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[ "The UK is by no means a small country. Back in the days they were even bigger, relatively speaking. Since they lived on an island, they weren't involved in that many invasions(compared to continental Europe). \n\nMost of the wars England engaged in were sea combat. Their naval technology was therefor outstanding and they were having a huge and advanced navy. To have a succesful colony, you need a boat to sail to the land. England had many and generally had better boats. \n\nThe rest is pretty much first come first serve. They colonized the right places and made huge profits. Little civil unrest kept the homefront okay and giving them the opportunity to expand. Meanwhile Spain was fighting the Netherlands and Italy and Germany were a mess. Scandinavia was Scandinavianing and Portugal was not really that big. Getting the right ports helped a lot. \n\nTL;DR superior naval force, luck and a relative safe homefront.", "It was a number of things. However i think this question is better suited to /r/askhistorians\n\nThey had trade with china through hong kong. Making them very wealthy. The opium wars made them even more wealthy since they slaughtered the chinese and took everything.\nThey also had the strongest navy, making it very easy to trade. Since they could dominate a lot of trade routes.\nThey had some really good policies. e.g. common law.\nThey pretty much began colonizing very early as well.", "They had a strong industrial base and the most powerful navy in the world. That helped them to build a strong overseas empire and thrive in international commerce. Some other European powers had bigger land armies, but British control of the seas made it difficult for them to use their army to control overseas territories. I'm thinking specifically of France in the 18th and early 19th century, but it can also apply to Prussia or Germany. Because Britain is an island with a powerful navy, it was protected from foreign invasion, like the Spanish Armada. Other European powers could be invaded or conquered by neighbors when they were weak- it happened to lots of different continental European nations- France conquered Spain and Germany, Germany captured Paris in 1871, Germany conquered France and invaded Russia in WW2, the Soviets occupied Germany in WW2, etc.- but no foreign power ever successfully invaded England from the continent after 1066.", "Primarily by not fighting wars but by using trade. Britain being an island had a strong Navy which allowed it to dominate many of the trade lanes, the result being that being inside the empire was preferable to many to being outside it and unable to trade. \n\nOne example is in the British rule of India there was the war of 1857 (often called the Indian mutiny). During which the majority of Indian princely states sided with Britain. The actual presence of British troops was slight, and to some extent a confidence trick. \n\nAlso it is worth noting that at the time Britain became powerful there were few nations that were as coherent. Lots of small states fighting internal wars at the time." ]

[ "of British Empire The British built up a very large worldwide British Empire, which peaked in size in 1922. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the UK economy, and after 1945 the British Empire gradually began to disintegrate, with many territories demanding independence. The India region split into India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Burma. By the late 1950s, almost all the colonies were independent. Most colonial territories joined the Commonwealth of Nations, an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK.\nBritain reduced its involvements in the Middle East,", "larger country with a more powerful army. The British were generally successful in their many wars, with the notable exception of the American War of Independence (1775–1783), when Britain, without any major allies, was defeated by the colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and Spain. A favoured diplomatic strategy was subsidising the armies of continental allies, such as Prussia, thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance", "Economy of the British Empire After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the British Empire emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica (\"British Peace\"), a period of relative peace in Europe and the world (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain; by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 the country was described as the \"workshop", "power like Western countries such as the United Kingdom, the French Third Republic, and similarly to the German Empire, the Russian Empire, and the United States, following the Spanish–American War in 1898, quickly emerged as new imperial powers in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean area. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35,500,000 km² (13,700,000 sq mi), 24% of the Earth's total land area: at its apex, the phrase \"the empire on which the sun never sets\" was often used to describe the British", "hold its military power in check.\nIn the 18th century, Great Britain (formed from a union of England and Scotland) progressively gained strength and Russia and Prussia also saw their importance increase, while Sweden and the Dutch Republic declined. Great Britain and France increasingly struggled for dominance both on the continent and abroad (notably in North America, the Caribbean and India). By the century's end, the British had established themselves as the foremost naval power while the French were dominant on land, conquering many of their neighbors during the French Revolutionary Wars and establishing client republics. The struggle between the two", "principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830). Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica (\"British Peace\"), a period of relative peace among the Great Powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain was described as the \"workshop of the world\". The British Empire was expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control", "as a founding member of NATO.\nThe British had built up a very large worldwide British Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the UK economy, and after 1945 the British Empire gradually began to disintegrate, with many territories granted independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower had been largely diminished by the rise of the United States and the Soviet Union. Many former colonial territories joined the \"Commonwealth of Nations,\" an organisation", "Rowland Ward. At the end of World War I, the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time. The Empire covered more than 33,700,000 km sq. (13,012,000 sq. miles), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area . . . and Rowland Ward was not only known as the taxidermist to the Empire's rich and powerful, but Rowland Ward Ltd. was the only organisation to keep extensive records of the trophies of the Empire's elites as well as dignitaries from other nations.\nThe Industrial Revolution had created enormous new wealth, and that", "the British Empire, might not have occurred so overwhelmingly; the formation of the empire by wars and conquests of colonies abroad took place in a period in which British vessels had reliable navigation due to the chronometer, while their Portuguese, Dutch, and French opponents did not. For example: the French were well established in India and other places before Britain, but were defeated by naval forces in the Seven Years' War.\nThe most complete international collection of marine chronometers, including Harrison's H1 to H4, is at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in London, UK. Mechanical chronometers The crucial problem was to find", "rest of Europe prior to the 19th century and out of Western and Central Europe's affairs. The Roman Empire growing out of mainland Italy has been called 'the first super power'. France having the natural barriers of the Rhine to the east, the Pyrenees to the south, and the English channel to the north has tried to maintain these throughout its history with rivalry with Britain for centuries and then with Germany. Britain and France were the most successful in establishing a broad colonial empire spanning from Africa to Asia, with a majority of that success attributed to them being", "1830–1850s Britain continued as the most important power, followed by Russia, France, Prussia and Austria. The United States was growing rapidly in size, population and economic strength, especially after its defeat of Mexico in 1848. Otherwise it avoided international entanglements as the slavery issue became more and more divisive. \nThe Crimean War (1853–1856) was the most important war, especially because it disrupted the stability of the system. Britain strengthened its colonial system, especially in India, while France rebuilt its empire in Asia and North Africa. Russia continued its expansion south (toward Persia) and east (into Siberia). The Ottoman Empire steadily", "East, South and Southeast Asia, and the Atlantic and Pacific islands.\nWhile Invasion Literature had provided an imaginative foundation for the idea of the heart of the British Empire being conquered by foreign forces, it was not until The War of the Worlds that the reading public was presented with an adversary completely superior to themselves. A significant motivating force behind the success of the British Empire was its use of sophisticated technology; the Martians, also attempting to establish an empire on Earth, have technology superior to their British adversaries. In The War of the Worlds, Wells depicted an imperial power", "more recent times, it was used for the British Empire, mainly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, a period in which the British Empire reached a territorial size larger than that of any other empire in history. In the 20th century, the phrase has sometimes been adapted to refer to the global reach of American power. Possible precursors Georg Büchmann traces the idea to a speech in Herodotus' Histories, made by Xerxes I before invading Greece.\nγῆν τὴν Περσίδα ἀποδέξομεν τῷ Διὸς αἰθέρι ὁμουρέουσαν. οὐ γὰρ δὴ χώρην γε οὐδεμίαν κατόψεται ἥλιος ὅμουρον ἐοῦσαν τῇ ἡμετέρῃ\n\n\"We shall extend the Persian", "the British Empire. Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties. Military conquest The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Most of the fighting was done by Hausa soldiers, recruited to fight against other groups. The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory.\nIn 1892 the British forces", "a Festival of Empire in 1911, held in part at Crystal Palace.\nOne of the reasons for the suggestion was a sense that other powers were challenging Britain on the world stage. Despite victory in World War I, this was in some ways even truer in 1919. The country had economic problems and its naval supremacy was being challenged by two of its former allies, the USA and Japan. In 1917 Britain had committed itself eventually to leave India, which effectively signalled the end of the British Empire to anyone who thought about the consequences, while the Dominions had shown little", "are drawn to England due to a diverse range of reasons such as the existence of one of the world's few surviving monarchies that features the oldest monarch alive. The historical importance of the British Empire as a world super power has also led to a rich history in areas such as architecture, tradition and art. Over time, the British Empire amassed an impressive collection of historically important artifacts, many of which are on display in the British Museum. UK According to Eurostat figures there are huge regional disparities in the UK with GDP per capita ranging from €15,000 in", "the United States and the USSR as the new superpowers. Britain has been involved in a great many armed conflicts since the union in 1707, on all continents except for Antarctica. Today it still remains a major power with frequent military interventions across the globe since the end of the Cold War in 1991.\nThe present-day British Armed Forces encompass the Royal Navy, the British Army, and the Royal Air Force.", "the study of Europe and China in the early modern period] the comparative history of the largest agrarian empires of antiquity has attracted no attention at all. This deficit is only explicable with reference to academic specialization and language barriers\".\nThe emergence of the United States of America as effectively the only superpower in the world after the fall of the Soviet Union in the late 20th century led to a renewed interest in empires and their study. For instance, the Roman Empire has occasionally been held up as a model for American dominance. The United States' hegemony is unprecedented in", "Egypt during the Suez Crisis in 1956. However, with the United States and Soviet Union emerging from World War II as the sole superpowers, Britain's role as a worldwide power declined significantly and rapidly. China Ancient China was one of the world's oldest empires. Due to its long history of imperialist expansion, China has been seen by its neighboring countries as a threat due to its large population, giant economy, large military force as well as its territorial evolution throughout history. Starting with the unification of China under the Qin dynasty, later Chinese dynasties continued to follow its form", "five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.\nIn Britain's \"imperial century\", victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of \"splendid isolation\". Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been generally characterized as \"informal empire\". Of note", "Demographics of the British Empire By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the world population at the time,", "present world system: \nNothing has ever existed like this disparity of power. The Pax Britannica was run on the cheap. Napoleon’s France and Philip II’s Spain had powerful foes and were part of a multipolar system. Charlemagne’s empire was merely western European in stretch. The Roman Empire stretched further afield, but there was another great empire in Persia and a larger one in China. There is … no comparison.\nWalter Russell Mead observes that the United States attempts to repeate “globally” what the ancient empires of Egypt, China and Rome had each accomplished on a regional basis. Professor Emeritus of Sociology", "ending his efforts to rule Europe and the world of France. France in the industrial age of the late 19th century tried to rebuild its own global empire but the most glorious period that France had under Napoleon I had never been able to regain. Rather, it is the second-largest power behind Britain, a close ally, like the case of a close British ally next to the United States. Global hegemony failed In addition to the global empires that have existed since the early 16th century, at the end of the 19th century and early twentieth century, Germany reunited and", "British nationality, and to confirm to them the value of Britain's empire in the East. In his history of the British Empire, written in 1940, A. P. Newton lamented that Seeley \"dealt in the main with the great wars of the eighteenth century and this gave the false impression that the British Empire has been founded largely by war and conquest, an idea that was unfortunately planted firmly in the public mind, not only in Great Britain, but also in foreign countries\".