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[ "I don't think we understand the functioning of the brain well enough to be able to pinpoint the biological bases of individual beliefs and their changes.", "I like this question because it is very simple and inexplicable. I don't think the brain would change, but like learning something new, the world around you would change. I read a book years ago called \"Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain\". Basically, we have habits that form channels through our brain, which can be altered, but its not easy. It was based on a study of Buddhist monks as they meditated in an MRI. I read it because I was interested in cognitive behavioral therapy which guides people through what you are talking about." ]

[ "is rational to suppose that mental life ceases when bodily life ceases. The argument is only one of probability, but it is as strong as those upon which most scientific conclusions are based.\nContra Russell, J. M. E. McTaggart argues that people have no scientific proof that the mind is dependent on the body in this particular way. As Rowe notes, the fact that the mind depends on the functions of the body while one is alive is not necessarily proof that the mind will cease functioning after death just as a person trapped in a room while depending on the", "research on these existential issues without taking into account the existential literature inevitably leads to superficiality or mischaracterization.\nA comprehensive positive psychology cannot be developed without taking into account the reality of death, the only certainty for all living organisms. However, human beings alone are burdened with the cognitive capacity to be aware of their own mortality and to fear what may follow after one's own demise. However, death awareness may be essential to meaningful living; \"though the physicality of death destroys us, the idea of death saves us\" (p. 7). Thus, awareness of our finality is indeed an important motivational factor", "as there is mental preoccupation with cause and effect; there is no origination of cause and effect when engrossment with cause and effect becomes attenuated. As long as there is mental preoccupation with causality so long does the worldly state continue; when engrossment with causality is exhausted, one does not attain the worldly state. Everything seems to be born because of the empirical outlook; therefore there is nothing eternal; from the standpoint of Reality, everything is the birthless Self; therefore there is no such thing as annihilation (Karika VI.55-57). Apparent manifestations of the self Gaudapada begins with the three apparent", "occur rarely and are more prevalent in patients with traumatic head injuries, and brain disorders including epilepsy. Involuntary memory retrieval Often, even after years, mental states once present in consciousness return to it with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will; that is, they are reproduced involuntarily. Here, also, in the majority of cases we at once recognise the returned mental state as one that has already been experienced; that is, we remember it. Under certain conditions, however, this accompanying consciousness is lacking, and we know only indirectly that the \"now\" must be identical with the \"then\"; yet", "this exposure, they can unlearn any patterns of thought they had towards it by realizing that they are safe, referred to as extinction. Although, studies have shown that certain stimuli can cue a spontaneous recovery if there was not a full extinction of the associated perception to a memory. Cases One case documented by researcher Geraerts portrays both spontaneous recovery and false memories in the case of Elizabeth Janssen (name has been changed for the patient's courtesy). She was a very depressed woman and she had no idea why. Her life was great and up to her standards but she", "collapses wave equations, the self may not be merely a by-product of the brain, but rather a separate entity that impinges on matter. Tucker argues that viewing the self as a fundamental, nonmaterial part of the universe makes it possible to conceive of it continuing to exist after the death of the brain. He provides the analogy of a television and the television transmission; the television is required to decode the signal, but it does not create the signal. In a similar way, the brain may be required for awareness to express itself, but may not be the source of", "are not necessarily functionally impaired in any way, though it is often associated with other detrimental memory conditions. They can perform basic everyday tasks and take care of themselves. However, they may have difficulty remembering details from their memory. New memories are created and stored just as easily as anyone else, assuming no prior condition exists that would prevent that. Society and culture Memory distrust disorder has been shown to cause false confessions in court cases. This occurs when the suggestible individual is asked a question which leads them to believe that their recollection is incorrect. Due to their suggestibility", "each moment capable of remembering all that has ever happened to him and of perceiving everything that is happening everywhere in the universe. The function of the brain and nervous system is to protect us from being overwhelmed and confused by this mass of largely useless and irrelevant knowledge, by shutting out most of what we should otherwise perceive or remember at any moment, and leaving only that very small and special selection which is likely to be practically useful. According to such a theory, each one of us is potentially Mind at Large.\nIn The Doors of Perception, Huxley also", "(reviewed in Watkins, 2008).\nPerseverative cognition may partly be unconscious. Just as people are not aware of the larger part of their thoughts (cognition), they may also not be aware of the cognitive representation of stressors.\nThe 'perseverative cognition hypothesis' holds that stressful events cannot affect people's health, unless they think repetitively or continuously (that is, 'perseverate cognitively') about these stressful events. Stressful events themselves are often too short, as are the physiological responses to them. Therefore the physiological responses during these stressors are unlikely to cause bodily harm. More importantly, many stressful events are merely worried about, or feared in", "salience. This means that if something is more meaningful to an individual, that individual may be less likely to forget it quickly. System interaction These inconsistencies may be found due to the difficulty with conducting experiments that focus solely on the passage of time as a cause of decay, ruling out alternative explanations. However, a close look at the literature regarding decay theory will reveal inconsistencies across several studies and researchers, making it difficult to pinpoint precisely which indeed plays the larger role within the various systems of memory. It could be argued that both temporal decay and interference play", "general knowledge about the world, is usually unaffected. However, episodic memory, which refers to one's life experiences, is impaired.\nAnother real life problem with RA is malingering, which is conceived as the rational output of a neurologically normal brain aiming at the surreptitious achievement of a well identified gain. Since it is common for people who have committed a crime to report having RA for that specific event in order to avoid their punishment, the legal system has pushed for the creation of a standardized test of amnesia. However, since most cases differ in onset, duration, and content forgotten, this task", "discovered the forgetting curve and the spacing effect, two of his most well-known contributions. Ebbinghaus was also the first to attempt a description of involuntary memory, stating that, 'Often, even after years, mental states once present in consciousness return to it with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will; that is, they are reproduced involuntarily. Here, also, in the majority of cases we at once recognize the returned mental state as one that has already been experienced; that is, we remember it. Under certain conditions, however, this accompanying consciousness is lacking, and we know only indirectly that the", "perception are targeted by Voids and risk either being consumed by them or losing their sanity. Under special circumstances, a person who maintains their sanity after being attacked by a Void can become a being known as an In-Birth (インヴァース invāsu). If a person or even an In-Birth becomes a fallen type of Void, their EXS transforms into FLS (ファルス farusu), the power source of the Voids and the man-made ancient being known as Autonomic Nerves (オートノミックナーヴ otomatiku neruvēsu), powered by Curse Commandment (呪戒 noroikai). While this status places a person into a sort of limbo where they are neither", "can at any point suddenly lose all its meaning. The reasons why this happens are many, ranging from a tragedy that \"tears a person's world apart\", to the results of an honest inquiry into one's own existence. Such an encounter can make a person mentally unstable, and avoiding such instability by making people aware of their condition and ready to handle it is one of the central themes of existentialism. Albert Camus, for instance, famously claimed in Le Mythe de Sisyphe that \"there is only one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide\".\nAside from these \"psychological\" issues, it is", "past. They forget instantaneously things in the present – seen heard or done. Many are irrational because the ideas do not flow coherently.\n\nThe characteristic properties of dementia are that there is no judgment value and the ideas are spontaneous with no connection. The specific character of dementia contains a rapid progression or continual succession of isolated ideas, forgetfulness of previous condition, repetitive acts of exaggeration, decreased responsiveness to external influence, and complete lack of judgment.\nThe fifth and last mental derangement is called idiotism, or otherwise known as “obliteration of the intellectual faculties and affections.” This disorder is derived from a variety", "act he was doing, or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong. These elements must be proven present on the balance of probabilities.\n\"Defect of reason\" means much more than, for instance, absent mindedness making a lady walk from a supermarket without paying for a jar of mincemeat. A \"disease of the mind\" includes not just brain diseases, but any impairment \"permanent or transient and intermittent\" so long as it is not externally caused (e.g. by drugs) and it has some effect on one's mind. So epilepsy can count, as can an", "As one author put it, \"It should be apparent that cognition is not possible without a reasonable degree of arousal.\" Cognition includes perception, memory, learning, executive functions, language, constructive abilities, voluntary motor control, attention, and mental speed. The most significant, however, are inattention, thought process abnormalities, comprehension abnormalities, and language abnormalities. The extent of the impairment is variable because inattention may impair several cognitive functions. Sufferers may complain of forgetfulness, being \"confused\", or being \"unable to think straight\". Despite the similarities, subsyndromal delirium is not the same thing as mild cognitive impairment. The fundamental difference is that mild cognitive impairment", "an effect on the subject. If the 10% statement were accurate then the brain could take more damage without affecting the quality of life.\nAt the Skeptic's Toolbox in 1993, Beyerstein laid out the unified theory by psychologists concerning brain function and the paranormal. \"This theory holds that all mental phenomena are products of the physical brain and that when the brain is destroyed or severely damaged, consciousness ceases forever.\" The physical-brain viewpoint, \"is supported by evolution, by the development of the individual human being, by pharmacological experiments, and by research on the effects of accidents affecting the brain.\"\nWhile working as", "\"forget\" the sense of self:\nEnlightenment occurs when the usually automatized reflexivity of consciousness ceases, which is experienced as a letting-go and falling into the void and being wiped out of existence [...] [W]hen consciousness stops trying to catch its own tail, I become nothing, and discover that I am everything.\nAccording to Welwood, \"egolessness\" is a common experience. Egolessness appears \"in the gaps and spaces between thoughts, which usually go unnoticed\". Existential anxiety arises when one realizes that the feeling of \"I\" is nothing more than a perception. According to Welwood, only egoless awareness allows us to face and accept death", "can cause simple memory errors.\nLong-term memory, large capacity able to retain information over long periods of time, does however show impairment in the case of depressed individuals. They tend to have difficulties in recall and recognition for both verbal and visuo-spatial material with intervals of a few minutes or even hours creating complex memory errors in relation to speech and surrounding details. Individuals suffering with depression also showed a specific deficit in retrieving information meaningfully organized in their semantic memory, conceptual knowledge about the real world. Therefore, depressive patients can show memory errors for the most meaningful events in their", "with an accompanying experiential aspect in consciousness seems impossible to explain.\nYet it also seems to many that science will eventually have to explain such experiences. This follows from an assumption about the possibility of reductive explanations. According to this view, if an attempt can be successfully made to explain a phenomenon reductively (e.g., water), then it can be explained why the phenomenon has all of its properties (e.g., fluidity, transparency). In the case of mental states, this means that there needs to be an explanation of why they have the property of being experienced in a certain way.\nThe 20th-century German", "self-serving, emotional component in those with memory deficits that aids to maintain a coherent self-concept. In other words, people who confabulate are motivated to do so, because they have gaps in their memory that they want to fill in and cover up. Temporality theory Support for the temporality account suggests that confabulations occur when an individual is unable to place events properly in time. Thus, an individual might correctly state an action he/she performed, but say he/she did it yesterday, when he/she did it weeks ago. In the Memory, Consciousness, and Temporality Theory, confabulation occurs because of a deficit in", "of reality but also (or instead) a mental inability to conceive even the possibility of seeing that aspect, due to a cognitive schema that lacks any provision for it.\n\nAt the most concrete level, there is neuropsychological scotoma. One example is the hemispatial neglect that is sometimes experienced by people who have had strokes. Another type is the phenomenon of reverse or negative phantom limb, in which nerve injuries to the limbs, such as trauma in which a limb's nerves are severed but the limb is spared from amputation, can affect the mind's body schema in such a way that an", "as human beings. The distinction should be made that \"brain death\" cannot be equated with one who is in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery.\nThose people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone", "of these possible factors can decrease the validity of the memory due to retrieval for details of the event being more difficult to perform. This leads to details of memories being confused with others or lost completely, which lead to many errors in recall of a memory. Memory errors in Abnormal Psychology Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as a mental disorder. Memory errors can commonly be found in types of abnormal psychology such as Alzheimer's disease, depression, and schizophrenia. Alzheimer's Disease Alzheimer’s", "solely alters the individual's currently retrievable memories, and not randomized information. Causes It is normal to have some level of memory distrust, or the lack of trusting in one's own memory. This may occur when speaking with your parents about your childhood, for example. However it seems that everyone has their own level of memory distrust, and memory distrust syndrome seems to be a severe case.\nThe direct cause is unknown; however, it is possibly a defense or coping mechanism to a preexisting condition that would alter one's memory. This could involve frontal lobe lesions, Alzheimer's disease, amnesia, dementia, or other", "mind's process, or the events which occur, such as visions and auditory stimuli, may persist and be repeated often over hours, days, months or years—and the afflicted person may believe themselves to be in a state of rapture or possession.\nWhat the Freudian tradition has subjectively called, \"sense of self\" is for Jungian analytic psychology, where one's identity is lodged in the persona or ego and is subject to change in maturation. Carl Jung distinguished, \"The self is not only the center, but also the whole circumference which embraces both conscious and unconscious; it is the center of this totality...\". The", "When it happens that one's mind is empty, one is able to possess much intellect without said intellect interfering with the process of absorbing new information. When it happens that one's mind is unified, one understands differences and the variety of information, but does not allow \"one fact to impinge upon that of another.\" When it happens that one's mind is still, although one may daydream and imagine and have a mind constantly in motion, one does not allow these mental meanderings to distort perceptions. Xunzi is referring to peace of mind rather than an attempt to unlearn", "by Wegner's research on thought suppression (1994; 1997), thoughts that are purposely suppressed from conscious awareness are often brought back with ease, then following a delay death-thought cognitions should be more available to consciousness than (a) those who keep the death-thoughts in their consciousness the whole time, and (b) those who suppress the death-thoughts but are not provided a delay. That is precisely what they found. However, other psychologists have failed to replicate these findings.\nIn these initial studies (i.e., Greenberg et al. (2004); Arndt et al. (1997)), and in numerous subsequent DTA studies, the main measure of DTA is a word fragment task,", "temporary aphasia, or impairment of language.\nAs time progresses, and the severity of injury becomes clear, there are further responses that may become apparent. Due to loss of blood flow or damaged tissue, sustained during the injury, amnesia and aphasia may become permanent, and apraxia has been documented in patients. Amnesia is a condition in which a person is unable to remember things. Aphasia is the loss or impairment of word comprehension or use. Apraxia is a motor disorder caused by damage to the brain, and may be more common in those who have been left brain damaged, with loss of" ]

[ "this can be caused by a variety of things, but the most notable, and most well-understood, is sleep cycles.\n\nEssentially, when we sleep, we transition between deeper and lighter sleep in cycles. The exact length of the cycles varies from person to person, but roughly speaking, you will be sleeping lightly 90 minutes from when you fall asleep, and 90 minutes from then, and so on. And the lighter you were sleeping when you woke up, the less tired and more refreshed you will feel when you do." ]

[ "resulting insomnia and sleep deprivation can cause exhaustion, changes in mood, sleepiness, impaired productivity, fatigue, increased risk of accidents, and cognitive dysfunction. 25% of falls that older individuals experience happen during the night, of which 25% occur while waking up to void.\nA quality of life test for people who experience nocturia was published in 2004. The pilot study was conducted only on men. Prevalence Studies show that 5-15% of people who are 20–50 years old, 20-30% of people who are 50–70 years old, and 10-50% of people 70+ years old, urinate at least twice a night. Nocturia becomes more", "the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to", "of total sleep deprivation). Mean body temperature falls continually during this period.\nIt has been suggested that acute REM sleep deprivation can improve certain types of depression when depression appears to be related to an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters. Although sleep deprivation in general annoys most of the population, it has repeatedly been shown to alleviate depression, albeit temporarily. More than half the individuals who experience this relief report it to be rendered ineffective after sleeping the following night. Thus, researchers have devised methods such as altering the sleep schedule for a span of days following a REM deprivation period and", "to go to bed early in the evening and wake earlier in the morning than younger adults. Furthermore, the elderly often wake several times throughout the night and have difficulty falling asleep. They are prone to taking numerous naps during the day. Furthermore, constant lighting in assisted living facilities has been demonstrated to impair sleep ability.\nIn persons with Alzheimer's Disease, sleep disturbances are much more frequent and tend to be more severe. These patients exhibit intermittent sleep throughout the 24-hour day, instead of consolidated sleep at night and wakefulness during the day.\nPoor sleep is one of the largest", "complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved. Depression The elderly frequently cite depression as a notable ailment. Many researchers have linked the depression to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and seasonal mood variations have been linked to lack of light. (SAD is", "Sleep state misperception Symptoms and diagnosis This sleep disorder frequently applies when patients report not feeling tired despite their subjective perception of not having slept. Generally, they may describe experiencing several years of no sleep, short sleep, or non-restorative sleep. Otherwise, patients appear healthy, both psychiatrically and medically. (That this condition is often asymptomatic could explain why it is relatively unreported.)\nHowever, upon clinical observation, it is found that patients may severely overestimate the time they took to fall asleep—often reporting having slept half the amount of time indicated by polysomnogram or electroencephalography (EEG), which may record normal sleep. Observing such", "deprivation are reduced glucose tolerance, elevated evening cortisol levels, and increased sympathetic nervous system activity. Sleep quality at an old age is just as important as sleep duration to avoid lack of sleep. Research shows that feelings of loneliness and depression can result in poor sleep quality and daytime dysfunctions. These daytime impairments include physical and intellectual fatigue, irritability, and low cognitive abilities. Dementia Dementia is a variety of symptoms that apply to a decline in mental ability, not a specific disease. Geriatric psychologists work with dementia by aiding in the diagnosis of this disease. This is done through various", "rhythm sleep disorders. Naps The siesta habit has recently been associated with a 37% lower coronary mortality, possibly due to reduced cardiovascular stress mediated by daytime sleep. Short naps at mid-day and mild evening exercise were found to be effective for improved sleep, cognitive tasks, and mental health in elderly people.\nMany people experience a temporary drop in alertness in the early afternoon, commonly known as the \"post-lunch dip\". While a large meal can make a person feel sleepy, the post-lunch dip is mostly an effect of the circadian clock. People naturally feel most sleepy at two times of the day", "stimulation. Chronic fatigue, on the other hand, is a symptom of a greater medical problem in most cases. It manifests in mental or physical weariness and inability to complete tasks at normal performance. Both are often used interchangeably and even categorized under the description of 'being tired.' Fatigue is often described as an uncomfortable tiredness, whereas sleepiness is comfortable and inviting. Measurement Fatigue can be quantitatively measured. Devices to measure medical fatigue have been developed by Japanese companies, among them Nintendo (cancelled). Nevertheless such devices are not in common use outside Japan.", "partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,", "mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).\nREM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to", "deprived, homeostatic pressure accumulates to the point that waking functions will be degraded even at the highest circadian drive for wakefulness. Other effects In addition, as a result of continuous muscular activity without proper rest time, effects such as cramping are much more frequent in sleep-deprived individuals. Extreme cases of sleep deprivation have been reported to be associated with hernias, muscle fascia tears, and other such problems commonly associated with physical overexertion.\nA 2006 study has shown that while total sleep deprivation for one night caused many errors, the errors were not significant until after the second night of total sleep", "tend to stay awake at night, have higher melatonin at night just like diurnal mammals do. And, although removing the pineal gland in many animals abolishes melatonin rhythms, it does not stop circadian rhythms altogether—though it may alter them and weaken their responsiveness to light cues. Cortisol levels in diurnal animals typically rise throughout the night, peak in the awakening hours, and diminish during the day. In diurnal animals, sleepiness increases during the night. Rodents A study conducted by Datta indirectly supports the idea that memory benefits from sleep. A box was constructed wherein a single rat could move freely", "serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times. Second, inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin. Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time. Nutrition and diet Overnutrition is associated with diseases such as diabetes and obesity, which are known to affect immune function. More moderate malnutrition, as well as certain specific trace mineral and nutrient deficiencies, can also compromise the immune response.\nFoods rich in certain fatty acids may foster a healthy", "influence of universal indoor lighting. Even if they have sleep debt, or feel sleepy, people can have difficulty staying asleep at the peak of their circadian cycle. Conversely they can have difficulty waking up in the trough of the cycle. A healthy young adult entrained to the sun will (during most of the year) fall asleep a few hours after sunset, experience body temperature minimum at 6 a.m., and wake up a few hours after sunrise. Process S Generally speaking, the longer an organism is awake, the more it feels a need to sleep (\"sleep debt\"). This driver of sleep", "as of 2019. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies. Personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in the UK, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. Sleep Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in", "quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.\nActivities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time", "with irritability: people who get angry shortly before sleeping tend to suffer from sleep drunkenness. \nAccording to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, hypersomniac patients often take long naps during the day that are mostly unrefreshing. Researchers found that naps are usually more frequent and longer in patients than in controls Furthermore, 75% of the patients report that short naps are not refreshing, compared to controls. Diagnosis \"The severity of daytime sleepiness needs to be quantified by subjective scales (at least the Epworth Sleepiness Scale) and objective tests such as the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT).\" ", "healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.\nDue to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking", "was even more pronounced on the second day of extended wakefulness. Duration The wake maintenance zone generally lasts 2 to 3 hours, during which one is less inclined to fall asleep. While potentially useful for completing urgent tasks, it may have a potentially unwanted side-effect of keeping one awake for several hours after the task has been completed. The hypervigilance and stimulation brought on by a second wind can cause fatigue, which, in the case of infants, can be literally painful. Thus, an infant may begin crying when sleep habits are disrupted.\n\nOne can avoid \"getting a second wind\" by practicing", "naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions", "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", " A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The", "that can produce stress and mental health issues. Relaxation may help reduce insomnia in those who have sleeping disorders. Those with insomnia may even give up sleeping aids just by practicing relaxation techniques. Being off of unnecessary medication or sleep aids will help health as an over all. Even though relaxation cannot get rid of chronic diseases, it may help dull of the symptoms one may have. Many cancer and AIDS patients are taught relaxation techniques. Physical Physical health is also something that needs to be worked on daily, whether it is exercise, healthy eating, or relaxation. states that blood", "Wake therapy Wake therapy is a form of sleep deprivation used as a treatment for depression. The subject stays awake all night, or is woken at 1AM and stays awake all morning, and the next full day. While sleepy, patients find that their depression vanishes, until they sleep again. Combining this with bright light therapy make the beneficial effects last longer than one day. Partial sleep deprivation in the second half of the night may be as effective as an all-night sleep deprivation session.\nWake therapy is a therapy that falls under chronotherapeutics. Chronotherapy (treatment scheduling) is a process to", "few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy, which horses may suffer from.\nHorses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept entirely alone may not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger. Eating patterns Horses have a strong", "an alert state. Dreaming can occur in this state; however a person is not able to remember them due to how deep in sleep they are and the inability for consolidation to occur in memory. REM cycles typically occur in 90 minute intervals and increase in length as the amount of sleep in one session progresses. In a typical night's rest, a person will have about four to six cycles of REM and Non-REM sleep.\nSleep is important for the body in order to restore itself from the depletion of energy during wakefulness and allows for recovery since cell division occurs", "be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and physically healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment.\nThere is a small amount of evidence that skipping a night's sleep may improve depressive symptoms, with the effects usually showing up within a day. This effect is usually temporary. Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania.\nIn observational studies, smoking cessation has benefits in depression as large as or larger than those of medications.\nBesides exercise, sleep and diet may play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to", "of sleep disturbance. It may include sleeping for prolonged periods at night or increased sleeping during the daytime. The sleep may not be restful, and the person may feel sluggish despite many hours of sleep, which may amplify their depressive symptoms and interfere with other aspects of their lives. Hypersomnia is often associated with an atypical depression, as well as seasonal affective disorder. Feelings of guilt or worthlessness Depressed people may have feelings of guilt that go beyond a normal level or are delusional. These feelings of guilt and/or worthlessness are excessive and inappropriate. Major depressive episodes are notable for", "one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast" ]

[ "When you pay income tax you can chose to have it taken out from each check. The amount taken is just a ball park amount. You figure out the exact amount when you Actually fill out the paperwork and do your taxes. If the amount taken from your paychecks was too much, the government refunds the difference", "We have what is called Income Tax Withholding. Basically they take a portion of your pay, and hold onto it until your tax is actually assessed.\n\nLet's say I make $10k a year. The government holds onto 10% of that ($1k) until the end of the year when they determine what I \"really\" owe. This can be modified by how much my wife makes (if we file together), and any deductions I claim. After everything is tallied up, lets say my actual assessment is $850. The government refunds the excess ($150) because that is MY money. If in turn I am assessed at $1150, I owe an additional $150.", "Way way back at the start of the income tax, the government would have people complete a tax return at the end of the year (just like now). At the end of that tax return was a number that people had to pay. It was sometimes a rather large amount (although not as large by today's standards).\n\nObviously people were reluctant to pay it. So the government had trouble collecting it. So the government devised a plan. They would require employers to send a small portion of each paycheck to the government. \n\nSo the amount sent to the government at each pay period is based on an ESTIMATE of the taxes you should pay. You can call it a prepayment, or installment or withholding. But at the end of the day it's your employer sending money to the government to pay for the taxes that you are going to owe. At the end of the year you do a tax return and it calculates the CORRECT amount you should have to pay. \n\nNow you compare the 2 numbers and end up with a refund or a bill. The system is planed such that most \"normal\" people get a small refund. Thus solving the problems the government was having with collections. \n\nPeople sometimes confuse the words return and refund. A tax return is a form that you send to the government every year. A refund is the money that they sometimes send you back." ]

