturer and its distributors agree that the distributors will sell the manufacturer's product at certain prices (resale price maintenance), at or above a",
"too low.\nTwo common price floors are minimum wage laws and supply management in Canadian agriculture. Other price floors include regulated US airfares prior to 1978 and minimum price per-drink laws for alcohol. A related government intervention, which is also a price control, is the price ceiling; it sets the maximum price that can legally be charged for a good or service, with a common example being rent control. Price ceiling A price ceiling is a price control, or limit, on how high a price is charged for a product, commodity, or service. Governments use price ceilings to protect consumers from",
"In terms of offering a higher price, it also has the effect of drawing the attention from consumers, as consumers would wonder the reason behind it, and higher price product tends to be more appealing to the upper class group. However, in order to take advantage from offering a higher price, the quality of the product has to match the price, otherwise, consumers would lose interests because of not getting what they pay for. Differentiation focus The principles of differentiation focus are similar to all the other differentiation strategies, where it differentiates some of the features from the competitors. However,",
"Price of oil The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Select (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and/or refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils",
"gas companies, and companies whose capital investment is high, like automobile manufacturers.\nTarget pricing is not useful for companies whose capital investment is low because, according to this formula, the selling price will be understated. Also the target pricing method is not keyed to the demand for the product, and if the entire volume is not sold, a company might sustain an overall budgetary loss on the product. Time-based pricing A flexible pricing mechanism made possible by advances in information technology and employed mostly by Internet-based companies. By responding to market fluctuations or large amounts of data gathered from customers –",
"to about 54 million liters per day.\nThe price of gasoline based on the official USD to IRR rate is 0.29 USD/Litre in 2018 which is the second cheapest price in the world after Venezuela. Nigeria On 1 January 2012, the Nigerian government headed by president Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, tried to cease the subsidy on petrol and deregulate the oil prices by announcing the new price for petrol as USD 0.88/litre from the old subsidised price of USD 0.406/litre (LAGOS), which in areas distant from Lagos petrol was priced at USD 1.25/litre. This led to the longest general strike (eight days),",
"the US had driven US gas prices down to 29% of natural gas prices in Europe, and to one-fifth of natural gas prices in Japan. Lower natural gas prices in the US have encouraged the replacement of coal- with gas-fired power plants, but have also discouraged the switch to renewable sources of energy. Facing a supply glut and consequent further price drops in 2012, some large US gas producers announced plans to cut natural gas production; however, production rates rose to all-time highs, and natural gas prices remained near ten-year lows. The high price of gas overseas has provided a",
"a wellhead price based on market forces, while consumer groups argued that the Natural Gas Act intended that both producers and pipelines should be limited to cost-based rate regulation, so that the final price paid by consumers would represent only the cost of producing, transporting and distributing the gas.\nIn Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Wisconsin, the Supreme Court held that the sale of natural gas at the wellhead was indeed subject to regulation under the Natural Gas Act. The case resulted in federal price controls on wellhead gas prices for the next 40 years. The act also specified that \"no new",
"Price–performance ratio In economics and engineering, the price–performance ratio refers to a product's ability to deliver performance, of any sort, for its price. Generally speaking, products with a lower price/performance ratio are more desirable, excluding other factors.\nPrice–performance is often written as cost–performance or cost–benefit. Even though this term would seem to be a straightforward ratio, when price performance is improved, better, or increased, it actually refers to the performance divided by the price, in other words exactly the opposite ratio (i.e. an inverse ratio) to rank a product as having an increased price/performance. Consumer and medical products According to",
"to lower the price to $1.10 if demand has waned. The business would choose this approach because the incremental profit of 10 cents from the transaction is better than no sale at all. Cost plus pricing Cost plus pricing is a cost-based method for setting the prices of goods and services. Under this approach, the direct material cost, direct labor cost, and overhead costs for a product are added up and added to a markup percentage (to create a profit margin) in order to derive the price of the product. Odd pricing In this type of pricing, the seller tends",
"to its price. Consumers often believe a high price of a product indicates a higher level of quality.\nEven though it is suggested that high prices seem to make certain products more desirable, consumers that fall in this category have their own perception of quality and make decisions based upon their own judgement. They may also use the premium price as an indicator of the product's level of quality.",
"to 5.5 cents per litre (or to a maximum of 7.5 cents per litre for full-serve gasoline). Notice There is no notice of change in prices. Every Friday, prices may go up or down or stay the same, depending on the market price over the past 7 days. Interrupter and Price Changes Scheduled price changes occur every second Thursday starting 13 July 2006. The interrupter is based on a formula that will determine whether the market prices of fuels have changed enough to warrant a price change . This “interrupter” formula will run every second Wednesday beginning 19 July 2006.",
"have their own pricing power, prices are directly controlled by the government, and taxpayers cannot pass tax burden through price changes. \nUnder the floating price system, the government determines the maximum price or minimum price of a commodity. Within the range of fluctuations, the producers,operators and other market entities have a certain amount of freedom in pricing, and tax shift can be realized within a certain extent and within a certain range. \nUnder the free pricing system, the producers,operators and other market players can freely set prices according to changes in the market supply and demand relationship, and the tax",
"of 4.2 US$ per mmbtu on gross calorific value (GCV) basis is calculated already at maximum price cap of Brent crude (US$ 60/bbl) under the applicable formula linking the price of gas per mmbtu (GP) to the price of oil:\nGP = 2.5 + (OP – 25) ^0.15\nwhere OP is the annual average Brent crude price for the previous FY, with a cap of USD 60/bbl\nand a floor of USD 25/bbl. As the annual Brent price has always been above US$ 60 since 2007, the revised gas price at 5.61 US$ during the year 2014 is in excess of the",
"by 28.5% overall. Higher-end bourbon and whiskeys experienced the greatest growth. During 2009–14, the volume of the value segment increased by 12.1%, premium by 25.8%, high-end premium by 27.8%, and super-premium by 123.8%. Gross supplier revenues (including federal excise tax) for U.S. bourbon and Tennessee whiskey increased by 46.7% over the 2009–14 period, with the greatest growth coming from high-end products (18.7% growth for value, 33.6% for premium, 44.5% for high-end premium, and 137.2% for super-premium). In 2014, more than 19 million nine-liter cases of bourbon and Tennessee whiskey were sold in the U.S., generating almost $2.7 billion in wholesale",
"Gasoline price website Commercial services Many commercial websites allow registered users or site visitors to update the price information, usually for an incentive such as \"points\" which are accumulated and displayed alongside a user's name. In some cases, points can be redeemed for rewards, such as an entry in a drawing for a prize, such as electric vehicles and free fuel cards. Some sites also provide message forums to allow users to engage in discussions about gas prices and money-saving strategies, among other topics. Fuel prices are sometimes made available via SMS text messaging.\nOne site, Gasbuddy.com, has different web",
"Brent crude price for the previous FY, with a cap of USD 60/bbl\nand a floor of USD 25/bbl. As the annual Brent price has always been above US$60 since 2007, the revised gas price at 5.61 US$ during the year 2014 is in excess of the applicable price by nearly 20%.",
"when retailers mark up from wholesale costs, so costs follow wholesale variations closely. Alternative models of price cycles There is a separate literature, which has explored conditions under which price cycles like the ones observed gasoline markets and found that consumer search models can rationalize cycling under various conditions. Here, the intuition is that there is a small subset of consumers that are not informed about prices and therefore will buy from a firm regardless of the price charged. Once prices get low enough, a firm may find it optimal to charge a high price and exploit this small loyal",
"the two aspects of the business model: \"free\" and \"premium\". It has become a highly popular model, with notable successes. High-low pricing Methods of services offered by the organization are regularly priced higher than competitors, but through promotions, advertisements, and or coupons, lower prices are offered on key items. The lower promotional prices designed to bring customers to the organization where the customer is offered the promotional product as well as the regular higher priced products. Keystone pricing A retail pricing strategy where retail price is set at double the wholesale price. For example, if a cost of",
"as fewer and fewer consumers are initially perfectly informed.\nThe distribution of price has a closed form:\non support ; where the share of perfectly informed consumers, the number of firms, the revenue function that attains its maximum in , consumers' reservation price, and",
"have a much smaller tax, with fuel prices similar to the US.\nCompetitive petrol pricing in the UK is led by supermarkets with their own forecourts. Generally each supermarket tends to match the other's prices; the lead players being Asda, Tesco, Sainsbury's and Morrisons. In recent years the AA has criticized speculators as being the prime reason for fuel fluctuations in the UK. Countries with subsidised gasoline A number of countries subsidize the cost of petrol/gasoline and other petroleum products. Subsidies make transport of people and goods cheaper, but discourage fuel efficiency. In some countries, the soaring cost of crude oil"
] |
Stars and Visibility | [
"It's a quirk of the human eye. At the center of the eye (the fovea) we mostly have colour-sensitive cone cells to see detail and colour of what we're focusing on. Around the fovea we mostly have rod cells that can't see colour but are more sensitive to variations in light intensity and movement. \nLooking slightly to the side of the thing you're examining sends more of the light to the rod cells and lets you see things more clearly in low-light conditions where cones don't work well."
] | [
"of the intrinsic brightness of the sky, namely airglow, indirect scattering of sunlight, scattering of starlight, and artificial light pollution. Visual presentation Depending on local sky cloud cover, pollution, humidity, and light pollution levels, the stars visible to the unaided naked eye appear as hundreds, thousands or tens of thousands of white pinpoints of light in an otherwise near black sky together with some faint nebulae or clouds of light . In ancient times the stars were often assumed to be equidistant on a dome above the earth because they are much too far away for stereopsis to",
"offer any depth cues. Visible stars range in color from blue (hot) to red (cold), but with such small points of faint light, most look white because they stimulate the rod cells without triggering the cone cells. If it is particularly dark and a particularly faint celestial object is of interest, averted vision may be helpful.\nThe stars of the night sky cannot be counted unaided because they are so numerous and there is no way to track which have been counted and which have not. Further complicating the count, fainter stars may appear and disappear depending on",
"the brightest S star in the visible sky, because other bright S stars are mira variables or other types of variable star with large changes in apparent brightness. Its own brightness variability in the visible part of the spectrum is modest.\nOn the basis of the measurement of radial velocities of the line components it is concluded that the helium emission originates in the vicinity of the inner Lagrangian point of the system, indicating a gas motion from the red giant primary, directed to the secondary, with a velocity of about 5 km/s. At the same time, there is a",
"understood that stars are so far away as to essentially appear as point sources of light. Following advances in understanding the diffraction of light and astronomical seeing, astronomers fully understood both that the apparent sizes of stars were spurious and how those sizes depended on the intensity of light coming from a star (this is the star's apparent brightness, which can be measured in units such as watts/cm²) so that brighter stars appeared larger. Modern definition Early photometric measurements (made, for example, by using a light to project an artificial “star” into a telescope's field of view and adjusting it",
"the spectral classification B2. Its color is blue or blueish-white, due to the surface temperature of 22,200K. It emits a total radiation equal to 38,700 times that of the Sun. This star is the brightest-known extreme ultraviolet source in the night sky.\nIt is the strongest source of photons capable of ionizing hydrogen atoms in interstellar gas near the Sun, and is very important in determining the ionization state of the Local Interstellar Cloud.\nThe +7.5-magnitude (the absolute magnitude amounts to +1.9) companion star, ε Canis Majoris B, is 7.5\" away with a position angle of 161° of the main star. Despite",
"northern skies for there are few other bright stars in its vicinity. Observational history Astrophotography, the photography of celestial objects, began in 1840 when John William Draper took an image of the Moon using the daguerreotype process. On July 17, 1850, Vega became the first star (other than the Sun) to be photographed, when it was imaged by William Bond and John Adams Whipple at the Harvard College Observatory, also with a daguerreotype. Henry Draper took the first photograph of a star's spectrum in August 1872 when he took an image of Vega, and he also became the first person",
"of the star, or how bright it appears from Earth, is around 5. Therefore, it is only just visible to the unaided eye.",
"normal for a star like Kepler-1229, with a luminosity of around 4% of that of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 15.474. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.",
"that the source of non-thermal X-rays varies with the orbital phase of the binary star system and that the photon index of the emission is similar to that derived through analysis of the γ-ray (gamma) spectrum. Visibility As a 4th-magnitude star, Eta Carinae is comfortably visible to the naked eye in all but the most light-polluted skies in inner city areas according to the Bortle scale. Its brightness has varied over a wide range, from the second-brightest star in the sky at one point in the 19th century to well below naked eye visibility. Its location at around 60°S in",
"wavelengths produce brighter sky glow, but for a different reason (see § Dependence on light source). Measurement Amateur astronomers have used the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale to measure skyglow ever since it was published in Sky & Telescope magazine in February 2001. The scale rates the darkness of the night sky inhibited by skyglow with nine classes and provides a detailed description of each position on the scale. Amateurs also increasingly use Sky Quality Meters (SQM) that measure in astronomical photometric units of visual (Johnson V) magnitudes per square arcsecond. Professional astronomers and light pollution researchers use various measures of luminous or",
"found in the Sun. The star's luminosity is a bit low for a star like Kepler-442, with a luminosity of around 11% of that of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14.976. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.",
"quite hard to observe variability with the naked eye in most cases. The variability increases with decreasing wavelength, thus they are more obviously variable in ultraviolet spectrum than visible light. Their pulsations are non-radial, that is, they vary in shape rather than volume; different parts of the star are expanding and contracting simultaneously.\nThese stars were first identified as a group and named by astronomers Christoffel Waelkens and Fredy Rufener in 1985 while looking for and analysing variability in hot blue stars. Improvements in photometry had made finding smaller changes in magnitude easier, and they had found that a high percentage",
"Star hopping The problem Many celestial objects of interest are too faint to be visible to the unaided eye. Telescopes or binoculars collect much more light, making faint objects visible, but have a smaller field of view, thus complicating orientation on the sky. \nThe field of view of binoculars is rarely more than eight degrees, while that of typical amateur telescopes may be substantially less than one degree, depending on the magnification used. Many objects are best observed using higher magnifications, which inevitably go along with narrow fields of view. The technique Star hopping uses bright stars as a guide",
"long as one's stargazing is not hampered by the light pollution common to most cities.\nThe best time for observation is in the evening sky during the summer months, when the \"Dragon constellation\" passes the meridian at midnight, but given its circumpolar nature in the northern hemisphere, it is visible to most of the world's inhabitants throughout the year. Properties Epsilon Draconis is a yellow giant star with a spectral type of G8III. It has a radius that has been estimated at 10 solar radii and a mass of 2.7 solar masses. Compared to most G class stars, Epsilon Draconis",
"Limiting magnitude Naked eye visibility The limiting magnitude for naked eye visibility refers to the faintest stars that can be seen with the unaided eye near the zenith on clear moonless nights. The quantity is most often used as an overall indicator of sky brightness, in that light polluted and humid areas generally have brighter limiting magnitudes than remote desert or high altitude areas. The limiting magnitude will depend on the observer, and will increase with the eye's dark adaptation. On a relatively clear sky, the limiting visibility will be about 6th magnitude.\nThere is even variation within metropolitan areas. For",
"exactly where the observer is looking. The result is an impression of an extraordinarily vast star field.\nBecause stargazing is best done from a dark place away from city lights, dark adaptation is important to achieve and maintain. It takes several minutes for eyes to adjust to the darkness necessary for seeing the most stars, and surroundings on the ground are hard to discern. A red flashlight (torch) can be used to illuminate star charts, telescope parts, and the like without undoing the dark adaptation. (See Purkinje effect). Constellations There are no markings on the night sky,",
"unaided eye. However, it should be easily seen in binoculars or a small telescope.\nThe star is over twice as enriched with chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and helium as the Sun. Because of this and the fact that the star is relatively bright, a group of astronomers in N2K Consortium began to study the star. The star's anomalous composition as measured may be surface pollution only, from the intake of heavy-element planetesimals.",
"Skyglow Skyglow (or sky glow) is the diffuse luminance of the night sky, apart from discrete light sources such as the Moon and visible individual stars. It is a commonly noticed aspect of light pollution. While usually referring to sky luminance arising from artificial lighting, skyglow may also involve any nighttime sources of diffuse light, including natural ones like the zodiacal light, starlight, and airglow.\nIn the context of light pollution, skyglow arises from the use of artificial light sources, including electrical (or rarely gas) lighting used for illumination and advertisement, and from gas flares. Light propagating into the atmosphere directly",