\nHistorians often point out that in the First British Empire (before the 1780s) there was no single imperial", "enabled Britain to stay well in the lead in naval affairs.\nApart from a determination to retain a strong naval advantage, the British lacked a military strategy or plans for a major war. Economy The Edwardian era stands out as a time of peace and prosperity. There were no severe depressions, and prosperity was widespread. Britain's growth rate, manufacturing output and GDP (but not GDP per capita) fell behind its rivals, the United States and Germany, but the nation still led the world in trade, finance and shipping, and had strong bases in manufacturing and mining. The industrial sector was slow", "an almost uninterrupted series of colonial wars and disputes. The British Conquest of India, its intervention against Mehemet Ali, the Anglo-Burmese Wars, the Crimean War, the Opium Wars and the Scramble for Africa to name the most notable conflicts mobilised ample military means to press Britain's lead in the global conquest Europe led across the century.\nIn the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain; by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 the country was described as the \"workshop of the world\". The British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other", "Britannica.\nWith Britain's old rivals no-longer a threat, the nineteenth century saw the emergence of a new rival, the Russian Empire, and a strategic competition in what became known as The Great Game for supremacy in Central Asia. Britain feared that Russian expansionism in the region would eventually threaten the Empire in India. In response, Britain undertook a number of pre-emptive actions against perceived Russian ambitions, including the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842), the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880) and the British expedition to Tibet (1903–1904). During this period, Britain also sought to maintain the balance of power in Europe, particularly against Russian", "British Empire in 1960.", "States, Britain and the Soviet Union — Their Responsibility for Peace which spoke of the global reach of a super-empowered nation. Fox used the word superpower to identify a new category of power able to occupy the highest status in a world in which—as the war then raging demonstrated—states could challenge and fight each other on a global scale. According to him, at that moment there were three states that were superpowers, namely the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. The British Empire was the most extensive empire in world history and considered the foremost great power,", "Great Powers has preserved even the small states, which could not have preserved themselves. The relations of the Great Powers have determined the history of Europe. This book deals with them in the last age when Europe was the centre of the world.\nTaylor examines the Great Powers in their ability to wage war, taking into consideration their population, defence spending per capita, coal and steel production and manufacturing production. He maintains that determining the strength of a state requires an assessment of its economic resources. Taylor rejects the idea of fate or inevitability: \"No war is inevitable until it breaks" ]

[ "I believe it is simply because the suburban street is narrower and you are passing by stationary objects like parked cars and trees much closer than you would on a freeway.", "It's to do with having less reference points to calculate your speed. \n\nFun fact: what caused Howard Hughes to delay shooting his movie Hell's Angels?\n\n\"lack of clouds. After viewing his aerial footage, Howard realized that there was **no point of reference** to show how **fast** the airplanes were flying. He decided that there needed to be clouds in the background. Howard hired a meteorologist, Professor Fitz, to tell him where and when there would be clouds in the sky (ones which, in Howard's words, resembled giant breasts filled with milk).\"", "It's all relative. There are usually more stationary objects and slow-moving cars on a narrow road, hence it appears that you are moving at a very high speed. The idea of danger as you drive at 70mph on a narrow road may also produce some adrenaline, which adds to the effect. On the other hand, motorways are relatively safe, as they are designed for high-speed movement. There probably aren't many stationary objects around the motorway, and all cars travel at similar, high speeds.", "I think the road markings themselves might have a bit of a role of play here. I've noticed that the lane stripes (I dunno what the official term is) on highways are much longer than the lane stripes on \"regular\" roads. If you're gauging your speed based on what you see out the window, as opposed to looking at your speedometer, going at 70 makes the lane stripes of regular roads pass your car much faster than going at 70 in the highway.", "On a freeway, there are people going slightly faster, or slightly slower than you are. From your perspective, there are more objects around that are \"stationary,\" because they're all going at around the same speed. When you're by yourself on a road, with only the truly stationary surroundings going past you at 70 miles an hour, it seems faster." ]

[ "of the road when there is a large vehicle or semi-truck approaching for two reasons: to avoid the blast of air that accompanies large vehicles traveling at speed; because most people feel uncomfortable within close proximity to a large vehicle and will attempt to create distance by backing from the roadway as the vehicle approaches.", "is sometimes used to describe a fast or careless driver on the highway.", "Walk. Traffic is very light on the highways, and passing slower vehicles should cause no problems. Road rules Driving is on the right side of the road. Speed limits are 55 mph (90 km/h) on the highways, and 25–40 mph (40–65 km/h) within villages and towns. Seatbelts are required. Mileposts and road signs still display distances in miles.", "for a while to develop a deep connection with it. Frequenting local places, spending time with locals and discovering their habits and customs can turn a regular trip into a slow travel experience. The key is to take one's time and to let oneself be carried along.\nAdvocates of slow travel argue that all too often the potential pleasure of the journey is lost by too eager anticipation of arrival. Slow travel, it is asserted, is a state of mind which allows travellers to engage more fully with communities along their route, often favouring visits to spots enjoyed by local residents", "roadways (due to rain, snow, or ice), reduced visibility (due to fog or \"white out\" snow), uneven roads, construction zones, curves, intersections, gravel roads, and heavy traffic. Per distance traveled, consequences of inappropriate speed are more frequent on lower speed, lower quality roads; in the United States, for example, the \"speeding fatality rate for local roads is three times that for Interstates\".\nFor speed management a distinction can exit between excess speed which consist in driving in excess of the speed limit, and inappropriate speed which consist is going too fast for the conditions\n. Minimum speed limits Some roads also", "in-town speed limit is inappropriate, with repeater signs posted at regular intervals. Lane discipline Drivers on dual carriageways (which may or may not be motorways) are legally required to use the left-most lane unless overtaking other vehicles on the road, unless signs or road markings indicate that the left-most lane(s) is only for traffic leaving at the next junction. Drivers who wish to overtake a slower vehicle are thus expected to move out from their lane (having used the indicator lights to warn other road-users of their intention to do so), pass the slower vehicle and return to the", "far to the edge of the freeway as possible, but to actually ride off the freeway, on the shoulder, if one is available. Some freeways have minimum speeds to use the normal lane, but it rarely affects bicyclists because they virtually always use the shoulder, except when crossing over entry and exit ramps. Cyclists are always advised to give right-of-way to motor vehicle operators in these situations, even stopping and waiting if necessary, for safety. Off-road cycling Bicyclists are prohibited from using certain areas, usually for reasons of conservation or to preserve trails for pedestrians only. Public transportation Many municipalities", "braking found it hard to slow down once they had exceeded a certain speed; this was made worse with brake failures. It took some time, and the addition of several warning signs prior to the descent, for heavy vehicles to become familiar with the freeway's characteristics. Semi-trailers can be seen travelling as slow as 20–30 km/h downhill. In 2005 changeable electronic road signs were installed every 200 metres, so that the speed limit of the road can be adjusted from Transport SA headquarters in Adelaide. This has both improved safety for commuters, and emergency service workers like the Country Fire Service.\nIn", "the pedestrians and cyclists for whom the path is for. This effect is very noticeable even when walking, and more so when guiding a pram or wheelchair or bicycle. At easily attainable speeds, vehicle instability results from being lifted from the saddle through the up and down motion, requiring the cyclist to travel much more slowly than he/she would on the street running parallel.\nTraffic light signaling for both pedestrians and cyclists is the same, not taking into account the large difference between walking and cycling speeds, which can be larger than that between cycling and driving speeds within city limits", "motor vehicle speed. Cyclists may also be permitted to use pedestrian crossings.\nTraditional cycle lanes increase vehicle/bicycle collisions. When exiting, a motorist must look ahead to avoid colliding with another vehicle or with pedestrians on a pedestrian crossing. As the intersection curves away from the exit, the path of an exiting vehicle is relatively straight, and so the motorist may often not slow substantially. To give way to a cyclist on the outside requires the exiting motorist to look toward the rear, to the perimeter. Other vehicles can obstruct the driver's view in this direction, complicating the motorist's task. The more", "left-most lane. This enables faster traffic to overtake unhindered if it wishes to do so. On the UK's busiest roads, where there may be four or more lanes in each direction, there is often a situation where overtaking becomes continual as each successive lane moves at a slightly faster speed than that to its left.\nOn motorways an extra left lane termed the 'hard shoulder' is usually present for use only when a vehicle has broken down. It is illegal to drive in this lane unless indicated otherwise, for example on one of the increasing number of Smart", "some trips are now faster). The report states, \"Ultimately, many motorists going to and from the suburbs at peak rush hours are spending more time stuck in traffic, not less.\" The Globe also asserted that their analysis provides a fuller picture of the traffic situation than a state-commissioned study done two years earlier, in which the Big Dig was credited with helping to save at least $167 million a year by increasing economic productivity and decreasing motor vehicle operating costs. That study did not look at highways outside the Big Dig construction area and did not take into account", "back into faster traffic (possibly still at low speed) when it ends. Instead, the more normal requirement to purposely pull out to pass slower vehicles, and back in after doing so or when the lane ends, generally with a smaller speed differential (as they will be rejoining what is already a passing lane), is placed on faster drivers. Safety On normally 2-lane roads without a divider, the climbing lane effectively creates a bi-directional central passing lane of the original uphill running lane. Its subsequent risk of head-on collisions, they are sometimes referred to as \"suicide lanes\". In some cases to", "with some noticeable impact on congestion of local routes around the Park. The benefit of traffic restriction is improvement in the enjoyability of the park; with cleaner air, safer roads for walkers and cyclists, and much reduced visual and noise pollution, plus reduced wear and tear on the poorly maintained, decaying road surfaces.\nRoad speed limits through the park have been reduced twice, from 30 mph to 20 mph in the 1980s, and to 5 mph in 2004. Also, on the pedestrianised areas (areas that used to be roads for cars, but are now closed to vehicles, except for emergency/ranger traffic), many speed bumps", "this chapter in the event any other vehicle may be affected by the movement.\n— California Department of Motor Vehicles, CVC 22107, Turning Movements and Required Signals\nCVC 21656 specifies that slow-moving vehicles causing a queue of five or more vehicles behind them must turn off the roadway in order to allow the vehicles behind to pass them. Section 21202 explicitly states that cyclists are \"subject to the provisions of Section 21656\".\nTurning Out of Slow-Moving Vehicles\n21656. On a two-lane highway where passing is unsafe because of traffic in the opposite direction or other conditions, a slow-moving vehicle, including a passenger vehicle, behind which", "the road by at least 6am because traffic gets heavy between 6:30 and 9:30 am. Many train commuters leave early to get the best seats on the trains, because by 7am the trains are packed with passengers standing or those who cannot get on. Los Angeles, California has several rush hours, including a midnight rush for night workers. Bus and train service (such as Metrolink) in Los Angeles are limited and tend to be underused, but their use is increasing. In the Chicago area people use Metra Trains, the 'L', and buses.