[ "lives. Tax depreciation Most income tax systems allow a tax deduction for recovery of the cost of assets used in a business or for the production of income. Such deductions are allowed for individuals and companies. Where the assets are consumed currently, the cost may be deducted currently as an expense or treated as part of cost of goods sold. The cost of assets not currently consumed generally must be deferred and recovered over time, such as through depreciation. Some systems permit full deduction of the cost, at least in part, in the year the assets", "Depreciation recapture (United States) Depreciation recapture is the USA Internal Revenue Service (IRS) procedure for collecting income tax on a gain realized by a taxpayer when the taxpayer disposes of an asset that had previously provided an offset to ordinary income for the taxpayer through depreciation. In other words, because the IRS allows a taxpayer to deduct the depreciation of an asset from the taxpayer's ordinary income, the taxpayer has to report any gain from the disposal of the asset (up to the recomputed basis) as ordinary income, not as a capital gain.\nDepreciation recapture most commonly applies when dealing", "Repatriation tax holiday A repatriation tax holiday is a tax holiday specifically directed towards individuals and businesses in one country who repatriate to that country income earned in other countries. The theory supporting such an action is that multinational companies headquartered in one country, but which earn income in a second country will be unlikely to bring income from the second country back to their home country if high taxes will be assessed on this income when it is brought back. By allowing those companies to bring income back to the home country at a reduced tax rate, money will", "individuals will choose to take the standard deduction rather than itemize their tax deductions because of the increase in standard deduction and limitation on itemized deduction for state and local taxes. As a result, these individuals will not see a tax savings from donations to churches or other eligible nonprofit organizations, and churches and other organizations may receive fewer charitable contributions.\nThe indexed estate tax exemption was doubled, which means that people may not need to include charitable contributions being written into their will in order to reduce the estate tax paid, which is expected to reduce the amount of charitable", "consumption expenditures with pre-tax dollars.\nProponents of eliminating the state and local tax deduction lost out in the 1986 Tax Reform, but they won a concession by eliminating these deductions in the AMT computation. That, coupled with the non-indexation of the AMT, created a slow-motion repeal of the deduction for state and local income taxes.\nThe AMT's partial disallowance of the foreign tax credit disadvantages even low-paid American citizens and green card holders who work abroad or who are otherwise paid in foreign currency. Particularly as the dollar falls around the world, those working abroad see their incomes (when reported to the", "regressive tax as \"[a] tax that takes a larger percentage from low-income people than from high-income people. A regressive tax is generally a tax that is applied uniformly. This means that it hits lower-income individuals harder\". Effects on local economies Higher sales taxes have been shown to have many different effects on local economies. With higher taxes, more consumers are starting to reconsider where they shop, according to a study conducted in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where the sales tax was raised on cigarettes. Effects of higher sales tax were not shown immediately in sales, but about six months after the", "a tax refund after the IRS has denied the refund claim, or 6 months have elapsed (120 days in bankruptcy cases) since the filing of the claim, whichever is earlier.\nFor the exception allowing litigation without first paying the tax in bankruptcy cases, see 11 U.S.C. § 505. For income taxes and certain other taxes, the taxpayer may also litigate the tax in the United States Tax Court prior to assessment without first paying the tax. Impact In the case of National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, in which the constitutionality of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was at issue,", "depreciated (when the aggregate tax deductions are equal to the original cost of the asset) there are no additional tax implications placed on the asset.\nAdvantages An advantage of having a loss from sale on an asset is the amount of the reduction on taxes after. The reduction in taxable income is known as a tax shield. [2]\nIn Ireland at least 50% of the revenue which disposal tax brings in to the government it is poured back into biological treatment of bio-waste and mechanical-biological treatment of waste. This reduces organic content of waste which goes into landfills or for incineration. This", "Tax deduction Limitations Often, deductions are subject to conditions, such as being allowed only for expenses incurred that produce current benefits. Capitalization of items producing future benefit can be required, though with some exceptions. A deduction is allowed, for example, on interest paid on student loans. Some systems allow taxpayer deductions for items the influential parties want to encourage as purchases. Business expenses Nearly all jurisdictions that tax business income allow deductions for business and trade expenses. Allowances vary and may be general or restricted. To be deducted, the expenses must be incurred in furthering business, and", "of the year and claim full depreciation deductions as if the property were used for the entire year. Taxpayers like the rule because it does not require them to keep track of or prove exactly when depreciable property was placed into service. Nonetheless, the IRS is wary of abuse of the half-year convention. Under § 168(d)(3) of the Federal Income Tax Code, if a taxpayer purchases a lot of depreciable assets in the last three months of the taxable year, they may be forced to use the less beneficial \"mid-quarter convention\". This convention treats such property", "of living in their locale.\n\nAs early as the first Tax Reform study in 1984, arguments were made for eliminating the deduction for state and local taxes: \n\nThe current deduction for State and local taxes in effect provides a Federal subsidy for the public services provided by State and local governments, such as public education, road construction and repair, and sanitary services. When taxpayers acquire similar services by private purchase (for example, when taxpayers pay for water or sewer services), no deduction is allowed for the expenditure. Allowing a deduction for State and local taxes simply permits taxpayers to finance personal", "refund extends only to two years' worth of paid taxes.", "dividends may be taxed at their point of origin, and the IRS does not recognize this tax as a creditable deduction. There is some controversy over whether this violates tax treaties, such as the Convention Between Canada and the United States of America With Respect to Taxes on Income and on Capital. Retirement savings While the average (mean) and median IRA individual balance in 2008 were approximately $70,000 and $20,000 respectively, higher balances are not rare. 6.3% of individuals had total balances of $250,000 or more (about 12.5 times the median), and in rare cases, individuals own IRAs with very", "the current tax payable exceeds the tax expense then there is a deferred tax receivable.\nIn the long run, income before tax and taxable income will likely be more similar than they are in any given period. If the one is less in earlier years, then it will be greater in later years. Deferred taxes will reverse themselves in the long run and in total will zero out, unless there is something like a change in tax rates in the intervening period. A deferred tax payable results from a tax break in the early years and will reverse itself in later", "Those who file their taxes online by the deadline of April 30th should receive their refund within 2 weeks, while those who file by paper can expect a longer turnaround period of 8 weeks. The Canada Revenue Agency will pay compounded daily interest on delayed refunds, beginning on the later of May 31st or 31 days after you filling a return. Refunds are paid by cheque or direct deposit, with the direct deposit being the quicker option of the two. In some cases the CRA may keep some or all of a refund. These cases include owed tax balances, Garnishment,", "filing a tax return for the year in which the income was received. Time limits for recovery vary greatly.\nTaxes withheld may be eligible for a foreign tax credit in the payee's home country. Remittance to tax authorities Most withholding tax systems require withheld taxes to be remitted to tax authorities within specified time limits, which time limits may vary with the withheld amount. Remittance by electronic funds transfer may be required or preferred.\nPenalties for delay or failure to remit withheld taxes to tax authorities can be severe. The sums withheld by a business is regarded as a debt to the", "by Scientologists. The IRS's 1993 regulation allowing the deductions was therefore \"manifestly contrary to the statute\". If the regulation were to be challenged, Eaton suggests, a reviewing court would likely come to the same conclusion as the Supreme Court and disallow the deductions. However, there appears to be little likelihood of the issue coming before a court as taxpayers do not have standing to challenge the regulation. Calls to revoke tax exemption Since the Church of Scientology gained tax exemption in 1993, there have been a number of high-profile calls for the IRS to review and potentially revoke the exemption.", "the deduction would contradict public policy.\nSection 165(c)(2) allows a deduction for \"losses incurred in any transaction entered into for profit, though not connected with a trade or business\", and section 165(c)(3) allows a deduction for losses not incurred in connection with a business or income-producing venture, which \"arise from fire, storm, shipwreck, or other casualty, or from theft\". Tax Court Holding The Tax Court found that the $20,000 loss was substantiated by the evidence presented, but ultimately ruled against petitioner on grounds of public policy. A strict interpretation of section 165(c)(3) places no restrictions on the allowance of deductions for", "a specified period. However, under Sections 237 and 119(2)(b) of the Income Tax Act, the Chief Commissioner or Commissioner of Income Tax are empowered to condone a delay in the claim of a refund.\nProvisions of refund of duty exists in indirect taxation. In Section 11 B of the Central Excises Act, 1944 which is also applicable in the cases of Service Tax (Finance Act, 1994). United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, income tax is deducted by the employer under the PAYE (Pay As You Earn) tax system via HMRC. Some refunds such as those due to changing tax codes or", "Deferred tax Permanent and Temporary differences If an item in the profit and loss account is never chargeable or allowable for tax or is chargeable or allowable for tax purposes but never appears in the profit and loss account then this is a permanent difference. A permanent difference does not give rise to deferred tax.\nIf items are chargeable or allowable for tax purposes but in different periods to when the income or expense is recognised then this gives rise to temporary differences. Temporary difference do give rise to potential deferred tax, but the rules on whether the deferred asset or", "Refund anticipation loan Refund anticipation loan (RAL) is a short-term consumer loan in the United States provided by a third party against an expected tax refund for the duration it takes the tax authority to pay the refund. The loan term was usually about two to three weeks, related to the time it took the U.S. Internal Revenue Service to deposit refunds in electronic accounts. The loans were designed to make the refund available in as little as 24 hours. They were secured by a taxpayer's expected tax refund, and designed to offer customers quicker access to funds.\nThe costs to", "new tax burden on the taxpayer. It instead reduces tax credits and carryforwards that would be used to offset future earned income.\nIf a taxpayer's tax attributes were not reduced, taxpayers could intentionally create large tax attributes by creating debt, cancelling the debt, and unjustly reducing their future taxes without paying on the debt. For example, a taxpayer could intentionally run up large amounts of business debt and losses, creating a large NOL. Then, after filing a bankruptcy to wipe out the debt, they could use the NOL carryforward for up to twenty years or until it was exhausted. Amount of", "before to 1,258. United States In the United States of America, Federal tax evasion is defined as the purposeful, illegal attempt to evade the assessment or the payment of a tax imposed by federal law. Conviction of tax evasion may result in fines and imprisonment.\nThe Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has identified small businesses and sole proprietors as the largest contributors to the tax gap between what Americans owe in federal taxes and what the federal government receives. Small businesses and sole proprietorships contribute to the tax gap because there are few ways for the government to know about skimming or", "Itemized deduction Limitations The amount of itemized deductions was limited and phased out for high income taxpayers for tax years before 2017; however, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 eliminated the phaseout and limitations.", "In Veit I, as part of redoing his employment contract, the taxpayer agreed to defer receiving a bonus that he was owed until the next year. The Tax Court upheld the agreement over the IRS's protest because it was the result of an arm's length business transaction, not a sham to evade paying taxes for a year. Indeed, the deferral was requested by the taxpayer's employer. In Veit II, the Tax Court upheld a subsequent agreement by which the taxpayer would receive five equal payments over the course of five years, rather than the one lump-sum payment previously agreed-upon. Again,", "Disposal tax effect The situation of additional taxes or tax savings resulting from selling the last item of its class in an inventory due to difference between its undepreciated capital cost (UCC) and its salvage value (SV). Overview \"Disposal tax effect\" is a finance term originating from Engineering Economics.\nIn the case of , then there has been a relative gain in the sale of the item, which gets taxed. These gains are known as \"recaptured depreciation\" or \"recaptured CCA\".\nWhen , then there has been a loss, which results in tax savings.\nThe Central collection agency (CCA) which uses a method of", "Withholding tax Basics Some governments have written laws which require taxes to be paid before the money can be spent for any other purpose. This ensures the taxes will be paid first and will be paid on time, rather than risk the possibility that the tax-payer might default at the time when tax falls due in arrears.\nTypically, withholding is required to be done by the employer of someone else, taking the tax payment funds out of the employee or contractor's salary or wages. The withheld taxes are then paid by the employer to the government body that requires payment, and", "tax paid under a mistake, Parliament passed the Finance Act 2007 section 107, which disapplied section 32(1)(c) for proceedings brought before 8 September 2003. They used tax relief to reduce liability to pay tax. The tax was unlawful under EU law. The FII Group claimed the money back. It said it would have used the tax relief to reduce other lawful tax liabilities, if it had not already been used to pay the unlawful tax. High Court In the High Court, Henderson J held that a claim under the Woolwich principle was not an effective remedy, and the EU precluded", "tax is deferred until the replacement property is later sold with no reinvestment in a qualifying property. \nThe idea behind this section of the tax code is that when an individual or a business sells a property to buy another, no economic gain has been achieved. There has simply been a transfer from one property to another. For example, if a real estate investor sells an apartment building to buy another one, he or she will not be charged tax on any gains he or she made on the original apartment building. When the investor sells", "to see the reduction take place.\nThe IRS had to reprogram its processing systems for some of the provisions in the law, and said that those who file their tax returns early would need to wait until at least the middle of February if they itemize deductions or take certain other deductions. Any refunds coming to taxpayers would be similarly delayed. Vendors of tax preparation software also had to modify their applications and get the updates to customers; Intuit, the vendor of Turbo Tax said they were ready and would hold affected returns until the IRS was ready to" ]

[ "Fewer moving parts means less maintenance and upkeep, and therefore lower cost of ownership in the long run. Bike couriers love them because they're fine for just shuttling around downtown, where you rarely have to worry about hills and such. They're very easy to maintain, and less likely to be an attractive target for thieves because they're much less versatile than a geared bike.\n\nWhy a non-bike courier would want to own one, I don't know. For recreational riding, it seems like it would be very frustrating, and hills would be an absolute nightmare.", "There's a [whole subreddit dedicated to them](_URL_0_).\n\nMinimalism is certainly a big part of it.\n\n* Bikes are lighter when they don't need deraileurs, additional cogs, longer chains, etc\n\n* There's a certain connection the rider has with their bike when their legs are directly related to how the bike moves.\n\n* The additional challenge of being limited to a single gear\n\n* Being able to slow down simply by resisting pedaling (related to point 2) and being able to ride backwards, skid more effectively, do track stand, etc.." ]

[ "fitted with racing wheels was used for road time trials and track racing, and when fitted with mudguards (fenders) and a bag, it was used for club runs, touring and winter training. By the 1960s, multi-gear derailleurs had become the norm and riding fixed-gear bicycles on the road declined over the next few decades. Recent years have seen renewed interest and increased popularity of fixed-gear cycling.\nIn urban North America and similar areas in other Western cities, fixed-gear bicycles have achieved significant popularity, with the rise of discernible regional aesthetic preferences for finish and design details.\nDedicated fixed-gear road bicycles are being", "Fixed-gear bicycle A fixed-gear bicycle (or fixed-wheel bicycle, commonly known in some places as a fixie) is a bicycle that has a drivetrain with no freewheel mechanism. The freewheel was developed early in the history of bicycle design but the fixed-gear bicycle remained the standard track racing design. More recently the \"fixie\" has become a popular alternative among mainly urban cyclists, offering the advantage of simplicity compared with the standard multi-geared bicycle.\nMost bicycle hubs incorporate a freewheel to allow the pedals to remain stationary while the bicycle is in motion, so that the rider can coast, i.e., ride without pedalling", "produced in greater numbers by established bicycle manufacturers. They are generally low in price and characterized by relaxed road geometry, as opposed to the steep geometry of track bicycles.\nFixed-gear bicycles are also used in cycle ball, bike polo and artistic cycling.\nA fixed-gear bicycle is particularly well suited for track stands, a maneuver in which the bicycle can be held stationary, balanced upright with the rider's feet on the pedals. Advantages and disadvantages One of the perceived main attractions of a fixed gear bicycle is low weight. Without the added parts required for a fully geared drive train—derailleurs, shifters, cables, cable", "anticipated usage.\nThere are many types of modern single speed bicycles; BMX bicycles, some bicycles designed for (younger) children, cruiser type bicycles, classic commuter bicycles, unicycles, bicycles designed for track racing, fixed-gear road bicycles, and fixed-gear mountain bicycles.\nThe fixed-gear single-speed bicycle is the most basic type of bicycle. A fixed-gear bike does not have a freewheel mechanism to allow coasting. General considerations The gearing supplied by the manufacturer on a new bicycle is selected to be useful to the majority of people. Some cyclists choose to fine-tune the gearing to better suit their strength, level of fitness, and expected use. When", "which would interfere with braking. Gear selection can, however, be accomplished with the use of an internally geared hub. For example, a Sturmey-Archer fixed-gear 3-speed hub is a fixed-gear multi-speed arrangement. Most fixed-gear bicycles only have a front brake, and some have no brakes at all. Uses A track bicycle or track bike is a form of fixed-gear bicycle optimized for racing at a velodrome or at an outdoor track.\nSome road racing and club cyclists use a fixed-gear bicycle for training during the winter months, generally using a relatively low gear ratio, believed to help develop a good pedalling style.", "carriers, multiple chain rings, freewheel hub, brazed-on mounting lugs—a fixed gear bicycle weighs less than its geared equivalent. The chain itself is subject to less sideways force and will not wear out as fast as on a derailleur system. Also, a fixed gear drivetrain is more mechanically efficient than any other bicycle drivetrain, with the most direct power transfer from rider to the wheels. Thus, a fixed gear requires less energy in any given gear to move than a geared bike in the same gear.\nIn slippery conditions some riders prefer to ride fixed because they believe the transmission provides increased", "Bicycle gearing Bicycle gearing is the aspect of a bicycle drivetrain that determines the relation between the cadence, the rate at which the rider pedals, and the rate at which the drive wheel turns.\nOn some bicycles there is only one gear and, therefore, the gear ratio is fixed, but most modern bicycles have multiple gears and thus multiple gear ratios. A shifting mechanism allows selection of the appropriate gear ratio for efficiency or comfort under the prevailing circumstances: for example, it may be comfortable to use a high gear when cycling downhill, a medium gear when cycling on a flat", "Gearbox bicycle A gearbox bicycle is a bicycle that uses a gearbox to convert torque and rotational speed from the power source, usually the rider's legs, to what is desired at the drive wheel. The gearbox is usually incorporated into the frame near the crank, and it may be used in addition to or instead of derailleur gears or a hub gear. Cited advantages include improved shifting performance, protecting the gearing from damage and exposure to dirt and moisture, as with hub gears, plus locating the additional mass between the two wheels and on the frame where it may be", "also continued to use traditional roadster bicycles, as their rugged design, enclosed chainguards, and dependable hub gearing make them ideal for commuting and utility cycling duty.", "narrower tires, and a three-speed hub gearing system, often imported from England, first became popular in the United States in the late 1950s. These comfortable, practical bicycles usually offered generator-powered headlamps, safety reflectors, kickstands, and frame-mounted tire pumps. In the United Kingdom, like the rest of Europe, cycling was seen as less of a hobby, and lightweight but durable bikes had been preferred for decades.\nIn the United States, the sports roadster was imported after World War II, and was known as the \"English racer\". It quickly became popular with adult cyclists seeking an alternative to the traditional youth-oriented cruiser bicycle.", "is sufficient for a beginner, although many utility bikes are equipped with hub gears. If the rider plans a significant amount of hillclimbing, a triple-chainrings crankset gear system may be preferred. Otherwise, the relatively lighter and less expensive double chainring may be better. Much simpler fixed wheel bikes are also available.\nMany road bikes, along with mountain bikes, include clipless pedals to which special shoes attach, via a cleat, enabling the rider to pull on the pedals as well as push. Other possible accessories for the bicycle include front and rear lights, bells or horns, child carrying seats, cycling computers with", "is generally cheaper, lighter, and mechanically simpler than its multi-geared equivalent. Without derailleurs or other gearing systems, there are fewer parts on the bicycle that require maintenance, making this type of cycle useful for city commuting in all weather. The drivetrain efficiency of a single-speed can be greater than today's typical multi-geared bicycles. A straight chainline, lack of chain drag from rear derailleur jockey pulleys, and lack of chainrings, ramps and pins all improve efficiency. As a single rear cog takes less space than the typical seven to ten cogs present on most multi-geared rear cassettes, rear wheels can be", "teeth on the rear sprocket (cog). For bicycles equipped with hub gears, the gear ratio also depends on the internal planetary gears within the hub. For a shaft-driven bicycle the gear ratio depends on the bevel gears used at each end of the shaft.\nFor a bicycle to travel at the same speed, using a lower gear (larger mechanical advantage) requires the rider to pedal at a faster cadence, but with less force. Conversely, a higher gear (smaller mechanical advantage) provides a higher speed for a given cadence, but requires the rider to exert greater force. Different cyclists may have", "better overall. For example, it is common for time-trial bicycles to use a solid disk rear wheel for best aerodynamics, and a spoked front wheel that has worse aerodynamics than a disk, but is less likely to steer the bicycle in a cross-wind. Velomobile fairings have analogous concerns, leading to trade-offs in fairing design. For example, a longer \"tail\" on the fairing will increase the total side-wind profile and total side forces, but can reduce the percentage force acting on the steered wheels and so an improve stability in side winds. A larger fairing also hurts", "using forward momentum. A fixed-gear drivetrain has the drive sprocket (or cog) threaded or bolted directly to the hub of the back wheel, so that the pedals are directly coupled to the wheel. During acceleration, the pedal crank drives the wheel, but in other situations, the rear wheel can drive the pedal cranks. This direct coupling allows a cyclist to apply a braking force with the legs and bodyweight, by resisting the rotation of the cranks. It also makes it possible to cycle backwards.\nAs a general rule, fixed-gear bicycles are single-speed. A derailleur for gear selection would introduce chain slack,", "included the freewheel mechanism. At the turn of the century, bicycle manufacturers within Europe and America included the freewheel mechanism in a majority of their bicycles but now the freewheel was incorporated in the rear sprocket of a bicycle unlike Van Anden’s initial design.\nIn 1924, the French bicycle company, Le Cyclo, introduced a gear-shifting bicycle with a two sprocket freewheel, which let riders to go uphill with more ease. In the late 1920s, Le Cyclo began using both front and rear derailleurs in combination with a double chainring, giving the bicycle twice as many gears. In the early", "become the norm for cyclo-cross.\nTypically, the frame geometry is a bit more relaxed than that of a road bike, not as upright in the seat tube, which allows for more stability in soft ground. Also, the wheelbase can be a bit longer, which provides a more planted feeling when using aft body weighting over rough terrain, and can help keep the rider's feet from contacting the front wheel during a tight turn. Components Choices of equipment tend more towards the idiosyncratic than in road racing; for example single-speed bicycles also have some popularity due to the advantage of mechanical simplicity", "also made them. Technical innovations Bicycles continued to evolve to suit the varied needs of riders. The derailleur developed in France between 1900 and 1910 among cyclotourists, and was improved over time. Only in the 1930s did European racing organizations allow racers to use gearing; until then they were forced to use a two-speed bicycle. The rear wheel had a sprocket on either side of the hub. To change gears, the rider had to stop, remove the wheel, flip it around, and remount the wheel. When racers were allowed to use derailleurs, racing times immediately dropped. World War II Although", "giving obvious advantages for better lubrication, dirt-sealing and shifting. These have usually been in conjunction with a shaft drive, as a gearbox with a traditional chain would (like the hub gear) still have many of the derailleur's disadvantages for an exposed chain. Bicycle gearboxes are enclosed in a box replacing the traditional bottom bracket. The requirement for a modified frame has been a serious drawback to their adoption. One of the most recent attempts to provide a gearbox for bicycles is the 18 speed Pinion P1.18. This gives an enclosed gearbox, but still a traditional chain. When fitted to a", "the UK, the Netherlands, the German-speaking countries and Scandinavia. Since the 1970s, they have become much less common in English-speaking countries, but in many parts of northern Europe, where bicycles are regularly used as daily transport rather than merely for sport or leisure, hub gears are still widely used. The cheaper and stronger (but less reliable) derailleur systems, which offer a wider gear range, have now started to appear.\nBy 1987, Sturmey-Archer made only 3- and 5-speed hubs, and Fichtel & Sachs and Shimano made only 2- and 3-speed hubs. In that year, the first book (apart from service manuals) for", "companies have developed methods of carrying anything from the weekly shop to children on bicycles. Certain countries rely heavily on bicycles and their culture has developed around the bicycle as a primary form of transport. In Europe, Denmark and the Netherlands have the most bicycles per capita and most often use bicycles for everyday transport.\nRoad bikes tend to have a more upright shape and a shorter wheelbase, which make the bike more mobile but harder to ride slowly. The design, coupled with low or dropped handlebars, requires the rider to bend forward more, making use of stronger muscles (particularly the", "1899, although sales were still much smaller than regular bicycles, primarily due to the high cost. The bikes were also somewhat less efficient than regular bicycles: there was roughly an 8 percent loss in the gearing, in part due to limited manufacturing technology at the time. The rear wheel was also more difficult to remove to change flats. Many of these deficiencies have been overcome in the past century.\nIn 1902, The Hill-Climber Bicycle Mfg. Company sold a three-speed shaft-driven bicycle in which the shifting was implemented with three sets of bevel gears. While a small number of chainless bicycles were", "cycles are often bicycles. Although four wheels were used as far back as the Velocar, they are not today common. As of 2017, there is at least one 4-wheel production model, the QuattroVelo. Four wheels tends to further hurt aerodynamics and weight compared to three; but for a given width, four wheels is much more laterally stable than three wheels. Also, four wheels can be placed in a way that increases luggage capacity a lot compared to three-wheel designs.\nMost velomobiles drive the rear wheel(s). This approach is simple and can often use many standard bicycle", "favored by some competitors. These are also commonly called \"cross levers\" due to their popularity in the sport. The top tubes of cyclocross bike frames typically have an ovalized or flattened bottom profile to provide greater comfort when riders need to shoulder and carry their bikes. In general, with a change of tires and gearing a cyclo-cross bike can double as a perfectly adequate road racing machine. However, most cyclo-cross racers prefer clipless mountain bike pedals for their easy dual-sided entry and mud-shedding abilities. Additionally, mountain biking shoes provide better traction while running than typical road style shoes", "built with little or no dish. Disadvantages As the single-speed bicycle lacks alternative gearing ratios, it is less versatile, as it cannot be pedaled efficiently outside of its single gearing range. Without lower gearing options, the single speed bicycle is generally more difficult to pedal uphill. Conversely, its dedicated gear ratio also limits top speed, and is slower than a multi-geared bicycle on flat or descending terrain once bicycle speed exceeds the rider's ability to maintain continuing increases in cadence (pedaling revolutions per minute), typically 85–110 rpm. Compared to a fixed-gear bicycle, a singlespeed is easier to ride downhill", "Regina (Italy) and Maillard (France). As the number of sprockets on a multiple freewheel increased, clusters became physically wider, and the freehub design overcame the axle/bearing problem with threaded hubs and began to supersede the freewheel design. Today it is rare to find a freewheel on a new bicycle with more than seven speeds. Some new single-speed — especially BMX and utility bikes — and lower-end multi-geared bicycles continue to be manufactured and sold with freewheels.\nPedaling forces tighten a freewheel onto the hub, so no tool is required to install one. The ratcheting mechanism prevents the freewheel being loosened when the", "Road cycling Overview Road cycling is an activity most commonly performed on a bicycle. Road cycling in its modern form was invented in Germany on Aug 12, 1817. There are many types of bicycles that are used on the roads including: BMX, recumbents, racing, touring and utility bicycles.\nDedicated road bicycles have drop handlebars and multiple gears, although there are single and fixed gear varieties. Road bikes also use narrow, high-pressure tires to decrease rolling resistance, and tend to be somewhat lighter than other types of bicycle. The drop handlebars are often positioned lower than the saddle in order to put", "the rider in a more aerodynamic position. In an effort to become more aerodynamic, some riders have begun using aerobars. Who and when aerobars where invented is unclear but they seem to date back to the early 1980s. The light weight and aerodynamics of a road bike allows this type of bicycle to be the second most efficient self-powered means of transportation, behind only recumbent bicycles due to the latter's higher aerodynamic efficiency.\nMountain bikes fitted with slick or semi-slick are also popular for commuters. Though less efficient, the upright riding position allows the cyclist a better view of traffic,", "to 8, 11 or 14 gears – for such bicycles due to ease of maintenance and improved technology. Recumbent bicycle In 1934, the Union Cycliste Internationale banned recumbent bicycles from all forms of officially sanctioned racing, at the behest of the conventional bicycle industry, after relatively little-known Francis Faure beat world champion Henri Lemoine and broke Oscar Egg's hour record by half a mile while riding Mochet's Velocar. Some authors assert that this resulted in the stagnation of the upright racing bike's frame geometry which has remained essentially unchanged for 70 years. This stagnation finally started to reverse with the", "\"safety bicycles\" because they were easier to handle than the then-dominant style that had one large wheel and one small wheel, which then became known as an \"ordinary\" bicycle. Since the end of the 19th century, most bicycles have been expected to have two equal sized wheels, and the other type has been renamed \"penny-farthing\" or \"high-wheeler\" bicycle.\nThe Atari Video Computer System platform was rebranded the \"Atari 2600\" (after its product code, CX-2600) in 1982 following the launch of its successor, the Atari 5200, and all hardware and software related to the platform were released under this new branding from" ]