"Starlight and the diffuse light of the Milky Way are also scattered by the air, and it is found that stars up to V magnitude 16 contribute to the diffuse scattered starlight.\nOther sources such as galaxies and nebulae don't contribute significantly.\nThe total brightness of all the stars was first measured by Burns in 1899, with a calculated result that the total brightness reaching earth was equivalent to that of 2,000 first-magnitude stars with subsequent measurements by others. Light pollution Light pollution is an ever-increasing source of sky brightness in urbanized areas. In densely populated areas that do not have",
"Sun. The star's luminosity is somewhat normal for a star like Kepler-61, with a luminosity of around 8% of that of the solar luminosity.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 15. Therefore, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye.",
"of that of the solar luminosity, respectively.\nThe apparent magnitude of the star system, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is about 15.4. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which can typically detect objects with a magnitude less than 6.5.",
"a 7.4 magnitude night sky, making it one of the darkest in North America. Stargazers can, therefore, see 7,500 stars with the naked eye, while in most places fewer than 2,000 can be seen due to light pollution, and in many large cities only a few dozen can be seen. Park rangers host public stargazing events and evening programs on astronomy, nocturnal animals, and night sky protection. The Bryce Canyon Astronomy Festival, typically held in June, attracts thousands of visitors. In honor of this astronomy festival, Asteroid 49272 was named after the national park.\nThere are two campgrounds in the park, North",
"Photometric-standard star Photometric-standard stars are a series of stars that have had their light output in various passbands of photometric system measured very carefully. Other objects can be observed using CCD cameras or photoelectric photometers connected to a telescope, and the flux, or amount of light received, can be compared to a photometric-standard star to determine the exact brightness, or stellar magnitude, of the object.\nA current set of photometric-standard stars for UBVRI photometry was published by Arlo U. Landolt in 1992 in the Astronomical Journal.",
"radiant intensity per unit area, such as (nano-)Lamberts, magnitudes per square arcsecond, or (micro-)candela per square meter. All-sky maps of skyglow brightness are produced with professional-grade imaging cameras with CCD detectors and using stars as calibration sources. Negative effects Skyglow, and more generally light pollution, has various negative effects: from aesthetic diminishment of the beauty of a star-filled sky, through energy and resources wasted in the production of excessive or uncontrolled lighting, to impacts on birds and other biological systems,\nincluding humans. Skyglow is a prime problem for astronomers, because it reduces contrast in the night sky to the extent where",
"HD 34989 Observation The star is in the northern celestial hemisphere, but close to the celestial equator; this means that it can be observed from all the inhabited regions of the Earth without difficulty and that it is not visible only in the innermost areas of Antarctica. It appears as circumpolar only far beyond the Arctic polar circle. Its brightness puts it at the limit of visibility to the naked eye, so to be observed without the aid of devices requires a clear, and preferably moonless, sky.\nThe best period for observation in the evening sky is between late October and",
"Star A star is an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, the brightest of which gained proper names. Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. The observable Universe contains an estimated 1×10²⁴",
"years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.\nThe star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 14. It is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, which typically can only see objects with a magnitude around 6 or less. Discovery In 2009, NASA's Kepler spacecraft was completing observing stars on its photometer, the instrument it uses to detect transit events, in which a planet crosses in front of and dims its host star for a brief and roughly regular period of time. In this last test, Kepler observed 50000 stars in the",
"the time it reaches the star's outer layers.\nThe color of a star, as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light, depends on the temperature of the star's outer layers, including its photosphere. Besides\nvisible light, stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye. In fact, stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the longest wavelengths of radio waves through infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, to the shortest of X-rays, and gamma rays. From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star, not all components of stellar electromagnetic radiation are significant,",
"would consider the entire sky fully dark. Because of light pollution, observers in some localities, generally in large cities, may never have the opportunity to view even fourth-magnitude stars, irrespective of the presence of any twilight at all, and to experience truly dark skies. Between day and night Observers within 48°34’ of the Equator can view twilight twice each day on every date of the year between astronomical dawn, nautical dawn, or civil dawn, and sunrise as well as between sunset and civil dusk, nautical dusk, or astronomical dusk. This also occurs for most observers at higher latitudes on",
"with descriptions of the terrestrial hemispheres of Earth itself. Observation From the South Pole, in good visibility conditions, the Southern Sky features over 2,000 fixed stars that are easily visible to the naked eye, while about 20,000 to 40,000 with the aided eye. In large cities, about 300 to 500 stars can be seen depending on the extent of light and air pollution. The farther north, the fewer are visible to the observer.\nThe brightest stars are all larger than the Sun. Sirius in the constellation of Canis Major has the brightest apparent magnitude of –1.46; it has a radius twice"
] |
How do we know all the money the government is getting from bank settlements is going back to the people? | [
"I'm pretty confident most of it isn't going back to the people. That's how politics works.",
"It's not. Punitive damages are like parking tickets. It is a fine you pay to the government.",
"> but I don't hear anything about where this money goes\n\nThe details of the various settlements differ. Some of it goes to a specific prosecutors office or justice department as part of ongoing operating revenue and costs, some of it lands back in Treasury, some of it can end up in victim compensation funds, some of it is costs incurred by the bank to do something that complies with the new rules (e.g. setting up new loans with new terms or something). \n\nWhenever it ends up back in treasury there's nothing to say, it's an irrelevantly small amount of money to the federal government. \n\nThe Bernie Madoff related stuff is going to include payments to people who lost money from that, probably through some complex legal proceeding there. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHas a (very rough) breakdown of the 13 billion dollar settlement for example.",
"In almost all the class action lawsuits a large majority of the settlement goes towards legal fees/costs etc...It would be interesting to request a freedom of information act and ask to see the canceled check from JP MOrgan to \"United States Treasury\" for the 13Bil.",
"It doesn't matter that it's \"not technically\" going back to the people. It increases the government's spending budget so the taxes they would need to collect would theoretically be less.\n\nTheoretically..",
"you might ask the same question about income tax."
] | [
"all future funds would be placed in selected state banks, and the government would draw on its remaining funds in the B.U.S. to cover operating expenses until those funds were exhausted. In case the B.U.S. retaliated, the administration decided to secretly equip a number of the state banks with transfer warrants, allowing money to be moved to them from the B.U.S. These were to be used only to counteract any hostile behavior from the B.U.S. Removal of the deposits and panic of 1833-34 Taney, in his capacity as an interim treasury secretary, initiated the removal of the Bank's public deposits,",
"the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. Commercial bank Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or 'at call'). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using",
"as much cash on hand they would return the cash to the monetary authority, or offer the surplus to other banks. Bank deposits at central bank Commercial banks are usually required to keep funds in the bank's account with the central bank. Such funds are usually counted as part of the banks’ reserves. Some central banks pay interest on these deposits while others do not.",
"valuable service by aggregating funds from many individual deposits, portioning them into loans for borrowers, and spreading the risks both of default and sudden demands for cash. Banks can charge much higher interest on their long-term loans than they pay out on demand deposits, allowing them to earn a profit.\nIf only a few depositors withdraw at any given time, this arrangement works well. Barring some major emergency on a scale matching or exceeding the bank's geographical area of operation, depositors' unpredictable needs for cash are unlikely to occur at the same time; that is, by the law of large numbers,",
"stop this draining from destroying the banking system, the government froze all bank accounts, initially for 90 days. Only a small amount of cash was allowed for withdrawal on a weekly basis (initially 250 Argentine pesos, then 300), and only from accounts denominated in pesos. No withdrawals were allowed from accounts denominated in U.S. dollars, unless the owner agreed to convert the funds into pesos. Operations using credit cards, debit cards, cheques and other means of payment could be conducted normally, but the lack of cash availability caused numerous problems for the general public and for businesses. Immediate effects The",
"bank accounts, thus creating \"new money.\" Western Michigan University political scientist Susan Hoffmann, author of Politics and Banking, opens that book by declaring that Congress has historically struggled with the reality that banks create money and that money itself arises \"in an institutionalized decision process.\" This became apparent to the directors of the Bank of Amsterdam in the 17th century, when they realized that loaning out deposits created money for borrowers while the same amount still sat in the accounts of the original depositors.\nProfessor Richard Werner of the University of Southampton has utilized empirical research to conclude in",
"banks can expect only a small percentage of accounts withdrawn on any one day because individual expenditure needs are largely uncorrelated. A bank can make loans over a long horizon, while keeping only relatively small amounts of cash on hand to pay any depositors who may demand withdrawals.\nHowever, if many depositors withdraw all at once, the bank itself (as opposed to individual investors) may run short of liquidity, and depositors will rush to withdraw their money, forcing the bank to liquidate many of its assets at a loss, and eventually to fail. If such a bank were to attempt to",
"Foreign banks who maintain corresponding accounts must maintain records in the U.S. that will identify the owners' real names and addresses. The banks must be able to provide this information within 7 days of receipt of the request. It is also a requirement that when so ordered by the Attorney General or the Secretary of Treasury (they must consult each other first) the financial institution must terminate any corresponding accounts within 10 days. Corresponding accounts can be ordered to be closed if the foreign bank fails to comply with a summons or subpoena (see above), or has failed to legally",
"money if it had been wrongly paid away, and (subject to agreement) claim profits made on the money. However, the courts have denied that bank customers have property rights. The same position has generally spread in banking practice globally, and Parliament has not yet taken the opportunity to ensure banks offer accounts where customer money is protected as property. Deposit protection Because insolvent banks do not enable customers to recover their money as a property right (only contract), governments have found it necessary to publicly guarantee depositors' savings. This follows the model, started in the Great Depression, the US set",
"the bank run by forbidding the withdrawal of money from bank accounts. Duhalde promised in his oath of office speech that \"The one who deposited dollars will receive dollars\". The minister of economy Jorge Remes Lenicov pointed out that that would be impossible, as the amount of dollars required was higher than even the foreign-exchange reserves of the Central Bank. Duhalde acknowledged two weeks later that he was mistaken. The bank accounts in dollars would be \"pesified\" at a 1.4 exchange rate, and the state financed the banks for the different rates with other operations. The taxes of public services",
"receives funding from two sources:\n1. Banks and building societies in the UK pay money from dormant accounts into the Reclaim Fund Limited. The Reclaim Fund keeps sufficient funds to meet reclaims from any account holders and passes surplus funds to the Big Lottery Fund. The Big Lottery Fund releases the English portion of these funds to the Big Society Trust to invest in Big Society Capital. BSC expects to receive up to £400 million from dormant accounts.\n2. Four of the main UK banks (Barclays, HSBC, Lloyds Banking Group and RBS) have each agreed to invest up to £50 million in",
"bank. This tool is generally used in countries with non-convertible currencies or partially convertible currencies. The recipient of the local currency may be allowed to freely dispose of the funds, required to hold the funds with the central bank for some period of time, or allowed to use the funds subject to certain restrictions. In other cases, the ability to hold or use the foreign exchange may be otherwise limited.\nIn this method, money supply is increased by the central bank when it purchases the foreign currency by issuing (selling) the local currency. The central bank may subsequently reduce the money",
"limitation period. Foreign bank accounts Some may be able to protect their assets by transferring them into a bank account in a foreign country, where the money is considered to be untouchable according to the laws of the country where the judgment was made. However, in the United States, more recent court rulings have made this more difficult.",
"with transferring US$500 million from an account belonging to the central bank to a bank account in the UK. Authorities in the UK froze this amount as it was a suspicious transaction and the money can now be returned to the central bank.",
"bank and others of cash going out. Banks do not have a reliable way of predicting what or how much those transactions will be. At the end of each day banks must reconcile their positions. The bank that finds itself with a surplus of cash would miss out earning interest on the cash, even if it's for only one night. Other banks may find that they had more money going out than coming in, and the bank must borrow cash to cover the shortfall. To meet its liquidity obligations, the bank with the shortfall would borrow from a bank with",
"banks. The Federal Reserve therefore performs an intermediary role, clearing and settling international bank payments. Prior to the completion of the clearing, the banks settle payment transactions by debiting the accounts of the depository institutions, while crediting the accounts of depository institutions receiving the payments.\nThe Fedwire Funds Service provides a real-time gross settlement system in which more than 9,500 participants are able to initiate electronic funds transfers that are immediate, final, and irrevocable. Depository institutions that maintain an account with a Reserve Bank are eligible to use the service to send payments directly to, or receive payments from, other participants.",
"and settlement of multiple or individual customer transactions within the bank, usually on the same day. Such accounts can lead to the concealment by financial institutions transactions made by customers, however section 325 bans their use for such purposes by prohibiting financial institutions from allowing clients to direct transactions that move their funds into, out of, or through the concentration accounts of the financial institution. Financial institutions are also prohibited from informing clients about the existence of such accounts and disallows any disclosure that may give customer a way of identifying such accounts that the financial institution may use. The",
"banks, which in turn were required to have reserves in central city banks. During the planting seasons, rural banks would exploit their reserves to finance full plantings, and during the harvest seasons they would use profits from loan interest payments to restore and grow their reserves. A national bank whose reserves were being drained would replace its reserves by selling stocks and bonds, by borrowing from a clearing house or by calling in loans. As there was little in the way of deposit insurance, if a bank was rumored to be having liquidity problems then this might cause many people",
"the end of that month, the unprecedented worsening of the economic situation, investments away due to the complicated situation policy caused public distrust in the financial system, so strong withdrawals from bank deposits occurred. To stop them, the economy minister imposed restrictions involving the freezing of funds deposited in banks, measurement known as the \"corralito\" 44 The measure was enacted on December 1 and originally allowed only one withdrawal of 250 pesos weekly cash the ban on sending money out of the country and the obligation to perform most of the business operations by check, credit card or debit card,",
"billion into India.\nMoney is sent to India either electronically (for example, by SWIFT) or by demand draft. In recent years many banks are offering money transfers and this has grown into a huge business. Around 40% of the India's remittances flow to the states of Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh which are among the top international remittance receiving states. States like Andhra Pradesh gets most of its remittance from USA, Kerala from UAE, Punjab from Canada as most of the people migrate from their states to these countries. Research work on remittances to India is listed",
"transactions may still only be settled with a member bank. But this stipulation is reportedly under review as the BancNet POS is now being considered for the collection requirements of government agencies and government controlled entities. In this case, a non-member bank acts as the depository while the BancNet treasury bank acts as the collecting bank.",
"a new tax transparency law that would allow for a more effective battle against tax evasion. Starting in 2018, banks in both Greece and Switzerland will exchange information about the bank accounts of citizens of the other country to minimize the possibility of hiding untaxed income.\nIn 2016 and 2017, the government was encouraging the use of credit cards or debit cards to pay for goods and services in order to reduce cash only payments. By January 2017, taxpayers were only granted tax-allowances or deductions when payments were made electronically, with a \"paper trail\" of the transactions that the government could",
"private bank accounts in Switzerland and London, through a complex set of transactions between 1992 and 1994, using a private investment company named Trocca, all with the help of Citibank and its affiliates. In 2008, the government of Switzerland turned over $74 million, out of the $110 million in frozen bank accounts held by Trocca to the government of Mexico. The Swiss Justice Ministry indicated that the Mexican government had demonstrated that $66 million of the funds had been misappropriated, and the funds, with interest, were returned to Mexico. The bank accounts were held at Pictet & Cie, Citibank Zurich,",
"country needs to progress in banking and economy.\nIf banks want to borrow money (for short term, usually overnight) from RBI then banks have to charge this interest rate. Banks have to pledge government securities as collateral. This kind of deal happens through a re-purchase agreement. If a bank wants to borrow ₹100 crore (US$14 million), it has to provide government securities at least worth ₹100 crore (could be more because of margin requirement which is 5%–10% of loan amount) and agree to repurchase them at ₹106.5 crore (US$15 million) at the end of borrowing period. So the bank has paid ₹6.5 crore (US$940,000)",