\nIn Northeast Ohio, near Cleveland, morning rush hour is", "passing a transportation vehicle loading or unloading people or children; when the road does not appear clear, or risky; when visibility is low; when the road descends rapidly; when road sections are small, busy, or residential in nature; when approaching the top of a hill; when nearing a crossing where visibility is uncertain; when specific lights are used; or when overtaking animals. If drivers do not master their speed, or do not reduce it in such cases, they can be penalized. Other qualifying conditions include driving through fog, heavy rain, ice, snow, gravel, or when drivers encounter sharp corners, a", "term was cited in: \"Over at U.S. 192 and State Road 535, westbound touron — (a combo of tourists and morons, according to a local dj) are constantly making sudden U-turns from the left lane, causing oodles of rear-end wrecks. —\"The Road Toad,\" Orlando Sentinel, September 29, 1991\". The National Park Service constantly warns park guests about the dangers of wildlife and the natural surroundings. Images and video of tourist in dangerous situations are uploaded to the internet and demonstrate their, often stunning, behavior. Tourists acting as Tourons can drive erratically. A common occurrence is to see vehicles stopped in", "for commuters because public transportation systems do not take them to their exact destination; from the transportation hub, people usually have to walk to their destination for the “last mile,” which can be time consuming and inconvenient. This logic also applies to the first mile problem, since from the starting point of travel, people have to walk equal distance as the last mile to get to the nearest transportation hub. To avoid walking, urban dwellers may find owning a car a remedy to this problem; however, if everyone drives to his or her destination instead of taking public transportation, the", "This effect can be noted at high speeds, when driving on straight smooth roads. The effect is amplified if the environment surrounding is monotonous. The \"tunnelling effect\" can cause nausea, confusion to drivers as well as letting fatigue settle in at a higher rate, making it one major cause in sleep related accidents.", "a socially unacceptable level, at which point, safety becomes more important, and recklessness less tolerated.\nFreeman Dyson summarized his friend's view as:\nSmeed had a fatalistic view of traffic flow. He said that the average speed of traffic in central London would always be nine miles per hour, because that is the minimum speed that people will tolerate. Intelligent use of traffic lights might increase the number of cars on the roads but would not increase their speed. As soon as the traffic flowed faster, more drivers would come to slow it down.....Smeed interpreted his law as a law of human nature.", "use these streets. (North Ranch Road, Old Pomona Road, and Phillips Drive can enter the highway via a stop sign.) Just south of the Mission Boulevard exit, all aspects of the highway, such as its alignment, lane width, pavement, barriers, and access, 'upgrade' to freeway standards.\nThe section of highway between Corona and Chino is notorious for thick winter fogs at dawn and dusk, resulting in many automobile collisions when drivers fail to slow down due to reduced visibility. Residents of Los Serranos (now Chino Hills) recall being awakened by sounds of crinkling bumpers, fenders and headlights.\nAs this freeway/expressway serves", "of people walking in different directions often face each other causing a decrease in the speed of pedestrian traffic. Other problems concern the bottlenecks at bridges, narrow tunnels, escalators, and normal stairs due to low capacity.", "road at the same time. This phenomenon is called rush hour or peak hour, although the period of high traffic intensity often exceeds one hour. Rush hour policies Some cities adopt policies to reduce rush-hour traffic and pollution and encourage the use of public transportation. For example, in São Paulo, Manila and in Mexico City, each vehicle has a specific day of the week in which it is forbidden from traveling the roads during rush hour. The day for each vehicle is taken from the license plate number, and this rule is enforced by traffic police and also by hundreds", "in the country. Los Angeles also has the highest amount of time spent in congestion, followed by Honolulu and Washington. Third rush hour The term \"third rush hour\" has been used to refer to a period of the midday in which roads in urban and suburban areas become congested due to numerous people taking lunch breaks using their vehicles. These motorists often frequent restaurants and fast food locations, where vehicles crowding the entrances cause traffic congestion. Active retirees, who travel by automobile to engage in many midday activities, also contribute to the midday rush hour. Areas which have large school-age", "vehicle as a whole. Problems One problematic aspect of speed humps is their effect on emergency vehicles. Response time is slowed by 3–5 seconds per hump for fire trucks and fire engines and up to 10 seconds for ambulances with patients on board. Speed humps are thus usually not placed on primary response routes. Speed cushions may be placed on these routes instead.\nOccasionally, there is an increase in traffic noise from braking and acceleration of vehicles on streets with speed humps, particularly from buses and trucks. Other effects include increased fuel consumption and emissions as well as increased wear and", "of vehicle will appear on the highway and the delay time will increase. Some of users will turn to the city streets when the delay time reaches the difference between the free-flow travel time on highway and the free-flow travel time on city streets. It indicates that the users staying on the highway will spend as much travel time as the ones who turn to the city streets. At this stage, the travel time on both the highway and the alternative route stays the same. This situation may be ended when the demand falls below the road capacity, that is", "west there was very heavy Sunday night traffic. Ordinary prudence would have dictated that pedestrians should not expose themselves to the danger of walking along the roadway upon which the very heavy Sunday night traffic was proceeding when they could walk in comparative safety along a roadway used by very few cars. D claims by force of the statutory rule, pedestrians are guilty of contributory negligence as matter of law when they use the safer roadway, unless that roadway is left of the center of the road. If that be true, then the Legislature has decreed that pedestrians must", "case, the speed of vehicles is vf, or \"free flow,\" because the roadway is under capacity.\nNow, suppose that at a certain location x₀, the highway narrows to one lane. The maximum capacity is now limited to D', or half of Q, since only one lane of the two is available. D shares the same flowrate as state D', but its vehicular density is higher.\nUsing a time-space diagram, we may model the bottleneck event. Suppose that at time 0, traffic begins to flow at rate B and speed vf. After time t1, vehicles arrive at the lower flowrate A.\nBefore the first", "generally the drivers on the left must yield the right-of-way to the driver on the far right.\nIn all countries, the driver must come to a complete stop before entering a stop-controlled intersection, even if no other vehicle or pedestrian is visible. If a stop line is marked on the pavement, they must stop before crossing the line.\nHowever, some drivers slow but don't come to a complete stop. This maneuver is called a rolling stop or nicknamed after a city or region regarded as somewhere it is commonplace (e.g., \"Rhode Island roll\" or \"California stop\") – slowing down significantly but not" ]

[ "Memories aren't real things. You recreate and change them each time you recall something. So you can put yourself outside yourself if it helps you deal with the memory or understand it. It's not what you actually experienced, but it wouldn't be what you actually experienced in the 1st person either." ]

[ "aspects of a scene or event are missing from memory, people may incorrectly remember having actually seen or experienced them because they are usually a regular aspect of the schema. For example, an individual may not remember paying the waiter, but may believe they have done so, as this is a regular step in the script of going to a restaurant. Similarly, a person may recall seeing a fridge in a picture of a kitchen, even if one was not actually depicted due to existing schemas which suggest that kitchens almost always contain a fridge. Intrusion errors Intrusion errors refer", "thinking occurs. When recalling memories from long ago, an abstract, overall, high-level idea of the event is more likely to be used. When memory of something more recent is recalled, it can be done more concretely with focus on more low-level details. Stereotyping CLT can also be used to explain stereotypes. The abstractness of the representations we have of people or groups can change our judgment of people who do not fit in the same categories as ourselves and are therefore more socially distant. For example, when viewing a different group of people in a more distant or high-level way,", "have shown that culture can affect the point of view autobiographical memory is recalled in. People living in Eastern cultures are more likely to recall memories through an observer point of view than those living in Western cultures. Also, in Eastern cultures, situation plays a larger role in determining the perspective of memory recall than in Western cultures. For example, Easterners are more likely than Westerners to use observer perspective when remembering events where they are at the center of attention (like giving a presentation, having a birthday party, etc.).\nThere are many reasons for these differences in autobiographical perspectives", "remember what happened in them, etc.). These stories become even more salient when they are accompanied by activation of non-violated expectations for the ontological category (houses that \"remember\" activates our intuitive psychology of mind; i.e. we automatically attribute thought processes to them).\nOne of the attributes of our intuitive psychology of mind is that humans are interested in the affairs of other humans. This may result in the tendency for concepts of supernatural agents to inevitably cross-connect with human intuitive moral feelings (evolutionary behavioral guidelines). In addition, the presence of dead bodies creates an uncomfortable cognitive state in which dreams", "and what we end up recalling from memory. Autobiographical memory is constructive and reconstructed as an evolving process of history. A person's autobiographical memory is fairly reliable, although the reliability of autobiographical memories is questionable because of memory distortions.\nAutobiographical memories can differ for special periods of life. People recall few personal events from the first years of their lives. The loss of these first events is called childhood or infantile amnesia. People tend to recall many personal events from adolescence and early adulthood. This effect is called the reminiscence bump. Additionally, people recall many personal events from their previous few", "of personally experienced events (episodic memory). Without the ability to reflect on our past experiences, we would be stuck in a state of constant awakening, without a past and therefore unable to prepare for the future.\nEpisodic memory is the memory we have for our past experiences, which influence our now, and our future. This is different from procedural memory, which is our memory for how to do things. Episodic memories influence our thinking about ourselves, good and bad.\nAutobiographical memories can be retrieved from either the first person perspective, in which individuals see the event through their own eyes, or from", "Srull (1981) found that people had better recall for memories of a person acting in a way opposite to previous expectations. This was attributed to the repeated retrieval of such memories in attempts to reconcile them with the person's reputation.\nFurthermore, the memories that contribute to an impression appear to be influenced by negativity and the source of behaviour. Research on the subject indicates that people are more likely to remember negative behaviour when it is perceived as coming from a moral or dispositional source, and positive behaviour when seen as coming from either a person's ability or", "be available to look up later. By contrast, an explicit instruction to remember the material does not have a significant effect on recall. Lastly, if the information is saved, people are much more likely to remember where the information is located than to recall the information itself. In addition, people tend to remember either the fact or the location, but not both; this effect persists even when the information is more memorable than the name of the location.\nA 2012 study by Lav R. Varshney has since proposed that the Google effect can also be seen in doctoral theses, claiming that", "Jacoby argued that the feeling of remembering arises when a person infers (usually very quickly and without conscious reflection) that current thoughts and images are based on memories of a prior episode – that is, when people attribute current mental events to the past. For a beautifully written and compelling synthesis of Jacoby's work on this perspective, see his 1989 chapter with Colleen Kelley and Jane Dywan in a book in honour of Endel Tulving coedited by Roediger and Craik. In his work with Kelley, he made a distinction between memory that influences performance (he called it \"memory as", "the past. According to the Pollyanna Principle, the brain processes information that is pleasing and agreeable in a more precise and exact manner as compared to unpleasant information. We actually tend to remember past experiences as more rosy than they actually occurred. They found that people expose themselves to positive stimuli and avoid negative stimuli, they take longer to recognize what is unpleasant or threatening than what is pleasant and safe, and they report that they encounter positive stimuli more frequently than they actually do. Matlin and Stang also determined that selective recall was a more likely occurrence when recall", "as described above, is a primary example of these concerns.\nMuch of the criticism about external memory is a product of common misconceptions about memory; specifically, the fact that people are very poor judges of it. Most people believe that they remember far more than they actually do in practice. This is especially true of verbatim memory: generally, a person will recall the general ideas of a text or conversation rather than the exact words that were used. Even so, most people believe that they can recall conversations word-for-word. Because we cannot know what we do not know, people tend to", "Events from after the age of 10 years are relatively easy to remember correctly, whereas memories from the age of 2 are more often confused with false images and memories. Memories from early childhood (around age two) are susceptible to false suggestion, making them less trustworthy. These should be treated with caution, especially if they have severe consequences. Imagining details of a false event can encourage the generation of false memories. Studies have shown that people who merely imagine a childhood event are more likely to believe that it happened to them compared to events they did not imagine. This", "memories. What is remembered is more likely to be of the 'familiar', or 'know' type, rather than 'recollect' or 'remember', indicating that damage to the parietal cortex impairs the conscious experience of memory.