[ "Any veggie that is aromatic is used to create base flavors in a dish, like onions, garlic, peppers, celery, leeks, that kind of stuff. Their flavor permeates other parts of the food you are cooking.", "There are also many varieties: green, red, yellow - with different flavors and they’re versatile - raw, grilled, sautéed, boiled, etc." ]

[ "Because of its uniquely small size and a taste sweeter than that of a common onion, it has also been used in dishes ranging from mid-20th-century American casserole dishes such as succotash to sweetly flavored onion relishes in Indian cuisine. It can also be used in stews soups or sautéed (fried) with other vegetables. It can also be used in cocktails such as \"martini standing\".\nPearl onions are a staple to the cuisine of Northern Europe, especially Sweden. Also in modern Europe they are used as a beautiful flowering plant and in Israel as a cut flower.\nPearl onions contain chemical compounds", "Wat (food) Overview Several properties distinguish wats from stews of other cultures. Perhaps the most obvious is an unusual cooking technique: the preparation of a wat begins with chopped onions slow cooked, without any fat or oil, in a dry skillet or pot until much of their moisture has been driven away. Fat (usually niter kibbeh) is then added, and the onions and other aromatics are sautéed before the addition of other ingredients. This method causes the onions to break down and thicken the stew.\nWat is traditionally eaten with injera, a spongy flat bread made from the millet-like grain known", "onions are fried with scrambled eggs. Poke salad can be added. \nPork, frybread, and corn bread are popular side dishes. The typical dessert is grape dumplings, historically made from the juice of indigenous grapes, commonly called \"possum grapes\". Today the dumplings are often made from frozen grape juice and biscuit mix.\nMany of these feasts are held by cultural clubs, Indian churches, and stompgrounds. They can include gospel sings or prayers in tribal languages. Stickball games are also common, a game that inspired the French adaptation of lacrosse.\nA 1932 cookbook published by the Indian Women's Club of Tulsa suggests substituting scallions", "accompanied by minced carrots and celery in what is known as a soffritto.\nThe slow cooking of the onions is especially important for the sauce's flavor, and is facilitated by incremental additions of white wine, stock, or both. The sauce and accompanying pasta can be served with the meat from the sauce or separately, garnished with tomatoes, and topped with pecorino.\nLarge, cylindrical pasta like rigatoni, ziti or candele are favored because they can hold the rich sauce.", "market onions in America. It helped produce a mild jalapeño pepper ('TAM'), increasing the sales of salsa, and 'BetaSweet' carrots which have higher levels of beta carotene. Its animal researchers helped produce gene mapping resources for cattle, and lead to the cloning of the first calf.", "1931 when a farmer named Mose Coleman discovered that the onions he produced were sweeter than other onions. Other farmers started growing the same crop, and in the 1940s the Vidalia onion became an item sold to tourists.\nVidalia onion growers have protected their brand, and today all onions labelled Vidalia must be grown in one of thirteen different counties in Georgia or in specific portions of seven other counties. Because of their taste and reputation, they are able to command an increased price in the marketplace.\nIn 1990, the Vidalia onion was named as the official vegetable of the state", "onions and good olive oil and nothing else, to nontraditional preparations with many additional ingredients.\nSome of the many additions to the base ingredients include green peppers, chorizo, courgette, aubergine, mushrooms, and diced ham. The tortilla paisana includes red pepper and peas. The tortilla is supposed to be juicy and usually fairly thick, ranging from about 3 to 8 cm (1.2 to 3.1 in); circumference ranges from a small individual tortilla to about 30 cm (12 in). In Spain a tortilla is almost always accompanied by bread and sometimes with fried pimientos de padron. In most bars and canteens, it is served in a", "and high pungency. They are also known to contain higher levels of protein, phosphorus, iron and carotene.\nThe ideal conditions for growing rose onion are: soil with pH between 6.5 and 7, atmospheric humidity of 70 to 75% and average temperature of 25 °C to 30 °C. As these conditions are found around the Bangalore region, the variety is grown exclusively there.\nThe pungent property of these onions make them suitable to be used in pickles. Export Bangalore rose onions are rarely used in India, but exported in large quantities to other countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Bahrain, UAE, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.\nDuring", "of chopped onion is added for flavour and aroma. For muqawlli-style cooking, the ingredients are placed in olive oil to enrich the flavours.\nThere are many descriptions of how to prepare a tajine from Arab scholars. A famous description is the one from ibn al-Adim (1192–1262):\nBoil the meat and fry with fresh coriander, onions and hot spices and a little garlic. Then pick out the fennel hearts and cut in half. Put over the meat. Put back some of the broth on it along with sheep's tail. Boil until cooked and the broth has been absorbed. Remove [from the heat].\n— Ibn al-Adim,", "Onion gravy Ingredients Primary ingredients include onion, broth or stock, such as beef or chicken stock, and flour. Sweet onion is used in some versions, and some versions incorporate beer or red wine in the gravy. Additional ingredients may include cream, garlic, bread crumbs, butter, vegetable oil, and brown sugar, among others. Various herbs and spices may be used, such as salt, pepper, sage, oregano, and thyme.", "appearance\", while their use in cooking was associated with exotic Italian or Jewish cuisine. Middle East and North Africa The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo circa 1799 to 1825. Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region \"within the last forty years\". Today, the tomato is a critical and ubiquitous part of Middle Eastern cuisine, served fresh in salads (e.g., Arab salad, Israeli salad, Shirazi salad and Turkish salad), grilled with", "of the most prominent cultivars of red onion was grown in Wethersfield, Connecticut, and was a major source of onions for New England until the late 1800s.", "Pickled onion By country In the Southern United States, pickled Vidalia onions can be served as a side dish.\nIn Hong Kong, pickled onions are served in many Cantonese restaurants, especially around dinner time, as a small dish before the main course is served.\nIn Switzerland, they are served to accompany raclette, along with pickled gherkins.\nIn Italy, it is known as 'maggiolina'.\nIn Mexican cuisine, one preparation, cebollas encurtidas, has sliced red onions pickled in a mixture of citrus juices and vinegar, which is served as a garnish or condiment. Sometimes cooked beets are added, producing a more strongly pink coloured dish. Pickled", "Pearl onion Cultivation and storage Pearl onions are cultivated mostly in Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy, usually in home gardens, although formerly on a commercial scale. They are mostly used for pickling.\nThe majority of onions grown for pickling are common onions (A. cepa). They are grown to a small size suitable for pickling by planting at a high density.\nKnown small white varieties include Crystal Wax, or White Bermuda. Red varieties are milder in flavour.\nPearl onions are ready to harvest from seed in 90 days. They can be stored for up to a month in a cool, dry, dark place. Consumption", "French onion soup History Onion soups have been popular at least as far back as Roman times. Throughout history, they were seen as food for poor people, as onions were plentiful and easy to grow. The modern version of this soup originates in Paris, France in the 18th century, made from beef broth, and caramelized onions. Marie Julie Grandjean Mouquin (November 8, 1835 – March 26, 1925), wife of the famous restaurauteur Henri Marc Mouquin (October 11, 1837 – December 24, 1933) is credited as introducing onion soup into the USA in 1861. It is often finished by being placed", "and onion are added to the mixture before cooking. These are usually thicker and harder than other roti types. They are usually eaten with curries, or some types of sambol or lunu miris and considered a main meal rather than a supplement.\nAnother variety of roti popular in Sri Lanka is kottu roti, which is made up of paratha or godamba roti, These are cut into small pieces, small in size and rectangular or square in shape. Then on a square heating pan, vegetables and onions are fried. Eggs, cooked meat, or fish are added to fried vegetables", "described pear culture methods similar to modern techniques. There are recipes for pear and peach creams and milk puddings flavored with honey, pepper and a little garum.\nWhile the precursors of Brussels sprouts, artichokes, sweet peas, rutabaga and possibly cauliflower probably existed in Roman times, the modern cultivated forms we think of were not developed until the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance times. Cabbage was eaten both raw (sometimes dipped in vinegar) and cooked. Cato greatly esteemed cabbage, believing it to be good for the digestion, and also believed that if a sick person ate a great deal of cabbage", "dishes, in the manner of onions or garlic. Etymology The words scallion and shallot are related and can be traced back to the Greek ασκολόνιον ('askolonion') as described by the Greek writer Theophrastus. This name, in turn, seems to originate from the name of the ancient Canaan city of Ashkelon. The plant itself came from farther east of Europe. Uses Spring onions may be cooked or used raw as a part of salads, salsas or Asian recipes. Diced scallions are used in soup, noodle and seafood dishes, sandwiches, curries and as part of a stir fry. In many Eastern sauces,", "by mixing spinach or other vegetables in the dough) and served with ragù (a thick sauce made from onions, carrots, celery, finely ground pork and beef, butter, and tomatoes), bechamel and Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. Etymology In Ancient Rome, there was a dish similar to a traditional lasagne called lasana or lasanum (Latin for 'container' or 'pot') described in the book De re coquinaria by Marcus Gavius Apicius, but the word could have a more ancient origin. The first theory is that lasagne comes from Greek λάγανον (laganon), a flat sheet of pasta dough cut into strips. The word λαγάνα (lagana) is", "onions futures contracts were the most traded product on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. In 1955, they accounted for 20% of its trades. Market manipulation In the fall of 1955, Siegel and Kosuga bought enough onions and onion futures so that they controlled 98 percent of the available onions in Chicago. Millions of pounds (thousands of tonnes) of onions were shipped to Chicago to cover their purchases. By late 1955, they had stored 30,000,000 pounds (14,000,000 kg) of onions in Chicago. They soon changed course and convinced onion growers to begin purchasing their inventory by threatening to flood the market with onions", "small cubes; rarely peeled tomato) boiled in broth much more cooked than the usual, and might call for parsley and green onions along the mint. Generally no seasoning besides light use of salt, fried garlic (added before the boiling process), parsley, green onion and mint is allowed; onion bulbs should not be added because there is a belief that the use of garlic and onion together in a single recipe \"cancels\" the beneficial properties of both. Olive oil might be added to the soup of those who are already almost healed.\nIt is a common Brazilian food taboo that mixing rice", "(\"Rome-style liver\") a dash of white wine and is cooked in lard.\nIn the United States, liver and onions enjoyed widespread popularity during the 20th century. However, organ meats such as liver are rarely consumed today. The dish can still be found on the menus of retro diners and American home-style restaurants. It is especially common in the regions of Pennsylvania and the Midwest with a strong German culture, although there is nothing exclusively German about the dish.\nBeef liver and onions is still widely popular in Latin America (Spanish: hígado (de res) encebollado, Portuguese: fígado (bovino) acebolado), where it is often", "made at home, in which case chopped onions are commonly added.\nA dip, fasole bătută or fasole făcăluită (mashed beans), prepared with mashed beans, sunflower oil, garlic and chopped onions, is sometimes called icre de fasole (beans roe).", "them the right to prevent a dam from being built on the drainage channel \nThey eventually began growing the pungent, highly prized black-dirt onion on the land, taking advantage of the relative proximity of New York City as a market. By the late 20th century the region was producing an average of 30,000 pounds of onion per acre (3.3 kg/m^3). Today, due to changing popular tastes in onions and different economic realities, that staple is not as profitable as it was, and farmers in the region have been diversifying their crops to include lettuce, radish, potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, and,", "several variants depending, among other things, on the local availability of certain ingredients. While everybody seems to agree about the use of guanciale and tomato, onion is not favored in Amatrice, but is shown in the classical handbooks of Roman cuisine. For frying, olive oil is most commonly used, but strutto (canned pork lard) is used as well.\nThe addition of garlic sauteed in olive oil, before adding the guanciale is also accepted, and for cheese either pecorino romano or Amatrice's pecorino (from the Monti Sibillini or Monti della Laga areas) can be used. The addition of black or chili", "fried onions cooked in milk and seasoned with spices and sugar.\nIn the United States in the 1800s, chicken was more expensive than other meats and it was \"sought by the rich because [it is] so costly as to be an uncommon dish.\" Chicken consumption in the U.S. increased during World War II due to a shortage of beef and pork. In Europe, consumption of chicken overtook that of beef and veal in 1996, linked to consumer awareness of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease). Breeding Modern varieties of chicken such as the Cornish Cross, are bred specifically for meat production,", "later. Garlic and onions are then sautéed in butter briefly, before the stock is re-added and brought to a boil. \nVarious finely diced vegetables are added and allowed to soften. The most commonly used are carrots and celery. Roughly chopped cabbage, another common ingredient, is added just before the dish is completely cooked. Some variants may also use finely diced potatoes, green peas, green beans, or kinchay (Chinese celery). It is also common to exclude vegetables altogether.\nThe elbow macaroni is added last, along with finely diced hotdogs, Vienna sausages, or ham. The macaroni is cooked until al dente. It is", "considerably among various onion varieties. This is performed prior to mixing, in order to produce a consistent final product. Some commercial onion salt preparations are never touched by human hands, as the stages of processing are all performed using automated processes. Culinary uses Onion powder may be used as a seasoning atop a variety of foods and dishes, such as pasta, pizza, and grilled chicken. It is also a primary ingredient in beau monde seasoning. It is also sometimes used as a meat rub. Onion powder is also an ingredient in some commercially prepared foods, such as sauces, soups, and", "Sofrito Mediterranean In Mediterranean cuisine, olive oil is heavily emphasized as the third critical component in base along with tomatoes and onions. Garlic is optional, as it is not considered an integral part of the standard sofregit recipe. Some sofregit recipes do not contain tomatoes at all, but are made more complex with the addition of diced vegetables such as leeks or bell peppers.\nIn Italian cuisine, chopped onions, carrots and celery is battuto, and then, slowly cooked in olive oil, becomes soffritto. It is used as the base for most pasta sauces, such as arrabbiata sauce, but occasionally it", "Mediterranean soils and quickly grew in popularity. The first discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was published in Naples in 1692.\nCulinary historian Alan Davidson argues that the tomato and potato were initially treated with suspicion due to their similarity to the poisonous belladonna plant. This explains why Spanish society was initially slow to incorporate the tomato into their diet (relative to the initial popularity of other foods, such as chocolate and maize). Turkey Spaniards had encountered domesticated turkeys in Panama in 1502. These turkeys were part of a pre-existing land trade route throughout Central and South America carried out by various" ]

[ "The ELI5 is we understand the physics of how light scatters off crystals. Thus we know what kind of diffraction pattern we should see given a molecule with a specific structure. The X-Ray diffraction of DNA results in a pattern that we know would be produced by a molecule with a helical shape. Further details of the image tell us other things about the structure, but that is the basics. Some of those details are explained in the link provided by /u/boredgamelad\n\nedit: To give you an example unrelated to X-Ray diffraction, what does the raw output of an MRI scanner look like? [This.](_URL_1_) How do we go from that to something like [this](_URL_0_)? By understanding the physics that produces the first image, and developing a model for recomposing it into a more intelligible format. The X-Ray diffraction image is just like the first MRI image, it is the raw output of the diffraction experiment. The physics involved is understood well enough that you can tell a lot about what you are looking at just from that, but it is possible to do the same thing we do with MRI images, and transform the diffraction image into a model of the crystal that formed it.", "This page has an interactive walkthrough of the image explaining everything along the way:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nIt's not perfect but gives a decent understanding of it using simple terms." ]

[ "this image to the work of Watson and Crick, as well as the methods by which they obtained the image. Franklin was hired independently of Maurice Wilkins, who, nonetheless, showed Photo 51 to Watson and Crick, without her knowledge. Whether Franklin would have deduced the structure of DNA on her own, from her own data, had Watson and Crick not obtained Gosling's image, is a hotly debated topic, made more controversial by the negative caricature of Franklin presented in the early chapters of Watson's history of the research on DNA structure, The Double Helix. Watson admitted", "The photograph (number 51, hence, popularised as Photo 51) of B-DNA taken in May 1952 was especially crucial. X-ray crystallography did not immediately show the precise helical structure. Franklin chose to work on A-DNA, while B-DNA was given to Maurice Wilkins. By the early 1953, Franklin was aware that both A and B forms of DNA were composed of two helical chains. By then, James Watson and Francis Crick at Cambridge University had built a correct double helical model of DNA, based on her experimental data.\nThe discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 is regarded as \"the greatest and", "report for the King's College laboratory of Sir John Randall from late 1952.\nIt is a matter of debate whether Watson and Crick should have had access to Franklin's results without her knowledge or permission, and before she had a chance to formally publish the results of her detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data which were included in the progress report. However, Watson and Crick found fault in her steadfast assertion that, according to her data, a helical structure was not the only possible shape for DNA—so they had a dilemma. In an effort to clarify this issue, Max Ferdinand", "Photo 51 Use in discovering structure of DNA James Watson was shown the photo by his collaborator, Maurice Wilkins, without Rosalind Franklin's knowledge. Wilkins did this, as by this time, Gosling had returned under his supervision, since Franklin was leaving King's and Randall had asked Gosling to share all his data with Wilkins. Along with Francis Crick, Watson used characteristics and features of Photo 51, together with evidence from multiple other sources, to develop the chemical model of the DNA molecule. Their model, and manuscripts by Wilkins and colleagues, and Gosling and Franklin, were first published, together, in 1953, in", "his thesis supervisor, Crick gained access to a progress report from King's College that included useful information from Franklin about the features of DNA she had deduced from her X-ray diffraction data. Watson and Crick published their proposed DNA double helical structure in a paper in the journal Nature in April 1953. In this paper Watson and Crick acknowledged that they had been \"stimulated by.... the unpublished results and ideas\" of Wilkins and Franklin.\nThe first Watson-Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. The members of the Cambridge and King's College laboratories agreed to report their interlocking work in", "Franklin and Wilkins.\nBy November 1951, Watson had acquired little training in X-ray crystallography, by his own admission, and thus had not fully understood what Franklin was saying about the structural symmetry of the DNA molecule. Crick, however, knowing the Fourier transforms of Bessel functions that represent the X-ray diffraction patterns of helical structures of atoms, correctly interpreted further one of Franklin's experimental findings as indicating that DNA was most likely to be a double helix with the two polynucleotide chains running in opposite directions. Crick was thus in a unique position to make this interpretation because he had formerly worked", "Rosalind Franklin and DNA Background Rosalind Franklin joined King's College London in January 1951 to work on the crystallography of DNA. By the end of that year, she established two important facts: one is that phosphate groups, which are the molecular backbone for the nucleotide chains, lie on the outside (it was a general consensus at the time that they were at the inside); and the other is that DNA exists in two forms, a crystalline (dry form) A-DNA and a hydrated (wet form) B-DNA. With her PhD student Raymond Gosling, she produced a series of X-ray images of DNA.", "image of DNA labeled as \"Photo 51\", from Rosalind Franklin in 1952, followed by her more clarified DNA image with Raymond Gosling, Maurice Wilkins, Alexander Stokes, and Herbert Wilson, and base-pairing chemical and biochemical information by Erwin Chargaff. The prior model was triple-stranded DNA.\nThe realization that the structure of DNA is that of a double-helix elucidated the mechanism of base pairing by which genetic information is stored and copied in living organisms and is widely considered one of the most important scientific discoveries of the 20th century. Crick, Wilkins, and Watson each received one third of the 1962 Nobel Prize", "like sperm cells, which also suggested a helical structure for DNA. In July 1952 Franklin reported to him and Stokes that her newest results made her doubt the helical nature of the A-form.\nIn early 1953 Watson visited King's College and Wilkins showed him a high quality image of the B-form X-ray diffraction pattern, now identified as photograph 51, that Franklin had produced in March 1952. With the knowledge that Pauling was working on DNA and had submitted a model of DNA for publication, Watson and Crick mounted one more concentrated effort to deduce the structure of DNA. Through Max Perutz,", "John Randall in the pursuit of the double helix cannot be overstated. Gosling felt so strongly on this subject that he wrote to The Times in 2013 during the sixtieth anniversary celebrations. Randall firmly believed that DNA held the genetic code and assembled a multi-disciplinary team to help prove it. It was Randall who pointed out that since DNA was largely carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, it was just the same as the atoms in the air in the camera. The result was a diffuse back-scattering of X-rays, which fogged the film, and so he instructed Gosling to displace all the", "Watson's account, The Double Helix, although it was buried under descriptions of Watson's (often quite negative) regard towards Franklin during the period of their work on DNA. This attitude is epitomized in the confrontation between Watson and Franklin over a preprint of Pauling's mistaken DNA manuscript. Watson's words impelled Sayre to write her rebuttal, in which the entire chapter nine, \"Winner Take All\" has the structure of a legal brief dissecting and analyzing the topic of acknowledgement.\nSayre's early analysis was often ignored because of perceived feminist overtones in her book. Watson and Crick did not cite the X-ray diffraction work", "Rosalind Franklin (whose key DNA x-ray crystallography work was the most detailed yet least acknowledged among the three) contributed directly to the ability of Watson and Crick to solve the structure of the DNA molecule. Avery died in 1955, Franklin died in 1958 and posthumous nominations for the Nobel Prize are not permitted. Files of Nobel Prize nominations show Franklin was not nominated when she was alive. Wilkins' crucial contribution was to show Rosalind Franklin's key x-ray photos to Watson. As a result of Watson's misrepresentations of Franklin and her role in the discovery of the double helix in", "in 2002 On 19 March 1997, the Home Office referred the case to the new Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC) where Baden Skitt chaired the investigation.\nWhile some of the original items of physical evidence were destroyed, the sample from Miss Storie's underwear had been discovered in 1991 and, in late-1997, the handkerchief was subsequently found in the possession of the Berkshire police. DNA was donated by Hanratty's mother and brother, which they expected to exonerate him when compared with DNA extracted from surviving evidence. Results from testing in June 1999 were said to be strong evidence of a familial match", "and the bases pointing outwards. Her identification of the space group for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were antiparallel.\nIn February 1953, Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double-helix of DNA. On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge to announce that he and Watson had \"discovered the secret of life\".\nIn the 25 April 1953 issue of the journal Nature, were published a series of five articles giving the Watson and Crick double-helix structure DNA, and evidence supporting it.", "Stokes had solved the basic mathematics of helical diffraction theory and thought that Wilkins's X-ray diffraction data indicated a helical structure in DNA. Wilkins met with Watson and Crick and told them about his results. This information from Wilkins, along with additional information gained by Watson when he heard Franklin talk about her research during a King's College research meeting, stimulated Watson and Crick to create their first molecular model of DNA, a model with the phosphate backbones at the center. Upon viewing the model of the proposed structure, Franklin told Watson and Crick that it was wrong. Franklin based", "on the X-ray diffraction data for other large molecules that had helical symmetry similar to that of DNA. Franklin, on the other hand, rejected the first molecular model building approach proposed by Crick and Watson: the first DNA model, which in 1952 Watson presented to her and to Wilkins in London, had an obviously incorrect structure with hydrated charged groups on the inside of the model, rather than on the outside. Watson explicitly admitted this in his book The Double Helix.", "a supplemental affidavit with the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals. Lawyers representing him were given the right to pursue DNA tests on limited hair and blood evidence on October 17, 1997 by the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals. Testing began in December 2000. Defense lawyers hoped that the results would tie Stoeckley and her associate Greg Mitchell to the scene.\nDNA test results released by the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory on March 10, 2006, showed that neither Stoeckley's nor Mitchell's DNA matched any of the tested exhibits. A limb hair found stuck to Colette's left palm matched MacDonald's DNA profile.", "B-form DNA taken in 1951 by Astbury's research assistant Elwyn Beighton which the historian of science, Professor Robert Olby has since said was ‘clearly the famous B-pattern found by Rosalind Franklin and R. Gosling’. Olby was referring to an X-ray image of B-form DNA that was taken a year later by Rosalind Franklin and her PhD student Raymond Gosling at King's College a year later which came to be known as ‘Photo 51‘ Despite its modest name this image was to play an important role in the story of DNA and a plaque on the wall outside King’s College, London", "But it was up to Watson and Crick to put all of those findings together to come up with a model for DNA. Later, chemist Alexander Todd determined that the backbone of a DNA molecule contained repeating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar groups. The biochemist Erwin Chargaff found that adenine and thymine always paired while cytosine and guanine always paired. High resolution X-ray images of DNA that were obtained by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin suggested a helical, or corkscrew like shape. \nPackaging of DNA is facilitated by the electrostatic charge distribution: phosphate groups cause DNA to have a negative charge,", "with the reality that the chances of a DNA sample matching anyone other than Sinclair, were \"a billion to one.\" Sinclair was only caught, for the 1978 murder, after a cold case review by Strathclyde Police revealed the presence of new DNA evidence not uncovered during the initial investigation.\nNews of the verdict drew widespread comment and criticism in the Scottish press. Such was the level of public and media interest in the outcome of the case, on 13 September 2007 the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament took the unusual step of allowing the then Lord Advocate, Elish Angiolini, to", "clear: that Randall was very wrong to have written to Rosalind telling her that Stokes and I wished to stop our work on DNA, without consulting us. After Raymond [Gosling] and I got a clear crystalline X-ray pattern I was very eager to continue that work ... Trying to understand 'what really happened' when a very admirable scientist [Randall] models himself on Napoleon is not easy ... [but the letter] was very damaging to her and to me\". DNA Phase two 1951–52 By November 1951, Wilkins had evidence that DNA in cells as well as purified DNA had a helical structure. Alex", "DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from", "on the double-helical structure of DNA at the 18th Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Viruses in early June 1953, six weeks after the publication of the Watson and Crick paper in Nature. Many at the meeting had not yet heard of the discovery. The 1953 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium was the first opportunity for many to see the model of the DNA double helix.\nWatson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 for their research on the structure of nucleic acids. Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958 and was therefore ineligible for nomination.\nThe publication", "the other evidence pointed towards innocence. Statistical analysis of DNA The only evidence against Adams was the DNA evidence. His age was substantially different from that reported by the victim, the victim did not identify him and he had an alibi which was never disproved. The 1 in 200 million match probability calculation did not allow for the fact that the perpetrator might be a close relative of the defendant - an important point, since the defendant had a half-brother in his 20s whose DNA was never tested.", "Odile Crick Odile Crick (11 August 1920 – 5 July 2007) was a British artist best known for her drawing of the double helix structure of DNA discovered by her husband Francis Crick and his partner James D. Watson in 1953. Early life Odile Crick was born as Odile Speed in King's Lynn, Norfolk, England, to a French mother, Marie-Therese Josephine Jaeger and an English father, Alfred Valentine Speed, who was a jeweller. She was an art student in Vienna when the Nazis occupied Austria in 1938.\nSpeed joined the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) as a lorry driver. However,", "would be seen if the DNA is twisted back into the ordinary B form. Non-double helical forms Alternative non-helical models were briefly considered in the late 1970s as a potential solution to problems in DNA replication in plasmids and chromatin. However, the models were set aside in favor of the double-helical model due to subsequent experimental advances such as X-ray crystallography of DNA duplexes and later the nucleosome core particle, and the discovery of topoisomerases. Also, the non-double-helical models are not currently accepted by the mainstream scientific community.\nSingle-stranded nucleic acids (ssDNA) do not adopt a helical formation, and are described", "transfer of data to Wilkins because Director Randall had insisted that all DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and had instructed Franklin in a letter to even stop working on it and submit her data. Also, it was implied by Horace Freeland Judson, that Maurice Wilkins had taken the photograph out of Franklin's drawer, but this is also said to be incorrect.\nLikewise, Perutz saw \"no harm\" in showing an MRC report containing the conclusions of Franklin and Gosling's X-ray data analysis to Crick, since it had not been marked as confidential, although \"The report was not expected to reach outside", "for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside. In May 1952, Raymond Gosling a graduate student working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin took an X-ray diffraction image, labeled as \"Photo 51\", at high hydration levels of DNA. This photo was given to Watson and Crick by Maurice Wilkins and was critical to their obtaining the correct structure of DNA. Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Before then, Linus Pauling, and Watson and Crick, had erroneous models with the chains inside", "that Pauling would quickly solve the DNA structure once he recognized his error and put the backbones of the nucleotide chains on the outside of a model of DNA. After March 1952 Franklin concentrated on the X-ray data for the A-form of less hydrated DNA while Wilkins tried to work on the hydrated B-form. Wilkins was handicapped because Franklin had all of the good DNA. Wilkins got new DNA samples, but it was not as good as the original sample he had obtained in 1950 and which Franklin continued to use. Most of his new results were for biological samples", "nucleotides as a \"Pile of Pennies\". Astbury presented their work at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. At the time, they were unaware that DNA can change conformation from A to B-form with humidity, and as a result their photographs are more blurry than the later Photo 51 x-ray image taken by Gosling in 1952. \nAstbury and Bell's recent developments on x-ray studies of proteins were included in the conference proceedings, \"X-ray and the Stoichiochemistry of Proteins\", \"An X-ray Study of Thymonucleic Acid\" and \"Optical and X-ray Examination and Direct Measurement of Built-up Protein Multilayers\". Astbury greatly admired Bell's willingness to" ]