"for the clearing of checks to and from individual banks) based in New York were gaining power at the public's expense. This was done via minimum capital requirements as well as predatory membership and discriminatory member policies. The report states, \"Non-member banks must engage a member bank as its clearing agent, which in effect leaves its future up to the discretion a single bank.\" This clause allowed member banks and the boards of these clearing houses to stifle any competition that might arise from smaller upstart banks by simply telling their member banks not to act as their clearing agents.",
"6.5% of all households did not have a bank account; and 18.7% with accounts also used non-insured institutions for financial transactions. In New York City, 12% did not have bank accounts in 2013; including “domestic violence survivors who don't wish to be traced and undocumented immigrants as some of those who may face significant challenges when opening bank accounts”. They instead often use payday loans and check cashing facilities. Torres’ proposal would fine non-compliant businesses, while allowing them to refuse currency higher than $20 bills. It also prohibits charging more for using cash payment. Third-Party Transfer program In July 2019,",
"securities settlement systems. Since ultimately, the Banks need to meet their obligations in Central Bank money held in payment systems that are commonly operated or closely supervised by central banks (e.g. CHAPS, FedWire, Target2, which are also referred to as large value payment systems), it is of great interest to monitor these systems' participants' (mainly banks) liquidity positions.\nThe amount of liquidity held by banks on their accounts can be a lot less (and usually is) than the total value of transferred payments during a day. The total amount of liquidity needed by banks to settle a given set of payments",
"bank to buy back its currency on a specified future date at the same exchange rate. The second transaction unwinds the first. At the conclusion of the second transaction, the foreign central bank pays interest, at a market-based rate, to the Federal Reserve.\nWhen the foreign central bank lends the dollars it obtained by drawing on its swap line to institutions in its jurisdiction, the dollars are transferred from the foreign central bank's account at the Federal Reserve to the account of the bank that the borrowing institution uses to clear its dollar transactions. The foreign central bank remains obligated to",
"the absence of funds in a transactional account on the day the check is due to clear at the bank. Such acts are frequently committed by bankrupt or temporarily unemployed individuals or small businesses seeking emergency loans, by start-up businesses or other struggling businesses seeking interest-free financing while intending to make good on their balances, or by pathological gamblers who have the expectation of depositing funds upon winning. It has also been used by those who have some genuine funds in interest-bearing accounts, but who artificially inflate their balances in order to increase the interest paid by their banks.",
"any existing funds—it is at this point that the Federal Reserve has created new high-powered money. Commercial banks can freely withdraw in cash any excess reserves from their reserve account at the Federal Reserve. To fulfill those requests, the Federal Reserve places an order for printed money from the U.S. Treasury Department. The Treasury Department in turn sends these requests to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (to print new dollar bills) and the Bureau of the Mint (to stamp the coins).\nUsually, the short-term goal of open market operations is to achieve a specific short-term interest rate target. In other"
] |
What are good and bad sides of manual and automatic drive gear? | [
"Automatics weigh more, so that alone makes gas mileage worse. They are also more complicated, so that means reliability is going to be lower. It is easier to operate, which may free up your attention for focus on what is *outside* the car.\n\nSome people derive satisfaction from shifting, and flexibility in using the power curve."
] | [
"amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some systems will override the driver's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speeds. Comparison with manual transmission Most cars sold in North America since the 1950s have been available with an automatic transmission, based on the fact that the three major American car manufacturers had started using automatics. Conversely, in Europe a manual gearbox is standard, with only 20% of drivers opting",
"selection of gear ratios. Many vehicles offer a 5-speed or 6-speed manual, whereas the automatic option would typically be a 4-speed. This is generally due to the increased space available inside a manual transmission compared with an automatic, since the latter requires extra components for self-shifting, such as torque converters and pumps. However, automatic transmissions are now adding more speeds as the technology matures. ZF currently manufactures 7- and 8-speed automatic transmissions. ZF is also planning a 9-speed automatic for use in front-wheel drive vehicles. The increased number of gears allows for better use of the engine's power band, resulting",
"fear of losing too much speed to reach a hilltop, automatic transmissions are at a great advantage — whereas driving a manual car depends on finding a gear that is not too low to enter the bottom of the hill at the necessary speed, but not too high to stall the engine at the top of the hill, sometimes an impossible task, this is not an issue with automatic transmissions, not just because gearshifts are quick, but they typically maintain some power on the driving wheels during the gear change. Energy efficiency Earlier hydraulic automatic transmissions were almost always less",
"Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck",
"floor and move the gearstick from one position to another. This is especially true in regards to dual-clutch transmissions, which are specialized computer-controlled automatic transmissions that mechanically operate more like a manual transmission than a traditional automatic one. Ease of use Because manual transmissions require the operation of an extra pedal, and keeping the vehicle in the correct gear at all times, they require more concentration, especially in heavy traffic situations. The automatic transmissions, on the other hand, simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed, with the vehicle doing the work of choosing an appropriate",
"better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\nConversely, manual transmissions are no longer popular in many classes of vehicles sold in North America, Australia, and some parts of Asia, although they remain dominant in other parts of Asia, and in Europe, Africa, and Latin America. Nearly all vehicles are available",
"for an automatic gearbox compared to the United States. In some Asian markets and in Australia, automatic transmissions have become very popular since the 1980s.\nVehicles equipped with automatic transmissions are not as complex to drive. Consequently, in some jurisdictions, drivers who have passed their driving test in a vehicle with an automatic transmission will not be licensed to drive a manual transmission vehicle. Conversely, a manual license will allow the driver to drive vehicles with either an automatic or manual transmission. Countries in which such driving license restrictions are applied include some states in Australia, Austria, Botswana, Belgium, Belize, China,",
"of a continuously variable transmission, which slip by nature. Manual transmissions also lack the parasitic power consumption of the automatic transmission's hydraulic pump. Also, manual transmissions do not require active cooling and because they are, mechanically, much simpler than automatic transmissions, they generally weigh less than comparable automatics, which can improve economy in stop-and-go traffic. Because of this, manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions; however the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions. Increased fuel economy with a properly operated manual transmission vehicle versus an",
"energy efficient than manual transmissions due mainly to viscous and pumping losses (parasitic losses), both in the torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. 21% is the loss on a 3-speed Chrysler Torqueflite compared to a modern GM 6L80 automatic. A relatively small amount of energy is required to pressurise the hydraulic control system, which uses fluid pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms. However, with technological developments some modern continuously variable transmissions are more fuel efficient than their manual counterparts and modern 8-speed automatics are within 5% as efficient as a manual gearbox.\nManual",
"AP automatic transmission Known Issues - Because the unit uses engine oil for both lubrication and for powering its hydraulic circuit, engine oil changes are critical to the long term reliability of the transmission. Typically it should be changed every 6000 miles.\n- The transmission is not interchangeable with a conventional BMC sump mounted manual gearbox. Because of an extended flywheel mounting flange on the crankshaft, the AP automatic requires to be fitted to its own unique version of the A-series engine. This causes issues for Mini owners wanting to convert to a manual gearbox, since the entire",
"mechanism must be calibrated and tuned to deliver a fast gear change.\nGenerally, a dual-clutch transmission (DCT) shifts faster than a standard automatic or semi-automatic transmission. This is possible because the DCT can pre-select the next gear change and switch between two separate clutches to the next pre-determined gear, thus reducing shift times. Using a freewheel may reduce shift time as it may not be necessary to use the clutch. A shift kit is also intended to reduce the shift time of a manual vehicle.\nIn a manual transmission car, shift time for upshifts can be reduced by installing a lighter flywheel.",
"gearhead because some of the features he describes are mutually exclusive with others: a car with an \"automatic ... Hydramatic\" transmission therefore could not have \"a four speed on the floor\" i.e. manual transmission, and \"four-barrel quads\" are carburetors inconsistent with true \"Fuel injection cut off\". (In the film, despite the contradictions in the lyrics, the greasers along with a shop teacher succeed in rebuilding the car into racing condition.) Both the musical and the film imply that at least some of the parts Kenickie uses are stolen.\nIn the original recording, as was in the case with the stage musical",
"in the United States shortly after production began due to a risk of exhaust system fires. Owners that were not made aware of the manual shifting mode (\"sport mode\") of the 4-speed automatic transmission would mistakenly leave the shifter in that position, resulting in high temperatures as the car would remain in second gear. Mazda's solution was to add a heat shield around the muffler and to alter the vehicle's software to not allow excessively high engine speeds beyond a short period of time when in \"sport mode\". Although the five-speed manual transmission equipped cars would seemingly not need to",
"rotates faster than the driveshaft. For example, Saab used a freewheel system in the Saab 96 V4 and early Saab 99 for better fuel efficiency. It was also used in Saab's two-stroke models at the cost of engine braking. Some cars, such as the Rover P4, include a manual switch to engage or disengage the freewheel. Manual Manual transmission is also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, standard, and stick. Most automobile manual transmissions have several gear ratios that are chosen by locking selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission. Manual transmissions feature a driver-operated clutch",
"or alternatively it can be driven in exactly the same way as a fully conventional automatic—however, many Easytronic owners have complained that gear shifts in \"automatic mode\" are jerky; a common complaint with semi-autos based on a conventional manual gearbox. As with conventional, full automatic transmission cars, the Easytronic will \"creep\" forwards when the driver's foot is released from the brake pedal when the car is stationary. Packard Also in 1941, Packard introduced the Electro-Matic clutch, which was a vacuum operated clutch pedal, signaled by the position of the accelerator. Significantly, it came with an 'off' switch, probably due to",
"(which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to \"slippage\" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.\nAttempts to improve fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut",
"k.p.h.) and effect a \"kick-down\" gear change. Many people assume they have a two speed transmission because they expect the first Drive position (D2) to shift through all three gears as all automatic transmissions have done since 1968. Some vehicles had the same system without the D1 and D2, instead just having D, and only 5 stations on the quadrant.\nStarting in 1965 the M-3x was made with the now common P-R-N-D-2-1 shift arrangement (Park, Reverse, Neutral, Drive, Second gear, First gear). AMC called this \"Shift-Command\" to differentiate it from the D2/D1 models, since either could be ordered in an",
"transmission built by ZF Friedrichshafen. The decision to replace the automatic transmission was primarily made to make the car more engaging to drive. This move was lauded by the purists and resulted in a positive response.\nThe interior was available in three colour combinations, those being black leather with blue and green stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel (or alternatively red stitching), red leather with red stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel and beige with maroon piping and maroon stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel. Noticeable changes to the interior include an Alpina blue instrument cluster, Alpina logos",
"reverse gear must be used, with rear-wheel drive. The gearbox is constructed of carbon titanium, as heat dissipation is a critical issue, and is bolted onto the back of the engine. Full automatic gearboxes, and systems such as launch control and traction control, are illegal, to keep driver skill important in controlling the car. The driver initiates gear changes using paddles mounted on the back of the steering wheel and electro-hydraulics perform the actual change as well as throttle control. Clutch control is also performed electro-hydraulically, except to and from a standstill, when the driver operates the clutch using a",
"difficult to use controls that aren't understood, which is not good because understanding control operation of an unfamiliar car is one of the first steps recommended in defensive driving. Owner's manuals usually cover three main areas: a description of the location and operation of all controls; a schedule and descriptions of maintenance required, both by the owner and by a mechanic; and specifications such as oil and fuel capacity and part numbers of light bulbs used. Current car owner's manuals have become much bigger in part due to many safety warnings most likely designed to avoid product liability lawsuits, as",
"should occur.\nIn many jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom, a driving licence issued for only vehicles with an automatic transmission is not valid for driving vehicles with a manual transmission, but a licence for manual transmissions covers both. This is also the case for P1 (provisional-1) car licence holders in New South Wales, Australia, but P2 (provisional-2) licence holders are allowed to drive vehicles with either transmission. Shifting speed Automatic transmissions can typically shift ratios faster than a manual gear change can be accomplished, due to the time required for the average driver to push the clutch pedal to the",
"an incline, this problem is made worse because the amount of work needed to overcome the acceleration of gravity causes the clutch to heat up considerably more. For this reason, stop-and-go driving and hills tend to have an effect on the clutches to a certain degree.\nAutomatic transmissions are better suited for these applications because they have a hydraulic torque converter which is externally cooled, unlike a clutch. Torque converters also do not have a friction material that rubs off over time like a clutch. Some automatics even lock the output shaft so that the vehicle cannot roll backwards when beginning",
"that opt to disallow road tests on automatic vehicles completely, China, Dominican Republic, Israel, Jordan, Norway, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, and the U.A.E. This treatment of the manual transmission skill seems to maintain the widespread use of the manual transmission. As many new drivers worry that their restricted license will become an obstacle for them where most vehicles have manual transmissions, they make the effort to learn with manual transmissions and obtain full licenses. Some other countries (such as Turkey, Greece, Georgia, India, Pakistan, Portugal, Malaysia, Serbia, Brazil, Ukraine and Denmark) go even further,",
"change that tends to be rougher than the others, where just one band is released or actuated. This also means more wear in auto box parts. This is solved by the use of one-way overrun clutches which allow one or more components to \"free wheel\" when the transmission shifts into a higher gear. GM's Turbo Hydra-Matic 350 and 400 transmissions utilized overrun clutches in both the low and intermediate gears, allowing for fully progressive shifting with no \"overlap\".\nDue to both factors abovementioned, gear changing patterns in some Simpson gearboxes, including modern 4-speed units, avoid first gear as much",
"pedal and gear stick. Historically, cars had a manual overdrive switch. Automatic The desire for driver convenience led to the widespread implementation of the semi-automatic transmission, automatic transmission and continuously variable transmission (CVT). Some automatic transmission vehicles have extra controls that modify the choices made by the transmission system. These controls depend on the engine and road speed. Automatic transmissions generally have a straight pattern, beginning at the most forward position with park, and running through reverse, neutral, drive, and then to the lower gears. Signals and lighting Cars have controls for headlamps, fog lamps, turn signals, and other automotive",
"freewheel mechanism acts as an automatic clutch, making it possible to change gears in a manual gearbox, either up- or downshifting, without depressing the clutch pedal, limiting the use of the manual clutch to starting from standstill or stopping. The Saab freewheel can be engaged or disengaged by the driver by respectively pushing or pulling a lever. This locks or unlocks the main shaft with the freewheel hub.\nA freewheel also produces slightly better fuel economy on carbureted engines (without fuel turn-off on engine brake) and less wear on the manual clutch, but leads to more wear on the brakes as",
"use hydraulics to select gears, depending on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible.\nAutomatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, some automatic transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems",
"third out of four gearboxes that are available, but gearbox upgrades require an engine that is strong enough to allow shifting into higher gears in order to be effective. Upgrading the armor allows cars to take more damage before the armor is destroyed in the area that is being upgraded. The paint shop allows the color of the car to be changed. Upgrading the tires improves their grip and the car's turning performance. Reception Reviewing the Genesis version, GamePro assessed that Top Gear 2 has a good number of tracks and solid controls, but feels outdated compared to contemporary racing",
"for vehicles equipped with the 7-speed automatic has been (numerically) reduced from 3.69 to 3.36, the new 7-speed automatic has much lower first through fourth gear overall ratios than the old 5-speed automatic and the 6-speed manual in the 6MT cars (which retain the old 3.69 final drive ratio). Giving it closer gear ratios in all gears, to match engine rpm better with power demand, brings better acceleration while overdrive ratios in 6th and 7th gears reduces highway cruising rpm and improves fuel mileage. The new 7-speed automatic retains the Drive Sport (DS) shift mode and Downshift Rev Matching (DRM)",