\nThere are several hypotheses that seek to explain the involvement of the posterior parietal lobe in recognition memory. The attention to memory model (AtoM) posits that the posterior parietal lobe could play the same role in memory as it does in attention: mediating top-down versus bottom-up processes. Memory goals can either be deliberate (top-down) or in response to an external memory cue (bottom-up). The superior parietal", "are processes for evaluating memory awareness, where an individual must distinguish between remembering or knowing. When a memory is remembered, the experience can be relived mentally, and related details are brought to mind without difficulty. When a memory is known, the experience cannot be relived but individuals feel a sense of familiarity, often leading to confident (mis)attribution to a likely source. Both judgements are subject to source-monitoring errors, and it has been demonstrated that under some circumstances, such as in the DRM paradigm, remember judgements are more likely to occur. DRM paradigm The Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm, or DRM paradigm, is a", "have constructed collective memories in the form of commemorations which should bring and keep together minority groups and individuals with conflicting agendas. What becomes clear is that the obsession with memory coincides with the fear of forgetting and the aim for authenticity.\nHowever, more recently questions have arisen whether there ever was a time in which \"pure\", non-representational memory existed – as Nora in particular put forward. Scholars like Tony Bennett rightly point out that representation is a crucial precondition for human perception in general: pure, organic and objective memories can never be witnessed as such. Space It is", "Indeed, while memory serves as the ability to recall previous experiences, recall itself is not solely directed toward the past, but is guided by the present for the service of the future”.", "this is due to the fractured somatotopy of the motor cortex. From these results he developed his cortical homunculus map, which is how the brain sees the body from an inside perspective.\nPenfield reported that stimulation of the temporal lobes could lead to vivid recall of memories. Oversimplified in popular psychology publications, including the best-selling I'm OK – You're OK, this seeded the common misconception that the brain continuously \"records\" experiences in perfect detail, although these memories are not available to conscious recall. Reported episodes of recall occurred in less than five percent of his patients, though these results have been replicated", "memory, causing the person to be \"captured\" at the general level and ruminating on the idea, ending any deeper search for a specific memory. For example, when prompted with the cue word \"sad,\" a person may think of a general event such as \"sad when people ignore me.\" This thought, in turn, can lead to other thoughts centered on their negative self-beliefs, such as \"why don't people like me,\" \"I'm never good enough,\" etc., so a particular and specific event is never accessed. This error is often found in individuals who score high on ruminative thinking, such", "one minute, depending on the study, to come up with a specific memory. If unable to think of a specific memory, the participant is further prompted to think of one specific time or episode, often by the researcher using the phrase \"can you think of a specific time—one particular occasion.\" Memories are considered specific if they occurred once, during a specific time. Responses are normally recorded and transcribed for later coding of overgeneral memories or specific memories.\nCertain studies code based on the two types of overgeneral memories: categoric and extended memories. Categoric memories include events that occur repeatedly", "or visual images. They develop amnesia since they can no longer bring these visual images of the past to mind.\nA common psychological phenomenon is the severe clouding of autobiographical memory, which results in the overgeneralization of memories. For instance, clinically depressed individuals, schizophrenic individuals, and those suffering from obsessive compulsive disorder tend to recall many memories that lack detail (clouded) and are much more schematic than typical autobiographical memories. In these instances, a patient asked to recall specific memories of his father could only recall general events such as \"walks in the park after Sunday lunch\" and was unable to", "experiences as well as the memories that are recalled. A common example is that sufferers of depression find it difficult to recall happy memories because they are overwhelmed with negative thoughts. We recall from memory the information that reflects our current state. Memory has been shown to influence decision-making behavior and, considering the reciprocal connection between the two, affect can as well.", "than others on the amount of memories surviving from early childhood, but can be demanding for the subjects who often have to spend many hours trying to remember events from their childhood. No major differences among word cued, interview, focused and exhaustive recall have been found. Accessible and inaccessible memories The amount of early childhood memories a person can recall depends on many factors, including emotion associated with the event, their age at the time of the remembered event and the age at the time they are asked to recall an early memory. Although people assume that not recalling", "remembering is not reduced to utter confusion. He explains that the mind having innumerable impressions and desires acts only to serve the Atman and is able to perceive because it reflects both the Atman and the objects of perception, it cannot act independently for its own sake. The man of discrimination ceases to regard the mind as the Atman, and moves towards liberation. Distractions due to past impressions may arise if the mind relaxes its discrimination, even a little but can be overcome in the same manner as obstacles to enlightenment, that is, by resolving the mind back into its", "which allows us to remember our past, be able to optimize the present, and plan for the future. Remembering involves a complex interaction between the current environment, what one expects to remember, and what is retained from the past. The mechanisms of the brain that allow memory storage and retrieval serves us well most of the time, but occasionally gets us into trouble. Brain areas of interest There is extensive evidence that the amygdala is involved in effectively influencing memory. Emotional arousal, usually fear based, activates the amygdala and results in the modulation of memory storage occurring in other", "inadequacy or futility. Typically, however, the individual will be aware of their condition and will be prepared for situations that may be difficult. A tendency to avoid memory recollection is possible due to the desire to avoid embarrassment or ridicule. Delusional memories and delusions These occur in psychiatric patients or individuals with psychiatric conditions. Delusional memories consist of either a true memory that gives rise to a deluded interpretation or a false memory arising in the context of psychosis. These can closely resemble spontaneous confabulations resulting from frontal lobe disease. They are also an absolute conviction and not up for", "as a 1978 article on how, when a problem is repeated, a person may solve it by remembering the prior solution. Attributional approach to remembering In the 1980s, a major theme in Jacoby's work was that the feeling of remembering does not inhere in the use of memory traces. As he noted, one can use memory records of specific past episodes without having a subjective feeling of remembering (as in involuntary plagiarism) and one can have a subjective feeling of remembering without there being any directly corresponding prior episode and hence no directly corresponding memory trace (as in false-memory phenomena).", "our perception of photographic images in order to make them appear real. Memory Memory and mental imagery, often seen as a part of the process of imagination, have been shown to be affected by one another. \"Images made by functional magnetic resonance imaging technology show that remembering and imagining sends blood to identical parts of the brain.\" Various psychological factors can influence the mental processing of and can heighten the chance of the brain to retain information as either long-term memories or short-term memories. John Sweller indicated that experiences stored as long-term memories are easier to recall, as they are", "perspective, while memories low in emotional content (ex: driving to work) are likely to be recalled using field perspective.\nThe main reason for this is probably that the observer perspective distances the person from the traumatic event, allowing them to recall the specifics and details of the event without having to relive the feelings and emotions. The observer perspective tends to focus more on one's physical appearance, along with the spatial relations and peripheral details of the scene, which allows people to remember the specifics and important facts of their traumatic experience, without reliving most of the pain. The field perspective,", "novel events during this time stand out in memory later in life. In other words, memories of a first time personal experience stand out better in the mind than memories of repetition or routine. There are multiple hypotheses regarding the high occurrence of memory recall during adolescence and early adulthood; self-image hypothesis, cognitive hypothesis, and cultural life script hypothesis. the self-image hypothesis suggests that memory is heightened for events that happen while a young person is assuming a self-image or life identity. The cognitive hypothesis proposes that memory encoding is better during the rapid changes that occur during adolescence and", "flashbacks. Also there is some evidence that memories can become vulnerable to disruption even at longer periods of time in a process known as reconsolidation. Ethical concerns The prospect of memory erasure or alteration raises ethical issues. Some of these concern identity, as memory seems to play a role in how people perceive themselves. For example, if a traumatic memory were erased, a person might still remember related events in their lives, such as their emotional reactions to later experiences. Without the original memory to give them context, these remembered events might prompt the subjects to see themselves as emotional" ]

[ "Like, in your GI tract? It generally gets there by you swallowing air or the bacteria in your gut releasing gas through breaking down your food." ]

[ "to store gas in the superior arched portion, enabling the colon to expel gas without excreting faeces simultaneously. Coverings It is completely surrounded by peritoneum (and thus is not retroperitoneal), which forms a mesentery (sigmoid mesocolon), which diminishes in length from the center toward the ends of the loop, where it disappears, so that the loop is fixed at its junctions with the iliac colon and rectum, but enjoys a considerable range of movement in its central portion. Nerve supply Pelvic splanchnic nerves are the primary source for parasympathetic innervation. Lumbar splanchnic nerves provide sympathetic innervation via the inferior", "enter the arterial system, resulting in an arterial gas embolism. A similar effect, known as ebullism, may occur during explosive decompression, when water vapour forms bubbles in body fluids due to a dramatic reduction in environmental pressure. Inert gases The main inert gas in air is nitrogen, but nitrogen is not the only gas that can cause DCS. Breathing gas mixtures such as trimix and heliox include helium, which can also cause decompression sickness. Helium both enters and leaves the body faster than nitrogen, so different decompression schedules are required, but, since helium does not cause narcosis, it is preferred", "air does not enter it because there are no natural connections to an air-containing passage, and the pressure of gases in the bloodstream is too low for them to be forced into the pleural space. Therefore, a pneumothorax can only develop if air is allowed to enter, through damage to the chest wall or damage to the lung itself, or occasionally because microorganisms in the pleural space produce gas.\nChest-wall defects are usually evident in cases of injury to the chest wall, such as stab or bullet wounds (\"open pneumothorax\"). In secondary spontaneous pneumothoraces, vulnerabilities in the lung tissue are caused", "trunk as well. The increase in volume of the entire trunk cavity reduces the air pressure in all the thoraco-abdominal air sacs, causing them to fill with air as described below.\nDuring exhalation the external oblique muscle which is attached to the sternum and vertebral ribs anteriorly, and to the pelvis (pubis and ilium in Fig. 17) posteriorly (forming part of the abdominal wall) reverses the inhalatory movement, while compressing the abdominal contents, thus increasing the pressure in all the air sacs. Air is therefore expelled from the respiratory system in the act of exhalation.\nDuring inhalation air enters the trachea via", "released, the pressure inside the tank equalizes to that of the ambient pressure, and the elastic coil of the chest and lungs leads to passive exhalation. However, when the vacuum is created, the abdomen also expands along with the lung, cutting off venous flow back to the heart, leading to pooling of venous blood in the lower extremities. There are large portholes for nurse or home assistant access. The patients can talk and eat normally, and can see the world through a well-placed series of mirrors. Some could remain in these iron lungs for years at a time quite successfully.\nToday,", "pulling air into the bronchi, when we 'breathe in'. The pleural space is maintained in a constant state of negative pressure (in comparison to atmospheric pressure).\nIf the chest wall, and thus the pleural space, is punctured, blood, air or both can enter the pleural space. Air and/or blood rushes into the space in order to equalise the pressure with that of the atmosphere. As a result, the fluid is disrupted and the two membranes no longer adhere to each other. When the rib cage moves out, it no longer pulls the lungs with it. Thus", "the lungs to make it available to the gas exchange process. In spontaneous breathing, a negative pressure is created in the pleural cavity by the muscles of respiration, and the resulting gradient between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the thorax generates a flow of air.\nIn the iron lung by means of a pump, the air is withdrawn mechanically to produce a vacuum inside the tank, thus creating negative pressure. This negative pressure leads to expansion of the chest, which causes a decrease in intrapulmonary pressure, and increases flow of ambient air into the lungs. As the vacuum is", "maximum pressure that can occur or simply ensuring an adequate ignition source is present well prior to propellant entering the chamber.