[ "The only life we know of occurs as chemical reactions - complex molecules interacting through electrical forces - in liquid water. \"Exotic\" life that might function similarly but use different chemicals in something other than water (e.g., liquid methane on Titan) is a topic of speculation, but has never been detected.\n\nThe Sun is too hot for molecular bonds to exist, so there is no way for different nuclei to interact with each other except fusion in the core or keeping each other apart by mutual repulsion of protons. At such temperatures, matter is ionized and electrons move freely. \n\n\"Chemistry\" in the normal sense does not exist in such an environment - there are simply atomic nuclei and subatomic particles.", "The Sun is so hot that it ruins anything that gets near it. Ye can't even stick two molecules together in that kind of temperature.\n\nBut as for yer question about water ... Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: Why is water existing in all forms so important for life? ](_URL_0_)\n1. [ELI5: Why we search for water on other planets ](_URL_5_)\n1. [ELI5: Why does life on other planets need to depend on water? Could it not have evolved to depend on another substance? ](_URL_8_)\n1. [ELI5: Why is water required for life to exist on different planets? ](_URL_6_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do we assume life on other planet needs water? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: Water. Why is it so special, and why does life need it? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: Why are we so fixated on finding water on other planets, as a sign of life? Is it not possible that other life forms would function without water as we know it? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do we care so much about finding water on other planets, when other forms of life could have evolved to not need water? ](_URL_7_)\n1. [ELI5: Why do we expect alien life to have formed in earth like conditions? Is it scientifically possible for there to be other forms of life that don't require the same environment to thrive as earth life does? ](_URL_4_)", "I can help with the sun part, but maybe not so much with the water part. The energy level on the sun is too high for molecules to form. Only elements can exist there. Molecules would be ripped apart at that energy. No molecules, no cells, no organism.\n\nAs for the water question, I'm only going to be a little help. Water molecules have a positive side and a negative side, but neither side is all that strong, so it can combine easily with a lot of other charged molecules and can also be pretty easily separated from them. That means it's a pretty nifty transport system.", "Conditions for life have to be optimal to allow a series of very complex chemical reactions to occur. The kind of chemical reactions that can occur on the surface of a star, if any, are very limited. You can't have any complex chemical chains that exist in several thousands of degrees. \n\nWater is essential not just because of the water itself, but anywhere where there is liquid water likely has both relatively mild and stable conditions that are optimal for allowing complex chemical reactions to occur. It's not *essential* (as there are extreme microorganisms that survive without it) but it's ideal because most chemical reactions related to life (as we know it) require conditions that usually allow liquid water to exist." ]

[ "marine mammals and some types of fish. Past 100 meters, not enough light penetrates the water to support life, and no plant life exists.\nThere are creatures, however, which thrive around hydrothermal vents, or geysers located on the ocean floor that expel superheated water that is rich in minerals. These organisms feed off of chemosynthetic bacteria, which use the superheated water and chemicals from the hydrothermal vents to create energy in place of photosynthesis. The existence of these bacteria allow creatures like squids, hatchet fish, octopuses, tube worms, giant clams, spider crabs and other organisms to survive.\nDue to the total", "almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas", "fish. All animals survive on food created by the Sun through photosynthesis; either directly by eating plants, or indirectly by eating animals that eat plants. The Sun provided the energy for photosynthesis through its light, which was created at the Sun's core. It takes this light 2000 years to make it from the core to the Sun's surface and another eight minutes from the Sun's surface to the Earth.\nThe food problem is being studied by Dr. Hiroshi Tamiya of the Tokugawa Biological Institute in his research on chlorella, an algae consisting of carbohydrates, fats and 50% protein. Chlorella can produce", "of biology by revealing that terrestrial life need not be Sun-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.\nIt is now known that extremophiles, microorganisms with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, can specialize to thrive in the deep-sea, ice, boiling water, acid, the water core of nuclear reactors, salt crystals, toxic waste and in a range of other extreme habitats that were previously thought to be inhospitable for life. Living bacteria found in ice core samples retrieved from 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) deep at Lake Vostok in Antarctica, have provided data", "sun reaches thus making some plants to have more fitness than others. Availability of nutrients Some microsites are rich in nutrients while some are not. This is a great difference because seeds germinate more in microsites that have more nutrients it needs than those that lack them. This is because plants and other autotrophs get nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and Sulphur) they need from soil and water available in their microsite. Soil physical characteristics Plants obtain hydrogen from water found in the soil. Animals are influence by the soil physical characteristics for example where a fish will survive", "the body, dries wet clothes, disinfects water, and cooks food. Not to be overlooked is the psychological boost and the sense of safety and protection it gives. In the wild, fire can provide a sensation of home, a focal point, in addition to being an essential energy source. Fire may deter wild animals from interfering with a survivor, however wild animals may be attracted to the light and heat of a fire. Water A human being can survive an average of three to five days without the intake of water. The issues presented by the need for water dictate that", "However, although it is often said that these communities exist independently of the sun, some of the organisms are actually dependent upon oxygen produced by photosynthetic organisms, while others are anaerobic.\nThe chemosynthetic bacteria grow into a thick mat which attracts other organisms, such as amphipods and copepods, which graze upon the bacteria directly. Larger organisms, such as snails, shrimp, crabs, tube worms, fish (especially eelpout, cutthroat eel, ophidiiforms and Symphurus thermophilus), and octopuses (notably Vulcanoctopus hydrothermalis), form a food chain of predator and prey relationships above the primary consumers. The main families of organisms found around seafloor vents are annelids,", "(phototroph)microbes that exist in a variety of aquatic environments. Photoheterotrophs (Gk: photo = light, hetero = (an)other, troph = nourishment), are heterotrophic organisms that use light to produce energy, but are unable to utilize carbon dioxide as their primary carbon source. Most are obligately aerobic, meaning they require oxygen to grow. One remarkable aspect of these novel bacteria is that they, unlike other similar bacteria, are unable to utilize BChl (bacteriochlorophyll) for anaerobic growth.The only photosynthetic pigment that exists in AAPB is BChl a. Anaerobic phototrophic bacteria, on the contrary, can contain numerous species of photosynthetic pigments like", "also the topic of current research.\nTo a fair approximation, living organisms may be considered as examples of (b). Approximately, an animal's physical state cycles by the day, leaving the animal nearly unchanged. Animals take in food, water, and oxygen, and, as a result of metabolism, give out breakdown products and heat. Plants take in radiative energy from the sun, which may be regarded as heat, and carbon dioxide and water. They give out oxygen. In this way they grow. Eventually they die, and their remains rot away, turning mostly back into carbon dioxide and water. This can be regarded as", "oxygen, nitrogen and water, and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management, conservation, human food security, biologically invasive organisms, carbon sequestration, climate change, and sustainability. Human nutrition Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them. Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals. This is what ecologists call the", "ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did. The world's ability to support life was thought to depend on its access to sunlight. However, in 1977, during an exploratory dive to the Galapagos Rift in the deep-sea exploration submersible Alvin, scientists discovered colonies of giant tube worms, clams, crustaceans, mussels, and other assorted creatures clustered around undersea volcanic features known as black smokers. These creatures thrive despite having no access to sunlight, and it was soon discovered that they", "(plant chemistry) is included within the domain of plant physiology. To function and survive, plants produce a wide array of chemical compounds not found in other organisms. Photosynthesis requires a large array of pigments, enzymes, and other compounds to function. Because they cannot move, plants must also defend themselves chemically from herbivores, pathogens and competition from other plants. They do this by producing toxins and foul-tasting or smelling chemicals. Other compounds defend plants against disease, permit survival during drought, and prepare plants for dormancy, while other compounds are used to attract pollinators or herbivores to", "that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration. In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion. Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, medicine, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.\nHistorically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals. Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and", "number of extremely specialized lifeforms, ranging from bacteria to fish. Because of the absence of light at these depths, these ecosystems rely on chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis.\nFreshwater springs rich in hydrogen sulfide are mainly home to invertebrates, but also include a small number of fish: Cyprinodon bobmilleri (a pupfish from Mexico), Limia sulphurophila (a poeciliid from the Dominican Republic), Gambusia eurystoma (a poeciliid from Mexico), and a few Poecilia (poeciliids from Mexico). Invertebrates and microorganisms in some cave systems, such as Movile Cave, are adapted to high levels of hydrogen sulfide. Interstellar and planetary occurrence Hydrogen sulfide has often been", "enables aquatic organisms to survive beneath it in winter; and its molecules have electrically negative and positive ends, which enables it to form a wider range of compounds than other solvents can. Other good solvents, such as ammonia, are liquid only at such low temperatures that chemical reactions may be too slow to sustain life, and lack water's other advantages. Organisms based on alternative biochemistry may, however, be possible on other planets.\nResearch on how life might have emerged from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: self-replication, an organism's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself;", "not, but the answer lies in the food supply. Plants produce their own food from sunlight and carbon dioxide—both generally more abundant on land than in water. Animals fixed in place must rely on the surrounding medium to bring food at least close enough to grab, and this occurs in the three-dimensional water environment, but with much less abundance in the atmosphere.\nAll of the marine and aquatic invertebrates whose lives are spent fixed to the bottom (more or less; anemones are capable of getting up and moving to a new location if conditions warrant) produce dispersal units. These may be", "Biophysical environment Life-environment interaction All life that has survived must have adapted to conditions of its environment. Temperature, light, humidity, soil nutrients, etc., all influence any species, within any environment. However life in turn modifies, in various forms, its conditions. Some long term modifications along the history of the planet have been significant, such as the incorporation of oxygen to the atmosphere. This process consisted in the breakdown of carbon dioxide by anaerobic microorganisms that used the carbon in their metabolism and released the oxygen to the atmosphere. This led to the existence of oxygen-based plant and animal life, the", "some insects, lizards, birds and small mammals may persist, along with sea life. However, without oxygen replenishment by plant life, they believe that animals would probably die off from asphyxiation within a few million years. Even if sufficient oxygen were to remain in the atmosphere through the persistence of some form of photosynthesis, the steady rise in global temperature would result in a gradual loss of biodiversity.\nAs temperatures continue to rise, the last of animal life will be driven toward the poles, and possibly underground. They would become primarily active during the polar night, aestivating during the polar day due", "geographicum and Xanthoria elegans have been found to survive in an environment where the atmospheric pressure is far too low for surface liquid water and where the radiant energy is also much lower than that which most plants require to photosynthesize. The fungi Cryomyces antarcticus and Cryomyces minteri are also able to survive and reproduce in Mars-like conditions.\nSpecies, including humans, known to possess animal cognition require large amounts of energy, and have adapted to specific conditions, including an abundance of atmospheric oxygen and the availability of large quantities of chemical energy synthesized from radiant energy. If humans are to colonize", "food. These organisms are then preyed upon by other organisms, meaning that the bacteria can also take the place of plants as part of the bedrock for this ecosystem.   Biological adaptations Organisms that live at this depth have had to evolve to overcome challenges provided by the abyssal zone. Fish and invertebrates had to evolve to withstand the sheer cold and intense pressure found at this level. They also had to not only find ways to hunt and survive in constant darkness but to thrive in an ecosystem that has less oxygen and biomass, energy sources or prey items,", "is needed for survival because life arising in a puddle of organic material is likely to consume all of its food and become extinct. Gold's theory is that the flow of such food is due to out-gassing of primordial methane from the Earth's mantle; more conventional explanations of the food supply of deep microbes (away from sedimentary carbon compounds) is that the organisms subsist on hydrogen released by an interaction between water and (reduced) iron compounds in rocks. Panspermia Panspermia is the hypothesis that life exists throughout the universe, distributed by meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids, and, also, by spacecraft in", "capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of carbon dioxide of a few parts per million, so these life forms would probably disappear only because of rising temperatures and the loss of the biosphere.\nPlants—and, by extension, animals—could survive longer by evolving other strategies such as requiring less carbon dioxide for photosynthetic processes, becoming carnivorous, adapting to desiccation, or associating with fungi. These adaptations are likely to appear near the beginning of the moist greenhouse (see further).\nThe loss of plant life will also result in the eventual loss of oxygen as well as ozone due to the respiration of animals, chemical reactions in", "Animals Animals in fire-dependent ecosystems have protective or survival methods just as plants do. Animals have internal mechanisms that cause them to reproduce around the fire disturbance regime, this is called reproductive timing. Animals can smell or sense a fire coming so they can either escape or hide to survive the fire. Positive impacts of fire on the environment Fire is beneficial in fire-dependent ecosystems. Fire can increase soil nutrients, increase resource availability, decrease competition, decrease soil microorganisms, and control invasive species. If no fire occurs for an extended period of time, plants can begin to crowd out new plant", "essentials for life, sunshine and moisture, are most abundant, great forests grow. And here plants and animals proliferate in such numbers that we still have not even named all the different species. Here, animals and plants, insects and birds, mammals and man live together in intimate and complex communities, each dependent on one another. Two thirds of the surface of this unique planet are covered by water, and it was here indeed that life began. From the oceans, it has spread even to the summits of the highest mountains as animals and plants have responded to the changing face of", "a population explosion.\nFood is grown by the Sun through photosynthesis, which means putting together with light. Ninety-nine percent of all food and fuel is created by the Sun through photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is the molecule responsible for photosynthesis though science isn't exactly sire how it works. They believe chlorophyll uses sunlight to combine carbon dioxide molecules with water molecules, along with salts, to create sugars and release oxygen. These sugars form the bulk of a plant including its fruit. Most of these plants are grown in the sea as phytoplankton, which is the food source of zooplankton, which are eaten by", "heterotroph organisms that do eat other organisms. Some marine primary producers are specialised bacteria and archaea which are chemotrophs, making their own food by gathering around hydrothermal vents and cold seeps and using chemosynthesis. However most marine primary production comes from organisms which use photosynthesis on the carbon dioxide dissolved in the water. This process uses energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells. Marine primary producers are important because they underpin almost", "life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of life on Earth itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as extremophiles exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water, acidophiles thrive at a pH level of 3 or below, polyextremophiles can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth.\nThe surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees", "(organisms such as plants and algae, that make a living via photosynthesis) living at the same time draw on the same (atmospheric) source of carbon; as organisms of the same type share the same chemical machinery, they reflect this atmospheric composition with a constant carbon isotope trace. The inconsistent ratio observed in Prototaxites appears to show that the organism did not survive by photosynthesis, and Boyce's team deduce that the organism fed on a range of substrates, such as the remains of whichever other organisms were nearby. Nevertheless, the large size of the organism would necessitate an extensive network of", "concepts Except for some parasitic plants, all plants need sunlight to survive. However, in general, more sunlight does not always make it easier for plants to survive. In direct sunlight, plants face desiccation and exposure to UV rays, and must expend energy producing pigments to block UV light, and waxy coatings to prevent water loss.\nPlants adapted to shade have the ability to use far-red light (about 730 nm) more effectively than plants adapted to full sunlight. Most red light gets absorbed by the shade-intolerant canopy plants, but more of the far-red light penetrates the canopy, reaching the understorey. The shade-tolerant plants", "for a long time, it was later proven incorrect. Graduate student C.B. Van Niel at Stanford University found that purple sulfur bacteria reduce carbon to carbohydrates, but accumulate sulfur instead of releasing oxygen. He boldly proposed that, in analogy to the sulfur bacteria's forming elemental sulfur from H₂S (hydrogen sulfide), plants would form oxygen from H₂O (water). In 1937, this hypothesis was corroborated by the discovery that plants are capable of producing oxygen in the absence of CO₂. This discovery was made by Robin Hill, and subsequently the light-driven release of oxygen in the absence of CO₂ was called the" ]

[ "The thunder is a by-product of the lightning. When the lightning bolt travels through air, it very rapidly heats it. The air expands very rapidly as a result, causing a pressure wave to be created and travel through the air. Pressure waves in air = sound.", "Lighting is caused by electricity moving very fast through the air. As it moves very fast, it bumps into a lot of air molecules with a lot of energy. This causes the air to light up. The light from lighting is caused by the way the atoms are giggling and glowing because they are hot because the electricity just flowed through them. Like when you heat up a metal poker and it glows orange, but for air.\n\nFor a moment there, they were so hot that they were hotter than the Sun! But it's very fast, so they dont stay hot for long, and they dont glow for long, so it's a flash. \n\nDuring the flash, the air so hot that they pushed the air out of their way very fast. Think of a police chase in a crowded mall. The guy's running away, the cops are chasing him. What about everyone else? They keep getting shoved out of the way. If you could look down on the crowd, you'd see a gaping path where they guy ran and the cops followed, where people were moving out of the way, or maybe getting bumped into and shoved! It's like that for the air. The first guy bumps into the next, he bumps into the guy behind him. Only a lot more of them, and a lot more fast. These kinds of bumpings of air molecules are exactly what cause sound! Eventually, the air bumps from one to the next all th way across the sky and then it bumps into your ear. Like people in a crowded mall, each shoving the next.\n\nWhen cops are gone, people start to pick themselves up and fill up the space where the guys ran through. Air does this, but it's very fast! When the air from one side of the path collides with air from the other side, it makes a loud BOOM noise. Like slamming your hand on a table does, or on a drum.\n\nBecause light is much faster than sound, you can see the flash of light, and then hear hte boom because the boom is only going about 700 mph, while light is going 180000 miles in a second. Very fast!\n\n\nTl;DR: It's the air being shoved aside and then slapping back into itself after the electricity pushed it out of the way to get where it was going.", "Lightning is hot. Heat makes the pieces of air move away from each other really fast. All those pieces of air moving all at once makes a big boom.", "Put your hands together (like your praying). Your hands = air molecules. Now pretend lightning strikes in between your hands- it causes your hands to separate, but they want to remain together, so they come back together very fast. This sound of the clap is analogous to the sound of thunder.", "Follow up question:\n\nIs it just a myth that if you count the seconds between lightening and thunder thats how far(miles/km) away it is?\n\nI'm unsure if my parents told me that to stop me being so scared.\nI'm still terrified of storms. I'm 27 -_-", "You know the click or snap you hear with static electricity? It's the same thing only bigger." ]