"gear, but for safety reasons this is only possible when the motorcycle is stationary. Some models also have gear position indicators for all gear positions at the instrument panel. Semi-manual Some new transmissions (Alfa Romeo's Selespeed gearbox and BMW's Sequential Manual Gearbox (SMG) for example) are conventional manual transmissions with a computerized control mechanism. These transmissions feature independently selectable gears but do not have a clutch pedal. Instead, the transmission computer controls a servo which disengages the clutch when necessary.\nThese transmissions vary from sequential transmissions in that they still allow nonsequential shifts: the SMG system formerly used by BMW, for"
] |
the special and general theory of relativity | [
"We know that light moves at the speed *c* (roughly 300000km/s).\n\nSo here's a question for you (that Einstein asked himself): what would you see if you sat on a beam of light and looked into the mirror? Would your reflection disappear? Would it be normal?\n\nHe then thought: what's the speed of light relative to anyway?\n\nHere's the thing: if I run 10m/s, and I'm on a train going at 100m/s, then when I run along the train I'm running 10m/s relative to the train, and 110m/s relative to the tracks. So what is the speed of light relative to?\n\nIn his earlier career he did some experiments [EDIT: He didn't: it was Michelson and Morley, but Einstein knew about the results, and everything. Thanks /u/AramisAthosPorthos for pointing that out.]: can you tell which way the Earth is moving by looking at light inside a sealed box? If the speed of light is measured compared to something in the universe (which they called a luminiferous aether, IIRC) then you should be able to measure it, by seeing that the light hits one side of the box earlier, because the box is moving.\n\nBut there was no change, so Einstein realised that the speed of light isn't relative to anything. No matter what speed you're going at, you must always get the same speed of light.\n\nThis led to the special theory of relativity. He basically said \"what if time is variable and the speed of light is constant?\" and did all the maths to figure out what would happen. It's called \"special relativity\" because it only works in a special case: there is no mass (which causes forces) in it.\n\nGeneral relativity involved a lot more complicated maths to take into account the affects of gravity, which he modelled as a warping of space-time, and took some really, really hard maths to figure out. It's called general relativity because it can be applied to generally any situation. (Actually, it breaks down at quantum-mechanics levels, but that's a different story.)\n\nI think that covers the difference and where they came from. If you want any more details on them, feel free to ask and I'll see what I can get for you."
] | [
"Relativity: The Special and the General Theory Relativity: The Special and the General Theory began as a short paper and was eventually published as a book written by Albert Einstein with the aim of giving:\n. . . an exact insight into the theory of relativity to those readers who, from a general scientific and philosophical point of view, are interested in the theory, but who are not conversant with the mathematical apparatus of theoretical physics.\n— from the Preface\nIt was first published in German in 1916 and later translated into English in 1920. It is divided into 3 parts, the first dealing",
"special theory of relativity was proposed by Einstein as an explanation for the seeming inconsistency between the constancy of the speed of light and the non-existence of a special, preferred or absolute frame of reference.\nAlbert Einstein's theory of general relativity could not easily be tested as it did not produce any effects observable on a terrestrial scale. However, as one of the first tests of general relativity, the theory predicted that large masses such as stars would bend light, in contradiction to accepted theory; this was observed in a 1919 eclipse. Finance Mathematical models of stock market behaviour (and economic",
"Physical theories modified by general relativity Classical mechanics and special relativity Classical mechanics and special relativity are lumped together here because special relativity is in many ways intermediate between general relativity and classical mechanics, and shares many attributes with classical mechanics.\nIn the following discussion, the mathematics of general relativity is used heavily. Also, under the principle of minimal coupling, the physical equations of special relativity can be turned into their general relativity counterparts by replacing the Minkowski metric (ηab) with the relevant metric of spacetime (gab) and by replacing any partial derivatives with covariant derivatives. In the discussions that follow,",
"\"general relativity\".",
"or general relativity.",
"relativity resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the frame-dependent concept of spacetime.\nGeneral relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16. It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that gravitation can be described by",
"relativity generalizes the notion of inertial frame to include all physical laws, not simply Newton's first law.\nNewton viewed the first law as valid in any reference frame that is in uniform motion relative to the fixed stars; that is, neither rotating nor accelerating relative to the stars. Today the notion of \"absolute space\" is abandoned, and an inertial frame in the field of classical mechanics is defined as:\nAn inertial frame of reference is one in which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is in a straight line at constant speed.\nHence, with respect to an inertial frame, an",
"History of special relativity The history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. It culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein and subsequent work of Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others. Introduction Although Isaac Newton based his physics on absolute time and space, he also adhered to the principle of relativity of Galileo Galilei restating it precisely for mechanical systems. This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally",
"Relativity of simultaneity In physics, the relativity of simultaneity is the concept that distant simultaneity – whether two spatially separated events occur at the same time – is not absolute, but depends on the observer's reference frame. Description According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense that two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. If one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to two events that are at different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first will generally assign",
"of relativity, which states that the laws of physics remain the same for any non-accelerating frame of reference (called an inertial reference frame), to the laws of electrodynamics and optics as well as mechanics. In the second postulate, Einstein proposes that the speed of light has the same value in all frames of reference, independent of the state of motion of the emitting body.\nSpecial relativity is thus consistent with the result of the Michelson–Morley experiment, which had not detected a medium of conductance (or aether) for light waves unlike other known waves that require a medium (such as water or",
"Introduction to general relativity From special to general relativity In September 1905, Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity, which reconciles Newton's laws of motion with electrodynamics (the interaction between objects with electric charge). Special relativity introduced a new framework for all of physics by proposing new concepts of space and time. Some then-accepted physical theories were inconsistent with that framework; a key example was Newton's theory of gravity, which describes the mutual attraction experienced by bodies due to their mass.\nSeveral physicists, including Einstein, searched for a theory that would reconcile Newton's law of gravity and special",
"Rietdijk–Putnam argument In philosophy, the Rietdijk–Putnam argument, named after C. W. Rietdijk and Hilary Putnam, uses 20th-century findings in physics – specifically in special relativity – to support the philosophical position known as four-dimensionalism.\nIf special relativity is true, then each observer will have their own plane of simultaneity, which contains a unique set of events that constitutes the observer's present moment. Observers moving at different relative velocities have different planes of simultaneity, and hence different sets of events that are present. Each observer considers their set of present events to be a three-dimensional universe, but even the slightest movement of the head",
"physicists believe general relativity is a fundamentally accurate description of gravitation, and instead seek a theory of quantum gravity. Total vs. partial holism Some scholars, like Quine, argue that if a prediction that a theory makes comes out true, then the corresponding piece of evidence confirms the whole theory and even the whole framework within which that theory is embedded. Some have questioned this radical or total form of confirmational holism. If total holism were true, they argue, that would lead to absurd consequences like the confirmation of arbitrary conjunctions. For example, if the general theory of relativity is confirmed",
"Oxford University Press published Introduction to Special Relativity, with the second edition in 1991. A reviewer noted that other books provide a better introduction and intuitive understanding, but that it \"should provide a useful reference for most applications of special relativity: kinematics, optics, particle mechanics, electromagnetism and mechanics of continua.\"\nIn 1984 Roger Penrose and Rindler published Spinors and Spacetime, volume 1, on \"two-spinor calculus and relativistic fields\". Michał Heller wrote that Spinors and Spacetime \"is both elementary and highly advanced. It begins on an almost graduate level but soon, step by step, reaches the highest standards of modern mathematical physics.\"\nIn",
"points, and determined, in their turn, by physical factors, namely the distribution of mass/energy. Thus the aether of general relativity differs from those of classical mechanics and special relativity in that it is not ‘absolute’ but determined, in its locally variable characteristics, by ponderable matter.\n— Albert Einstein, Über den Äther (1924) General relativity Special relativity eliminates absolute time (although Gödel and others suspect absolute time may be valid for some forms of general relativity) and general relativity further reduces the physical scope of absolute space and time through the concept of geodesics. There appears to be absolute space in relation to",
"fundamental for the special theory of relativity is this: The assumptions relativity and light speed invariance are compatible if relations of a new type (\"Lorentz transformation\") are postulated for the conversion of coordinates and times of events... The universal principle of the special theory of relativity is contained in the postulate: The laws of physics are invariant with respect to Lorentz transformations (for the transition from one inertial system to any other arbitrarily chosen inertial system). This is a restricting principle for natural laws...\nThus many modern treatments of special relativity base it on the single postulate of universal Lorentz covariance,",
"with special relativity, the second dealing with general relativity and the third dealing with considerations on the universe as a whole. There have been many versions published since the original in 1916, the latest in December, 2011. The work has been labeled unique in that it gives readers an insight into the thought processes of one of the greatest minds of the 20th century.",
"of the same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression \"theory of relativity\" (German: Relativitätstheorie).\nBy the 1920s, the physics community understood and accepted special relativity. It rapidly became a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of atomic physics, nuclear physics, and quantum mechanics.\nBy comparison, general relativity did not appear to be as useful, beyond making minor corrections to predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory. It seemed to offer little potential for experimental test, as most of its assertions were on an astronomical scale. Its mathematics seemed difficult and fully understandable only by",
"of the universe (special relativity) Special relativity places space and time on equal footing, so that one considers the geometry of a unified spacetime instead of considering space and time separately. Minkowski geometry replaces Galilean geometry (which is the three-dimensional Euclidean space with time of Galilean relativity).\nIn relativity, rather than considering Euclidean, elliptic and hyperbolic geometries, the appropriate geometries to consider are Minkowski space, de Sitter space and anti-de Sitter space, corresponding to zero, positive and negative curvature respectively.\nHyperbolic geometry enters special relativity through rapidity, which stands in for velocity, and is expressed by a hyperbolic angle. The study of",
"confuses a physical theory with a moral value. Similarly, New Scientist stated at the end of their article that:\nIn the end there is no liberal conspiracy at work. Unfortunately, humanities scholars often confuse the issue by misusing the term \"relativity\". The theory in no way encourages relativism, regardless of what Conservapedia may think. The theory of relativity is ultimately not so much about what it renders relative—three-dimensional space and one-dimensional time—but about what it renders absolute: the speed of light and four-dimensional space-time.\nIn October 2010, Scientific American criticized Conservapedia's attitude towards the Theory of Relativity, assigning them a zero score",
"situations. However, general relativity is a fully covariant theory – its laws are the same, independent of which coordinates are chosen to describe a given situation. One direct consequence is that two apparently different exact solutions could correspond to the same model universe, and differ only in their coordinates. Ehlers began to look for serviceable ways of characterizing exact solutions invariantly, that is, in ways that do not depend on coordinate choice. In order to do so, he examined ways of describing the intrinsic geometric properties of the known exact solutions.\nDuring the 1960s, following up on his doctoral thesis, Ehlers",
"Relativity priority dispute Albert Einstein presented the theories of special relativity and general relativity in publications that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, and to the work of Carl F. Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and Ernst Mach for general relativity. Subsequently, claims have been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Einstein. At issue is the extent",
"may be perceived by another (in a different frame of reference) as a magnetic force, or a mixture of electric and magnetic forces.\nFormally, special relativity combines the electric and magnetic fields into a rank-2 tensor, called the electromagnetic tensor. Changing reference frames mixes these components. This is analogous to the way that special relativity mixes space and time into spacetime, and mass, momentum, and energy into four-momentum. Quantum electrodynamics In modern physics, the electromagnetic field is understood to be not a classical field, but rather a quantum field; it is represented not as a vector of three numbers at each",
"Mathematics of general relativity Tensors The principle of general covariance states that the laws of physics should take the same mathematical form in all reference frames and was one of the central principles in the development of general relativity. The term 'general covariance' was used in the early formulation of general relativity, but is now referred to by many as diffeomorphism covariance. Although diffeomorphism covariance is not the defining feature of general relativity, and controversies remain regarding its present status in general relativity, the invariance property of physical laws implied in the principle coupled with the fact that the theory",
"of Einstein's general relativity, by Israeli scientists Yaakov Friedman in collaboration with Joseph Steiner, RND predicts accurately both classical and modern tests of general relativity, such as, the perihelion precession of Mercury (planet) which agree with the known observed perihelion precession, the periastron advance of a binary star, which is identical to the post-Keplerian equation of the relativistic advance of the periastron in a binary, gravitational lensing which is identical to Einstein's formula for weak gravitational lensing using GR, and light travel (Shapiro delay) time delay which agree with the known formula for the Shapiro time",
"changing present. This conventional model presents a number of difficult philosophical problems, and seems difficult to reconcile with currently accepted scientific theories such as the theory of relativity.\nSpecial relativity eliminates the concept of absolute simultaneity and a universal present: according to the relativity of simultaneity, observers in different frames of reference can have different measurements of whether a given pair of events happened at the same time or at different times, with there being no physical basis for preferring one frame's judgments over another's. However, there are events that may be non-simultaneous in all frames of reference: when one event",
"to curve.\nWhile general relativity replaces the scalar gravitational potential of classical physics by a symmetric rank-two tensor, the latter reduces to the former in certain limiting cases. For weak gravitational fields and slow speed relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation.\nAs it is constructed using tensors, general relativity exhibits general covariance: its laws—and further laws formulated within the general relativistic framework—take on the same form in all coordinate systems. Furthermore, the theory does not contain any invariant geometric background structures, i.e. it is background independent. It thus satisfies a",
"of Lorentz and proved the Lorentz covariance of the electromagnetic equations. However, he used the notion of an aether as a perfectly undetectable medium and distinguished between apparent and real time, so most historians of science argue that he failed to invent special relativity. Special relativity Aether theory was dealt another blow when the Galilean transformation and Newtonian dynamics were both modified by Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, giving the mathematics of Lorentzian electrodynamics a new, \"non-aether\" context. Unlike most major shifts in scientific thought, special relativity was adopted by the scientific community remarkably quickly, consistent with Einstein's later",
"Very special relativity Ignoring gravity, experimental bounds seem to suggest that special relativity with its Lorentz symmetry and Poincaré symmetry describes spacetime. Surprisingly, Cohen and Glashow have demonstrated that a small subgroup of the Lorentz group is sufficient to explain all the current bounds.\nThe minimal subgroup in question can be described as follows: The stabilizer of a null vector is the special Euclidean group SE(2), which contains T(2) as the subgroup of parabolic transformations. This T(2), when extended to include either parity or time reversal (i.e. subgroups of the orthochronous and time-reversal respectively), is sufficient to give us all the",
"Event symmetry What it means Since general relativity was discovered by Albert Einstein in 1915, observation and experiment have demonstrated that it is an accurate gravitation theory up to cosmic scales. On small scales, the laws of quantum mechanics have likewise been found to describe nature in a way consistent with every experiment performed, so far. To describe the laws of the universe fully a synthesis of general relativity and quantum mechanics must be found. Only then can physicists hope to understand the realms where gravity and quantum come together. The Big Bang is one such place.\nThe task to find"
] |
How do muscles grow? | [
"I hope this answer qualifies as technical, yet simple enough (as I very rarely post here), but the basic idea that I understand is that your muscles rip and tear on a microscopic level when you are working out, and the harder you push those muscles, the more they rip. Hence where the idea comes from that more reps and less weight equal more tone, but more weight and less reps equal more muscle growth.\n\nWhat happens is that following those tiny rips and tears, your muscle heals over itself and essentially stacks on top of itself, healing bigger and stronger than before. The more those muscles are used, kept active and challenged, the more they will continue to build and grow over time.\n\nOther factors go into the growth of muscle as well, such as your nutrition. Protein, fats, etc. also play a factor, as they cause your body to \"feed\" your body and muscles in different ways of varying effectiveness - but I think that's an ELI5 for another day.",
"The enlargement of muscles, known as hypertrophy, is essentially the tearing of muscle fibers being put back together by larger muscle fibers."