\nExplosions from hard starts usually cannot happen with purely gaseous propellants, since the amount of the gas present in the chamber is limited by the injector area relative to the throat area, and for practical designs, propellant mass escapes too quickly to be an issue.\nA famous example of a hard start was the explosion of Wernher von Braun's \"1W\" engine during a demonstration to General Dornberger on December 21, 1932. Delayed ignition allowed the chamber to fill with alcohol and", "injuries resulting from external squeezes. Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture. Barotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which", "Gas evolution reaction A gas evolution reaction is a chemical reaction in which one of the end products is a gas such as oxygen or carbon dioxide. Gas evolution reactions may be carried out in a fume chamber when the gases produced are poisonous when inhaled or explosive.", "between a gas space inside, or in contact with the body, and the surrounding gas or fluid. It typically occurs when the organism is exposed to a large change in ambient pressure, such as when a diver ascends or descends. When diving, the pressure differences which cause the barotrauma are changes in hydrostatic pressure.\nThe initial damage is usually due to over-stretching the tissues in tension or shear, either directly by expansion of the gas in the closed space, or by pressure difference hydrostatically transmitted through the tissue.\nBarotrauma generally manifests as sinus or middle ear effects, DCS, lung over-expansion injuries, and", "amounts of gases due to their capacities of fermentation. As gases accumulate within the bodily cavities the body appears to swell as it enters the bloat stage of decomposition.\nAs oxygen is present within a body at the beginning of decomposition, aerobic bacteria flourish during the first stages of the process. As the microbial population increases, an accumulation of gases changes the environment into anaerobic conditions which is consequently followed by a change to anaerobic bacteria. Gastro-intestinal bacteria are thought to be responsible for the majority of the putrefactive processes that occur in cadavers and carcasses. This can be in", "Exsufflation Exsufflation is a strongly forced expiration of air.\nIn medicine, airway secretions can be cleared with manual and mechanical exsufflation. Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation devices (also known as In-Exsufflator, Cofflator, and cough machine) alternate positive and negative airway pressure to stimulate cough. It is typically used in patients with neuromuscular disorders and sleep apnea. After certain surgical procedures, the gases (such as carbon dioxide) used to expand body cavities are mechanically or manually exsufflated.\nThe term is also used of certain rituals in the Christian religion involving the blowing of air to remove evil spirits; these survive in Eastern Christianity, but between the", "dissolved inert gases leave solution as bubbles during decompression. The damage can be due to mechanical deformation of tissues due to bubble growth in situ, or by blocking blood vessels where the bubble has lodged.\nArterial gas embolism can occur when a gas bubble is introduced to the circulatory system and it lodges in a blood vessel which is too small for it to pass through under the available pressure difference. This can occur as a result of decompression after hyperbaric exposure, a lung overexpansion injury, during intravenous fluid administration, or during surgery.", "Muscles of respiration Diaphragm The diaphragm is the major muscle responsible for breathing. It is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, so that its center moves caudally (downward) and its edges move cranially (upward). This compresses the abdominal cavity, raises the ribs upward and outward and thus expands the thoracic cavity. This expansion draws air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, elastic recoil of the thoracic wall causes the thoracic cavity to contract, forcing air out of the lungs.\nThe diaphragm is also involved in non-respiratory functions,", "gas can be removed in a similar manner.\nIn more derived varieties of fish (the physoclisti) the connection to the digestive tract is lost. In early life stages, these fish must rise to the surface to fill up their swim bladders; in later stages, the pneumatic duct disappears, and the gas gland has to introduce gas (usually oxygen) to the bladder to increase its volume and thus increase buoyancy. In order to introduce gas into the bladder, the gas gland excretes lactic acid and produces carbon dioxide. The resulting acidity causes the hemoglobin of the blood to lose its oxygen (Root", "Polypterus Recoil aspiration In shallow water, Polypterus inhales primarily through its spiracle (blowhole). Exhalation is powered by muscles in the torso. During exhalation, the bony scales in the upper chest become indented. When the muscles are relaxed, the bony scales spring back into position, generating negative pressure within the torso, resulting in a rapid intake of air through the spiracle. The air is nearly sufficient to fill the lungs. This is followed by one cycle of buccal (mouth) pumping, which \"tops off\" the lungs, with the surplus air from the buccal pumping process discharged through the pharynx. According to one", "to backfilling with inert gas for the welding process. When purging with inert gases, it is important to enter the gas very slowly.\nWhen using Argon, which is heavier than air, the gas should enter from the bottom of the enclosed space. After filling the base area, be it the bottom of a pipe or tank, it will continue to displace air and move upwards. The displaced air is purged out of a release hole at the top. If process monitoring is desired, and oxygen sensor can be used - ideally placed near the release hole to ensure", "the gas, flow obeys the Sampson flow law.\nIn medical terminology, an effusion refers to accumulation of fluid in an anatomic space, usually without loculation. Specific examples include subdural, mastoid, pericardial and pleural effusions. Effusion into vacuum Effusion from an equilibrated container into outside vacuum can be calculated based on kinetic theory. The number of atomic or molecular collisions with a wall of a container per unit area per unit time (impingement rate) is given by:\nIf a small area on the container is punched to become a small hole, the effusive flow rate will be:\nWhere is the molar mass. Note", "atria forms a cross-current process of gas exchange (see diagram on the right).\nThe air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.\nParabronchi in which the air flow is unidirectional are called paleopulmonic parabronchi and are found in all birds. Some birds, however, have, in addition, a lung", "Gas chamber A gas chamber is an apparatus for killing humans or other animals with gas, consisting of a sealed chamber into which a poisonous or asphyxiant gas is introduced. The most commonly used poisonous agent is hydrogen cyanide; carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide have also been used. Gas chambers were used as a method of execution for condemned prisoners in the United States beginning in the 1920s and continue to be a legal execution method in three states. During the Holocaust, large-scale gas chambers designed for mass killing were used by Nazi Germany as part of their genocide program.", "air, there is nothing that confines the gas to a particular volume like the cylinder in an engine. As a result, these substances will burn at a constant pressure allowing the gas to expand during the process.", "describes the relationship between the volume of the gas space and the pressure in the gas.\nBarotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture.\nBarotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference", "distribution of the dissolved gas may be by diffusion, where there is no bulk flow of the solvent, or by perfusion where the solvent (blood) is circulated around the diver's body, where gas can diffuse to local regions of lower concentration. Given sufficient time at a specific partial pressure in the breathing gas, the concentration in the tissues will stabilise, or saturate, at a rate depending on the solubility, diffusion rate and perfusion.\nIf the concentration of the inert gas in the breathing gas is reduced below that of any of the tissues, there will be a tendency for gas to", "the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange. Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system. Jumping A large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (twenty body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g. Grasshoppers jump by extending their", "volume of the entire thoraco-abdominal cavity (or coelom) using both their abdominal and costal muscles. During inhalation the muscles attached to the vertebral ribs (Fig. 17) contract angling them forwards and outwards. This pushes the sternal ribs, to which they are attached at almost right angles, downwards and forwards, taking the sternum (with its prominent keel) in the same direction (Fig. 17). This increases both the vertical and transverse diameters of thoracic portion of the trunk. The forward and downward movement of, particularly, the posterior end of the sternum pulls the abdominal wall downwards, increasing the volume of that region of the", "the gas. Susanne also finds evidence that she had a tracking device put in a tooth, which she pulls out.\nThe four of them head to the warehouse, where they find the gas stored inside asthma inhalers. Suddenly, Mulder arrives to arrest them, but two dark-suited men come to take Susanne. They fire at Mulder, hitting the boxes behind him and exposing him to the gas. The exposure causes Mulder to strip naked, hide in the box, and hallucinate about seeing aliens in the warehouse. Susanne shoots the men and escapes. More men then arrive, led by X, who intimidates the", "creates dead space, a volume of air that fills the airways (the dead space) at the end of inhalation, and is breathed out, unchanged, during the next exhalation, never having reached the alveoli. Similarly, the dead space is filled with alveolar air at the end of exhalation, and is the first air to breathed back into the alveoli, before any fresh air reaches the alveoli during inhalation. The dead space volume of a typical adult human is about 150 ml. Gas exchange The primary purpose of breathing is to bring atmospheric air (in small doses) into the alveoli where gas exchange", "creates a vacuum. Air is briefly stored inside small sacs known as alveoli (sing.: alveolus) before being expelled from the lungs when the diaphragm contracts again. Each alveolus]] is surrounded by capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood, which absorbs oxygen out of the air and into the bloodstream.\nFor the respiratory system to function properly, there need to be as few impediments as possible to the movement of air within the lungs. Inflammation of the lungs and excess mucus are common sources of breathing difficulties. In asthma, the respiratory system is persistently inflamed, causing wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Pneumonia occurs through infection", "quickly, while the nitrogen diffuses more slowly from the capillaries to the skin and out of the body. The resulting effect generates supersaturation in certain sites of the superficial tissues and the formation of inert gas bubbles. These isobaric skin lesions (urticaria) do not occur when the ambient gas is nitrogen and the breathing gas is helium. Deep tissue ICD Deep tissue ICD (also known as Transient Isobaric Counterdiffusion) occurs when different inert gases are breathed by the diver in sequence. The rapidly diffusing gas is transported into the tissue faster than the slower diffusing gas is transported out of" ]

[ "Uneven heating/cooling of water mostly.\n\nIf the sun heats one portion of ocean a bit more than another, the air above it also warms up. That creates higher pressure directly over that water.", "As stated, it's mainly caused by the uneven heating of the earth. Water takes much more energy to heat up than land and holds on to the heat much longer than land. Think of going to a beach in Florida in July at noon. On a bright sunny day that sand is very hot but the water is still relitevly cool. As soon as the sun starts to set the sand cools off very quickly but the water is still warm. What also happens is the heat coming off the sand in the middle of the day tends to warmthe air close to the sand. As this air warms it becomes less dense, lower pressure, and rises. This situation is the beginning of a sea breeze.\n\nSince we established the water doesn't absorb heat as readily the air over the water is more dense and higher pressure. As the warm less dense air over the sand rises the air over the water is drawn in to replace the air rising. What you have happening are small local pressure systems being created by the in even heating. A high pressure area is over the water and a lower pressure area over the sand. Remember this is an extremely small scale pressure system and doesn't tend to influence much larger systems that affect large areas. The process though is mostly the same on a larger scale. Uneven heating of the land and water creat high and low pressure systems. The high pressure systems 'seek' the low pressure systems to equalize this pressure difference.\n\nThere is much more that goes into this and I can try to explain it to e best of my ability if you like but I hope this gives you some more insight into. Also here's a picture to help illustrate the uneven heating at a beach I was talking about before. \n\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "Atmosphere Pressure Atmospheric pressure at a particular location is the force per unit area perpendicular to a surface determined by the weight of the vertical column of atmosphere above that location. On Earth, units of air pressure are based on the internationally recognized standard atmosphere (atm), which is defined as 101.325 kPa (760 Torr or 14.696 psi). It is measured with a barometer.\nAtmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of e (an irrational number with a value of 2.71828...) is called", "resulting in a pressure of 14.7 lbf/in². Mechanism Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface, and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount and composition of the gases and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere. It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. Mean sea-level pressure The mean sea-level pressure (MSLP) is the average atmospheric pressure at mean sea level. This is the atmospheric pressure", "under investigation). The pressure gradient is defined only at thse spatial scales at which pressure (more generally fluid dynamics) itself is defined.