[ "Heat lightning Cloud-to-ground lightning The movement of sound in the atmosphere depends on the properties of the air, such as temperature and density. Because temperature and density change with height, the sound of thunder is refracted through the troposphere. This refraction results in spaces through which the thunder does not propagate. The sound of thunder often reflects off the Earth's surface. The rumbling sound is partly due to these reflections. This reflection and refraction can leave zones bypassed by the sound that constitutes thunder.\nThe Earth's curvature also contributes to distant observers not hearing the thunderclap. Thunder is more likely to", "of the ocean, carrying it high into the air and then dropping it. \nThen another great battle occurred on land.\nIn one of many variant versions of the myth, the sound of the whale dropping into the sea is the source of thunder. A young boy of a Vancouver Island people, the Comox, was fascinated by the sound of thunder, and heard it from behind a point of land. He crossed that point, following the sound of thunder, and discovered the spectacle of the Thunderbird seizing and dropping the whale. The Thunderbird saw the boy, and told", "crack/snap, followed by continuous rumbling. The early sounds are from the leader parts of lightning, then the near parts of the return stroke, then the distant parts of the return stroke.", "produces a shock wave causing the clicking sound. The lightning bolt is simply a scaled-up version of the sparks seen in more domestic occurrences of static discharge. The flash occurs because the air in the discharge channel is heated to such a high temperature that it emits light by incandescence. The clap of thunder is the result of the shock wave created as the superheated air expands explosively. Electronic components Many semiconductor devices used in electronics are very sensitive to the presence of static electricity and can be damaged by a static discharge.\nThe use of an antistatic strap is mandatory", "debate about the precise physical mechanisms of the process. Other causes have also been proposed, relying on electrodynamic effects of the massive current acting on the plasma in the bolt of lightning. Consequences The shock wave in thunder is sufficient to cause property damage and injury, such as internal contusion, to individuals nearby. Thunder can rupture the eardrums of people nearby, leading to permanently impaired hearing. Even if not, it can lead to temporary deafness. Types Vavrek et al. (n.d.) reported that the sounds of thunder fall into categories based on loudness, duration, and pitch. Claps are loud sounds lasting", "of such sounds in severe thunderstorms; any strong, damaging wind, a severe hail volley, or continuous thunder in a thunderstorm may produce a roaring sound.\nTornadoes also produce identifiable inaudible infrasonic signatures.\nUnlike audible signatures, tornadic signatures have been isolated; due to the long distance propagation of low-frequency sound, efforts are ongoing to develop tornado prediction and detection devices with additional value in understanding tornado morphology, dynamics, and creation. Tornadoes also produce a detectable seismic signature, and research continues on isolating it and understanding the process. Electromagnetic, lightning, and other effects Tornadoes emit on the electromagnetic spectrum, with sferics and E-field effects", "but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.\nHe saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth. A part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant. He explained rain as a product of the", "region of Serra Gaúcha, in the southern state of Rio Grande do Sul. Acoustic effects One unique aspect of thundersnow is that the suspended and deposited snowfall act as an acoustic suppressor of the sound of thunder. The thunder from a typical thunderstorm can be heard many miles away, while the thunder from thundersnow can usually only be heard within a 2–3-mile (3.2–4.8 km) radius from the lightning. Lake effect precipitation Lake effect thundersnow occurs after a cold front or shortwave aloft passes over a body of water. This steepens the thermal lapse rates between the lake temperature and the temperatures", "starts when they decelerate to about 2–4 km/s (4,500–8,900 mph). Larger fragments will fall further down the strewn field. Acoustic manifestations Sound generated by a meteor in the upper atmosphere, such as a sonic boom, typically arrives many seconds after the visual light from a meteor disappears. Occasionally, as with the Leonid meteor shower of 2001, \"crackling\", \"swishing\", or \"hissing\" sounds have been reported, occurring at the same instant as a meteor flare. Similar sounds have also been reported during intense displays of Earth's auroras.\nTheories on the generation of these sounds may partially explain them. For example, scientists at NASA suggested that", "Castle thunder (sound effect) History After its use in Frankenstein, the Castle Thunder was used in dozens of films from the 1930s through the 1980s, including Citizen Kane (1941), Bambi (1942), Young Frankenstein (1974), Star Wars (1977), Ghostbusters (1984), Back to the Future (1985), and Big Trouble in Little China (1986). Use of the effect in subsequent years has declined because the quality of the original analog recording does not sufficiently hold up in modern sound mixes.\nThe effect appears in Disney, Peanuts, and Hanna-Barbera cartoons, including the original Scooby-Doo animated series. It can also be heard at the Haunted Mansion", "Thunderbolt Thunderstones The name \"thunderbolt\" or \"thunderstone\" has also been traditionally applied to the fossilised rostra of belemnoids. The origin of these bullet-shaped stones was not understood, and thus a mythological explanation of stones created where a lightning struck has arisen. In the modern world The thunderbolt or lightning bolt continues into the modern world as a prominent symbol; it has entered modern heraldry and military iconography.", "Barisal guns Barisal Guns or \"fog guns\" (mistpoeffers (fog dissipators) in Belgium and Netherlands, Seeschießen (sea/lake gunshots) in Germany, brontidi (thunder-like) or baturlio marinas in Italy) refer to a series of loud booms heard near the Barisal region of East Bengal (currently in Bangladesh) in the 19th century. There are various theories about the origin of the sound. One common explanation is that it was caused by the sound of waves, broken up by local topography, but geological origins have also been proposed. The sound is an example of a skyquake – an unexplained sudden loud sound without corresponding earthquake", "0.2 to 2 seconds and containing higher pitches. Peals are sounds changing in loudness and pitch. Rolls are irregular mixtures of loudness and pitches. Rumbles are less loud, last for longer (up to more than 30 seconds), and of low pitch.\nInversion thunder results when lightning strikes between cloud and ground occur during a temperature inversion; the resulting thunder sound have significantly greater acoustic energy than from the same distance in a non-inversion condition. In an inversion, the air near the ground is cooler than the higher air; inversions often occur when warm moist air passes above a cold front. Within", "topography.\nThe winds of the tornado vortex and of constituent turbulent eddies, as well as airflow interaction with the surface and debris, contribute to the sounds. Funnel clouds also produce sounds. Funnel clouds and small tornadoes are reported as whistling, whining, humming, or the buzzing of innumerable bees or electricity, or more or less harmonic, whereas many tornadoes are reported as a continuous, deep rumbling, or an irregular sound of \"noise\".\nSince many tornadoes are audible only when very near, sound is not to be thought of as a reliable warning signal for a tornado. Tornadoes are also not the only source", "weaker noise from more distant thunderstorms. The third source was a still weaker hiss that turned out to be galactic noise from the center of the Milky Way. Jansky's research made him the father of radio astronomy. Lightning Atmospheric noise is radio noise caused by natural atmospheric processes, primarily lightning discharges in thunderstorms. It is mainly caused by cloud-to-ground flashes as the current is much stronger than that of cloud-to-cloud flashes. On a worldwide scale, 3.5 million lightning flashes occur daily. This is about 40 lightning flashes per second.\nThe sum of all these lightning flashes results in atmospheric noise. It can", "create the sound of the wind, a completely original effect. Composer and professor of experimental music Dieter Schnebel (1930–2018) wrote of this scene\nThe central storm scene is, so to speak, a film with sound, whose moving images show an exterior and interior drama. The furtive encounters between people in the darkness, irregularly broken by lightning, are exposed by the empty fifths, the tremolos of strings, the brief breakthroughs of the wind instruments, the thunderclaps and the sinister sighs of the chorus, which express as well an external process that is internal: death arrives with thunderclaps. The music always passes in", "that it was made by deities but the ancient Greek philosophers attributed it to natural causes, such as wind striking clouds (Anaximander, Aristotle) and movement of air within clouds (Democritus). The Roman philosopher, Lucretius held it was from the sound of hail colliding within clouds.\nBy the mid-19th century, the accepted theory was that lightning produced a vacuum; the collapse of that vacuum produced thunder.\nIn the 20th century a consensus evolved that thunder must begin with a shock wave in the air due to the sudden thermal expansion of the plasma in the lightning channel. The temperature inside the lightning", "by a US P-8A Poseidon aircraft detected noises possibly coming from San Juan; a senior United States Navy officer told CNN that this sounded like banging on the hull in order to alert passing ships; later analysis of the audio determined that the sound \"did not correspond to a submarine\", and was probably of biological origin. By the end of the day the oceanographic vessels of the Argentine Navy Puerto Deseado and Austral with support of the icebreaker Almirante Maximiano of the Brazilian Navy carried out an extensive scan in the place where the biological sound started. The Royal Navy", "of \"dark objects\" which passed, on the same course as the previous meteors, from west to east over Toronto on the afternoon of February 10, which he suggested were \"something of a meteoric nature\". Accompanying sounds William Henry Pickering noted that at eight stations in Canada a trembling of the house or ground was felt. In many other places loud, thunder-like sounds were heard, occasionally by people who had not seen the meteors themselves. Pickering used the sound reports to perform a check on the height of the meteors, which he calculated at 35 miles (56 km). Analysis The first detailed", "kind of roaring and growling causes the constant howling of the cannon, the bursting shells and bombs of the enemy, and the unceasing salvoes from our guns from every direction? You can imagine they are a bit like the thunder heard sometimes in great thunderstorms.\nBüttner writes the following thoughts about the sight of the rockets used by the two armies, which were a relatively recent military innovation:\nI never saw anything more beautiful. The many rockets slashed crackling through the air like fiery snakes, blistering and sparkling on their way, and if they fell through a window or roof, they lit", "make sounds when shaken. These sounds can range from the dull sounds typical of wooden rattles to the jingling or bell type sounds that metal rattles make.\nRattles provide a source of stimulation. Babies like the sounds they produce and follow the path of the rattle with their eyes, as well as giving them a sense of discovery as they try to grab and hold the rattle.\nMany rattles have a dual function, doubling as teethers as babies grow. They have textured surfaces which are easy on the gums and provide the stimulation that babies need.", "him that the story was now his, and he had the right to wear the Thunderbird mask and wings at the potlatch.\nIn another variant, the flapping of the Thunderbird's wings is the source of the thunder Reconstructing the myth In the 1980s, geologists found evidence that an earthquake, powerful enough to send a tsunami all the way to Japan, hit the American Pacific Northwest in 1700. Some ethnologists believe that \"Thunderbird and Whale\" is a description of that disaster.", "Seismic noise In geology and other related disciplines, seismic noise is a generic name for a relatively persistent vibration of the ground, due to a multitude of causes, that is a non-interpretable or unwanted component of signals recorded by seismometers.\nPhysically, seismic noise consists mostly of surface waves. Low frequency waves (below 1 Hz) are generally called microseisms; high frequency waves (above 1 Hz) are called microtremors. Its causes include nearby human activities (such as traffic or heavy machinery), winds and other atmospheric phenomena, and ocean waves.\nSeismic noise is relevant to any discipline that depends on seismology, such as geology, oil", "a companion tornado either as a satellite tornado or associated with anticyclonic eddies within a supercell. Sound and seismology Tornadoes emit widely on the acoustics spectrum and the sounds are caused by multiple mechanisms. Various sounds of tornadoes have been reported, mostly related to familiar sounds for the witness and generally some variation of a whooshing roar. Popularly reported sounds include a freight train, rushing rapids or waterfall, a nearby jet engine, or combinations of these. Many tornadoes are not audible from much distance; the nature of and the propagation distance of the audible sound depends on atmospheric conditions and", "boom (percussion). Toot The film then jumps to a group of four cavemen, each of whom have discovered the nuclear form of one of the above sounds. We begin with a portly Caveman Toot who has discovered that blowing through an old cow's horn produces a pleasing \"toot\". We advance to ancient Egypt in 2000 BC, where Caveman Toot discovers that metal horns produce even better sounds. He celebrates by breaking into a two-note jazz solo as Egyptian characters painted on the walls boogie down.\nWe return to Professor Owl, who explains that making a trumpet longer made its tone lower.", "[diverse] parts of the world; i.e., a device no bigger than one's thumb. From the violence of that salt called saltpeter [together with sulfur and willow charcoal, combined into a powder] so horrible a sound is made by the bursting of a thing so small, no more than a bit of parchment [containing it], that we find [the ear assaulted by a noise] exceeding the roar of strong thunder, and a flash brighter than the most brilliant lightning.\" In the early 20th century, British artillery officer Henry William Lovett Hime proposed that another work tentatively attributed to Bacon, Epistola de", "Crackling noise Crackling noise arises when a system is subject to an external force and it responds via events that appear very similar at many different scales. In a classical system there are usually two states, on and off. However, sometimes a state can exist in between. There are three main categories this noise can be sorted into: the first is popping where events at very similar magnitude occur continuously and randomly, e.g. popcorn; the second is snapping where there is little change in the system until a critical threshold is surpassed, at which point the whole system flips from", "Burst noise Burst noise is a type of electronic noise that occurs in semiconductors and ultra-thin gate oxide films. It is also called random telegraph noise (RTN), popcorn noise, impulse noise, bi-stable noise, or random telegraph signal (RTS) noise.\nIt consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more discrete voltage or current levels, as high as several hundred microvolts, at random and unpredictable times. Each shift in offset voltage or current often lasts from several milliseconds to seconds, and sounds like popcorn popping if hooked up to an audio speaker.\nPopcorn noise was first observed in early point contact", "with it and ultimately released in February 2005. Planned console ports were cancelled.\nThe story was parodied in the Time and Punishment section of The Simpsons episode \"Treehouse of Horror V\". Influence \"A Sound of Thunder\" is often credited as the origin of the term \"butterfly effect\", a concept of chaos theory in which the flapping of a butterfly's wings in one part of the world could create a hurricane on the opposite side of the globe. The term was actually introduced by meteorologist Edward Norton Lorenz in the 1960s. However, Bradbury's concept of how the death of a butterfly in", "thunderstorm are sustained winds of 58 miles per hour (93 km/h) during the storm as opposed to gusts, high or rapidly increasing forward speed, and geographic extent (typically 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi) in length.) In addition, they have a distinctive appearance on radar (bow echo); several unique features, such as the rear inflow notch and bookend vortex, and usually manifest two or more downbursts. Although these storms most commonly occur in North America, derechos occur elsewhere in the world. Outside North America they may be called by different names. For example, in Bangladesh and adjacent portions" ]

[ "You would age the same as anyone else except you would have gone through a state of atrophy where your muscles were not being used which causes them to break down. Your body is still working to keep you alive and the components of your body will not age slower just because they are not being used as much.\n\nSomewhat off topic but the only way I've personally heard of someone aging slower is through something called \"relative velocity time dilation.\" The basic premise is that you age slower the faster you are moving based on the theory of relativity. There is also something called \"gravitational time dilation\" which states that the aging process decreases when gravitational force increases." ]

[ "Slowing aging Aging is a process accompanied by a decrease in brain weight and volume. This phenomenon can be explained by structural changes in the brain, namely, a loss of grey matter. Some studies over the last decade have implicated meditation as a protective factor against normal age-related brain atrophy. The first direct evidence for this link emerged from a study investigating changes in the cortical thickness of meditators. The researchers found that regular meditation practice was able to reduce age-related thinning of the frontal cortex, albeit, these findings were restricted to particular regions of the brain. A similar study", "start to decrease around age of 30 years old. According to Mander et al, atrophy in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) gray matter is a predictor of disruption in slow activity during NREM sleep that may impair memory consolidation in older adults. And sleep disturbances, such as excessive daytime sleepiness and nighttime insomnia, have been often referred as factor risk of progressive functional impairment in Alzheimer's disease (AD) or Parkinson's disease (PD).\nTherefore, sleep in aging is another equally important area of research. A common observation is that many older adults spend time awake in bed after sleep onset in an", "Although it is not scientifically possible to directly show that retirement either causes or contributes to depression, the newly retired are one of the most vulnerable societal groups when it comes to depression most likely due to confluence of increasing age and deteriorating health status. Retirement coincides with deterioration of one's health that correlates with increasing age and this likely plays a major role in increased rates of depression in retirees. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have shown that healthy elderly and retired people are as happy or happier and have an equal quality of life as they age as compared", "The process of ageing, and terminal illness, may be experienced as encroaching shadows on human dignity. Equally, while near the peak of their careers, people may note the encroachment of youth and change. Other uses In medical terminology, a temporal encroachment has to do with bones in the skull pressing tightly against the brain after an injury to the head.\nIn computer science, a temporal key that is improperly validatated is considered a temporal encroachment.", "elderly people. In 'normal aging', the brain is undergoing oxidative stress in a multitude of ways. The main contributors include protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation and oxidative modifications in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Oxidative stress can damage DNA replication and inhibit repair through many complex processes, including telomere shortening in DNA components. Each time a somatic cell replicates, the telomeric DNA component shortens. As telomere length is partly inheritable, there are individual differences in the age of onset of cognitive decline. DNA damage At least 25 studies have demonstrated that DNA damage accumulates with age in", "age, obesity and snoring. Aging and sleep People over age 60 with prolonged sleep (8-10 hours or more; average sleep duration of 7-8 hours in the elderly) have a 33% increased risk of all-cause mortality and 43% increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, while those with short sleep (less than 7 hours) have a 6% increased risk of all-cause mortality. Sleep disorders, including sleep apnea, insomnia, or periodic limb movements, occur more commonly in the elderly, each possibly impacting sleep quality and duration. A 2017 review indicated that older adults do not need less sleep, but rather have an impaired ability", "not the original form and does not result from the same cognitive changes. Once the depression is properly treated or the medication therapy is changed, the cognitive impairment can be effectively reversed. Generally, dementia involves a steady and irreversible cognitive decline but in some cases there may be different outcomes. In addition, diminished mental capacity and social withdrawal are commonly identified as symptoms in the elderly but oftentimes is due to symptoms of depression. As a result, elderly patients are often misdiagnosed especially when healthcare professionals do not make an accurate assessment.\nOlder people with predominantly cognitive symptoms such as loss", "outcome for coma and vegetative state depends on the cause, location, severity and extent of neurological damage. A deeper coma alone does not necessarily mean a slimmer chance of recovery, similarly, milder comas do not ensure higher chances of recovery . The most common cause of death for a person in a vegetative state is secondary infection such as pneumonia, which can occur in patients who lie still for extended periods. Recovery People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual, and psychological difficulties that need special attention. It is common for coma patients to awaken in", "Late life depression Late life depression refers to a major depressive episode occurring for the first time in an older person (usually over 50 or 60 years of age). Concurrent medical problems and lower functional expectations of elderly patients often obscure the degree of impairment. Typically, elderly patients with depression do not report depressed mood, but instead present with less specific symptoms such as insomnia, anorexia, and fatigue. Elderly persons sometimes dismiss less severe depression as an acceptable response to life stress or a normal part of aging. Causes The exact changes in brain chemistry and function that cause either", "of survivors developed severe mental problems, so they needed daily help. Two patients out of 2,504 went into comas (0.1% of patients, or 2 out of 419 survivors, 0.5%), and the study did not track how long the comas lasted.\nMost people in comas start to recover in 2–3 weeks. 2018 guidelines on disorders of consciousness say it is no longer appropriate to use the term \"permanent vegetative state.\" Mental abilities can continue to improve in the six months after discharge, and in subsequent years. For long term problems, brains form new paths to replace damaged areas. Injuries Injuries from CPR", "in death rates can halt in later life. According to Rose, mortality-rate plateaus have not often been noticed in humans because they are only seen in specific-age cohorts of the very old. His proposed explanation is that at a stage of life beyond the potential to reproduce, the effect of natural selection is no longer falling as it has 'bottomed out'. Rose suggests that if a decline in the effect of natural selection is responsible for aging, then when this decline finally ends, at post-reproductive age, aging could halt. He reasons it follows that aging is \"not a cumulative process", "disease remains very limited. However, recent studies have highlighted a link between sleep disturbances and Alzheimer's disease.\nSleep changes with normal aging. Indeed, with age, we find a decrease in time sleeping and also a decrease in the quantity of NREM sleep, more precisely in NREM SWS (less than 10% of the SWS is maintained). Older people also are more prone to insomnia or sleep apnea.\nIn Alzheimer's disease, in addition to cognitive decline and memory impairment, there is also significant sleep disturbances with a modified sleep architecture. The latter may consist in sleep fragmentation, a reduction in sleep duration, insomnia, an", "consequence of aging, no matter how great an age a person attained. Evidence of this is shown by numerous documented supercentenarians (people living to 110 or more) that experienced no serious cognitive impairment. There is some evidence that dementia is most likely to develop between the ages of 80 and 84 and individuals who pass that point without being affected have a lower chance of developing it. Women account for a larger percentage of dementia cases than men, although this can be attributed to their longer overall lifespan and greater odds of attaining an age where the condition is likely", "their aging can lead to heart failure. Findings of the study indicate that diabetes leads to premature myocyte senescence and death and together they result in the development of cardiomyopathy due to decreased muscle mass.\nBehrens et al. have reviewed evidence that age-dependent accumulation of DNA damage in both stem cells and cells that comprise the stem cell microenvironment is responsible, at least in part, for stem cell dysfunction with aging. Hematopoietic stem cell aging Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) regenerate the blood system throughout life and maintain homeostasis . DNA strand breaks accumulate in long term HSCs during aging. ", "age. The clinical manifestations of accelerated aging suggest that trisomy 21 increases the biological age of tissues, but molecular evidence for this hypothesis has been sparse. According to the epigenetic clock, trisomy 21 significantly increases the age of blood and brain tissue (on average by 6.6 years). Alzheimer's disease related neuropathology Epigenetic age acceleration of the human prefrontal cortex was found to be correlated with several neuropathological measurements that play a role in Alzheimer's disease Further, it was found to be associated with a decline in global cognitive functioning, and memory functioning among individuals with Alzheimer's disease.\nThe epigenetic age", "old memories, memories stored before the damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age.\nChronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic systems. Stress may also increase reward associated with food, leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits. Stress may contribute to various disorders, such as fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, and functional somatic syndromes. Eustress Selye published", "are typically associated with older age such as an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease. The clinical manifestations of accelerated aging suggest that trisomy 21 increases the biological age of tissues, but molecular evidence for this hypothesis has been sparse. According to a biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock, trisomy 21 significantly increases the age of blood and brain tissue (on average by 6.6 years).", "a vegetative state after traumatic brain injury Chronic coma Like coma, chronic coma results mostly from cortical or white-matter damage after neuronal or axonal injury, or from focal brainstem lesions.Usually the metabolism in the grey matter decreases to 50-70% of the normal range. The patient lacks awareness and arousal. The patient lies with eyes closed and is not aware of self or surroundings. Stimulation cannot produce spontaneous periods of wakefulness and eye-opening, unlike patients in vegetative state. In medicine, a coma (from the Greek κῶμα koma, meaning deep sleep) is a state of unconsciousness, lasting more than six hours in", "life. Toward the end middle adulthood however, physical and mental changes become more prominent, as does the reality of retirement. Although experienced at different times and to various extents, these events trigger the reality that one is entering old age and thus becoming a senior member. Late adulthood transition Levinson defines the late adulthood transition as when middle adulthood is coming to an end and late adulthood begins, from about age 60 to 65. Around age 60, a person experiences a physical or bodily decline, and notices the higher frequency of friends, family members, and peers dying or experiencing illness,", "2018, aged 82, after being in a coma for two weeks.", "accelerated forgetting during infancy. Importantly, infantile amnesia is not unique to humans, and preclinical research (using rodent models) provides insight into the precise neurobiology of this phenomenon. A review of the literature from behavioral neuroscientist Dr Jee Hyun Kim suggests that accelerated forgetting during early life is at least partly due to rapid growth of the brain during this period. Aging One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of", "aging\". (Also see the \"DNA damage theory of aging\" for a discussion of the evidence that DNA damage is the primary underlying cause of aging.) Debate concerning \"accelerated aging\" Some biogerontologists question that such a thing as \"accelerated aging\" actually exists, at least partly on the grounds that all of the so-called accelerated aging diseases are segmental progerias. Many disease conditions such as diabetes, high blood pressure, etc., are associated with increased mortality. Without reliable biomarkers of aging it is hard to support the claim that a disease condition represents more than accelerated mortality.\nAgainst this position other biogerontologists argue", "Alzheimer's disease.\nREST contains 8 Cys₂His₂ zinc fingers and mediates gene repression by recruiting several chromatin-modifying enzymes.\nREST expression strongly correlates with increased longevity. REST levels are highest in the brains of people who lived up to be 90 - 100s and remained cognitively intact. Levels stayed high specifically in the brain regions vulnerable to Alzheimer's, suggesting that they might be protected from dementia. It is assumed that REST represses genes that promote cell death and Alzheimer's disease pathology, and induces the expression of stress response genes. Moreover, REST potently protects neurons from oxidative stress and amyloid β-protein toxicity. REST is also", "late life or earlier onset depression are unknown. It is known, however, that brain changes can be triggered by the stresses of certain life events such as illness, childbirth, death of a loved one, life transitions (such as retirement), interpersonal conflicts, or social isolation. Risk factors for depression in elderly persons include a history of depression, chronic medical illness, female sex, being single or divorced, brain disease, alcohol abuse, use of certain medications, and stressful life events. Treatments Treatment is effective in about 80% of identified cases, when treatment is provided. Effective management requires a biopsychosocial approach, combining pharmacotherapy and", "which also, once they progress far enough, increasingly disrupt metabolism, resulting in pathology and death.\" The current causes of aging in humans are cell loss (without replacement), DNA damage, oncogenic nuclear mutations and epimutations, cell senescence, mitochondrial mutations, lysosomal aggregates, extracellular aggregates, random extracellular cross-linking, immune system decline, and endocrine changes. Eliminating aging would require finding a solution to each of these causes, a program de Grey calls engineered negligible senescence. There is also a huge body of knowledge indicating that change is characterized by the loss of molecular fidelity. Disease Disease is theoretically surmountable via technology. In short, it", "that dietary restriction reduced accumulation of 8-OHdG with age in rat brain, heart, skeletal muscle, and liver. Thus reduction of oxidative DNA damage is associated with a slower rate of aging and increased lifespan. Inherited defects that cause premature aging If DNA damage is the underlying cause of aging, it would be expected that humans with inherited defects in the ability to repair DNA damages should age at a faster pace than persons without such a defect. Numerous examples of rare inherited conditions with DNA repair defects are known. Several of these show multiple striking features of premature aging, and", "complaints among the elderly, and poor sleep can be linked to a wide variety of problems including increased cardiovascular problems, disruption of endocrine functions, decline of immune functions, stability problems, and poor cognition. Studies have shown that when the elderly are exposed to high circadian light levels during the day and dim circadian levels at night, their sleep duration and efficiency has significantly improved. Depression The elderly frequently cite depression as a notable ailment. Many researchers have linked the depression to seasonal affective disorder (SAD), and seasonal mood variations have been linked to lack of light. (SAD is", "impairment may be a part of aging, but renal failure and urinary incontinence are not. Geriatricians aim to treat diseases that are present and achieve healthy aging. Geriatricians focus on achieving the patient's highest priorities in the context of multiple chronic conditions, and on preserving function. Increased complexity The decline in physiological reserve in organs makes the elderly develop some kinds of diseases and have more complications from mild problems (such as dehydration from a mild gastroenteritis). Multiple problems may compound: A mild fever in elderly persons may cause confusion, which may lead to a fall and to a fracture", "caused by the aging process. Biological failure Gerascophobists especially fear the fade of health, the risk of age-related diseases, and the inevitable loss of well-being which comes along with the aging process. This includes restricted individual mobility, reliance on prescription medication, tooth decay and loss of denture, loss of bone density, accumulating genetic damage, vocal distortion, the loss of body functionality (e.g. eyesight, which leads to reliance on external tools (i.e. reading glasses) that can break, malfunction, be forgotten and/or get lost), Cataract, Arthritis, Gastrointestinal disease (food digestion and issues and dyschezia, obstructed defecation), hydration malfunction, desert-dry skin, the increasing", "across the lifespan, with most of the decline seen in the mid-forties. By the age of about 75, stage four sleep and delta waves may be entirely absent.\nIn addition to a decrease in the incidence of delta waves during slow-wave sleep in the elderly, the incidence of temporal delta wave activity is commonly seen in older adults, and incidences also increase with age. Disruptions and disorders Regional delta wave activity not associated with NREM sleep was first described by W. Grey Walter, who studied cerebral hemisphere tumors. Disruptions in delta wave activity and slow wave sleep are seen in a" ]

[ "I get my worst allergy symptoms at night. I go to lay down, roll over, and I can no longer breathe out of my nose.\n\nThe struggle is real", "Well if that is the case for you, you are in luck. Can't count the times I've woken up because I could barely breathe, due to the fact that my antihistamine had stopped working." ]