] | [
"Muscle Structure The anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle. Microanatomy Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each end, where the epimysium becomes thicker and collagenous. It also protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones. Within the epimysium are multiple bundles called fascicles, each of which contains 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers collectively sheathed by a perimysium. Besides surrounding each fascicle, the perimysium",
"muscle cells are ideal in the aspect that they have already finished development as a muscle, but proliferate hardly at all. Therefore, cells such as myosattelite and myoblast cells are often used as they still proliferate at an acceptable rate, but also sufficiently differentiate from other types of cells. Growth medium The cells are then treated by applying a solution that promotes tissue growth, which is known as a growth medium. These mediums should contain the necessary nutrients and appropriate quantity of growth factors. They are then placed in a culture medium, in a bio-reactor, which is able to supply",
"exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result we have fewer muscle cells as an adult than a newborn. Muscle contraction When contracting, thin and thick filaments slide with respect to each other by using adenosine triphosphate. This pulls the Z discs closer together in a process called sliding filament mechanism. The contraction of all the",
"is a pathway for nerves and the flow of blood within the muscle. The threadlike muscle fibers are the individual muscle cells (myocytes), and each cell is encased within its own endomysium of collagen fibers. Thus, the overall muscle consists of fibers (cells) that are bundled into fascicles, which are themselves grouped together to form muscles. At each level of bundling, a collagenous membrane surrounds the bundle, and these membranes support muscle function both by resisting passive stretching of the tissue and by distributing forces applied to the muscle. Scattered throughout the muscles are muscle spindles that provide sensory",
"filaments along the axis of the muscle. During contraction, the muscle shortens along its longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse axis, producing vibrations at the surface. Evolution The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic. In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor. In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and",
"increase muscular hypertrophy.\nMuscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education. Atrophy During ordinary living activities, between 1 to 2 percent of muscle is broken down and rebuilt daily. Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied",
"is able to innervate multiple muscle fibers, thereby causing the fibers to contract at the same time. Once innervated, the protein filaments within each skeletal muscle fiber slide past each other to produce a contraction, which is explained by the sliding filament theory. The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials. In skeletal muscles, muscle tension is at its greatest when the muscle is stretched to an intermediate length as described by the length-tension relationship.\nUnlike skeletal muscle, the contractions of smooth and cardiac muscles are myogenic (meaning that they",
"Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscles Connective tissue is present in all muscles as fascia. Enclosing each muscle is a layer of connective tissue known as the epimysium; enclosing each fascicle is a layer called the perimysium, and enclosing each muscle fiber is a layer of connective tissue called the endomysium. Types of muscle by action Many muscles are named by the action the muscle performs. These include:\nThe flexor and extensor; abductor and adductor; levator and depressor; supinator and pronator; sphincter, tensor, and rotator muscles.\nA flexor muscle decreases the anterior angle at a joint; an extensor increases the anterior angle at a",
"work of the skeletal muscle in response to an independent variable, such as the direct application of caffeine, sodium bicarbonate, and taurine to an isolated skeletal muscle, and the changes in work loop power output and fatigue resistance during ageing and in response to an obesogenic diet. Identifying muscle functional roles: motors, brakes, springs, or struts As a “motor” the muscle does work on the environment resulting in positive work in the work loop in the counter-clockwise direction. When positive work happens the length of the muscle will increase followed by an increase in force before reaching a peak. When",
"force through simultaneous contractions of cellular structures called sarcomeres. Importantly, these cells are kept in a terminal G₀ phase since disruption of muscle fiber structure after myofiber formation would prevent proper transmission of force through the length of the muscle. Muscle growth can be stimulated by growth or injury and involves the recruitment of muscle stem cells – also known as satellite cells – out of a reversible quiescent state. These stem cells differentiate and fuse to generate new muscle fibers both in parallel and in series to increase force generation capacity.\nCardiac muscle is also formed through myogenesis but instead",
"Muscular system Muscles There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non-striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the body to keep warm. Skeletal muscle Skeletal muscles, like other striated muscles, are composed of myocytes, or muscle fibers, which are in turn composed of myofibrils, which are composed of sarcomeres, the basic building block of striated muscle tissue. Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.",
"muscle, when present, is similar to its neighbouring adductors, it is formed by separation from the superficial layer of the external obturator, and is thus not ontogenetically related to the adductor muscles of the hip. This muscle originates from the upper part of the inferior pubic ramus from where it runs downwards and laterally. In half of cases, it inserts into the anterior surface of the insertion aponeurosis of the adductor minimus. In the remaining cases, it is either inserted into the upper part of the pectineal line or the posterior part of the lesser trochanter.\nIt has been demonstrated",
"Core (anatomy) Muscles Major muscles included are the pelvic floor muscles, transversus abdominis, multifidus, internal and external obliques, rectus abdominis, erector spinae (sacrospinalis) especially the longissimus thoracis, and the diaphragm. The lumbar muscles, quadratus Lumborum (deep portion), deep rotators, as well as cervical muscles, rectus capitus anterior and lateralis, longus coli may also be considered members of the core group.\nMinor core muscles include the latissimus dorsi, gluteus maximus, and trapezius. Anatomical posture and support The core is traditionally assumed to originate most full-body functional movement, including most sports. In addition, the core determines to a large part a",
"Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in size of skeletal muscle through a growth in size of its component cells. Two factors contribute to hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased muscle glycogen storage; and myofibrillar hypertrophy, which focuses more on increased myofibril size. Hypertrophy stimulation A range of stimuli can increase the volume of muscle cells. These changes occur as an adaptive response that serves to increase the ability to generate force or resist fatigue in anaerobic conditions. Strength training Strength training, or resistance exercise, brings about neural and muscular adaptations which increase the capacity of an",
"processes taking place in the muscles for the supply of energy.",
"muscle cells are found in the muscle of the eye and in the base of hair follicles. Multi-unit smooth muscle cells contract by being separately stimulated by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. As such, they allow for fine control and gradual responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle. Mechanisms of smooth muscle contraction The contractile activity of smooth muscle cells is influenced by multiple inputs such as spontaneous electrical activity, neural and hormonal inputs, local changes in chemical composition, and stretch. This is in contrast to the contractile activity of skeletal muscle cells, which relies on a",
"Gracilis muscle Structure It arises by a thin aponeurosis from the anterior margins of the lower half of the symphysis pubis and the upper half of the pubic arch.\nThe muscle's fibers run vertically downward, ending in a rounded tendon. This tendon passes behind the medial condyle of the femur, curves around the medial condyle of the tibia where it becomes flattened, and inserts into the upper part of the medial surface of the body of the tibia, below the condyle. For this reason, the muscle is a lower limb adductor. At its insertion the tendon is situated immediately above that",
"Muscular system of the horse Build of skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle is made up of several muscle bundles, which in turn are made up of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers have bundles of myofibrils, which are all parallel to one another, and are able to contract due to actin and myosin. Muscle is covered by a fibrous tissue called fascia, to which other muscles can attach, and muscles attach to bone via tendons. Muscles of the tail The Coccygeus, Intertransversal caude, Sacralcoccygeus ventralis, Sacral coccygeus dorsalis, Sacral coccygeus lateralis, Sacro-coccygeus ventralis raise and move the tail.",
"as a mechanical buffer against it. In addition, in vivo experiments it has been found that the elastic mechanism gives protection to musculoskeletal structure exceeding the sarcomere. Due to this fact, forces developed in active muscles eventually decide the forces on tendons such as bones, joints, and ligaments.\nSimilarly, tendons are unable to entirely insulate muscles from dynamic extension. Tendons affect muscles when muscles lengthen, which affects peak forces experienced due to energy absorbing actions in the muscle tendon unit. Active lengthening of muscle fibers results in both an accumulation and loss of energy. Even though energy is briefly stored in",
"micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.\nWeight training aims to build muscle by prompting two different types of hypertrophy: sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy leads to larger muscles and so is favored by bodybuilders more than myofibrillar hypertrophy, which builds athletic strength. Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy is triggered by increasing repetitions, whereas myofibrillar hypertrophy is triggered by lifting heavier weight. In either case, there is an increase in both size and strength of the muscles (compared to what",
"Motor pool (neuroscience) Anatomy Distinct skeletal muscles are controlled by groups of individual motor units. Such motor units are made up of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Motor neurons are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and the brainstem. These neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers through the propagation of action potentials down their axons (through ventral roots and cranial nerves), and they stimulate skeletal muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions where they synapse with the motor end plates of muscle fibers. In humans, these axons can be as long as one meter.",
"are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.\nThe action a muscle generates is determined by the origin and insertion locations. The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather than volume or length) determines the amount of force it can generate by defining the number of \"sarcomeres\" which can operate in parallel. Each skeletal muscle contains long units called myofibrils, and each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres. Since contraction occurs at the same time",
"seen as muscles grow. Excitation-contraction coupling T-tubules are an important link in the chain from electrical excitation of a cell to its subsequent contraction (excitation-contraction coupling). When contraction of a muscle is needed, stimulation from a nerve or an adjacent muscle cell causes a characteristic flow of charged particles across the cell membrane known as an action potential. At rest, there are fewer positively charged particles on the inner side of the membrane compared to the outer side, and the membrane is described as being polarised. During an action potential, positively charged particles (predominantly sodium and calcium ions)",
"from skeletal muscle during exercise acts directly on bone by increasing cortical bone mineral density, bone perimeter and polar moment of inertia.",
"It was demonstrated that when a single smooth muscle cell is rhythmically stretched, it shows increased expression of a number of genes (caldesmon, calpomin, α-actine, smooth muscle myosin), along with increased proliferation ability.\nDiscovery and research of T-Cadherin functions\nIn the early of the 90s, while studying blood cells, V. A. Tkachuk and his colleagues discovered that calcium ions get mobilized in platelets under the influence of lipoproteins, which leads to their aggregation. This effect is more pronounced under the influence of adrenaline. Around the same time it was discovered that Ca²⁺ is mobilized in smooth muscle cells (SMC) under the influence",
"and this has given rise to various strategies to continue improving. Voluntary skeletal muscle is in balance between the amount of muscle synthesized or renewed each day and the amount that is degraded. Muscle fibers respond to repetition and load, and increased training causes the quantity of exercised muscle fiber to increase exponentially (simply meaning that the greatest gains are seen during the first weeks of training). Successful training produces hypertrophy of muscle fibers as an adaptation to the training regimen. In order to make further gains, greater workout intensity is required with heavier loads and more repetitions, although improvement",
"stored within the body. Within the muscles, its primary use is to enable contractions. Muscle cells draw calcium from the blood, allowing it to bind with troponin, a component of the muscle fibre that signals for a contraction by moving actin and myosin. After a contraction, calcium dissipates and the filaments move back to a resting state before the release of more calcium for the next contraction. Furthermore, calcium plays a significant role in allowing nerve impulses to be transmitted between neurons. The release of calcium ions from voltage gated ion channels signals for the release of neurotransmitters into the",
"Anatomical terms of muscle Types There are three types of muscle tissue in the human body: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle Skeletal striated muscle, or \"voluntary muscle\", primarily joins to bone with tendons. Skeletal muscle enables movement of the bones of the human skeleton and maintains posture. Smooth muscle Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the",
"correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.\nPreviously untrained muscles acquire newly formed nuclei by fusion of satellite cells preceding the hypertrophy. Subsequent detraining leads to atrophy but no loss of myo-nuclei. The elevated number of nuclei in muscle fibers that had experienced a hypertrophic episode would provide a mechanism for muscle memory, explaining the long-lasting effects of training and the ease with which previously trained individuals are more easily retrained.\nOn subsequent detraining, the fibers maintain an elevated",
"size of the muscle cell. During treppe (or summation) contraction muscles do not start at maximum efficiency; instead they achieve increased strength of contraction due to repeated stimuli. Tetanus involves a sustained contraction of muscles due to a series of rapid stimuli, which can continue until the muscles fatigue. Isometric contractions are skeletal muscle contractions that do not cause movement of the muscle. However, isotonic contractions are skeletal muscle contractions that do cause movement.\nSpecialized cardiomyocytes located in the sinoatrial node are responsible for generating the electrical impulses that control the heart rate. These electrical impulses coordinate contraction throughout"
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What is the role of actual real-life actors in making animated characters? Like Liam Neeson playing Aslan in Narnia? | [
"Could you elaborate your question?\n\nThey are voice actors. They sit in a studio and record their lines. The animators then animate the characters to match the recordings.\n\nThere are some cases (for example Andy Serkis as Gollum in the Lord of the Rings film series) where the voice actors also provides the motions of the character using motion capture technology.",
"For strictly voice-acting: To draw fans \n \nMotion-capture is another story though, such as Andy Serkis in all his roles and Benedict Cumberbatch as Smaug."