\nWithin planetary atmospheres (including the Earth's), the pressure gradient is a vector pointing roughly downwards, because the pressure changes most rapidly vertically, increasing downwards (see vertical pressure variation). The value of the strength (or norm) of the pressure gradient in the troposphere is typically of the order of 9 Pa/m (or 90 hPa/km).\nThe pressure gradient often has a small but critical horizontal component, which is largely responsible for wind circulation in the atmosphere. The horizontal pressure gradient is a", "Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure (after the sensor), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 1,013.25 mbar (101,325 Pa; 1,013.25 hPa), equivalent to 760 mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi. The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth, that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 1 atm.\nIn most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so", "pressure of the Earth's air, and the rest is due to the depth in water. So the 1 atmosphere or bar contributed by the air is subtracted to give the pressure due to the depth of water. The pressure produced by depth in water, is converted to pressure in feet sea water (fsw) or metres sea water (msw) by multiplying with the appropriate conversion factor, 33 fsw per atmosphere, or 10 msw per bar. \nIn feet\nIn which pO₂ is the chosen maximum partial pressure of oxygen in atmospheres absolute and the FO₂ is the fraction of oxygen in the mixture. For", "that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Pressure measures force per unit area, with SI units of Pascals (1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre, 1 N/m²). On average, a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre (cm²), measured from mean (average) sea level to the top of Earth's atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilogram and exerts a force or \"weight\" of about 10.1 newtons, resulting in a pressure of 10.1 N/cm² or 101 kN/m² (101 kilopascals, kPa). A column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 in² would have a weight of about 14.7 lbf,", "of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) definition of standard pressure. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather.\nThe temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the kinetic activity of the gas, as it is on Earth. However, the radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of", "Hypoxia (environmental) Hypoxia refers to low oxygen conditions. Normally, 20.9% of the gas in the atmosphere is oxygen. The partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is 20.9% of the total barometric pressure. In water, oxygen levels are much lower, approximately 1%, and fluctuate locally depending on the presence of photosynthetic organisms and relative distance to the surface (if there is more oxygen in the air, it will diffuse across the partial pressure gradient). Atmospheric hypoxia Atmospheric hypoxia occurs naturally at high altitudes. Total atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases, causing a lower partial pressure of oxygen which is defined", "changes are important in studying weather and climate. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather.\nAtmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal (twice-daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars, and almost zero in polar areas. These variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h) cycle and semi-circadian (12 h) cycle. Records The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750 meters) was 1084.8 hPa (32.03 inHg) measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded", "pressure gradient. Flow around a low-pressure area If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air tends to flow in towards it, but is deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis force. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. Because the Rossby number is low, the force balance is largely between the pressure-gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis force acting away from the center of the low pressure.\nInstead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in the atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the", "High-pressure area A high-pressure area, high, or anticyclone, is a region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the planet is greater than its surrounding environment.\nWinds within high-pressure areas flow outward from the higher pressure areas near their centers towards the lower pressure areas further from their centers. Gravity adds to the forces causing this general movement, because the higher pressure compresses the column of air near the center of the area into greater density – and so greater weight compared to lower pressure, lower density, and lower weight of the air outside the center.\nHowever, because the planet is", "Pressure system A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution. The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally, with the lowest value measured 87 kilopascals (26 inHg) and the highest recorded 108.57 kilopascals (32.06 inHg). High- and low-pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere, temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes, the influence of upper-level disturbances, as well as the amount of solar heating or radiationized cooling an area receives. Pressure systems cause weather to be experienced locally. Low-pressure systems", "what is accounted for by a reduction of atmospheric pressure alone (7.1 kPa).\nThe pressure gradient forcing air into the lungs during inhalation is also reduced by altitude. Doubling the volume of the lungs halves the pressure in the lungs at any altitude. Having the sea level air pressure (100 kPa) results in a pressure gradient of 50 kPa but doing the same at 5500 m, where the atmospheric pressure is 50 kPa, a doubling of the volume of the lungs results in a pressure gradient of the only 25 kPa. In practice, because we breathe in a gentle, cyclical manner that generates pressure gradients of only", "solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar.\nSince the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere. In scientific", "this was due to the changing pressure in the atmosphere. He wrote: \"We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of elementary air, which is known by incontestable experiments to have weight\". Inspired by Torricelli, Otto von Guericke on 5 December 1660 found that air pressure was unusually low and predicted a storm, which occurred the next day.\nThe mercury barometer's design gives rise to the expression of atmospheric pressure in inches or millimeters of mercury (mmHg). A torr was originally defined as 1 mmHg. The pressure is quoted as the level of the mercury's height in", "sea level the arterial partial pressure of CO₂ is maintained at very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mmHg) under a wide range of circumstances, at the expense of the arterial partial pressure of O₂, which is allowed to vary within a very wide range of values, before eliciting a corrective ventilatory response. However, when the atmospheric pressure (and therefore the partial pressure of O₂ in the ambient air) falls to below 50-75% of its value at sea level, oxygen homeostasis is given priority over carbon dioxide homeostasis. This switch-over occurs at an elevation of about 2500 m (or about 8000 ft). If", "hPa. This is in contrast to mean sea-level pressure, which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea-level for locations above or below sea-level. The average pressure at mean sea-level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is 1013.25 hPa, or 1 atmosphere (Atm), or 29.92 inches of mercury. \nPressure (P), mass (m), and the acceleration due to gravity (g), are related by P = F/A = (m*g)/A, where A is surface area. Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit area of the atmospheric mass above that location. Local variation Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these", "Transpulmonary pressure Transpulmonary pressure is the difference between the alveolar pressure and the intrapleural pressure in the pleural cavity. During human ventilation, air flows because of pressure gradients. \nPₜₚ = Pₐₗᵥ – Pᵢₚ. Where Pₜₚ is transpulmonary pressure, Pₐₗᵥ is alveolar pressure, and Pᵢₚ is intrapleural pressure. Physiology Since atmospheric pressure is relatively constant, pressure in the lungs must be higher or lower than atmospheric pressure for air to flow between the atmosphere and the alveoli. \nIf 'transpulmonary pressure' = 0 (alveolar pressure = intrapleural pressure), such as when the lungs are removed from the chest cavity or air enters", "Pressure gradient In atmospheric science, the pressure gradient (typically of air but more generally of any fluid) is a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the pressure increases the most rapidly around a particular location. The pressure gradient is a dimensional quantity expressed in units of pascals per metre (Pa/m). Mathematically, it is obtained by applying the del operator to a pressure function of position. The negative gradient of pressure is known as the force density.\nIn petroleum geology and the petrochemical sciences pertaining to oil wells, and more specifically within hydrostatics, pressure gradients refer to", "may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure.", "because they depend upon the creation of a pressure differential; atmospheric pressure is lower at high altitudes, and so the maximum differential is also lower.", "Barometric formula The barometric formula, sometimes called the exponential atmosphere or isothermal atmosphere, is a formula used to model how the pressure (or density) of the air changes with altitude. The pressure drops approximately by 11.3 Pa per meter in first 1000 meters above sea level.", "air would have if it were brought to the pressure found at the surface without gaining or losing heat. As such an increase of pressure involves compressing the air, the potential temperature is higher than the in-situ temperature, with the difference increasing as one goes higher in the atmosphere. The atmospheric mixed layer is defined as a layer of (approximately) constant potential temperature, or a layer in which the temperature falls at a rate of approximately 10 °C/km, provided it is free of clouds. Such a layer may have gradients in the humidity, though. As is the case with the ocean", "and stratosphere (where temperature increases with altitude in an 'inversion') occurs a pressure of about 0.1 bar on Earth, Titan, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This level is the tropopause. Robinson and Catling used the physics of radiation to explain why the tropopause temperature minimum in these extremely different atmospheres occurs at a common pressure. They propose that a pressure around 0.1 bar could be a fairly general rule for planets with stratospheric temperature inversions. This rule could constrain the atmospheric structure on exoplanets and hence their surface temperature and habitability.\nWork by Catling and his students is also the", "local emission, Bλ(T), can differ from the absorption of incoming Iλ. Depending on what altitude the transition to semi-transparency occurs and the temperature gradient, dI for a layer of atmosphere can be negative (ordinary greenhouse effect) or positive (negative greenhouse effect). Since the vast majority of absorption and emission occurs in the troposphere, where a negative temperature gradient exists, the Earth's greenhouse effect makes the planet warmer than it would be otherwise. However, temperature rises with altitude in the lower stratosphere, and increasing CO2 there increases radiative cooling to space and is predicted to cause cooling above 14–20 km. Application", "Earth's areas that experience a decline in temperature (ultimately to −273 °C) is not scientifically accurate. Below −196 °C (−320 °F), the two dominant gases of Earth's atmosphere (oxygen and nitrogen) would liquefy and fall to the surface. Once the temperature drops below −220 °C (−365 °F), the liquefied gases would solidify, causing the atmospheric pressure in the affected zone to drop to zero. The remaining atmosphere would move to this zone and soon Earth would have no gaseous atmosphere, with a surface pressure of zero. None of these events occur in the film, although there is a drastic drop of pressure happening at the", "is called partial pressure. For example, air at sea level, and saturated with water vapor at 20 °C, has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water, 78 kPa of nitrogen, 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon, totaling 102.2 kPa, making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure. Measurement and units Vapor pressure is measured in the standard units of pressure. The International System of Units (SI) recognizes pressure as a derived unit with the dimension of force per area and designates the pascal (Pa) as its standard unit. One pascal is one newton per square meter (N·m⁻² or", "vapor pressure. As the temperature of a liquid increases, the kinetic energy of its molecules also increases. As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also increases, thereby increasing the vapor pressure.\nThe vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation. The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift", "fraction of atmospheric pressure. Internal pressure is commonly measured in inches of water, inAq, and varies fractionally from 0.3 inAq for minimal inflation to 3 inAq for maximum, with 1 inAq being a standard pressurization level for normal operating conditions. In terms of the more common pounds per square inch, 1 inAq equates to a mere 0.037 psi (2.54 mBar, 254 Pa).", "can be used to calculate the equilibrium temperature change caused by an increase in GHGs, but only in the upper atmosphere where heat transport by convection is unimportant. Origin of the greenhouse effect Schwarzschild's equation provides a simple explanation for the existence of the greenhouse effect and demonstrates that it requires a non-zero lapse rate. Rising air in the atmosphere expands and cools as the pressure on it falls, producing a negative temperature gradient in the Earth's troposphere. When radiation travels upward through falling temperature, the incoming radiation, I, (emitted by the warmer surface or by GHGs at lower" ]

[ "Since alcohol is a depressant your body is biologically fighting that, essentially trying to bring you back \"up\" and giving you energy.", "While you are probably young, my educated guess is that alcohol sends you directly into heavy REM sleep very quickly, so you spend less time drifting in and out of REM and more time getting what you need from your sleeping. Say for example you need so many minutes of REM to get by, you may spend 8 hours sleeping but only a portion of that is actual REM sleep. When you're drunk, it just puts you there, quickly. So if you sleep for say, 5 or 6 hours while drunk, you're cutting straight to the chase and getting that sweet restorative REM sleep. \n\nThanks, drinkin'!", "All right, I'll try this again.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's the rebound effect - when you have alcohol in your body, and even after it's all metabolized, you slip back into REM sleep from deep sleep, and it's easier to wake up. You'll feel more awake, which you generally associate with being well-rested, but since you missed a lot of deeper sleep, the opposite is true. The page I linked to says that you should try to wait until more of the alcohol is metabolized before going to sleep.", "I'd like to know the answer to this too. It happens to me. Its not because your young. I'm 32" ]