[ "allergic rhinitis. A study from the N.I.H. found that sleep is dramatically impaired by allergic symptoms and that the degree of impairment is related to the severity of those symptoms s Treatment of allergies has also been shown to help sleep apnea. Acupuncture A review of the evidence in 2012 concluded that current research is not rigorous enough to make recommendations around the use of acupuncture for insomnia. The pooled results of two trials on acupuncture showed a moderate likelihood that there may be some improvement to sleep quality for individuals with a diagnosis insomnia. This form of treatment", "exposure. If the body is exposed to the allergen multiple times the immune system will react every time the allergen is present. \nThe reason why people get allergies is not known. The allergens are not passed down through generations. It is believed if parents have allergies the child is more likely to be allergic to the same allergens. \nSome common symptoms include itchiness, swelling, running nose, watery eyes, coughing, wheezing, trouble breathing, hives, rashes, mucus production, or a more severe reaction anaphylaxis. Allergic responses and the severity vary from person to person.\nMany substances can trigger an allergic reaction. Common triggers", "allergies is unclear, in part because studies tend to use different definitions and outcomes, and because of the wide variety among both helminth species and the populations they infect. The infections induce a type 2 immune response, which likely evolved in mammals as a result of such infections; chronic helminth infection has been linked with a reduced sensitivity in peripheral T cells, and several studies have found deworming to lead to an increase in allergic sensitivity. However, in some cases helminths and other parasites are a cause of developing allergies instead. In addition, such infections are not themselves a treatment", "increased risk of miscarriage. There is an increased risk regardless of which parent smokes, though the risk is higher when the gestational mother smokes. Morning sickness Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP, or morning sickness) are associated with a decreased risk. Several possible causes have been suggested for morning sickness but there is still no agreement. NVP may represent a defense mechanism which discourages the mother's ingestion of foods that are harmful to the fetus; according to this model, a lower frequency of miscarriage would be an expected consequence of the different food choices made by women experiencing NVP. Chemicals", "symptoms associated with allergies from occurring. Fexofenadine does not readily cross the blood–brain barrier and is therefore less likely to cause drowsiness in comparison to other antihistamines that readily cross the blood-brain barrier (i.e. first-generation antihistamines like diphenhydramine). In general, fexofenadine takes about one hour to take effect, though this may be affected by the choice of dosage form and the presence/absence of certain foods.\nFexofenadine also exhibits no anticholinergic, antidopaminergic, alpha1-adrenergic, or beta-adrenergic-receptor-blocking effects. Interactions Taking erythromycin or ketoconazole while taking fexofenadine does increase the plasma levels of fexofenadine, but this increase does not influence the QT interval. The reason", "of developing AD. However, this is still only theoretical. \nAlthough the exact mechanisms and the causal relationship between sleep disturbances and AD are not yet clear, these findings already provide a better understanding. In addition, they open up ideas for the implementation of treatments to curb the cognitive decline of patients suffering from this disease. In the same way, it also makes it possible to better target at risk population. Allergy treatment Histamine plays a role in wakefulness in the brain. An allergic reaction over produces histamine causing wakefulness and inhibiting sleep Sleep problems are common in people with", "histamine from mast cells. Because this mechanism is classified as a pharmacological reaction, or \"pseudoallergy\", the condition is considered a food intolerance instead of a true immunoglobulin E (IgE) based allergic reaction.\nThe response is usually localized, typically in the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, or any other symptoms typical to histamine release. If sufficiently strong, it can result in an anaphylactoid reaction, which is clinically indistinguishable from true anaphylaxis. Some people with this condition tolerate small quantities of egg whites. They are more often able to tolerate well-cooked eggs, such as found in cake or dried egg-based", "diseases, this was a watershed moment in the world of allergies. Asthma and sleep apnea It is recognized with increasing frequency that patients who have both obstructive sleep apnea and asthma often improve tremendously when the sleep apnea is diagnosed and treated. CPAP is not effective in patients with nocturnal asthma only. Asthma and gastro-esophageal reflux disease If gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is present, the patient may have repetitive episodes of acid aspiration. GERD may be common in difficult-to-control asthma, but according to one study, treating it does not seem to affect the asthma.\nWhen there is a clinical suspicion for", "medications are generally believed to be better and safer than earlier generations of sedatives, they have still generated some controversy and discussion regarding side-effects. White noise appears to be a promising treatment for insomnia. Obstructive sleep apnea Obstructive sleep apnea is a condition in which major pauses in breathing occur during sleep, disrupting the normal progression of sleep and often causing other more severe health problems. Apneas occur when the muscles around the patient's airway relax during sleep, causing the airway to collapse and block the intake of oxygen. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common than central sleep apnea.", "of pregnancy. Efavirenz passes into breast milk and breast-fed infants may be exposed to efavirenz. Contraindications People who have taken this medication before and experienced an allergic reaction should avoid taking further efavirenz dosages. Hypersensitivity reactions include Steven-Johnson syndrome, toxic skin eruptions, and erythema multiforme. Adverse effects Neuropsychiatric effects are the most common adverse effects, and include disturbed sleep (including nightmares, insomnia, disrupted sleep, and daytime fatigue), dizziness, headaches, vertigo, blurred vision, anxiety, and cognitive impairment (including fatigue, confusion, and memory and concentration problems), and depression, including suicidal thinking. Some people experience euphoria.\nRash and nausea may occur.\nUse of", "Schmitt, is \"as parents we tend to suspect that our children’s brains may melt.\"\nAs a result of these misconceptions parents are anxious, give the child fever-reducing medicine when the temperature is technically normal or only slightly elevated, and interfere with the child's sleep to give the child more medicine. Other animals Fever is an important feature for the diagnosis of disease in domestic animals. The body temperature of animals, which is taken rectally, is different from one species to another. For example, a horse is said to have a fever above 101 °F (38.3 °C). In species that allow the body to", "will begin to act on the central nervous system and thus can induce drowsiness when ingested in higher quantity. Additionally, some second-generation antihistamines, notably cetirizine, can interact with CNS psychoactive drugs such as bupropion and benzodiazepines. History Currently most people who use an antihistamine to treat allergies use a second-generation drug.\nThe first generation of antihistamine drugs became available in the 1930s. This marked the beginning of medical treatment of nasal allergies. Research into these drugs led to the discovery that they were H1 antagonists and also to the development of H2 antagonists, where H1 antihistamines affected the nose and the", "glutamate and food colors, and topical medications. Physical factors such as exercise (known as exercise-induced anaphylaxis) or temperature (either hot or cold) may also act as triggers through their direct effects on mast cells. Events caused by exercise are frequently associated with the ingestion of certain foods. During anesthesia, neuromuscular blocking agents, antibiotics, and latex are the most common causes. The cause remains unknown in 32–50% of cases, referred to as \"idiopathic anaphylaxis.\" Six vaccines (MMR, varicella, influenza, hepatitis B, tetanus, meningococcal) are recognized as a cause for anaphylaxis, and HPV may cause anaphylaxis as well. Physical exercise is an", "Columbia University, proposed that REM sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. Among the supportive evidences, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from iris had to reach cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. According to the theory, when the animal is awake, eye movement (or cool environmental temperature) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. When the animal is sleeping, REM provides the much-needed stir to aqueous humor. This theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses,", "Morning sickness Signs and symptoms About 66% of women have both nausea and vomiting while 33% have just nausea. Cause The cause of morning sickness is unknown. While some have claimed it to be due to psychological reasons, this is not supported by evidence.\nNausea and vomiting may also occur with molar pregnancy.\nMorning sickness is related to diets low in cereals and high in sugars, oilcrops, alcohol and meat. Treatments There is a lack of good evidence to support the use of any particular intervention for morning sickness. Medications A number of antiemetics are effective and safe in pregnancy including: pyridoxine/doxylamine,", "(anaphylaxis) occurs, then epinephrine should be used. People with potential anaphylaxis are recommended to carry auto-injectors at all times. Less severe reaction may be dealt with by taking an antihistamine tablet.\nTotal avoidance is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling). Society and culture Whether food allergy prevalence is increasing or not, food allergy awareness has increased, with impacts on the quality of life for children, their parents and their immediate caregivers. In the United States, the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 causes", "very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep", "generally comparable to quetiapine and lurasidone, which is a frequent complaint in clinical trials. In some cases, the sedation due to olanzapine impaired the ability of people to wake up at a consistent time every day. There does appear to be some evidence of efficacy for treating insomnia, but long-term studies (especially for safety) are still needed. Pregnancy and lactation Olanzapine is associated with the highest placental exposure of any atypical antipsychotic. Despite this, the available evidence suggests it is safe during pregnancy, although the evidence is insufficiently strong to say anything with a high degree of confidence. Olanzapine is", "risk of diabetes among those with moderate or severe sleep apnea is higher. There is increasing evidence that sleep apnea may lead to liver function impairment, particularly fatty liver diseases (see steatosis). Finally, because there are many factors that could lead to some of the effects previously listed, some people are not aware that they have sleep apnea and are either misdiagnosed or ignore the symptoms altogether. Mechanism When breathing is paused, carbon dioxide builds up in the bloodstream. Chemoreceptors in the blood stream note the high carbon dioxide levels. The brain is signaled to awaken the person, which clears", "Hiccup Clearance of air from stomach A recent explanation by Howes in 2012 suggests that hiccups may have evolved along with other reflexes developed in mammals that allow them to coordinate suckling milk and breathing. Hiccups are only found in mammals, and are most common in infants, becoming rarer as mammals age. This may suggest that they evolved to allow air trapped in the stomach of suckling infants to escape, allowing more milk to be ingested.\nThe hypothesis suggests that the air bubble in the stomach stimulates the sensory limb of the reflex at receptors in the stomach, esophagus and", "sleep patterns after exposure to a stressful social stimulus in animals. Pre-natal and childhood stress Chronic maternal stress in pregnancy exposes the foetus to increased levels of glucocorticoid and inflammatory markers which in turn negatively effects the H-P-A axis and disrupts sleep regulation of the foetus. Up until the age of 2 years, children who have been exposed to pre-natal stress have shortened and disorganized sleeping patterns. During early childhood development the child's brain is particularity sensitive to adverse events such as family conflict, maternal post-natal depression or abuse. It is thought that it is via sensitization of the H-P-A", "anaphylaxis. Egg are specifically mentioned as a causative food. One theory is that exercise is stimulating the release of mediators such as histamine from IgE-activated mast cells. Two of the reviews postulate that exercise is not essential for the development of symptoms, but rather that it is one of several augmentation factors, citing evidence that the culprit food in combination with alcohol or aspirin will result in a respiratory anaphylactic reaction. Non-allergic intolerance Egg whites, which are potentially histamine liberators, also provoke a nonallergic response in some people. In this situation, proteins in egg white directly trigger the release of", "asleep because of their hyperactivity and, as a result, tend to be tired during most of the day. Another cause of insomnia in children with ADHD is the use of stimulants used to treat their disorder. Children who have ADHD then, as well as the other disorders mentioned, may be given melatonin before bedtime in order to help them sleep. Antidepressants While insomnia is a common symptom of depression, antidepressants are effective for treating sleep problems whether or not they are associated with depression. While all antidepressants help regulate sleep, some antidepressants such as amitriptyline, doxepin, mirtazapine, and trazodone can", "increased wakefulness in normal animals, decreased sleepiness and blocked the abnormal transitions from REM sleep to awake state in the hypocretin knock-out mice. Also placebo-controlled studies suggest some positive effects of Pitolisant on cataplexy symptoms increasing the levels of alertness and wakefulness. Research Research is being conducted on hypocretin gene therapy and hypocretin cell transplantation for narcolepsy-cataplexy.", "light headedness and nausea, while causing people with allergies to be more susceptible allergy triggers like dust or pollen. Many particles in disease fuel are so tiny they are able to penetrate deep into the lungs when inhaled. Importantly, diesel fuel particles appear to have even greater immunologic effects in the presence of environmental allergens than they do alone. \"This immunologic evidence may help explain the epidemiologic studies indicating that children living along major trucking thoroughfares are at increased risk for asthmatic and allergic symptoms and are more likely to have respiratory dysfunction.\" according to Robert Pandya and", "supports, in his opinion, the mother-child-attachment, makes breastfeeding more convenient, and prevents not only separation anxiety, but SIDS, too. Sears is convinced that mother and child, in spite of frequent nighttime breastfeeding, have the best sleep when they sleep close together. He is also convinced that due to the extra nighttime feedings, a child that sleeps close to the mother thrives better than a child \"crying, alone, behind bars\". Moreover, Katie Allison Granju argued that co-sleeping is beneficial for children, too, because it gives children a vivid notion of the concept of bedtime.\nThe idea of co-sleeping was not new in", "urine, setting off an auditory signal with the intention of causing the individual to wake, cease voiding, and arise to void. Parents are advised to wake their child when the alarm is activated—otherwise, children are prone to turn it off and go back to sleep.\nIt is highly suggested that during treatment the alarm should be worn every night. The treatment effect and response are not immediate and treatment should be continued for 2–3 months or until the child is dry for 14 consecutive nights (whichever comes first). There may be cultural differences in its acceptability, as it may be", "situation where anorexia results from emetophobia is mentioned. Datillio says, \"...in one particular case report, atypical anorexia in several adolescent females occurred as a result of a fear of vomiting that followed a viral illness as opposed to the specific desire to lose weight or because of an anxiety reaction.\" In cases such as this, many emetophobes may also have avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), which is characterized by a general disinterest in food, sensory issues with food (taste, texture, look, smell) or a fear of adverse consequences from eating (vomiting or choking).\nOftentimes, this phobia is comorbid with several others,", "FAS after the causal agent of the symptoms. He reasoned that doing so would encourage prevention, believing that if people knew maternal alcohol consumption caused the syndrome, then abstinence during pregnancy would follow from patient education and public awareness. At the time, nobody was aware of the full range of possible birth defects from FAS or its rate of prevalence. \nOver time, as subsequent research and clinical experience suggested that a range of effects (including physical, behavioral, and cognitive) could arise from prenatal alcohol exposure, the term Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) was developed to include FAS as well as", "at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as Salmonella or E. coli. Allergies Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived" ]

[ "It doesn't. I've participated in some...\\*ahem\\* research on the subject.\n\nResults were no better than placebo." ]

[ "creating a conduit. Because an oropharyngeal airway can mechanically stimulate the gag reflex, it should only be used in a deeply sedated or unresponsive patient to avoid vomiting and aspiration . Careful attention must be made while inserting an OPA. The user must avoid pushing the tongue further down the patient's throat. This is usually done by inserting the OPA with its curve facing cephalad and rotating it 180 degrees as you enter the posterior pharynx.\nExtraglottic devices are another family of supraglottic devices that are inserted through the mouth to sit on top of the larynx. Extraglottic devices are used", "simple muzzle gag that merely covers the mouth and does not force anything into the mouth, thus minimising the risk.\nDespite not forcing anything into the mouth, mouth corsets are usually very effective in gagging the victim. This is due to the fact that the chin piece prevents the wearer from opening their mouth and dislodging the gag, and the lacing at the back of the corset holds the gag tightly against the mouth, making a very effective seal. In addition, it compresses the wearer's cheeks. Mouthguard This gag has two mouthguards, similar to those worn by football and hockey players.", "Gag (medical device) In the context of surgery or dental surgery, a gag is a device used to hold the patient's mouth open when working in the oral cavity, or to force the mouth open when it cannot open naturally because of forward dislocation of the jaw joint's intraarticular cartilage pad. Applications for medical gags include oral surgery and airway management. Gag designs, like other medical instrument designs, are often named after their inventors. Common examples of medical gags include the Jennings, Whitehead, and Hallam gags. Non-medical uses These type of gags are also used in sexual fetish or bondage", "device would stimulate a gag reflex in conscious or semi-conscious persons. This could result in vomit and potentially lead to an obstructed airway. Nasopharyngeal airways are mostly used instead as they do not stimulate a gag reflex.\nIn general, oropharyngeal airways need to be sized and inserted correctly to maximize effectiveness and minimize possible complications, such as oral trauma. Insertion The correct size OPA is chosen by measuring from the first incisors to the angle of the jaw. The airway is then inserted into the person's mouth upside down. Once contact is made with the back of the throat, the airway", "Eyelid pull The eyelid pull is a gesture in which the finger is used to pull one lower eyelid further down, exposing more of the eyeball. This gesture has different meanings in different cultures, but in many cultures, particularly in the Mediterranean, signifies alertness, or a warning to be watchful.\nIn Turkey it may mean \"you do not fool me\" similar to \"my eye\", an archaic term of disbelief in English.", "upward movement of lip thus resulting in a smile with a less exposure of gingiva. Botox is usually injected in the three lip elevator muscles that converge on the lateral side of the ala of the nose; the levator labii superioris (LLS), the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle (LLSAN), and the zygomaticus minor (ZMi). Upper motor neuron syndrome BTX-A is now a common treatment for muscles affected by the upper motor neuron syndrome (UMNS), such as cerebral palsy, for muscles with an impaired ability to effectively lengthen. Muscles affected by UMNS frequently are limited by weakness, loss of", "in the oral cavity as you can and seal off the lip so that you have an airtight fit. The tongue is quickly released in a downward motion. When you release the tongue downward, you also drop your jaw and open your mouth in a \"popping\" motion. This is all done very quickly. Do not pull the tongue back towards your throat. It needs to pop downward away from the roof of the mouth to get the most volume, do not blow air through the horn and do not inhale when you release your tongue. Players The first recorded appearance", "involved with watersports may also find interest in this gag. Hand A hand over the mouth can be used as a gag. When hand gagging someone, a person usually grabs the victim from behind since the victim cannot see this coming. Then, the person firmly places their unfolded hand over the victim's closed mouth. Then they may pull the victim into their body for extra leverage and control. Handgags are common in thrillers and are often associated with damsel-in-distress phenomena. Harness A harness gag encircles the head, with straps generally secured by buckles fastened at the back. Head harnesses are", "mouth, which allows for the attachment of elastic or rubber bands directly into the mouth area. These elastics are then hooked onto the child's braces (brackets and bands) or appliance fitted in his or her mouth.\nThis creates a forward 'pulling' force to pull the upper jaw forward.", "resembles a muzzle used on animals, with a flexible pad which straps over the mouth, and sometimes also around the cheeks and chin. Muzzle gags have a strong psychological effect on some people, because of the association of being restrained in a way generally associated with animals. Restricting movement of the jaw and covering the cheeks can both increase the efficiency of a gag. It is difficult to draw the line between a muzzle gag and a head harness with an attached gag.\nMuzzle gags are probably one of the oldest gags and illustrations showing muzzle-like gag devices such as scold's", "the stuff gag is never pushed all the way into the person's mouth. Instead, a large part of it hangs out of the mouth, allowing the top to pull it out easily when he/she has to. Sometimes, to further ensure that the gag does not accidentally slip deeper into the person's mouth, the top may use a larger gag. It is then secured with a cleave gag, cloth gag or tape gag.\nWhile it works in preventing speech, a person who has been stuff gagged can easily spit it out by pushing it with his/her tongue. However, it is for this", "coming from the mouth, unable to open the mouth wide without pain, bruising and swelling of the face, difficulty eating due to the constant pain, loss of feeling in the face (more specifically the lower lip) and lacks full range of motion of the jaw. Anatomy The joint involved with jaw dislocation is the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). This joint is located where the mandibular condyles and the temporal bone meet. Membranes that surround the bones help during the hinging and gliding of jaw movement. For the mouth to close it requires the following muscles: the masseter, temporalis, and medial pterygoid", "flipping the ring horizontally in their mouth. Unlike the ring gag which can be easily flipped, a spider gag is essentially functional and non-decorative. Generally these gags have interchangeable rings so as to accommodate both the wearers' mouth and the size of any object that might be inserted through the ring. Stuff A stuff gag is very similar to, and works in the same way as, the ball gag. The person's mouth is stuffed with handkerchiefs, scarves, socks, hosiery, panties, day sheers, bandanas or any item rolled into a ball, acting as a stopper. To reduce the chances of choking,", "the tongue. A mucous membrane – the oral mucosa, lines the sides and under surface of the tongue to the gums, lining the inner aspect of the jaw (mandible). It receives the secretions from the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. Orifice While shut, the orifice of the mouth forms a line between the upper and lower lip. In facial expression, this mouth line is iconically shaped like an up-open parabola in a smile, and like a down-open parabola in a frown. A down-turned mouth means a mouth line forming a down-turned parabola, and when permanent can be normal. Also, a", "reason that the stuff gag is one of the safest gags to use during self bondage, as the person with his/her hands tied can still spit the gag out if he/she feels any kind of discomfort. However, the risks of asphyxiation and choking are still present for someone who is not careful.\nFor the more extreme application, a stuff gag can be used in conjunction with a tape gag, effectively rendering the partner completely silent. This practice requires greater caution, since the risk for asphyxiation is high Tape A tape gag involves the use of sticky tape sealing the mouth shut.", "Schatzki ring Signs and symptoms Not all patients with Schatzki rings have symptoms; barium swallow tests of the esophagus sometimes show Schatzki rings in patients with no swallowing difficulties.\nWhen Schatzki rings cause symptoms, they usually result in episodic difficulties with swallowing (dysphagia) solid foods, or a sensation that the food \"sticks\" while swallowing, especially if the food is not chewed thoroughly. Patients usually are able to regurgitate or force through the food material and resume eating. However, complete obstruction of the esophagus by a bolus of food (often called steakhouse syndrome) can occur. This can cause crushing chest pain and", "notched. Function The epiglottis is normally pointed upward during breathing with its underside functioning as part of the pharynx. Swallowing During swallowing, the epiglottis bends backwards, folding over the entrance to the trachea, and preventing food from going into it. The folding backwards is a complex movement the causes of which are incompletely understood. It is likely that during swallowing the hyoid bone and the larynx move upwards and forwards, which increases passive pressure from the back of the tongue; because the ariepiglottic muscles contract; because of the passive weight of the food pushing down; and because of contraction of", "and confidence not below, above or in sides. The left eye should be punctured with right hand and vice-versa. When punctured properly a drop of fluid comes out and alsoe there is some typical sound.\nvv. 61bc-64ab: Just after puncturing, the expert should irrigate the eye with breast-milk and foment it from outside with vāta-[wind-]alleviating tender leaves, irrespective of doṣa [defect] being stable or mobile, holding the instrument properly in position. Then the pupillary circle should be scraped with the tip of the instrument while the patient, closing the nostril of the side opposite to the punctured eye,", "this period is called the \"postictal state\" or \"postictal phase.\" Loss of bowel or bladder control may occur during a seizure. The tongue may be bitten at either the tip or on the sides during a seizure. In tonic-clonic seizure, bites to the sides are more common. Tongue bites are also relatively common in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures.\nMyoclonic seizures involve spasms of muscles in either a few areas or all over. Absence seizures can be subtle with only a slight turn of the head or eye blinking. The person does not fall over and returns to normal right after it ends.", "the gag in the mouth, it is usually paired with a ring, muzzle or panel gag attached to a strap that buckles behind the head. Ring A ring gag is similar to a ball gag, except that the ball is replaced by a hollow ring. The ring reduces the risk of choking, and allows access to the mouth. Oral sex may be performed if the ring is big enough.\nA ring gag will cause the subject to drool uncontrollably, this often being the purpose of the gag. Rope A rope gag consists of a length of rope wound multiple times through", "the upper lip and gum. This prevents the substances from getting swallowed with salivation, as would normally occur between the lower lip and gum, permitting slow release of the drug to prolong the duration of action.", "in front of the gag strapped to the back of the head will hold the butterfly gag in place. Cleave A more effective variant of the over-the-mouth gag is called the cleave gag. Instead of being tied over the person's mouth, the scarf or cloth is pulled between his or her teeth. While such a gag of thin material is not very effective, a thick scarf can be used to hold his or her mouth open. Cleave gags are difficult to remove as they are between the teeth, not over the mouth. When it is applied properly, the gagged", "Crichton-Browne sign Crichton-Browne sign is a clinical sign in which there is twitching of the outer margins of the eyes and mouth. It is an early sign of general paralysis of the insane.\nThe sign was described by Sir James Crichton-Browne.", "puncture is a procedure in which cerebral spinal fluid is removed from the spine with a needle. A lumbar puncture is necessary to look for infection or blood in the spinal fluid. A lumbar puncture can also evaluate the pressure in the spinal column, which can be useful for people with idiopathic intracranial hypertension (usually young, obese women who have increased intracranial pressure), or other causes of increased intracranial pressure. In most cases, a CT scan should be done first. Classification Headaches are most thoroughly classified by the International Headache Society's International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD), which published the", "Jaw jerk reflex The jaw jerk reflex or the masseter reflex is a stretch reflex used to test the status of a patient's trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) and to help distinguish an upper cervical cord compression from lesions that are above the foramen magnum. The mandible—or lower jaw—is tapped at a downward angle just below the lips at the chin while the mouth is held slightly open. In response, the masseter muscles will jerk the mandible upwards. Normally this reflex is absent or very slight. However, in individuals with upper motor neuron lesions the jaw jerk reflex can", "Tongue depressor A tongue depressor (sometimes called spatula) is a tool used in medical practice to depress the tongue to allow for examination of the mouth and throat. The most common modern tongue depressors are flat, thin, wooden blades, smoothed and rounded at both ends, but, historically, tongue depressors have been made of a variety of materials. Since they are inexpensive and difficult to clean because of their porous texture, wooden tongue depressors are labeled for disposal after a single use.\nHobbyists and teachers have found a multitude of uses for tongue depressors (sometimes called \"craft sticks\" or \"popsicle sticks\") in", "be taken literally but as a hint or euphemism. Both eyes (bat/flutter) To close and open, or \"wink\", both eyes is usually an involuntary action known as a \"blink\". Though if done intentionally, in a particular way (such as once slowly or a few times in a row quickly), while giving a sweet or suggestive look with the eyes, often with the head tilted or at an angle in combination with the shoulders, is known as to \"bat an eyelash\", \"bat/batting eyelashes\", or \"flutter/fluttering eyelashes\". This is done as a way of flirting, showing interest, or in an attempt to", "Jendrassik maneuver The Jendrassik maneuver is a medical maneuver wherein the patient clenches the teeth, flexes both sets of fingers into a hook-like form, and interlocks those sets of fingers together. The tendon below the patient's knee is then hit with a reflex hammer to elicit the patellar reflex. The elicited response is compared with the reflex result of the same action when the maneuver is not in use. Often a larger reflex response will be observed when the patient is occupied with the maneuver: \"A weak or apparently missing reflex could be triggered by afferent activity resulting from", "the cheekbone area. The reverse process of twitching occurs in atypical hemifacial spasm; twitching starts in orbicularis oris muscle around the lips, and buccinator muscle in the cheekbone area in the lower face, then progresses up to the orbicularis oculi muscle in the eyelid as time progresses. The most common form is the typical form, and atypical form is only seen in about 2–3% of patients with hemifacial spasm. The incidence of hemifacial spasm is approximately 0.8 per 100,000 persons.\nThis disorder occurs in both men and women, although it affects middle-aged or elderly women more frequently. Hemifacial spasm is much", "gut.\nSeveral options are available in the case of paralytic ileus. Most treatment is supportive. If caused by medication, the offending agent is discontinued or reduced. Bowel movements may be stimulated by prescribing lactulose, erythromycin or, in severe cases that are thought to have a neurological component (such as Ogilvie's syndrome), neostigmine. There is also evidence from a systematic review of randomized controlled trials that chewing gum, as a form of 'sham feeding', may stimulate gastrointestinal motility in the post-operative period and reduce the duration of postoperative ileus.\nIf possible the underlying cause is corrected (e.g. replace electrolytes). Other animals Ileus is" ]