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"Emmy award for Outstanding Animated Program that year. It was the first feature-length animated film ever made for television. For its release on British television, many of the characters' voices were re-recorded by British actors and actresses (including Leo McKern, Arthur Lowe and Sheila Hancock), but Stephen Thorne was the voice of \"Aslan\" in both the U.S. and British versions.\nFrom 1988–90, parts of The Chronicles of Narnia were turned into four successful BBC television serials, The Chronicles of Narnia, based on the first four of the seven books. All four were shown on the PBS show WonderWorks and they were",
"The series also used the work of many of the same voice actors for Animaniacs including Tress MacNeille, Jess Harnell, Frank Welker, Nancy Cartwright, Janet Waldo and Jeff Bennett. Celebrities such as Roddy McDowall, Nora Dunn, Townsend Coleman, Ernest Borgnine, Eric Idle, Dick Clark, Ed McMahon, Steve Allen, Joyce Brothers, Gavin MacLeod, John Tesh, Michael McKean, Garry Marshall, Mark Hamill, James Belushi and Steven Spielberg have all performed guest voice work for the series as well.Cree Summer has also voiced characters in Pinky and the Brain and reprised her role as Elmyra Duff during Pinky, Elmyra, and The Brain. Music",
"involved in the creation of special effects. However, as opposed to The Lord of the Rings, where the actors who played Orcs portrayed them through full-body makeup and prosthetics, many of those actors in The Hobbit had computer-generated faces in order to portray them. Many of the actors who played Orcs in this trilogy portrayed them through performance capture. Theatrical The world premiere for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey took place on 28 November 2012 in Wellington, New Zealand, with the film's wide release in New Zealand on 12 December. 100,000 people lined the red carpet on Wellington's Courtenay",
"Kangaroo and Monument to Michael Jackson, and has done voice work for animated films, including the Serbian dub of Sid the Sloth in the Serbian Ice Age franchise, Tommy in Horton Hears a Who!, Murray the Mummy in the Hotel Transylvania film series and Humpty Dumpty in Puss in Boots.",
"realistic animals; robots; extraterrestrial or mythical creatures; or other forms of abstract characters.\nThe Muppets are distinguished from ventriloquist dummies, which are usually animated only in the head and face, in that their arms or other features are also animated. They are also generally made of softer material. They are presented as being independent of the puppeteer, officially known as a \"Muppet peformer\", who is usually hidden behind a set or outside of the camera frame. Using the camera frame to this advantage was an innovation of the Muppets. Prior to this, a stage was used to mask the performers, as",
"Henson entered similar agreements with Lionsgate Home Entertainment and Gaiam Vivendi Entertainment. As well, the company became involved with computer animated projects, including the direct-to-video Unstable Fables series; Sid the Science Kid; Dinosaur Train; and Splash and Bubbles, as well as the puppet series Pajanimals. \nHenson later formed Henson Alternative, which specializes in adult content, including the live shows known alternatively as Puppet Improv, Puppet Up!, and Stuffed and Unstrung. Current projects in development include The Dark Crystal: Age of Resistance, a prequel to The Dark Crystal; and a Fraggle Rock film. In recent years, the Fraggle Rock characters have",
"a 3D community for PlayStation 3.\nLlewellyn has worked as a voice actor, providing the voices of the alien creatures in Skywhales (1983), the voice of Feeble for The Feeble Files (1997), Old Joe in Christmas Carol: The Film, and the perplexed Gryphon in the film MirrorMask (2005). He has described himself as \"very much a 'don't want to do it now' kind of person\" (\"Dwarfing USA\" documentary, Red Dwarf V DVD).\nIn November 2010, the Carpool series began broadcasting on UKTV channel, Dave, before having a month's hiatus for Christmas and New Year, it then returned in January 2011. It is",
"in Swedish, Russian, and Greek. He was the original voice of Thor in the German dubs of the Danish 1986 animated film Valhalla, and of King Haggard in both the English and German dubs of the 1982 animated adaptation of The Last Unicorn.\nLee provided the off-camera voice of \"U. N. Owen\", the mysterious host who brings disparate characters together in Agatha Christie's Ten Little Indians (1965). The film was produced by Harry Alan Towers, for whom Lee had worked repeatedly in the 1960s. Even though he was not credited on the film, his voice is unmistakable. He also provided all the",
"He brought a unique sensibility to the show, combining youth, unusual interests, talent as an impersonator, and an almost lunatic intensity. Guest host Eric Idle of Monty Python said that Aykroyd's ability to write and act out characters flawlessly made him the only member of the SNL cast capable of being a Python.\nHe was known for his impersonations of celebrities like Jimmy Carter, Vincent Price, Richard Nixon, Rod Serling, Tom Snyder, Julia Child, and others. He was also known for his recurring roles, such as Beldar, father of the Coneheads family; with Steve Martin, Yortuk Festrunk, one of the \"Two",
"several animated shows; Batman: The Animated Series, Pinky and the Brain, Quack Pack, The Angry Beavers, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Danger Rangers, ChalkZone, Johnny Bravo, Ozzy & Drix, Superman: The Animated Series, The Woody Woodpecker Show (the 1999 version), and many more.\nMore recently, as a voice actor, he dubbed Kun Lan of the video game Killer7.\nHe had ultimately walked away from the entertainment business in the mid-2000s in order to care for his mother who had dementia. Lala coached young actors at the Italian Club in his native Ybor City.\nJoe Lala died suddenly from complications of lung",
"Muppets (2011), The Master (2012), Man of Steel (2013), Her (2013), American Hustle (2013), Big Eyes (2014), Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016), Arrival (2016), Nocturnal Animals (2016), and Justice League (2017). Among her television projects, she has starred in the HBO miniseries Sharp Objects (2018). On stage, she has appeared in the Public Theater's revival of Into the Woods in 2012.\nAdams has been nominated for six Academy Awards: Best Supporting Actress for Junebug (2005), Doubt (2008), The Fighter (2010), The Master (2012), and Vice (2018); and Best Actress for American Hustle (2013). She has twice won the Golden",
"1987. His previous writing credits for Muppet productions include the Muppet*Vision 3D attraction at Walt Disney World, and the tribute special The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson, which earned Prady an Emmy Award nomination in 1991.\nExecutive producer Bob Kushell explained the intention behind the series; \"We have the opportunity to explore these characters as individuals with their own emotional lives that are separate from each other and aren't shadowed by each other's presence, as I think they have been for the last 20 years... it's not just a behind-the-scenes look at a show, but it's the relationship-driven, emotional stories that people",
"include The Muppets Take Manhattan, John Denver and the Muppets: A Christmas Together, Little Muppet Monsters, The Muppets: A Celebration of 30 Years, The Jim Henson Hour, Sesame Street's 20th Anniversary Special and Dinosaurs. Earl also appeared (as a puppet Alien) opposite Will Smith and Tommy Lee Jones in Men in Black II.\nEarl mentored and/or coached many TV and film puppeteers, including Drew Massey, Kevin Carlson, Camille Bonora and James Murray. He served as a puppetry consultant to entertainment companies such as MCA/Universal Pictures, Warner Bros. and Disney, working one-on-one with the Vice President of Disneyland Entertainment to conceive, develop",
"fellow The Hobbit alumni Dean O'Gorman and Adam Brown. Voice-work McTavish has an done extensive voice-work in animated series, films and video games. Animation and films McTavish's first voice work was in The WB's children's cartoon What's New, Scooby Doo? (2005), where he performed additional voices for a 2005 episode. He next appeared in the recurring role of Sebastian Shaw in Nicktoons' 2009 animated Marvel Comics series Wolverine and the X-Men. McTavish continued in the Marvel Universe by portraying the villain Loki in the direct-to-video animated feature Hulk Versus and Disney XD's animated series The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. In",
"film, and Runaway Brain starring Mickey Mouse. \nCoats is best known for producing the animated film Mulan (1998), her first full-length film. For her work on Mulan, she was awarded an Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Producing in an Animated Feature Production. \nIn 1999 Coats was promoted to senior vice president of creative development, becoming the highest-ranking woman in the Walt Disney Animation Studios. As a Disney executive, she was involved in the English translation and adaptation of Hayao Miyazaki's Spirited Away. She maintained the position until 2004, when her contract was not renewed. \nPost-Disney, Coats worked for",
"to return to the studio to develop The Seven Dwarfs, a computer-animated prequel to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which would have been produced by DisneyToon Studios. He left over creative differences when executives wanted Dopey to talk, a decision that he felt disrespected the original film in which the character is silent.\nThe film was cancelled by 2007,\nand growing frustrated with the creative restraints of working on studio produced films, Disa left to become an independent filmmaker. He spent a year working on Rob Zombie's animated film The Haunted World of El Superbeasto (2009), and was then asked to",
"for the CGI character. His work on The Lord of the Rings started a debate on the legitimacy of CGI-assisted acting. Some critics felt Serkis should have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, since his voice, body language, and facial expressions were used.\nSerkis has done critically acclaimed motion capture work in several other films, including the title character in the 2005 version of King Kong (in which he also played the ship's cook in live action) and as Caesar in Rise of the Planet of the Apes (2011), Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014),",
"The Wiggles characters The Wiggles characters are a group of characters who perform with The Wiggles, the Australian children's music group. Aside from the four Wiggles, four secondary characters, along with a troupe of singers, actors, and dancers, appear in their television series, videos, and live concerts. These characters were developed in the 1990s and were originally played by group members and by Anthony Field's brother Paul, the band's manager. Later in the group's history, the characters were played by hired actors dressed in the characters' costumes. Captain Feathersword Captain Feathersword, \"the friendly pirate\", wears a hat, patch, and",
"and noted his ability to mimic well-known voices, though he would rather develop original voices. West's favorite characters are Philip J. Fry and Stimpy, both of which he originated. West has been very outspoken over his displeasure about the influx of movie star actors providing voice-over for films and major shows. West has stated that he did not like the Disney version of Doug and that he \"couldn't watch\" the show. West was the voice of the show's namesake, Geeker, throughout Project Geeker's 13-episode run. West was the voice of Zim in the original pilot for Invader Zim. Richard Steven",
"Aardman Animations 1972–1996 Aardman was founded in 1972 as a low-budget project by Peter Lord and David Sproxton, who wanted to realise their dream of producing an animated motion picture. The partnership provided animated sequences for the BBC series for deaf children Vision On. The company name originates from the name of their nerdish Superman character in that sequence. After creating a segment called \"Greeblies\" (1975) using clay animation, became what was the inspiration for creating Morph, a simple clay character. Around the same time Lord and Sproxton made their first foray into adult animation with the shorts Down and",
"television series Terminal City, and a 2017 Canadian Screen Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Digital Production for My 90-Year-Old Roommate. Voice work Soles also did voices on various animated television shows and films such as Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, Rocket Robin Hood, Spider-Man, The Smokey Bear Show, The Little Brown Burro, King of the Beasts, The Marvel Super Heroes, the original Spider-Man cartoon, The Trolls and the Christmas Express, Take Me Up to the Ball Game, Willy McBean and his Magic Machine, Festival of Family Classics, The Reluctant Dragon and Mr. Toad Show, Noah's Animals, Iron",
"Imaginary Friends, Dr. Two-Brains in the PBS Kids show, WordGirl and the villains Knightbrace, The Common Cold and Mr. Wink in Codename Kids Next Door.\nKenny is The Penguin in 2004 TV series The Batman.\nHe voiced the character Squanchy on Rick and Morty.\nHe plays a number of roles in the Transformers Animated TV show. A few of the characters he voices in this series are Starscream and his clones, Isaac Sumdac and Waspinator. Kenny also voiced several characters on the animated show Xiaolin Showdown, as well as the Autobots Skids and Wheelie in the live-action Transformers film series. On Dilbert,",
"of the Mexico trilogy, the Spy Kids trilogy, From Dusk Till Dawn and Machete. He provided his voice for several Disney animated films, most notably Tito the Chihuahua in Oliver & Company (1988), Banzai the hyena in The Lion King (1994), and Ramone in Cars (2006) and its sequels Cars 2 (2011) and Cars 3 (2017). He also played Pancho in The Cisco Kid (1994), and reprised the Banzai role in the video game Kingdom Hearts II. Children's music albums and related works Marin has released two best-selling albums in the children's music genre, My Name is Cheech, the School",
"while Farscape included two puppets as regular characters. In Stargate SG-1, the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are sitting, standing, or lying down. In Mystery Science Theater 3000, the characters of Crow T. Robot and Tom Servo, two of the show's main (and most iconic) characters, are puppets constructed from random household items. Animation As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity, momentum, and physical reality, it is an ideal technique for science fiction and fantasy on television. In a sense, virtually all animated series allow characters and objects to perform in unrealistic ways, so",
"name. Reception Brains is widely considered to be one of the best-known characters devised for an Anderson series, and is described by Daniel Sperling of the entertainment website Digital Spy as one of a few Thunderbirds characters to \"have almost become as beloved as the show\". Stephen La Rivière, writer of Filmed in Supermarionation: A History of the Future, argues that Brains is the series' \"third iconic character\" after Lady Penelope and Parker, and is distinctive for his \"big, blue-rimmed glasses and stuttering American accent\". Tom Eames of Digital Spy judges Brains to be among the most memorable puppet characters",
"film's animation been completed, but Niño's visa did not allow him to submit freelance work on any other projects.\nThe film's main cast includes Bob Holt, Jesse Welles, Richard Romanus, David Proval and Steve Gravers. Bakshi cast Holt based on his ability to imitate the voice of actor Peter Falk, of whom Bakshi is a fan. Welles, Romanus and Proval had previously worked with Bakshi on Hey Good Lookin', where Romanus and Proval provided the voices of Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro, respectively. Actress Tina Bowman, who plays a small role in Wizards, has a larger role in Hey Good Lookin'. Actor",
"producer for Lee Isaac Chung's A24 immigrant drama Minari, which also includes Will Patton and Scott Haze among the cast. Other television work Yeun has also voice acted in both animated series and films. Some of these roles include Avatar Wan in season 2 of The Legend of Korra, Steve Palchuk in Trollhunters and 3Below, Keith in Voltron: Legendary Defender, Nathan Park/Wingspan in Stretch Armstrong and the Flex Fighters, Little Cato in Final Space, and Speckle in Tuca & Bertie.\nIt was later revealed that Yeun's role as Steve Palchuk would continue into Wizards, the third series of the Tales of",
"Thomas & Friends (series 12) Filming and animation Series 12 marked the beginning of the show's transition into CGI (computer-generated imagery). Characters' faces were animated through CGI with the aid of motion capture animation. The physical models' molded faces were replaced by white targets with triangles to fix a computer-animated face in post-production. Static models of people and animals were replaced with 3D animations by using small, metal sticks with colored points on each end. The animation was provided by Nitrogen Studios, the studio contracted for future full-CGI episodes. This change marked the movement of production of the show from",
"like Uli von Bödefeld, she was built by German puppet makers and not the Muppet Workshop. After her short-lived Sesame career, she got her own ALF-like show called \"Leonie Löwenherz\" on ARD, featuring herself, her two lion brothers, and a few human characters. During this time period, older puppets were re-used for new characters such as Simson (on and off in 1989–2000), Samson's cousin; with slight changes being made to his appearance (equipped with a hat, a tie, or another article of clothing). Originally, Simson was only imagined by Samson and other characters doubted his existence, much like Big Bird",
"Academy Award-nominated feature films, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron (2002) and Shrek 2 (2004). In addition to directing, Asbury provided some of the extra voices in Shrek 2 and Shrek the Third.\nKelly Asbury directed and co-wrote the animated film Gnomeo & Juliet (2011), for which he also provided the voices of the tiny Red Goon Gnomes. He was nominated for two Annie Awards for directing and co-writing that film.\nIn 2003, he wrote a non-fiction book titled Dummy Days, which is a biography of five 20th century ventriloquists. He is the author and illustrator of twelve published children's books, including Rusty's"
] |
Why does the water from my kitchen faucet taste different than the water from my bathroom faucet? Doesn't it come from the same place? | [
"Yes, but the pipes going to one place could have a build up that's changing the taste or the composition of the pipes can be different, i.e. pvc pipes going to your kitchen, but copper pipes to your bathroom."