[ "a lack of sleep can impact cognitive performance. For example, it might become difficult to stay focused and concentrate, and reaction times might also be slowed down. All these factors can affect work efficiency and cause accidents. All these consequences are dangerous for the individual but also for others, as many jobs involve taking care of or protecting others. In addition, SWSD might interfere with making decisions quickly, driving, or flying safely.\nTo promote a healthy lifestyle, the American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommended that an adult have 7 or more hours of sleep per day. Each year there are", "the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to", "significant effects on the energy balance the next morning, including reduced energy expenditure, enhanced hedonic stimulus processing in the brain underlying the drive to consume food, and overeating that goes beyond satiety. Further recent studies have shown that a reduction of sleep duration to four hours for two consecutive nights has been shown to decrease circulating leptin levels and to increase ghrelin levels, as well as self-reported hunger. Similar endocrine alterations have been shown to occur even after a single night of sleep restriction.\nIn a balanced order, nine healthy normal-weight men spent three nights in a sleep laboratory separated by", "healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking", "We Should Be Sleeping Context The song follows the story behind Eddie Money and his band's lack of sleep because of extensive and exhausting touring. In the lyrics, Eddie Money uses several references towards staying awake, yet having no energy.", "time, impairs judgment, and memory is impaired. The effects of sleep deprivation compared to the effects of alcohol Numerous studies have found that sleep deprivation can affect driving as much as (and sometimes more than) alcohol. British researchers have found that driving after 17 to 18 hours of being awake is as harmful as driving with a blood alcohol level of .05%, the legal limit in many European countries. The MythBusters TV show dedicated a special episode \"Tipsy vs. Tired\" to exploring these findings and has confirmed that sleep deprivation can be more dangerous than driving under the influence of", "takes place mostly during slow-wave sleep, during which body temperature, heart rate, and brain oxygen consumption decrease. The brain, especially, requires sleep for restoration, whereas in the rest of the body these processes can take place during quiescent waking. In both cases, the reduced rate of metabolism enables countervailing restorative processes.\nWhile awake, metabolism generates reactive oxygen species, which are damaging to cells. During sleep, metabolic rates decrease and reactive oxygen species generation is reduced allowing restorative processes to take over. The sleeping brain has been shown to remove metabolic waste products at a faster rate than during an awake state.", "over. It is theorized that sleep helps facilitate the synthesis of molecules that help repair and protect the brain from these harmful elements generated during waking. The metabolic phase during sleep is anabolic; anabolic hormones such as growth hormones (as mentioned above) are secreted preferentially during sleep.\nEnergy conservation could as well have been accomplished by resting quiescent without shutting off the organism from the environment, potentially a dangerous situation. A sedentary nonsleeping animal is more likely to survive predators, while still preserving energy. Sleep, therefore, seems to serve another purpose, or other purposes, than simply conserving energy. Another potential purpose", "its supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the molecule used for short-term storage and transport of energy. In quiet waking, the brain is responsible for 20% of the body's energy use, thus this reduction has a noticeable effect on overall energy consumption.\nSleep increases the sensory threshold. In other words, sleeping persons perceive fewer stimuli, but can generally still respond to loud noises and other salient sensory events.\nDuring slow-wave sleep, humans secrete bursts of growth hormone. All sleep, even during the day, is associated with secretion of prolactin.\nKey physiological methods for monitoring and measuring changes during sleep include electroencephalography (EEG) of brain", "can also lead to profound disturbances of sleep with vivid dreams. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep as well as suppression of REM sleep and REM sleep fragmentation. During withdrawal REM sleep is typically exaggerated as part of a rebound effect. Mental health effects High rates of major depressive disorder occur in heavy drinkers and those who abuse alcohol. Whether it is more true that major depressive disorder causes self-medicating alcohol abuse, or the increased incidence of the disorder in alcohol abusers is caused by the drinking, is not known though some evidence suggests", "of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.\nIt has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and", "as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in", "with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\" ", "associated with habitual short sleep is associated with increased appetite and energy expenditure with the equation tipped towards food intake rather than expenditure in societies where high-calorie food is freely available.\nSeveral large studies using nationally representative samples suggest that one of the causes of high obesity rates in the United States might be a corresponding decrease in the average number of hours that people are sleeping. The findings suggest that this might be happening because sleep deprivation could be disrupting hormones that regulate glucose metabolism and appetite. Leptin is one of the hormones that communicate with one's brain to indicate", "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", "the heat in the body and therefore those with warm Mizaj who want to lose weight would benefit such exercise. Sleeping and wakefulness Sleep is a passive, dormant part of our daily lives while wakefulness is daily recurring brain state and state of consciousness. Sleep is physical and mental rest and wakefulness is the state of physical and mental activity.\nTherefore, the longer one stays up the drier and warmer their bodies get and the longer one sleeps the wetter the brain and the body gets and their temperament would drop lower. Actually while one is sleeping the body temperature drops", "that the body is full. When one becomes sleep deprived, leptin levels decrease, resulting in a more aggressive appetite. user:dnbell/sandbox\nThe association between sleep deprivation and obesity appears to be strongest in young and middle-age adults. Other scientists hold that the physical discomfort of obesity and related problems, such as sleep apnea, reduce an individual's chances of getting a good night's sleep.\nSleep loss is currently proposed to disturb endocrine regulation of energy homeostasis leading to weight gain and obesity. For instance, laboratory sleep deprivation studies in young men have demonstrated that one night of wakefulness (typically found in shift workers) exerts", "spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to", " A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The", "mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to", "sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\nThe studies eventually led Dement and Carskadon to conclude that \"the brain keeps an exact accounting of how much sleep it is owed\". Not getting enough sleep during any given period of time leads to a phenomenon called sleep debt, which lowers sleep latency scores and makes sleep-deprived individuals fall asleep more quickly. Home testing of sleep latency For home-testing", "will frequently advise that these hours of sleep are obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule. Activities Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better", "a state of relaxation that shifts an individual's internal clock towards the sleep cycle. This is said to have an effect on children and adults with various cases of sleep disorders. Music is most effective before bed once the brain has been conditioned to it, helping to achieve sleep much faster. Melatonin In addressing sleep disorders and possible solutions, there is often a lot of buzz surrounding melatonin. Research suggests that melatonin is useful in helping people to fall asleep faster (decreased sleep latency), to stay asleep longer, and to experience improved sleep quality. In order to test this, a", "restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Lastly, limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions due to urinations. Sleep environment Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time", "be one explanation why people eat more when they are sleep deprived. Another study with adolescents found greater neural activation in brain regions associated with inhibition in response to food cues after sleep restriction and also found neural activation was consistent with greater reward processing associated with food cues after sleep restriction. These findings did not differ in groups with normal weight or overweight/obese.\nSleep restriction also showed to increase the neuronal response like blood oxygen to high-caloric food in normal-weight subjects (reward processing food cues after sleep restriction. And let to relative increase of activity in brain areas related with", "naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions", "Sleep-deprived driving Sleep-deprived driving (commonly known as tired driving, drowsy driving, or fatigued driving) is the operation of a motor vehicle while being cognitively impaired by a lack of sleep. Sleep deprivation is a major cause of motor vehicle accidents, and it can impair the human brain as much as inebriation can. According to a 1998 survey, 23% of adults have fallen asleep while driving. According to the United States Department of Transportation, male drivers admit to have fallen asleep while driving twice as much as female drivers.\nIn the United States, 250,000 drivers fall asleep at the wheel every day,", "considerations According to the spoon theory, spoons (units of energy) may be replaced after rest or a night of sleep. However, people with chronic diseases, such as autoimmune diseases, and various disabilities may have sleep difficulties. This can result in a particularly low supply of energy. Some people with a disability may not be fatigued by the disabilities themselves, but by the constant effort required to pass as non-disabled.", "energy expenditure, which predisposes weight gain. However, the strength of the relationship between sleep duration and physical activity remains unclear: Some studies show a relationship between sleep duration and physical activity, but not really a strong one Others show a non-reciprocal relationship where fatness predicts less physical activity and also sleep duration predict fatness, but there couldn’t be an association found in a model which includes all three factors.\nSleep deprivation is believed to influence the brain's response to high-calorie food, making it more attractive, while also affecting the production of hormones that control appetite. Matthew P Walker, a psychology and", "of the body's total energy needs. Sleep necessarily reduces this use and gives time for the restoration of energy-giving ATP. The effects of sleep deprivation show the absolute need for sleep.\nThe lateral hypothalamus contains orexinergic neurons that control appetite and arousal through their projections to the ascending reticular activating system. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland through the release of peptides such as oxytocin, and vasopressin, as well as dopamine into the median eminence. Through the autonomic projections, the hypothalamus is involved in regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, sweating, and other homeostatic mechanisms. The hypothalamus also" ]

[ "Aluminium foil has a smooth shiny surface. Because of this it reflects back the heat raditations emitted by the food back to them which keeps the food warm for longer time. It is a good conductor but a very poor radiator and absorber. It is also cheap to produce in suitable sheet form.\n\nSource: _URL_0_" ]