[ "XKCD did a great look at just unique twitter posts. (and if it works for twitter, imagine music!) I love how he describes time on that level:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nSuffice to say you could write unique tweets for thousands of \"eternal years\", where:\n\nHigh up in the North in the land called Svithjod, there stands a rock. It is a hundred miles high and a hundred miles wide. Once every thousand years a little bird comes to this rock to sharpen its beak. When the rock has thus been worn away, then a single day of eternity will have gone by.", "Vsauce did a pretty good video on this exact topic at _URL_1_" ]

[ "Some chords can be very difficult to notate, and others that exist theoretically are rarely encountered. For example, there are six possible combinations of triads (chords with three notes) involving minor or major thirds and perfect, augmented, or diminished fifths. However, conventionally only four are used (major, minor, augmented and diminished). There is nothing to stop a composer using the other two, but the question of what to call them is interesting. A minor third with an augmented fifth might be denoted, for example, by Am⁺, which would strike most musicians as odd. In fact, this turns out to be", "combination of four intertwined diminished seventh chords. Since 12-note tuning can be regarded as a combination of three diminished seventh chords, it is plain that the two tunings have elements in common. The most obvious difference in the way the two tunings sound and work is that triads in 16-note tuning, although recognizable, are too discordant to serve as the final harmony in cadences. Keys can still be established by successions of altered subdominant and dominant harmonies, however, and the Etude is based mainly upon this property. The fundamental consonant harmony employed is a minor triad with an added minor", "much easier to tune and to listen to. This also eliminates two of the three pure thirds found in Kirnberger II. Therefore, only one third remains pure (between C and E), and there are fewer Pythagorean thirds. A greater middle ground is thus reached in this improvement, and each key is closer to being equal to the next. The drawback is an aesthetic one: fewer chords have pure thirds and fifths. But every temperament system has a give-and-take compromise; each has to find a way of dealing with the comma.", "a set of two or more pitches. This measures how easy or difficult it is to fit the pitches into a single harmonic series. For example, most listeners rank a harmonic seventh chord as far more consonant than a chord. Both have exactly the same set of intervals between the notes, under inversion, but the first one is easy to fit into a single harmonic series (overtones rather than undertones). Due to the least common multiple, the integers are much lower for the major chord, , versus its inverse, . Components of dissonance not modeled by this theory", "known as a chord,\" though, since instances of any given note in different octaves may be taken as the same note, it is more precise for the purposes of analysis to speak of distinct pitch classes. Furthermore, as three notes are needed to define any common chord, three is often taken as the minimum number of notes that form a definite chord. Hence, Andrew Surmani, for example, (2004, p. 72) states, \"When three or more notes are sounded together, the combination is called a chord.\" George T. Jones (1994, p. 43) agrees: \"Two tones sounding together are usually termed an interval, while", "12 major keys or the 12 minor keys; or only the flat keys (Franz Liszt's Transcendental Études) or the sharp keys (Sergei Lyapunov's Op. 11 set). In yet another type, a single piece may progressively modulate through a set of tonalities, as occurs in Ludwig van Beethoven's Two Preludes through all twelve major keys, Op. 39.\nThe bulk of works of this type have been written for piano solo, but there also exist sets for piano 4-hands; two pianos; organ; guitar; two guitars; flute; recorder; oboe; violin solo; violin and piano; cello solo; cello and piano; voice and piano; and string", "and 11 are also there. Using an even number such as 6, implies that only that one extra note has been added to the base triad e.g. 1, 3, 5, 6. Remember that this is theory, so in practice they do not have to be played in that ascending order e.g. 5, 1, 6, 3. Also,to resolve the clash between 3 and 11(AKA 4) one of them may be deleted or separated by an octave and/or, distributed to different colour(timbre) instruments. Another way to resolve might be to convert the chord to minor by flattening the 3rd, which generates a", "E to F, and B to C. The ascending 5ths key will go up a perfect 5th until it reaches B, where it will go up a flat 5th to the diatonically correct F natural. Similarly, the descending 4ths key will go from B down a diatonically correct 4th to F natural. (Of course, there are non-diatonic keys available for chromatic half, whole, and minor 3rd steps in either direction.)\nOnce a scale has been set, it is possible to play melodic sequences without altering fingering to compensate for half-step, whole-step alternation in a given scale or mode, and the spatial", "triads formed from arbitrary combinations of the 13 tones of the chromatic scale among twelve musicians and twelve untrained listeners found 0,1,2 (semitones) to be the most dissonant chord (play ) but 0,11,13 (play ) was considered the most consonant by the trained subjects and 0,7,10 (play ) was judged most consonant by the untrained subjects.\nEvery tone of the Pierce 3579b scale is in a major and minor triad except for tone II of the scale. There are thirteen possible keys. Modulation is possible through changing a single note, moving note II up one semitone causes the tonic to rise to what was", "same note\". In the former case, one uses note to refer to a specific musical event; in the latter, one uses the term to refer to a class of events sharing the same pitch. (See also: Key signature names and translations.)\nTwo notes with fundamental frequencies in a ratio equal to any integer power of two (e.g., half, twice, or four times) are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with these kinds of relations can be grouped under the same pitch class.\nIn traditional music theory, most countries in the world use the solfège naming convention Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Si, including for", "can be seen as variations of the traditional major and minor keys. The corresponding traditional key will share the same number of sharps and flats as the mode, though it will \"feel\" as if it's in a different key.\nWhich notes are in the scale is much more important than which is the tonic, so these can be converted to one mode, such as minor. For example, F lydian and B locrian contain the same notes as A minor, so these should be compatible, and slightly less with D minor and E minor. 2006–today Starting in 2006, harmonic mixing experienced", "to play reasonably well in all of the keys. The famous \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" by Johann Sebastian Bach took advantage of this breakthrough, with preludes and fugues written for all 24 major and minor keys. However, while unpleasant intervals (such as the wolf interval) were avoided, the sizes of intervals were still not consistent between keys, and so each key still had its own distinctive character. During the 1700s this variation led to an increase in the use of equal temperament, in which the frequency ratio between each pair of adjacent notes on the keyboard was made equal, allowing music to", "in a more modern work, that need is less strong - in the context of a pop or jazz piece, such a chord could comfortably end a piece and have no particular need to resolve. Example An example of a single dissonant note which requires resolution would be, for instance, an F during a C major chord, C–E–G, which creates a dissonance with both E and G and may resolve to either, though more usually to E (the closer pitch). This is an example of a suspended chord. In reference to chords and progressions for example, a phrase ending with", "or modulate, between two keys. Examples of this include Fleetwood Mac's Dreams and The Rolling Stones' Under My Thumb. \"This phenomenon occurs when a feature that allows multiple interpretations of key (usually a diatonic set as pitch source) is accompanied by other, more precise evidence in support of each possible interpretation (such as the use of one note as the root of the initiating harmony and persistent use of another note as pitch of melodic resolution and root of the final harmony of each phrase).\"", "example) is the most stable and central chord, followed by the dominant chord (built on the 5th scale degree) and the subdominant chord (built on the 4th scale degree).\n\" Key structure The highest level of pitch organization can be seen in key structure. In Western European tonal music the key is based on a scale with its associated chords and chord relations. Scales can be built up as minor or major scales (differing in the succession of intervals between the scale tones) on each of the 12 pitch classes and therefore there are 24 possible keys in tonal music. Analysing", "it ... some of which will be the 1, 4, and 5 notes of other chords. Since these notes are not displaced (or are only slightly displaced) by even-temperament, any adjustment to \"improve\" the intonation of a 3 note in one chord will just throw other chords badly out-of-tune.\nOur \"open\" tunings (ones whose open strings form a simple chord) are the one exception to this rule. To the extent that we play with a slide (like the Delta blues players) or with one barred finger or some other grip (Keith Richards) that is essentially just moved up and down the neck, ... then the 3", "like the major chord are rendered nicely in 31-ET because the third and the fifth are very well approximated. Also, it is possible to play subminor chords (where the first third is subminor) and supermajor chords (where the first third is supermajor).\nIt is also possible to render nicely the harmonic seventh chord. For example on C with C–E–G–A♯. The seventh here is different from stacking a fifth and a minor third, which instead yields B♭ to make a dominant seventh. This difference cannot be made in 12-ET.", "like the keys of the pianoforte, and restored to their previous position by the same two fingers with the help of attached springs; with these it is not only possible but also easy to produce a pure and completely chromatic scale from the lowest to the highest notes with a perfectly even tone. On this horn, therefore, there is no need to change from one key to another, and the same passage can be repeated immediately in a different key; even passages which previously were absolutely impossible to play on the normal horn can now be performed without difficulty.\" ", "are truly non-dissonant. Thus the harmonic minor seventh, natural major ninth, half-sharp eleventh note (untempered tritone), half-flat thirteenth note, and half-flat fifteenth note must necessarily be consonant. Octave equivalence (minor ninth in some sense equivalent to minor second, etc.) is no longer unquestioned.\nNote that most of these pitches exist only in a universe of microtones smaller than a halfstep; notice also that we already freely take the flat (minor) seventh note for the just seventh of the harmonic series in chords. Russell extends by approximation the virtual merits of harmonic consonance to the 12TET tuning system of", "the musicality of the tune as the psychological perception of the notes is always relative to a key for the vast majority of people that do not have absolute pitch.\nSotorrio argues that fixed-do is preferable for serious musicians, as music involving complex modulations and vague tonality is often too ambiguous with regard to key for any movable system. That is, without a prior analysis of the music, any movable-do system would inevitably need to be used like a fixed-do system anyway, thus causing confusion. With fixed-do, the musician learns to regard any syllable as the tonic, which does not force", "example, there are three close related keys: G-major, A-minor and C-minor. C-major and G-major are keys whose 1st scale degrees are separated by a musical fifth (the pattern of relations is represented in the circle of fifths\" for major keys). A-minor and C-major share the same notes of the scale but with a different tonic (so-called relative minor key, i.e. C-major and A-minor). And C-major and C-minor have the same tonic in their scales.\nAll in all it can be said that music like the human language has a considerable multi layered organization. Hierarchical structure Considering the last two basic aspects", "pitches within a key. To this end, scale-degree numbers or movable-do solmization (do, re, mi, etc.) can be quite helpful. Using such systems, pitches with identical functions (the key note or tonic, for example) are associated with identical labels (1 or do, for example).\nFunctional pitch recognition is not the same as fixed-do solfège, e.g. do, re, mi, etc. Functional pitch recognition emphasizes the role of a pitch with respect to the tonic, while fixed-do solfège symbols are labels for absolute pitch values (do=C, re=D, etc., in any key). In the fixed-do system (used in the conservatories of the", "note frequencies have a simple whole-number ratio (e.g. octave with a 2:1 ratio, perfect fifth with 3:2, etc.) because the harmonics of these intervals coincide and beat when they are out of tune. (For a perfect fifth, the 3rd harmonic of the lower note coincides with the 2nd harmonic of the top note.) Stretch The tuning described by the above beating plan provides a good approximation of equal temperament across the range of the temperament octave. If extended further, however, the actual tuning of the instrument becomes increasingly inaccurate because of inharmonicity, which causes harmonics to run slightly sharp, as", "a so-called \"chromatic harmonica\" – you can play chords and move all members of a chord down one semitone or up one semitone together, but the function of the valves is usually not separated to work on a per-note basis, so for example, you can play an A-minor chord, and flex the entire chord down to A-flat minor, but you can't easily play an A major chord without the use of polyphonic embouchure to bend only the middle note to a C♯ (which requires more skill than the average hydraulist has). Thus the \"diatonic\" hydraulophone is called \"diatonic\" conservatively to", "in modes not corresponding to major or minor keys may sometimes be referred to as being in the key of the tonic. A piece using some other type of harmony, resolving e.g. to A, might be described as \"in A\" to indicate that A is the tonal center of the piece.\nAn instrument is \"in a key\", an unrelated usage that means the pitches considered \"natural\" for that instrument. For example, modern trumpets are usually in the key of B♭, since the notes produced without using the valves correspond to the harmonic series whose fundamental pitch is B♭. (Such instruments are", "single five-note cell, or \"basic unit\", repeated continually throughout the entire work. Because the note A occurs twice in this pattern, there are only four pitches in all.", "to use smaller and bigger half tones), but that adding extra keys on a keyboard was problematic and for this reason they divided every note in \"zwei gleiche Theile\" (two equal parts), resulting in equal temperament. He continues:\nDa man aber erfahren, daß solches in Zahlen nicht angeht, ist das Ohr zu hülfe genommen worden, indem man von dem einem Theil einem fast gar nicht mercklichen Theil weggenommen, und dem andern zugesetzet\" \n\"Because experience told us that one cannot do this by means of figures, the ear was called in to help, by taking away an almost non-detectable amount from one", "also included black keys between B and C, and between E and F. In total, 36 keys were available in any octave, each of which could be tuned to a different pitch. (manual diagram) Uses Vicentino used his archicembalo to test his own theories of tuning, and realize the more obscure ancient Greek genera, which had been neglected for centuries. In addition to his experiments, he found it very helpful for accompaniment of vocalists and instrumental players, as it was capable of coping with the subtle intonational differences inherent in musical practice in a way that no keyboard instrument had", "mean that they must be played in the higher octave. Although changing the octave of certain notes in a chord (within reason) does change the way the chord sounds, it does not change the essential characteristics or tendency of it. Accordingly, using 9th, 11th and 13th in chord notation implies that the chord is an extended tertian chord rather than an added chord (see Added Chords below).\nThe convention is that using an odd number (7 or 9 or 11 or 13) implies that all the other lower odd numbers are also included. Thus C13 implies that 3, 5, 7, 9", "chord's root, whereas the second note in a minor chord or minor triad is a minor third interval above the root. Keys The hallmark that distinguishes major keys from minor is whether the third scale degree is major or minor. As musicologist Roger Kamien explains, \"[t]he crucial difference is that in the minor scale there is only a half step between '2nd and 3rd note' and between '5th and 6th note' as compared to the major scales where the difference between '3rd and 4th note' and between '7th and 8th note' is [a whole step].\" This alteration in the third" ]

[ "Android is open source, however Google collects a licensing fee for using Google apps and services (Play store, gmail, maps, etc) \n\nYou could make an Android phone that does not have these services and apps and not pay Google anything (but of course, you won't have maps or other Google services. You'll have to either make them yourself or license them from elsewhere)." ]

[ "Google responded that while the company has \"been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out Chrome OS.\"\nIn 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported Chrome OS devices, with access to the entire Google Play Store. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the Chrome OS platform, and allow the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag", "Android is open source, however the operating system that comes with the phones that most people actually purchase in a store is more often than not shipped with many of Google's proprietary applications that promote users to use only Google services.", "among the main advantages of Android phones over others.\nDespite Android's popularity, including an activation rate three times that of iOS, there have been reports that Google has not been able to leverage their other products and web services successfully to turn Android into the money maker that analysts had expected. The Verge suggested that Google is losing control of Android due to the extensive customization and proliferation of non-Google apps and services – Amazon's Kindle Fire line uses Fire OS, a heavily modified fork of Android which does not include or support any of Google's proprietary components, and requires that", "Store (Google Search, Google Play Music, and Google Calendar) and Google Play Services, which are no longer open-source. Moreover, open-source variants of some applications also exclude functions that are present in their non-free versions, such as Photosphere panoramas in Camera, and a Google Now page on the default home screen (exclusive to the proprietary version \"Google Now Launcher\", whose code is embedded within that of the main Google application). These measures are likely intended to discourage forks and encourage commercial licensing in line with Google requirements, as the majority of the operating system's core functionality (and in turn, third-party software),", "use these business models do not bear the cost for their software development. The company also stated in the report:\nSome of these [open source software] firms may build upon Microsoft ideas that we provide to them free or at low royalties in connection with our interoperability initiatives. To the extent open source software gains increasing market acceptance, our sales, revenue and operating margins may decline.\nOpen source software vendors are devoting considerable efforts to developing software that mimics the features and functionality of our products, in some cases on the basis of technical specifications for Microsoft technologies that we make available.", "custom firmware. Even though most of Android OS is open source, phones come packaged with closed-source Google applications for functionality such as the Google Play and GPS navigation. Google has asserted that these applications can only be provided through approved distribution channels by licensed distributors. Cyanogen complied with Google's license and continued to distribute its mod without the proprietary software. It provided a method to backup licensed Google applications during the mod's install process and restore them when the process is complete. Java standards Obstacles to development include the fact that Android does not use established Java standards, that is,", "without modification on select devices, mainly the Nexus and Pixel series of devices. The source code is, in turn, customized and adapted by original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to run on their hardware. Also, Android's source code does not contain the often proprietary device drivers that are needed for certain hardware components. As a result, most Android devices, including Google's own, ultimately ship with a combination of free and open source and proprietary software, with the software required for accessing Google services falling into the latter category. Update schedule Google announces major incremental upgrades to Android on a yearly basis. The", "iOS, and Microsoft Store for Windows 10, Windows 10 Mobile, and Xbox One. Google Play Google Play (formerly known as the Android Market) is an international online software store developed by Google for Android devices. It opened in October 2008. In July 2013, the number of apps downloaded via the Google Play Store surpassed 50 billion, of the over 1 million apps available. As of September 2016, according to Statista the number of apps available exceeded 2.4 million. Over 80% of apps in the Google Play Store are free to download. The store generated a revenue of 6 billion U.S.", "Server, the e-commerce platform osCommerce, internet browsers Mozilla Firefox and Chromium (the project where the vast majority of development of the freeware Google Chrome is done) and the full office suite LibreOffice. One of the most successful open-source products is the GNU/Linux operating system, an open-source Unix-like operating system, and its derivative Android, an operating system for mobile devices. In some industries, open source software is the norm. Extensions for non-software use While the term \"open source\" applied originally only to the source code of software, it is now being applied to many other areas such as Open source ecology,", "as open source. According to the authors, this was so that they \"could more easily work with universities on Virtual Reality research projects.\" However, it took some time for Panda3D to take off as an open-source project. From the article:\nThe system, although quite usable by the team that developed it, was not quite \"open source ready.\" There were several interested users, but building and installing the system was incredibly complex, and there was little in the way of documentation or sample code, so there was no significant open source community right away.\nHowever, the open-sourcing of the engine allowed Carnegie Mellon's", "at 90.46% (Android only, accounts for 75.81% of all use there).\nWhile Android phones in the Western world commonly include Google's proprietary add-ons (such as Google Play) to the otherwise open-source operating system, this is increasingly not the case in emerging markets; \"ABI Research claims that 65 million devices shipped globally with open-source Android in the second quarter of [2014], up from 54 million in the first quarter\"; depending on country, percent of phones estimated to be based only on AOSP source code, forgoing the Android trademark: Thailand (44%), Philippines (38%), Indonesia (31%), India (21%), Malaysia (24%), Mexico (18%), Brazil (9%).\nAccording", "diverted its efforts and was pitching Android as a handset operating system that would rival Symbian and Microsoft Windows Mobile.\nRubin had difficulty attracting investors early on, and Android was facing eviction from its office space. Steve Perlman, a close friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope, and shortly thereafter wired an undisclosed amount as seed funding. Perlman refused a stake in the company, and has stated \"I did it because I believed in the thing, and I wanted to help Andy.\"\nIn July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million. Its key employees, including", "it after the initial release.\nThere also exist stipends to support the development of open source software, such as Google's Summer of Code.\nAnother approach to funding is to provide the software freely, but sell licenses to proprietary add-ons such as data libraries. For instance, an open-source CAD program may require parts libraries which are sold on a subscription or flat-fee basis. Open-source software can also promote the sale of specialized hardware that it interoperates with, some example cases being the Asterisk telephony software developed by PC-telephony hardware manufacturer Digium and the Robot Operating System (ROS) robotics platform by Willow Garage and", "post, was because Honeycomb was rushed for production of the Motorola Xoom, and they did not want third parties creating a \"really bad user experience\" by attempting to put onto smartphones a version of Android intended for tablets.\nOnly the base Android operating system (including some applications) is open-source software, whereas most Android devices ship with a substantial amount of proprietary software, such as Google Mobile Services, which includes applications such as Google Play Store, Google Search, and Google Play Services – a software layer that provides APIs for the integration with Google-provided services, among others. These applications must be licensed", "allow it to continue to freely offer Android. 2012 onward The year 2012 was the first time that Google generated $50 billion in annual revenue, generating $38 billion the previous year. In January 2013, then-CEO Larry Page commented, \"We ended 2012 with a strong quarter ... Revenues were up 36% year-on-year, and 8% quarter-on-quarter. And we hit $50 billion in revenues for the first time last year – not a bad achievement in just a decade and a half.\"\nIn June 2013, Google acquired Waze, a $966 million deal. While Waze would remain an independent entity, its social features, such as", "about that alliance since its announcement.\nIn 2012, Google began decoupling certain aspects of the operating system (particularly its core applications) so they could be updated through the Google Play store independently of the OS. One of those components, Google Play Services, is a closed-source system-level process providing APIs for Google services, installed automatically on nearly all devices running Android 2.2 \"Froyo\" and higher. With these changes, Google can add new system functionality through Play Services and update apps without having to distribute an upgrade to the operating system itself. As a result, Android 4.2 and 4.3 \"Jelly Bean\" contained relatively", "because they would dilute Windows 8 and Windows Phone's software ecosystem (which Microsoft was reportedly planning to unify). He also speculated that Microsoft would penalize OEMs by forfeiting discounts on Windows licenses and refusing to provide them with financing for marketing. Additionally, even though Android is an open source operating system that is freely available, Google's application suite is proprietary, and can only be licensed for devices which are approved by the company. This would prevent such devices from including access to Google Play, Android's primary application store.", "of the Android anti-trust issues, which was far too late after the EU filed the initial charges against Google. In October 2018 Google revamped how it would distribute its Google Play Store with Android in the future: Charging a licensing fee for the store, without requiring installation of Google apps, but making it free to pre-install the Google apps if they want. Furthermore Google's hardware partners will be allowed to market devices in the EU that run rival versions of Android or other operating systems. In March 2019 Google announced that it will give European users of Android phones an", "has helped produce reliable, high quality software quickly and inexpensively.\nOpen source development offers the potential for a more flexible technology and quicker innovation. It is said to be more reliable since it typically has thousands of independent programmers testing and fixing bugs of the software. Open source is not dependent on the company or author that originally created it. Even if the company fails, the code continues to exist and be developed by its users. Also, it uses open standards accessible to everyone; thus, it does not have the problem of incompatible formats that may exist in proprietary software.\nIt is", "initially rejected by mainline kernel developers partly because they felt that Google did not show any intent to maintain its own code. Google announced in April 2010 that they would hire two employees to work with the Linux kernel community, but Greg Kroah-Hartman, the current Linux kernel maintainer for the stable branch, said in December 2010 that he was concerned that Google was no longer trying to get their code changes included in mainstream Linux. Google engineer Patrick Brady once stated in the company's developer conference that \"Android is not Linux\", with Computerworld adding that \"Let me make it simple", "to fail to build in the kernel.org tree. Because of this, Google has now prevented a large chunk of hardware drivers and platform code from ever getting merged into the main kernel tree. Effectively creating a kernel branch that a number of different vendors are now relying on.\n— Greg Kroah-Hartman, 2010\nToday Android uses a slightly customized Linux kernel where changes are implemented in device drivers so that little or no change to the core kernel code is required. Android developers also submit patches to the mainline Linux kernel and the mainline kernel can boot the Android operating system. A Nexus 7", "released the first version of Android, a new smartphone operating system, as open source (some Google applications that are sometimes but not always bundled with Android are not open source). Initially, the operating system was given away for free by Google, and was eagerly adopted by many handset makers; Google later bought Motorola Mobility and produced its own \"vanilla\" Android phones and tablets, while continuing to allow other manufacturers to use Android. Android is now the world's most popular mobile platform.\nBecause Android is based on the Linux kernel, this means that Linux is now the dominant kernel on both mobile", "manufacturer (OEM) wanting to install Google's suite of Android apps, including access to the Google Play Store, had to license the entire suite and feature them predominately on the mobile device.\nA second anti-trust complaint against Google was filed by Aptoide in June 2014, an alternative marketplace for Android apps. Aptoide asserted that Google's approach to Google made it difficult for alternatives to the Google Play store to be installed, and that some of the components that were once part of Google's Android Open Source Project were moved into the Google Mobile Services suite, including Gmail, Google Maps, and the Play", "the proper functioning of Android devices are usually proprietary, and because the Google Play Store application can forcibly install or uninstall applications and, as a result, invite non-free software; although the Free Software Foundation has not found Google to use it for malicious reasons. Leverage over manufacturers Google licenses their Google Mobile Services software, along with Android trademarks, only to hardware manufacturers for devices that meet Google's compatibility standards specified in the Android Compatibility Program document. Thus, forks of Android that make major changes to the operating system itself do not include any of Google's non-free components, stay incompatible with", "owners are not given root access to the operating system and sensitive partitions such as /system are read-only. However, root access can be obtained by exploiting security flaws in Android, which is used frequently by the open-source community to enhance the capabilities of their devices, but also by malicious parties to install viruses and malware.\nAndroid is a Linux distribution according to the Linux Foundation, Google's open-source chief Chris DiBona, and several journalists. Others, such as Google engineer Patrick Brady, say that Android is not Linux in the traditional Unix-like Linux distribution sense; Android does not include the GNU C Library", "abandoned, and instead released on Google Play with a closed-source model. Many apps only function with Google Play Services available (such as many of the Google apps like Gmail, YouTube and Google Maps).\nAny party interested in distributing Google Play Services as a part of the Google apps package must acquire a license from Google, which often results in a contractual agreement locking the manufacturer into Android. Additionally, enthusiasts who are not able to or are not interested in signing such an agreement, but are interested in modifying the Android system are required to either opt-out of Google Play Services or", "from Google under individual contracts. Associated Linux kernel changes are released under the copyleft GNU General Public License version 2, developed by the Open Handset Alliance, with the source code publicly available at all times. Typically, Google collaborates with a hardware manufacturer to produce a flagship device (part of the Nexus series) featuring the new version of Android, then makes the source code available after that device has been released. The only Android release which was not immediately made available as source code was the tablet-only 3.0 Honeycomb release. The reason, according to Andy Rubin in an official Android blog", "Google Play Android applications As of 2017, Google Play features over 3.5 million Android applications. Users in over 145 countries can purchase apps, although Google notes on its support pages that \"Paid content may not be available in some provinces or territories, even if the governing country is listed above.\" Developers in over 150 locations can distribute apps on Google Play, though not every location supports merchant registration. To distribute apps, developers have to pay a one-time $25 registration fee for a Google Play Developer Console account. App developers can control which countries an app is distributed to, as well as", "Android and other platforms. Google later admitted in a court filing that this was part of an effort to address the disputes with Oracle, as its use of OpenJDK code is governed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) with a linking exception, and that \"any damages claim associated with the new versions expressly licensed by Oracle under OpenJDK would require a separate analysis of damages from earlier releases\". In June 2016, a United States federal court ruled in favor of Google, stating that its use of the APIs was fair use. Anti-competitive challenges in Europe In 2013, FairSearch, a", "to Windows Azure, \"its new-age web service for building and hosting applications on the net\", among other projects. These contributions would have been previously unimaginable by Microsoft. Microsoft’s change in attitude about open source and efforts to build a stronger open-source community is evidence of the growing adoption and adaption of open source." ]