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"hot water is rarely available from the tap, and sinks are perceived as dirty surfaces (essentially a convenient drain). Westerners usually prefer standing hot water. This is practical in environments where hot water is cheaply and easily available, and sinks are perceived as clean surfaces (essentially a bowl with a convenient drainage device). In this method, the sink is usually first filled with dirty dishes (which may have already been rinsed and scraped to remove most food) and hot, soapy water. The detergent is added while the sink is filling with water, so a layer of suds forms at the",
"Bidet Some bathrooms contain a bidet, which might be placed next to a toilet. Plumbing The design of a bathroom must account for the use of both hot and cold water, in significant quantities, for cleaning the body. The water is also used for moving solid and liquid human waste to a sewer or septic tank. Water may be splashed on the walls and floor, and hot humid air may cause condensation on cold surfaces. From a decorating point of view the bathroom presents a challenge. Ceiling, wall and floor materials and coverings should be impervious to water and",
"Tap (valve) Liquid Water for baths, sinks and basins can be provided by separate hot and cold taps; this arrangement is common in older installations, particularly in public washrooms/lavatories and utility rooms/laundries. In kitchens and bathrooms, mixer taps are commonly used. In this case, hot and cold water from the two valves is mixed before reaching the outlet, allowing the water to emerge at any temperature between that of the hot and cold water supplies. Mixer taps were invented by Thomas Campbell of Saint John, New Brunswick, and patented in 1880.\nFor baths and showers, mixer taps frequently incorporate some sort",
"right opens the cold water passages (using the standard North American convention of the hot water control on the left).\nLater Moen bathtub/shower controls with single handles use a larger cartridge with a pressure balancing mechanism which compensates for sudden pressure changes in either the hot or cold water supply (as caused by a toilet being flushed while someone is showering). The design goal is to maintain the temperature of the shower for safety and comfort reasons, even if the volume of water is reduced. The cartridge is known as the 1222. The operation is similar to the 1225 (above), though",
"Faucet aerator A faucet aerator (or tap aerator) is often found at the tip of modern indoor water faucets. Aerators can be simply screwed onto the faucet head, creating a non-splashing stream and often delivering a mixture of water and air. Prevents splashing When a single stream of water hits a surface the water must go somewhere, and because the stream is uniform the water will tend to go mostly in the same direction. If a single stream hits a surface which is curved, then the stream will conform to the shape and be easily redirected with the force",
"Moen (company) Faucet design Most Moen kitchen, washbasin, and bathtub/shower faucets are of the single-handle design, and almost all have used the same basic water-controlling cartridge since the 1960s. Known as the Moen 1225, it is a plastic (older versions were brass) cylinder approximately 4 inches long by 3/4 inches in diameter. As the \"engine\" in most Moen single-handle faucets, it has undergone at least two revisions since its inception though newer versions remain compatible with older faucets. Pulling up the stem of the cartridge opens the water supply; rotating toward the left opens the hot water passages while rotating to the",
"natural clays used, it is normal for the product to vary in size and shape, and +/− 5 mm is normal. Accessories Some public restrooms feature automatic faucets, which use a motion-sensing valve to detect the user's hands moving beneath the tap and turn the water on. Some kitchen sinks also come equipped with a sink sprayer. \nSinks, especially those made of stainless steel, can be fitted with an integrated drainboard, allowing for the draining of washed dishes. Gallery There are many different shapes and sizes of sinks.",
"in bathtubs) usually lack this feature because their drains normally cannot be stopped.\nEach fixture usually has a characteristic means of connection. Normal plumbing practice is to install a valve on each water supply line before the fixture, and this is most commonly termed a stop or \"service valve\". The water supply to some fixtures is cold water only (such as water closets and urinals). Most fixtures also have a hot water supply. In some occasional cases, a sink may have both a potable (drinkable) and a non-potable water supply.\nLavatories and water closets normally connect to the",
"the aerator limits the water flow through the faucet, water usage is reduced compared to the same duration of flow without an aerator. In the case of hot water, because less water is used, less heat energy is used. Perceived water pressure The perception of water pressure is actually the speed of the water as it hits a surface, (the hands, in the case of hand washing). When an aerator is added to the faucet (or fluid stream), there is a region of high pressure created behind the aerator. Because of the higher pressure behind the aerator and the low",
"as the weather there is usually already hot, and there is no need to keep the hot air in the bath. Sentō in Okinawa usually have no separation between the changing room and the bathing area or only a small wall with an opening to pass through.\nThe bathing area is usually tiled. Near the entrance area is a supply of small stools and buckets. There are a number of washing stations at the wall and sometimes in the middle of the room, each with usually two faucets (karan, カラン, after the Dutch word kraan for faucet), one for hot water",
"the sink, and the water draining into the tank – which runs during the flush cycle; this is particularly common in mid-20th century buildings. The room with the sink, which is called a clothes changing room, usually includes a space for a clothes-washing machine. The room containing the bathtub is waterproof with a space for washing, and often for showering, adjacent to (rather than in) the tub. As a result, bathwater is neither soapy nor dirty, and can be reused. Many washing machines in Japan come with an extension pipe to draw water from the tub for the wash.\nHot water",
"There the customer also received his/her ration of hot water, since there were no faucets in the actual bath. The entrance to the steam bath was only a very small opening with a height of about 80 cm, so that the heat did not escape. Due to the small opening, the lack of windows, and the thick steam, these baths were usually very dark, and customers often cleared their throats to signal their position to others. Edo period At the beginning of the Edo period (1603–1867), there were two types of baths common to the eastern and western regions of Japan",
"of pressure balancing feature so that the hot/cold mixture ratio will not be affected by transient changes in the pressure of one or other of the supplies. This helps avoid scalding or uncomfortable chilling as other water loads occur (such as the flushing of a toilet).\nRather than two separate valves, mixer taps frequently use a single, more complex, valve controlled by a single handle (single handle mixer). The handle moves up and down to control the amount of water flow and from side to side to control the temperature of the water. Especially for baths and showers, the latest designs",
"more powder than is necessary, and that these powders contain unnecessary fillers or fragrances. Given that Americans tend to use excessive amounts of laundry detergent, using a ball and less laundry detergent could result in cleaner clothing.\nThe effect of the laundry balls may be explained by simple mechanical action and by the usage of hotter water. Some manufacturers claim that their products reduce energy consumption, but their pamphlets recommend using hot water. Hot water will clean some types of spots better than cold water, leading some people to conclude that the balls worked. The mechanical action of the laundry",
"was invented around 1889 by Ruud after he immigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (US). The Ruud Manufacturing Company, still in existence today, made many advancements in tank-type and tankless water heater design and operation. Thermodynamics and economics Water typically enters residences in the US at about 10 °C (50 °F), depending on latitude and season. Hot water temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) are usual for dish-washing, laundry and showering, which requires that the heater raise the water temperature about 40 °C (72 °F) if the hot water is mixed with cold water at the point of use. The Uniform Plumbing Code reference shower flow",
"and pooling on the floor. These devices are installed to fill the intersecting void between the top ledge of the bathtub and the perpendicular wall. Relationship to bathtub or shower curtains and doors Other common devices for containing water spray include a highly flexible, waterproof bathtub or shower curtain, or more recently, a shower door, which is a permanently installed sliding or pivoting door made from glass or plastic. Containing water spray, leaks, and splashes within the bathtub is particularly important in bathrooms constructed with wooden under-flooring because water causes the wooden floor boards and floor joists to rot or",
"inside the sink. This practice may have started as a matter of hygiene, as the kitchen sink was the only sink available for all the household water. The clothes were washed in the sink; the water used to wash the floor went down the sink, and so it made sense to separate the dishwater from the sink. There were two other possible reasons: First, kitchen sinks tended to be very large in a time when heating water was considered to be a major household expense; a tub used less water. Second, kitchen sinks were usually made of hard ceramic; any",
"where water is considered essential for anal cleansing.\nDrawbacks include the possibility of wetting a user's clothing if used carelessly. In addition, a user must be reasonably mobile and flexible to use a hand-held bidet shower. Conventional or standalone bidet A bidet is a plumbing fixture that is installed as a separate unit in the bathroom besides toilet, shower and sink, which users have to straddle. Some bidets resemble a large hand basin, with taps and a stopper so they can be filled up; other designs have a nozzle that squirts a jet of water to aid in cleansing. Add-on bidets",
"central heating – instead using space heating – the bathroom may be only a few degrees above freezing in the winter. Customization Most high-tech toilets allow water temperature and water pressure to be adjusted to match the preferences of the user. By default, the vulva receives less pressure than the anus. Researchers in Japan have found that most users prefer a water temperature slightly above body temperature, with 38 °C (100 °F) considered optimal. The nozzle position can also often be manually adjusted forward or aft. High-end washlets allow selection of vibrating and pulsating jets of water, claimed by manufacturers\nto",
"French \"chaud\"/Italian \"caldo\"/Spanish \"caliente\" (hot) and French \"froid\"/Italian \"freddo\"/Spanish \"frio\" (cold)). This can create confusion for English-speaking visitors. Mixer taps may have a red-blue stripe or arrows indicating which side will give hot and which cold.\nIn most countries, there is a standard arrangement of hot/cold taps. For example, in the United States and many other countries, the hot tap is on the left by building code requirements. Many installations exist where this standard has been ignored (called \"crossed connections\" by plumbers). Mis-assembly of some single-valve mixer taps will exchange hot and cold even if the fixture has been plumbed correctly.\nMost",
"water used by a standard household. Other benefits of automatic faucets are found in inhibiting the spread of germs which are known to thrive on faucet handles, as well as help prevent or mitigate scalding incidents caused by hot water flowing out of the faucet. Advantages Automatic faucets have the advantage of shutting off automatically after hand washing, thereby reducing water waste. When installed in a home, sensor faucets alleviate the need for parents to ensure that children have turned off the faucet. They can also benefit the elderly and those suffering from arthritis or other mobility limiting conditions since",
"across all sampled households). Each bath uses on average 20.2 gallons (or 76.5 liters) of water. Faucet flows Water flowing through opened faucets (including kitchen, bathroom, utility sink faucets, and hose bibs) accounts for 19 percent (26.3 gphd, or 100 lphd) of total indoor water use in an average household where faucets are used 51 times per day. On average, faucets are opened for 30 seconds at a flow of 1 gpm (gallons per minute) and an average discharge of 0.5 gallons (1.9 liters) per each use. Clothes washing Washing laundry is a significant use of water in the average",
"Laundry ball A laundry ball or washing ball is a product promoted as a substitute for laundry detergent. Producers of laundry balls often make pseudoscientific claims about how these balls work and exaggerate the extent of their benefits.\nIn the United States, laundry balls have been sold on home shopping channels or by participants in multilevel marketing, although this is not the case in all countries.\nWashing with laundry balls is as effective or less effective than washing without detergent. The effect can largely be attributed to the mechanical effect of the ball or to using hot water instead of cold water.\nThe",
"just a toilet and sink; and \"3/4 bath\" containing toilet, sink, and shower, although the terms vary from market to market. In some U.S. markets, a toilet, sink, and shower are considered a \"full bath.\" In addition, there is the use of the word \"bathroom\" to describe a room containing a toilet and a basin, and nothing else. Towels Bathrooms often have one or more towel bars or towel rings for hanging towels Furniture Some bathrooms contain a bathroom cabinet for personal hygiene products and medicines, and drawers or shelves (sometimes in column form) for storing towels and other items.",
"and periodic cleaning of the fixture and its surrounds is still required. When maintained according to manufacturers' recommendations, well-designed waterless urinals do not emit any more odors than flushed urinals do. However, some odor-trapping devices work better than others in the longer term. Regular, thorough maintenance of the respective odor control device is needed for all types of waterless urinals, as per the manufacturer's recommendation. Situation in the United States US federal law has mandated no more than one gallon per flush since 1994, and the EPA estimates that the average urinal is flushed 20 times per day, which gives",
"such as in schools, music festivals, theatrical events, sports stadiums, discos, dance clubs, and convention halls. \nUrinals were once installed exclusively in commercial or institutional settings, but are also now available for private homes. They offer the advantages of substantial water savings in residences with many occupants, and reduction of \"splash back\", making cleaning easier. Urinals with flushing Most public urinals incorporate a water flushing system to rinse urine from the bowl of the device, to prevent foul odors. The flush can be triggered by one of several methods: Manual handles This type of flush might be regarded as standard",
"with a shower; it is designed to eliminate moisture damage and is compatible with underfloor heating systems.\nIn the United States, there is a lack of a single definition. This commonly results in discrepancies between advertised and actual number of baths in real estate listings. Bathrooms are generally categorized as \"master bathroom\", containing a shower and a bathtub that is adjoining to the largest bedroom; a \"full bathroom\" (or \"full bath\"), containing four plumbing fixtures: a toilet and sink, and either a bathtub with a shower, or a bathtub and a separate shower stall; \"half (1/2) bath\" (or \"powder room\") containing",
"floors and equipment and internal combustion engines and parts. Among the advantages of using steam versus a hot water spray are the facts that steam can operate at higher temperatures and it uses substantially less water per minute.",
"its lack of size, its dampness and its dilapidation, is that it is not self-contained. There is no water supply inside the house, no adequate provision for discharging slop water, and the only sanitary convenience is often some distance from the house and usually common to two or more houses. This convenience is frequently in a revolting condition because of its common user. There is no bath or means of taking a bath in many of the houses. The whole outlook from these houses is sullied by soot besmirched in a soot-laden atmosphere.\nMany of those houses, I am sorry to",
"may be built into hot tubs for use in cold weather. This solves the problem of keeping the hydraulist warm, as well as keeping the hydraulic fluid (e.g. water) heated by way of standard pumping and heating equipment. In this kind of hydraulophone (e.g. balnaphone, from the Greek \"balnea\" meaning \"bath\") the hydraulist is immersed in the hydraulic fluid used by the instrument. Relationship to the pipe organ Many hydraulophones include a separate water-filled pipe for each note, and have sound-production means similar to pipe organs (but with water rather than air), while maintaining the flutelike user-interface (finger"
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Precipitation reactions | [
"Why the hell would you need to learn about precipitation rxns in second grade??? I was taught that in the seventh grade IIRC... Please tell me 2nd was a typo???\n\nThe principles are pretty advanced for second graders... \n\nHave you talked about elements and compounds, solutions, solubility?\n\nYou need to be able to talk about solubility before you can actually talk about precipitation reactions, since that is the basic principle. \n\nI am not sure that is something that can be taught to 2nd graders.... \n\nI just asked my mom who teaches 7th grade science... Her students have a hard time learning this in 7th grade, she laughed when I told her about your question. Good luck"