[ "to other materials such as plastics or paper to make them more useful. Aluminium foil supplanted tin foil in the mid 20th century.\nAnnual production of aluminium foil was approximately 800,000 tonnes (880,000 tons) in Europe and 600,000 tonnes (660,000 tons) in the U.S. in 2003. Approximately 75% of aluminium foil is used for packaging of foods, cosmetics, and chemical products, and 25% is used for industrial applications (e.g., thermal insulation, cables, and electronics). It can be recycled.\nIn North America, aluminium foil is known as \"aluminum foil\". It was popularised by Reynolds Metals, the leading manufacturer in North America. In the", "the newer aluminium foil. Tin foil is less malleable than aluminium foil and tends to give a slight tin taste to food wrapped in it. Tin foil has been supplanted by aluminium and other materials for wrapping food.\nThe first audio recordings on phonograph cylinders were made on tin foil. The first aluminium foil Tin was first replaced by aluminium in 1910, when the first aluminium foil rolling plant, \"Dr. Lauber, Neher & Cie.\" was opened in Emmishofen, Switzerland. The plant, owned by J.G. Neher & Sons, the aluminium manufacturers, started in 1886 in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, at the foot of", "for drinks and dairy goods, which allows storing without refrigeration. Aluminium foil containers and trays are used to bake pies and to pack takeaway meals, ready snacks and long life pet foods.\nAluminium foil is widely sold into the consumer market, often in rolls of 500 mm (20 in) width and several metres in length. It is used for wrapping food in order to preserve it, for example, when storing leftover food in a refrigerator (where it serves the additional purpose of preventing odour exchange), when taking sandwiches on a journey, when baking, or when selling some kinds of take-away or fast food.", "United Kingdom and United States it is, informally, widely called tin foil, for historical reasons (similar to how aluminium cans are often still called \"tin cans\"). Metallised films are sometimes mistaken for aluminium foil, but are actually polymer films coated with a thin layer of aluminium. In Australia, aluminium foil is widely called alfoil. Before aluminium foil Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its aluminium counterpart. Tin foil was marketed commercially from the late nineteenth into the early twentieth century. The term \"tin foil\" survives in the English language as a term for", "Tin foil Tin foil, also spelled tinfoil, is a thin foil made of tin. Tin foil was superseded after World War II by cheaper and more durable aluminium foil, which is still referred to as \"tin foil\" in many regions. History Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its aluminium counterpart. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, tin foil was in common use, and some people continue to refer to the new product by the name of the old one. Tin foil is stiffer than aluminium foil. It tends to give a", "barbecuing delicate foods, such as mushrooms and vegetables. Using this method, sometimes called a hobo pack, food is wrapped in foil, then placed on the grill, preventing loss of moisture that may result in a less appealing texture.\nAs is the case with all metallic items, aluminium foil reacts to being placed in a microwave oven. This is because of the electromagnetic fields of the microwaves inducing electric currents in the foil and high potentials at the sharp points of the foil sheet; if the potential is sufficiently high, it will cause electric arcing to areas with lower potential, even to", "a herringbone pattern. These lubricants are sprayed on the foil surface before passing through the mill rolls. Kerosene based lubricants are commonly used, although oils approved for food contact must be used for foil intended for food packaging.\nAluminium becomes work hardened during the cold rolling process and is annealed for most purposes. The rolls of foil are heated until the degree of softness is reached, which may be up to 340 °C (644 °F) for 12 hours. During this heating, the lubricating oils are burned off, leaving a dry surface. Lubricant oils may not be completely burnt off for hard temper rolls,", "slight tin taste to food wrapped in it, which is a major reason it has largely been replaced by aluminium and other materials for wrapping food.\nBecause of its corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, availability, low cost, low toxicity, and slight malleability, tin foil was used as a filling for tooth cavities prior to the 20th century.\nThe first audio recordings on phonograph cylinders were made on tin foil.", "the banana tree do not burn/ignite as they contain enough oil to resist the heat from the flames (at least until the frying is complete). The way to adapt recipes where food is wrapped in foil is to use a barrier such as baking or silicone paper between the food and the foil; the overall technique is similar to the en papillote technique developed in French cuisine, but uses a more robust container.\nOther simple methods include clay wrapping food (such as in the kleftiko method used in Greek cuisine), leaf wrapping, and plank grilling, where food is cooked on a", "inert precious metal foils are not considered toxic to human beings nor to broader ecosystems. Large quantities of ingested bioactive silver can cause argyria, but the use of edible silver or gold as vark is not considered harmful to the body, since the metal is in inert form (not ionic bioactive form), and the quantities involved in normal use are minuscule.\nOne study has found that about 10% of 178 foils studied from the Lucknow (India) market were made of aluminium. Of the tested foils, 46% of the samples were found to have the desired purity requirement of 99.9% silver, whereas", "consumers, single-service and single-use articles must be used to ensure safety.\" Materials Disposable foodservice packaging can be made from a number of materials, each with its own uses and benefits. Aluminum Aluminum is used to manufacture foils, wraps, bags, containers, and trays. Plastics Many disposable foodservice products can be made of plastic or plastic-coated paper: cups, plates, bowls, trays, food containers and cutlery, for example. Plastics are used because the material is lightweight and holds the temperature of hot/cold food and beverages. Foamed polystyrene (sometimes referred to as Styrofoam) is in one of the most common types of plastics used", "exposure to bisphenol A avoid canned food and polycarbonate plastic containers (which shares resin identification code 7 with many other plastics) unless the packaging indicates the plastic is bisphenol A-free. The National Toxicology Panel recommends avoiding microwaving food in plastic containers, putting plastics in the dishwasher, or using harsh detergents on plastics, to avoid leaching. Aromatic Amines Aromatic amines are chemicals that are produced when products such as dyes, polyurethane products, and certain pesticides are made. They are also found in cigarette smoke, fuel exhaust, and in over cooked, burned meat. The three types of aromatic amines monocyclic, polycyclic,", "Potassium lactate Culinary uses Potassium lactate is commonly used in meat and poultry products to extend shelf life and increase food safety as it has a broad antimicrobial action and is effective at inhibiting most spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. Fire fighting uses Potassium lactate is also used as an extinguishing medium in the First Alert Tundra fire extinguishers.", "commonly used technique is the baking of food in aluminum foil packets. Food is wrapped inside a durable packet of tin or aluminum foil, crimped to seal, and placed on or under hot coals. Baked potatoes are commonly cooked this way but entire meals can be cooked in one packet. Besides aluminum or tin, organic material such as leaves (of tree, \"Nelumbo nucifera\" lotus, \"Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro\" bamboo aka Bambusa oldhamii (麻竹葉), phragmites, plantain, taro, etc.), husks (of corn, \"Phyllostachys makinoi\" bamboo (桂竹籜), etc.), and skins of fruit (citrus, etc.) are also frequently employed. Tree leaves such as those from", "Tex-Mex restaurants in the United States, for example, typically provide take-away burritos wrapped in aluminium foil. Insulation Aluminium foil is widely used for radiation shield (barrier and reflectivity), heat exchangers (heat conduction) and cable liners (barrier and electrical conductivity). Aluminium foil's heat conductive qualities make it a common accessory in hookah smoking: a sheet of perforated aluminium foil is frequently placed between the coal and the tobacco, allowing the tobacco to be heated without coming into direct contact with the burning coal. Electromagnetic shielding The shielding effectiveness of aluminium foil depends upon the type of incident field (electric, magnetic, or", "process for bonding Teflon to chemically roughened aluminum was patented in France by Marc Gregoire in 1954. In 1956 he formed a company to market non-stick cookware under the \"Tefal\" brand name. The durability of the early coatings was initially poor, but improvements in manufacturing have made these products a kitchen standard. The surface is not as tough as metal and the use of metal utensils (e.g. spatulas) can permanently mar the coating and degrade its non-stick property.\nFor some cooking preparations a non-stick frying pan is inappropriate, especially for deglazing, where the residue of browning is to be incorporated in", "their presses' efficiency. Uses Cold foil is most commonly used on products that call for a strong \"shelf appeal\", such as household consumables, cigarette cartons, wine labels, and cosmetic packaging. It provides a luxurious metallic look on higher added-value label applications.", "and preventing spoilage without using preservatives. Most packaging material used in aseptic packaging is made from plastics instead of metal or glass containers due to the relatively low cost of producing plastic material when compared to metal and glass. Plastics are lighter than metal or glass making them cheaper and easier to transport. Plastics also required much less energy to produce than metal and glass. These factors have made plastic the packaging material of choice for use in aseptic processing. Effects on food quality Aseptic processing preserves food quality through fast heat treatment followed by a short holding time and", "adopted, especially in the West, for \"Chinese takeout\".\nIn Britain old newspapers were traditionally used for wrapping fish and chips until this was banned for health reasons in the 1980s. Many people are nostalgic for this traditional wrapping; some modern fish and chip shops wrap their food in faux-newspaper, food-safe paper printed to look like a newspaper.\nCorrugated fiberboard and foam containers are to some extent self-insulating, and can be used for other foods. Thermal bags and other insulated shipping containers keep food hot (or cold) more effectively for longer.\nAluminium containers are also popular for take-out packaging due to their low cost.", "steel core (in this process, the aluminum surface is typically 90% aluminum and 10% silicon, which is not quite the same as pure aluminum). \nCommon features that may be found in sheet pans include: one or more flat edges to assist food removal, one or more raised edges (lips) to retain food, a contiguous rim to retain either food or shallow liquid, handles to assist in moving the pan into and out of the oven, a layer of insulation (typically air) designed to protect delicate food from burning (air bake pan), or perforations to aid in speeding cooking (pizza tray).\nRigidity", "is able to withstand mold and mildew, as well as contaminants.\nThe container must be made of materials resistant to hot or cold temperatures. It must also protect the product from ultraviolet rays, which can potentially damage the product. The container also cannot absorb product substances. Traditionally, plastic material or glass have been used to house cosmetics. Aluminum has become a popular type of container due to its lightweight yet sturdy quality, flexibility, durability and recyclability. A key factor in what type of material can be used for containers is how compatible the material is with the product.\nPlastic packaging materials are", "the unused aluminium foil.", "added to baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), cyanoacrylate glue forms a hard, lightweight adhesive filler (baking soda is first used to fill a gap then the adhesive is dropped onto the baking soda). This works well with porous materials that do not work well with the adhesive alone. This method is sometimes used by aircraft modelers to assemble or repair polystyrene foam parts. It is also used to repair small nicks in the leading edge of wood propeller blades on light aircraft, although this technique is limited to use on aircraft registered in the \"experimental\" category (composite propellers can be repaired", "a common term for this packaging. Purposes of packaging Packaging preserves aroma and flavor and eases shipping and dispensation. Wax paper seals against air, moisture, dust, and germs, while cellophane is valued by packagers for its transparency and resistance to grease, odors and moisture. In addition, it is often resealable. Polyethylene is another form of film sealed with heat, and this material is often used to make bags in bulk packaging. Plastic wraps are also common. Aluminum foils wrap chocolate bars and prevent a transfer of water vapor while being lightweight, non-toxic and odor proof. Vegetable parchment lines boxes of", "is different from paper) is the reason products meant to be browned via susceptor-generated thermal radiation carry instructions to microwave the food while still inside its packaging.\nSusceptors meant to heat foods by direct conduction in places where less browning will occur may be seen in the gray lining of packaging directly holding the food, and in good contact with it. A typical example of the latter is the paper susceptor-lined dish directly holding a microwaveable pot pie or casserole.\nSusceptors built into packaging create high temperatures in a microwave oven. This is useful for crisping and browning foods, as well as", "with more aluminum (to soften it) or magnesium (to harden it), a new approach uses annealing to produce an alloy that works for both.\nThe aluminum can is also considered the most valuable recyclable material in an average recycling bin. It is estimated that Americans throw away nearly 1 billion dollars a year in wasted aluminum. The aluminum industry pays nearly 800 million dollars a year for recycled aluminum since it is so versatile.\nBecause of the advantages of aluminium packaging (shelf life, durability, food grade factor) over plastics, it is considered an alternative to PET bottles, with the possibility of replacing", "aluminium in mess equipment has been identified as a health hazard, and plastics and disposables have become more common. In particular, the use of Individual Meal Packs (IMP) have become common, with chemical cooking bags. Messing from hayboxes/fresh rations in the field is often accomplished with disposable mess gear (i.e. paper plates).", "oxygen barrier prevents food spoilage, while the film barrier to flavor and aroma molecules helps food retain its flavor and aroma. History Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) was discovered at Dow Chemical Company (Michigan, USA) in 1933 when a lab worker, Ralph Wiley, was having trouble washing beakers used in his process of developing a dry-cleaning product. It was initially developed into a spray that was used on US fighter planes and, later, automobile upholstery, to protect them from the elements. Dow Chemical later named the product Saran and eliminated its green hue and offensive odor.\nIn 1942, fused layers of", "strength.\nIn the US and Japan, plastic wrap is sometimes produced using polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), though some brands, such as Saran wrap, have switched to other formulations due to environmental concerns. Purpose The most important role plastic wrap plays in food packaging is protection and preservation. Plastic wrap can prevent food from perishing, extend its shelf-life, and maintain the quality of food. Plastic wrap generally provides protection for food from 3 aspects: chemical (gases, moisture, and light), biological (microorganisms, insects and animals), and physical (mechanical damage). In addition to food protection and preservation, plastic wrap can also reduce food waste, tag", "surface area means less surface contact with the food that is to be cooked and therefore has less heat transfer. Unfortunately, since the surface is fine, it can be scratched off over time, and the benefit from having it in the first place is lost. Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) Polytetrafluoroethylene (commonly called by its DuPont brand name, Teflon) is a polymer that is used as a coating for non-stick cookware. The polymer is a polyethylene chain with fluorine atoms replacing the hydrogen atoms. Since fluorine has a very high electronegativity, it does not react to anything and results in" ]