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"resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory. Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom. Precipitation Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results",
"Rain-out model The rain-out model is a model of planetary science that describes the first stage of planetary differentiation and core formation. According to this model, a planetary body is assumed to be composed primarily of silicate minerals and NiFe (i.e. a mixture of nickel and iron). If temperatures within this body reach about 1500 K, the minerals and the metals will melt. This will produce an emulsion in which globules of liquid NiFe are dispersed in a magma of liquid silicates, the two being immiscible. Because the NiFe globules are denser than the silicates, they will sink under the influence",
"Precipitation methods are often called simply as argentometry. In the two other methods the situation is the same. Complex forming titration is a reaction that occurs between metal ions and a standard solution that is in the most cases EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid). In the redox titration that reaction is carried out between an oxidizing agent and a reduction agent. There are some more methods like Liebig method / Duma's method / Kjeldahl's method and Carius method for estimation of organic compounds.\nFor example, quantitative analysis performed by [mass spectrometry] on biological samples can determine, by the relative",
"of Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ weathered out of the mineral. Given that some of the dissolved cations react with existing alkalinity in the solution to form CO₃²⁻ ions, the ratio is not exactly 1:1 in natural systems but is a function of temperature and CO₂ partial pressure. The net CO₂ sequestration of carbonate weathering (Eq.2) and carbonate precipitation (Eq.3) is zero.\nWeathering and biological carbonate precipitation are thought to be only loosely coupled on short time periods (<1000 years). Therefore, an increase in both carbonate and silicate weathering with respect to carbonate precipitation will result in a buildup of alkalinity in the",
"pH. Since carbonate solubility decreases with increased pH, precipitation is induced. Supersaturation may be enhanced by factors leading to a reduction in pCO₂, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important, as may photosynthesis.\nRecently it has been demonstrated that microbially induced precipitation may be more important than physico-chemical precipitation. Pedley et al. (2009) showed with flume experiments that precipitation does not occur unless a biofilm is present, despite supersaturation.\nCalcite is the dominant mineral precipitate found; however, the polymorph aragonite is also found. Uses Tufa is today occasionally shaped into a planter. Its porous consistency makes tufa ideal for",
"weather. As climate changes, the probabilities of extreme weather events increases.\nChanges have been observed in the amount, intensity, frequency, and type of precipitation. Widespread increases in heavy precipitation have occurred, even in places where total rain amounts have decreased. With medium confidence (see footnote 1), IPCC (2012) concluded that human influences had contributed to an increase in heavy precipitation events at the global scale.\nProjections of future changes in precipitation show overall increases in the global average, but with substantial shifts in where and how precipitation falls. Projections suggest a reduction in rainfall in the subtropics, and an increase in precipitation",
"every process, much attention has been devoted to the question of whether the measurements, mentioned just above, truly demonstrate thermotaxis or whether they reflect another temperature-dependent process. The most pronounced effect of temperature in liquid is convection, which raised the concern that the apparent thermotactic response could have been a reflection of a passive drift in the liquid current or a rheotactic response to the current (rather than to the temperature gradient per se). Another concern was that the temperature could have changed the local pH of the buffer solution in which the spermatozoa are suspended. This could generate a",
"caused by indirect effects show even greater variations in model prediction because of the parameterization of aerosol indirect effect. However, model results present a stronger indirect effect on the Southern Hemisphere. Influencing precipitation process Like all other soluble aerosols, increasing normal-sized sea salts suppresses the precipitation process in warm clouds by increasing cloud droplet number concentration and reducing the cloud droplet size. Also, they invigorate precipitation in mix-phase clouds because once the suppressed smaller cloud droplets are lifted above freezing level, more latent heat content would be released due to the freezing of cloud drops. Besides that, adding giant sea",
"Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs. Graupel and hail indicate convection. In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts. Orographic effects Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is",
"precipitation when used in high concentrations are classified as precipitants, while certain other salts such as zinc sulfate or calcium sulfate that may cause a protein to precipitate vigorously even when used in small amounts are considered adjutants. Crystallization adjutants are considered additives when they are effective at relatively low concentrations.\nThe distinction between buffers and adjutants is also fuzzy. Buffer molecules can become part of the lattice (for example HEPES in becomes incorporated in crystals of human neutrophil collagenase) but their main use is to maintain the rather precise pH requirements for crystallization that many proteins have. Commonly used",
"precipitation, making most precipitation unrealistically stratiform in nature. Calibration When a physical process is parameterized, two choices have to be make: what is the structural form (for instance, two variables can be related linearly) and what is the exact value of the parameters (for instance, the constant of proportionality). The process of determining the exact values of the parameters in a parameterization is called calibration, or sometimes less precise, tuning. Calibration is a difficult process, and different strategies are used to do it. One popular method is to run a model, or a submodel, and compare it to a small",
"Reaction dynamics Reaction dynamics is a field within physical chemistry, studying why chemical reactions occur, how to predict their behavior, and how to control them. It is closely related to chemical kinetics, but is concerned with individual chemical events on atomic length scales and over very brief time periods. It considers state-to-state kinetics between reactant and product molecules in specific quantum states, and how energy is distributed between translational, vibrational, rotational, and electronic modes.\nExperimental methods of reaction dynamics probe the chemical physics associated with molecular collisions. They include crossed molecular beam and infrared chemiluminescence experiments, both recognized by the",
"These results derive from the Coriolis effect; that article explains in detail the physics, and provides an animation of a model to aid understanding. Formation High-pressure areas form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs. Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.\nOn weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as convergence, near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere, and about half the atmospheric",
"of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.\nWhen a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE. If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement. Hydrometeor definition A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor. Any particulates of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors. Formations due to condensation, such as clouds, haze,",
"melts into rain. Using the reflectivity equation, one can demonstrate that the returns from the snow before melting and the rain after, are not too different as the change in dielectric constant compensates for the change in size. However, during the melting process, the radar wave \"sees\" something akin to very large droplets as snow flakes become coated with water.\nThis gives enhanced returns that can be mistaken for stronger precipitations. On a PPI, this will show up as an intense ring of precipitation at the altitude where the beam crosses the melting level while on a series of CAPPIs, only",
"The reactants, generally in the gaseous or vapor phase, react on or near the surface of the substrates, which are at some elevated temperature. The subsequent reaction results in the deposition of atoms or molecules on the entire substrate surface. CVD processes are also widely used for growing epitaxial layers such as a silicon epitaxial layer on a single-crystal silicon substrate (homoepitaxy or commonly referred to as epitaxy) or epitaxial layer deposition on a sapphire (Heteroepitaxy). A special method in CVD, called Epitaxy or Epitaxial Layer Deposition or Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (VPE), has only a single-crystal form as the deposited layer.",
"reaction is experimentally determined through the Arrhenius equation and the Eyring equation. The main factors that influence the reaction rate include: the physical state of the reactants, the concentrations of the reactants, the temperature at which the reaction occurs, and whether or not any catalysts are present in the reaction.\nGorban and Yablonsky have suggested that the history of chemical dynamics can be divided into three eras. The first is the van 't Hoff wave searching for the general laws of chemical reactions and relating kinetics to thermodynamics. The second may be called the Semenov--Hinshelwood wave with emphasis on reaction mechanisms,",
"area diminishes correspondingly. Inversion of temperature exists too ahead of warm fronts, and around thunderstorms' cold pool. Since precipitation exists in those circumstances, the abnormal propagation echoes are then mixed with real rain and/or targets of interest, which make them more difficult to separate. \nAnomalous Propagation is different from ground clutter, ocean reflections (sea clutter), biological returns from birds and insects, debris, chaff, sand storms, volcanic eruption plumes, and other non-precipitation meteorological phenomena. Ground and sea clutters are permanent reflection from fixed areas on the surface with stable reflective characteristics. Biological scatterer gives weak echoes over a large surface. These",
"likes of Pierre Gassendi and René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur to lay the foundations for removing superstition from explanations of the phenomenon.\nOne of the first scientists who correctly explained this phenomenon was Giuseppe Maria Giovene (1753-1837). Blood rain fell on Apulia on 7 March 1803, and it was then believed that the rain was caused by the explosion of Italy's volcanoes Mount Vesuvius or Etna, or that it was due to the transport of matter coming from the sea floor and raised by vapor. Giuseppe Maria Giovene related the phenomenon to the wind which occurred prior to the rain event,",
"Inflow (meteorology) Inflow is the flow of a fluid into a large collection of that fluid. Within meteorology, inflow normally refers to the influx of warmth and moisture from air within the Earth's atmosphere into storm systems. Extratropical cyclones are fed by inflow focused along their cold front and warm fronts. Tropical cyclones require a large inflow of warmth and moisture from warm oceans in order to develop significantly, mainly within the lowest 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) of the atmosphere. Once the flow of warm and moist air is cut off from thunderstorms and their associated tornadoes, normally by the thunderstorm's",
"cancer, pleural and peritoneal mesothelioma, and asbestosis.\nWhether or not flares contribute to acid rain is debatable, as some independent studies conducted have found that the sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxide content of most flares was insufficient to establish a link between flaring and acid rain. Other studies from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) report that gas flaring is \"a major contributor to air pollution and acid rain.\"\nOlder flares are rarely relocated away from villages and are known to coat the land and communities with soot and to damage adjacent vegetation. Almost no vegetation can grow in the area directly",
"The rate constant was calculated from the formula . For the primary formation reaction, a = 1.05×10⁻⁶ and B = −0.47. Assuming an NH₄⁺ abundance of 3×10⁻⁷ and an electron abundance of 10⁻⁷ typical of molecular clouds, the formation will proceed at a rate of 1.6×10⁻⁹ cm⁻³s⁻¹ in a molecular cloud of total density 10⁵ cm⁻³.\nAll other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between 2 and 13 orders of magnitude smaller, making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant. As an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play, the reaction:\nH₂ + NH₂ → NH₃ + H\nhas a rate constant of 2.2×10⁻¹⁵.",
"effect. On porous substrates, the competition among infiltration, particle motion and evaporation of the solvent governs the final deposition morphology.\nThe pH of the solution of the drop influences the final deposit pattern. The transition between these patterns is explained by considering how DLVO interactions such as the electrostatic and Van der Waals forces modify the particle deposition process. Applications The coffee ring effect is utilized in convective deposition by researchers wanting to order particles on a substrate using capillary-driven assembly, replacing a stationary droplet with an advancing meniscus drawn across the substrate. This process differs from dip-coating in that",
"formation reactions are chemical in nature, forming bonds between oxygen dimers and pure metals or metal alloys. The reactions are endothermic for transition metals and semi-metals. At isothermic and isobaric conditions at atmosphere, the probability for a free metal surface to bind an oxygen dimer via oxidation is a function of the partial pressure of oxygen, the surface energy between the crystal and the liquid or vapor phase (see heat of formation), and time.\nIn standard conditions, the determining factors for phase change are temperature and pressure. The idea here is that oxygen is making a phase change from gas to",
"Vertically integrated liquid Vertically integrated liquid (VIL) is an estimate of the total mass of precipitation in the clouds. The measurement is obtained by observing the reflectivity of the air which is obtained with weather radar. Usage The VIL measurement is usually used in determining the size of prospective hail, the potential amount of rain under a thunderstorm, and the potential downdraft strength when combined with the height of the echo tops.\nWhen VIL values are high for longer periods of time, the storm may be a supercell. Multicells Multicells usually have alternating VIL values. Multicells can have high VIL values",
"those of 1983 and 1997–98.\nCharacteristic of this phenomenon are the intense rains. These are caused by the warming of the sea off the north coast of Peru, up to 29 °C, when the normal is 22º or a little more; this causes the water to evaporate, forming clouds that then precipitate as rain on the coast. The rains cause both landslides or mudslides, and river overflows or floods, severely affecting the populations settled in its path. Areas affected The most serious damages were verified in the departments of northern Peru: Tumbes, Piura and Lambayeque, which have endured intense rains, sometimes accompanied",
"that influence the reaction rate are the nature of the reaction, concentration, pressure, reaction order, temperature, solvent, electromagnetic radiation, catalyst, isotopes, surface area, stirring, and diffusion limit. Some reactions are naturally faster than others. The number of reacting species, their physical state (the particles that form solids move much more slowly than those of gases or those in solution), the complexity of the reaction and other factors can greatly influence the rate of a reaction.\nReaction rate increases with concentration, as described by the rate law and explained by collision theory. As reactant concentration increases, the frequency of collision increases. The",
"include ELISA, enzyme-linked immunospot (Elispot), immunofluorescence, and immunoelectrophoresis. Precipitation reaction Soluble antigens combine with soluble antibodies in presence of an electrolyte at suitable temperature and pH to form insoluble visible complex. This is called a precipitation reaction. It is used for qualitative and quantitative determination of both antigen and antibody.\nIt involves the reaction of soluble antigen with soluble antibodies to form large interlocking aggravated called lattice .\nIt occurs in tow distinct stage . firstly,the Antigen and antibody rapidly form antigen-antibody complexes within few seconds and this is followed by a slower reaction in which the antibody-antigen complexes",
"total volume of precipitate formation.\nDiffusion's exponential dependence upon temperature makes precipitation strengthening, like all heat treatments, a fairly delicate process. Too little diffusion (under ageing), and the particles will be too small to impede dislocations effectively; too much (over ageing), and they will be too large and dispersed to interact with the majority of dislocations. Alloy design Precipitation strengthening is possible if the line of solid solubility slopes strongly toward the centre of a phase diagram. While a large volume of precipitate particles is desirable, a small enough amount of the alloying element should be added that it",
"a multistep reaction. Reaction Intermediates Reaction intermediates are chemical species, often unstable and short-lived (however sometimes can be isolated), which are not reactants or products of the overall chemical reaction, but are temporary products and/or reactants in the mechanism's reaction steps. Reaction intermediates are often free radicals or ions. \nThe kinetics (relative rates of the reaction steps and the rate equation for the overall reaction) are explained in terms of the energy needed for the conversion of the reactants to the proposed transition states (molecular states that corresponds to maxima on the reaction coordinates, and to saddle points"
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