[ "The vast, *vast* majority of the sensation we call \"taste\" isn't actually taste; it's smell.\n\nYour taste buds can only register five different sensations: \n\n* Sweet (sugars) \n* Salty (salts) \n* Sour (acids) \n* Bitter (bases) \n* Umami [a sort of \"meaty\" flavor] (glutamates) \n\nSo, for example a slice of watermelon, a piece of strawberry candy, and a sugar cube all taste the same: sweet. That's it. That's the only flavor they have as far as your sense of taste is concerned.\n\nHowever, as you chew food, particles of that food travel up to the nose through the back of your throat, and you smell the food as you chew. And unlike tastes five sensations, there are *millions* of different smells, and that's what lets you distinguish between melon, candy, and pure sugar.\n\nBut when your nose is stuffy or held closed, you restrict or stop the ability for air to flow up to your nose through the back of your throat as you chew, dulling or removing the smells that you associate with that food.", "Taste and smell are both senses that use the chemicals in the environment (air/food) for perception. Taste greatly enhances smell and smell greatly enhances taste, so it's hard to have one without the other" ]

[ "because of \"blunt trauma\", such as coup-contrecoup damage, meningitis, and tumors of the frontal lobe of the brain. These injuries often lead to a reduced ability to taste and smell. Lesions of the olfactory nerve do not lead to a reduced ability to sense pain from the nasal epithelium. This is because pain from the nasal epithelium is not carried to the central nervous system by the olfactory nerve - it is carried to the central nervous system by the trigeminal nerve. Aging and smell A decrease in the ability to smell is a normal consequence of human", "taste (gustatory system), or if it is caused by a neurological or psychiatric disorder. Phantosmia usually goes away on its own, though this can sometimes be gradual and occur over several years. When caused by an illness (e.g., sinusitis), it should go away when the illness resolves. If the problem persists or causes significant discomfort, a doctor might recommend nasal saline drops, antidepressant or anticonvulsant medications, anesthesia to parts of the nose, or in very rare circumstances, surgical procedures to remove the olfactory nerves or bulbs. Symptoms Other olfactory disorders such as hyposmia and anosmia have been found to be", "Ageusia Causes The main causes of taste disorders are head trauma, infections of upper respiratory tract, exposure to toxic substances, iatrogenic causes, medicines, and glossodynia (\"Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS)\").\nHead trauma can cause lesions in regions of the central nervous system which are involved in processing taste stimuli, including thalamus, brain stem, and temporal lobes; it can also cause damage to neurological pathways involved in transmission of taste stimuli. Neurological damage Tissue damage to the nerves that support the tongue can cause ageusia, especially damage to the chorda tympani nerve and the glossopharyngeal nerve. The chorda tympani nerve passes taste for", "the pons and cerebral cortex in the brain are close in proximity.\nMany of the causes for dysgeusia occur due to unknown reasons. A wide range of miscellaneous factors may contribute to this taste disorder, such as gastric reflux, lead poisoning, and diabetes mellitus. A minority of pine nuts can apparently cause taste disturbances, for reasons which are not entirely proven. Certain pesticides can have damaging effects on the taste buds and nerves in the mouth. These pesticides include organochloride compounds and carbamate pesticides. Damage to the peripheral nerves, along with injury to the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve,", "This area was connected to a center of language, as was an area that handled sounds, and both types of vibration could be converted into emotions.\nConcerning hearing, Lussana argues that auditory vertigo, a disorder of the movements of the head and body, is due to a lesion of the semicircular canals, because the victim cannot perceive the direction of sounds (\"The semicircular canals and the vertigo of Meniere\", Naples 1891). \nAs for flavors, Lussana notes that the bitter taste is perceived on the back of the tongue, sweet on the tip, sour and salty at its edges (\"innervation of taste\".)", "a distortion or lack of taste. If there is suspicion of a change in the sense of smell, each nostril is tested with substances of known odors such as coffee or soap. Intensely smelling substances, for example ammonia, may lead to the activation of pain receptors (nociceptors) of the trigeminal nerve that are located in the nasal cavity and this can confound olfactory testing. Vision (II) The optic nerve (II) transmits visual information.\nDamage to the optic nerve (II) affects specific aspects of vision that depend on the location of the lesion. A person may not be able to see", "coordination, causing them to seem clumsy or unsteady. Other sensory deficits include problems with hearing, smell, taste, or touch. Tinnitus, a ringing or roaring in the ears, may occur. A person with damage to the part of the brain that processes taste or smell may perceive a persistent bitter taste or noxious smell. Damage to the part of the brain that controls the sense of touch may cause a TBI patient to develop persistent skin tingling, itching, or pain. These conditions are rare and difficult to treat. Emotional and behavioral problems TBI may cause emotional or behavioral problems and changes", "inability to taste is called ageusia. Olfactory Smells in the external world activate hair receptors in nostrils. These receptors then send signals to the olfactory bulb, which is located at the base of the brain. Anosmia is the inability to smell. Somatosensory Somatosensory sensations occur when receptors detect changes on one's skin or within one's body. Cutaneous sensations Sensations on the skin are detected by cutaneous receptors. These receptors may feel sensations such as pain, tickle, cold, hot, soft, and rough. Mechanoreceptors detect light pressure (e.g., caress), vibration, and texture, nociceptors detect strong pressure (e.g., pain), and thermoreceptors detect temperature.\nFor", "a symptom of various medical conditions, in which case it may be classified under the symptoms dysgeusia or parageusia, referring to distortions of the sense of taste, and can be caused by various kinds of medication, including saquinavir and zonisamide, and occupational hazards, such as working with pesticides. Calcium The distinctive taste of chalk has been identified as the calcium component of that substance. In 2008, geneticists discovered a CaSR calcium receptor on the tongues of mice. The CaSR receptor is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and brain. Along with the \"sweet\" T1R3 receptor, the CaSR receptor can", "through the nasal passages) but contralaterally innervated. Studies supporting the representational theory of unilateral neglect show that right hemisphere lesion patients with left unilateral neglect failed to respond to their left contralateral nostril on olfactory double simultaneous stimulation in spite of adequate olfactory sensitivity. This demonstrated that the occurrence of unilateral neglect is not a function of sensory attenuation, in fact, olfactory sensitivity did not correlate with number of extinctions. Extinction of taste The existence of neglect and/or extinction in taste is less explored than olfaction, even though in humans the ability to localize taste stimuli presented on the", "Empty nose syndrome Signs and symptoms There are no objective physical examination findings that definitely diagnose ENS. Generally, one or more turbinates may be reduced or absent when viewed in medical imaging or via endoscope with no sign of physical obstruction, the mucosa will be dry and pale, and there may be signs of secondary infection. \nSymptoms of ENS include a sensation of being unable to breathe, a feeling of nasal obstruction and dryness, and crusting, oozing, and foul smells inside the nose from infections. A person with ENS may complain of pain in their nose or face,", "A reduction in the ability to taste is also a side effect because it is based so heavily on smell. This injury is not fatal, but can be dangerous, as when a person fails to smell smoke, gas, or spoiled food. In fact, people with anosmia were more than four times as likely to die in five years compared to those with a healthy sense of smell.", "causes include loss of taste sensitivity from aging (causing a difficulty detecting salty or bitter taste), anxiety disorder, cancer, renal failure and liver failure. Diagnosis Both taste and smell disorders are diagnosed by an otolaryngologist, a doctor of the ear, nose, throat, head, and neck. An otolaryngologist can determine the extent of your taste disorder by measuring the lowest concentration of a taste quality that you can detect or recognize. You may also be asked to compare the tastes of different substances or to note how the intensity of a taste grows when a substance's concentration is increased. \nScientists have", "is unknown. Taste buds Distortions in the taste buds may give rise to dysgeusia. In a study conducted by Masahide Yasuda and Hitoshi Tomita from Nihon University of Japan, it has been observed that patients suffering from this taste disorder have fewer microvilli than normal. In addition, the nucleus and cytoplasm of the taste bud cells have been reduced. Based on their findings, dygeusia results from loss of microvilli and the reduction of Type III intracellular vesicles, all of which could potentially interfere with the gustatory pathway. Radiation to head and neck also results in direct destruction of taste", "noses\", which she feels is \"distracting\". A later review of Volume 2 by Deb Aoki commends it by \"A lot more action-packed than Volume 1\" but criticises it for overusing \"sound effects\".", "ending \"so incongruous as to turn the whole thing into a joke, amusing enough, but leaving, if not a rather bad taste in the ear, at least an unpleasant sound in the mouth\" (Cowell 1946, 107–108).", "Dysgeusia Signs and symptoms The alterations in the sense of taste, usually a metallic taste, and sometimes smell are the only symptoms. Chemotherapy A major cause of dysgeusia is chemotherapy for cancer. Chemotherapy often induces damage to the oral cavity, resulting in oral mucositis, oral infection, and salivary gland dysfunction. Oral mucositis consists of inflammation of the mouth, along with sores and ulcers in the tissues. Healthy individuals normally have a diverse range of microbial organisms residing in their oral cavities; however, chemotherapy can permit these typically non-pathogenic agents to cause serious infection, which may result in a decrease in", "aging, and usually is more pronounced in men than in women. It is often unrecognized in patients except that they may note a decreased ability to taste (much of taste is actually based on reception of food odor). Some of this decrease results from repeated damage to the olfactory nerve receptors due likely to repeated upper respiratory infections. Patients with Alzheimer's disease almost always have an abnormal sense of smell when tested.", "also cause dysgeusia. A surgical risk for laryngoscopy and tonsillectomy include dysgeusia. Patients who suffer from the burning mouth syndrome, most likely menopausal women, are often suffering from dysgeusia as well. Normal function The sense of taste is based on the detection of chemicals by specialized taste cells in the mouth. The mouth, throat, larynx, and esophagus all have taste buds, which are replaced every ten days. Each taste bud contains receptor cells. Afferent nerves make contact with the receptor cells at the base of the taste bud. A single taste bud is innervated by several afferent nerves, while a", "such subjective ratings, for at least two reasons. First, the acoustic effect of a given velopharyngeal opening varies greatly depending on the degree of occlusion of the nasal passageways. (This is the reason why a stuffy nose from an allergy or cold will sound more nasal than when the nose is clear.) Secondly, for many persons with hypernasal speech, especially hearing impaired, there are also mispronunciations of the articulation of the vowels. It is extremely difficult to separate the acoustic effects of hypernasality from the acoustic effects of mispronounced vowels (examples). Of course, in speech training", "increases the perceived intensity of the taste, and that an absence of a corresponding smell decreases the perceived intensity of a taste. The olfactory stimulation can occur before or during the episode of taste stimulation. The dual perception of the stimulus produces an interaction that facilitates association of the experience through an additive neural response and memorization of the stimulus. This association can also be made between olfactory and tactile stimuli during the act of swallowing. In each case, temporal synchrony is important. Tests A common psychophysical test of olfactory ability is the triangle test. ", "Peanut butter test Proposed explanation The lead author of the 2013 article, Jennifer J. Stamps, had concluded, from her own research, that the sense of smell is dependent upon the olfactory nerve, and also noted that this nerve is one of the first things to be affected by cognitive decline. Likewise, the front part of the temporal lobe has not only been implicated in olfaction, but is also known to be one of the first areas of the brain to degenerate due to Alzheimer's. The researchers also expected the difference to be in the left nostril because in Alzheimer's, the", "taste distortions can often be severe and make compliance with cancer treatment difficult. Other problems that may arise include anorexia and behavioral changes that can be misinterpreted as psychiatric delusions regarding food. Symptoms including paranoia, amnesia, cerebellar malfunction, and lethargy can also manifest when undergoing histidine treatment. Future research Every year, more than 200,000 individuals see their physicians concerning chemosensory problems, and many more taste disturbances are never reported. Due to the large number of persons affected by taste disorders, basic and clinical research are receiving support at different institutions and chemosensory research centers across the country. These taste and", "the front two-thirds of the tongue and the glossopharyngeal nerve passes taste for the back third of the tongue. Neurological disorders such as Bell's palsy, Familial dysautonomia, and Multiple sclerosis cause similar problems to nerve damage, as do certain infectious conditions like primary amoeboid meningoencephalopathy. The lingual nerve (which is a branch of the trigeminal V3 nerve, but carries taste sensation back to the chorda tympani nerve to the geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve) can also be damaged during otologic surgery, causing a feeling of metal taste. Problems with the endocrine system Deficiency of vitamin B₃ (niacin) and zinc", "can also lead to decreased satisfaction in taste when eating. Losses to the sense of touch are usually noticed when there is a decline in the ability to detect a vibratory stimulus. The loss in sense of touch can harm a person’s fine motor skills such as writing and using utensils. The ability to feel painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.\nPhysical deterioration to the body begins to increase in midlife and late life, and includes degeneration of muscle, bones, and joints. Sarcopenia, a normal developmental change,", "left side of the brain is usually affected first, and because the sense of olfaction is ipsilateral—that is, the side of the body that picks up the odor is the same as the side of the brain that processes it. Implications Stamps cautioned that they can currently only use the test to confirm already-established diagnoses, but added that \"...we plan to study patients with mild cognitive impairment to see if this test might be used to predict which patients are going to get Alzheimer's disease.\" NPR also reported that the study, at 94 patients, was \"too small to be conclusive.\"", "a pseudomembrane. Peripheral erythema is usually present. Ulcers may range from 0.5 cm to greater than 4 cm. Oral mucositis can be severely painful. The degree of pain is usually related to the extent of the tissue damage. Pain is often described as a burning sensation accompanied by reddening. Due to pain, the patient may experience trouble speaking, eating, or even opening the mouth.\nDysgeusia, or an alteration in taste perception, is common, especially for those who are receiving concomitant radiation therapy to the neck and mouth area. \"Taste blindness\", or an altered sense of taste, is a temporary condition that", "the contralateral side will be affected, due to the bilateral control to the upper facial muscles (frontalis and orbicularis oculi).\nLower motor neuron lesions can result in a CNVII palsy (Bell's palsy is the idiopathic form of facial nerve palsy), manifested as both upper and lower facial weakness on the same side of the lesion.\nTaste can be tested on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue. This can be tested with a swab dipped in a flavoured solution, or with electronic stimulation (similar to putting your tongue on a battery).\nCorneal reflex. The afferent arc is mediated by the General Sensory afferents of", "the oral sensations.\nSimilarly, Marbach later proposed that occlusal dysesthesia may be caused by the brain “talking to itself,” causing abnormal oral sensations in the absence of external stimuli. According to this model, the symptoms of dysesthesia are catalyzed by dental “amputation,” for example the extraction of a tooth, whereby the brain loses the ability to distinguish between its memory of the bite and the actual, new bite. The patient, unable to recognize his or her own bite, becomes especially attentive to these perceived oral discrepancies. Finally and most recently, Greene and Gelb suggested that instead of having", "mouth. This causes a negative pressure in the oral cavity, leading to nasal airflow. The NAIM has been recognized as an effective rehabilitation technique to improve the sense of smell. Quality of life People with a partial laryngectomy are more likely to have a higher quality of life than individuals with a total laryngectomy. People having undergone total laryngectomy have been found to be more prone to depression and anxiety, and often experience a decrease in the quality of their social life and physical health.\nVoice quality, swallowing and reflux are affected in both types, with the sense of smell and" ]

[ "It's a myth. You cannot harm a sleepwalker by waking them. Embarrass maybe, harm no.", "Because it's easier to take advantage of them when they're not in a fully conscious state.", "They might smack the crap out of you.", "The only danger is that they could be disoriented and fall, and even that isn't much of a risk. There really is no reason." ]

[ "down to sleep will continue to detect that they are lying down hours later when they awaken.", "experience somnambulism.\nNormal sleep cycles include states varying from drowsiness all the way to deep sleep. Every time an individual sleeps, he or she goes through various sequences of non-REM and REM sleep. Anxiety and fatigue are often connected with sleepwalking. For adults, alcohol, sedatives, medications, medical conditions and mental disorders are all associated with sleepwalking. Sleep walking may involve sitting up and looking awake when the individual is actually asleep, and getting up and walking around, moving items or undressing themselves. They will also be confused when waking up or opening their eyes during sleep. Sleep walking can be associated", "any other safety-critical activity), may not be because natural sleep rarely overcomes an ordinary person without warning.\nIn many countries, it is presumed that someone who is less than fully conscious cannot give consent to anything. This can be relevant in cases of sexual behavior, euthanasia or patients giving informed consent with regard to starting or stopping a treatment.", "time. The problem is that, despite sleeping for multiple hours each night and typically not experiencing significant daytime sleepiness or other symptoms of sleep loss, they do not feel like they have slept very much, if at all. Because their perception of their sleep is incomplete, they incorrectly believe it takes them an abnormally long time to fall asleep, and they underestimate how long they remain asleep. Genetics Heritability estimates of insomnia vary between 38% in males to 59% in females. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 3 genomic loci and 7 genes that influence the risk of", "first time without being asleep/\nThere was something waiting for me and I went for it/\nSomething that I could get and I stayed on it and that's how it began that I was able to achieve something/\n\nI wanted to rap like Shante.\n— Cora E. (English Translation)", "Homicidal sleepwalking Causes Sleepwalking and other forms of disorders of arousal occur from deep non-REM slow wave sleep (SWS). There are parasomnias that occur from rapid eye movement sleep. It is caused by an inappropriate physiological event where the brain tries to exit SWS and go straight to wake. In normal sleep, the brain transitions from sleep either from stages 1 or 2 of NREM or REM sleep, but almost never from SWS. As a result, the brain gets “stuck” between a sleep and wake state. In the case of Kenneth Parks, his EEG showed that his brain tried to", "rotating shift schedules, especially schedules that gradually change, exhibit sleep disturbance and wake period sleepiness. Insufficient sleep time, family and social expectations, and alcohol use worsen this problem.\nIndividuals with the unspecified type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder also exhibit daytime and evening sleepiness or insomnia, especially those people who have a non-24-hour sleep pattern. People with irregular sleep patterns have difficulty knowing when they will fall asleep and wake up. Causes The delayed sleep phase type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder is marked by a delay of the sleep-wake cycle as it relates to", "expresses concerns about Steve not being able to sleep for the past four days. Steve explains that after the recent ordeal, he fears sleeping because he does not want to \"skip away again.\" After not being able to devise a new costume, Black Widow convinces Bucky to don the flag and shield and \"go out for one last hurrah.\" Steve leaves Sharon asleep as he too dons the flag and goes to the rooftop for some time to think. Steve sees Bucky and Black Widow leaving the loft on a motorcycle and follows them.\nAs Steve watches from the rooftop, Bucky", "you feel. You want to do one thing, you want to sit down (and) go to sleep, and yet from all the things you have read, your experience and the lessons you've learned from others' mistakes, if you sit down and rest for a long time you are never getting up again. Especially if you should fall asleep. You'll just never wake up.\n— Robert Kay\nThere are significant risks associated with climbing into the \"death zone\" of Everest, which has claimed many lives, as well as many limbs. One survivor of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster, Beck Weathers, was left on the", "partner or parent who led patients to seek medical attention. Sleep Because of the abnormal writhing movements, often patients’ sleep patterns are disrupted. This may be due to RMD’s comorbidity with sleep apnea, which has been observed in some patients\n. Many find that their sleep is not refreshing and are tired or stressed the following day, despite getting a full nights rest. However, other patients report that their sleep patterns are infrequently interrupted due to RMD episodes and do not report being excessively sleepy during the next day as scored on the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Thus, as can be seen,", "is that by not voluntarily making oneself go to sleep, it relieves the performance anxiety that arises from the need or requirement to fall asleep, which is meant to be a passive act. This technique has been shown to reduce sleep effort and performance anxiety and also lower subjective assessment of sleep-onset latency and overestimation of the sleep deficit (a quality found in many insomniacs). Sleep hygiene Sleep hygiene is a common term for all of the behaviors which relate to the promotion of good sleep. These behaviors are used as the basis of sleep interventions and are the primary", "about moving in with his sick mother-in-law. What kind of man are you? A small thing, I know. I'll watch the rest, because it's enthralling enough for me to want to know what happens, or rather what happened. But I won't be lying awake at night thinking about it.\"", "(which would also apply to people without the condition, except that commands to their muscles are suppressed). This is different from conventional sleepwalking, which takes place during slow-wave sleep, not REM. Narcolepsy by contrast seems to involve excessive and unwanted REM atonia—i.e., cataplexy and excessive daytime sleepiness while awake, hypnagogic hallucinations before entering slow-wave sleep, or sleep paralysis while waking. Other psychiatric disorders including depression have been linked to disproportionate REM sleep. Patients with suspected sleep disorders are typically evaluated by polysomnogram.\nLesions of the pons to prevent atonia have induced functional “REM behavior disorder” in animals. Dreaming Rapid eye movement", "their own bedroom. A pre-lucid dream may ensue. More commonly, dreamers will believe they have awakened, and then either wake up for real in their own bed or \"fall back asleep\" in the dream.\nA common false awakening is a \"late for work\" scenario. A person may \"wake up\" in a typical room, with most things looking normal, and realize he or she overslept and missed the start time at work or school. Clocks, if found in the dream, will show time indicating that fact. The resulting panic is often strong enough to jar the person awake for real (much like", "faces or closed their eyes for longer than 10 seconds. The show reported that Jonathan and Chris fell asleep within a quarter of a second of each other at 4.12pm while Clare continued to stay awake until 6.10pm. At this point she was informed by the camera crew to go to sleep as there was concern she was not coping well with remaining awake due to displaying erratic head movements. It turned out that she actually really needed the bathroom and was trying to signal to the crew this by flicking her head towards the toilet hoping", "REM sleep in several mammals (the rat, the hedgehog, the rabbit, and the rhesus monkey) is followed by a brief awakening. This does not occur for either cats or humans, although humans are more likely to wake from REM sleep than from NREM sleep. Snyder hypothesized that REM sleep activates an animal periodically, to scan the environment for possible predators. This hypothesis does not explain the muscle paralysis of REM sleep; however, a logical analysis might suggest that the muscle paralysis exists to prevent the animal from fully waking up unnecessarily, and allowing it to return easily to deeper sleep.\nJim", "while sleeping, he added.\nCo-sleeping also increases the risks of suffocation and strangulation. The soft quality of the mattresses, comforters, and pillows may suffocate the infants. Some experts, then, recommend that the bed should be firm, and should not be a waterbed or couch; and that heavy quilts, comforters, and pillows should not be used. Another common advice given to prevent suffocation is to keep a baby on its back, not its stomach. Parents who roll over during their sleep could inadvertently crush and/or suffocate their child, especially if they are heavy sleepers, over-tired or over-exhausted and/or obese. There is also", "an alert state. Dreaming can occur in this state; however a person is not able to remember them due to how deep in sleep they are and the inability for consolidation to occur in memory. REM cycles typically occur in 90 minute intervals and increase in length as the amount of sleep in one session progresses. In a typical night's rest, a person will have about four to six cycles of REM and Non-REM sleep.\nSleep is important for the body in order to restore itself from the depletion of energy during wakefulness and allows for recovery since cell division occurs", "hours at which people of rank go to bed, renders it wholly unnecessary to force a sleep in public places.\" This followed with a joke in a later journal: a \"gentleman, lately arrived in town, has been for several days past afflicted with a lethargy, owing to the perusal of three chapters in Hawkins's Life of Johnson.\" A third stated: the branches of willow trees planted in Lichfield \"should be lopped off, and tied in bundles, ... and properly applied to the naked backs of his various biographers, taking care, that the largest bundle be appropriated unto the use and", "spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.\nGenerally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep (or sex). Foods and substances A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to", "Sleep inversion Sleep inversion or sleep-wake inversion is a reversal of sleeping tendencies. Individuals experiencing sleep-wake inversion exchange diurnal habits for nocturnal habits, meaning they are active at night and sleep during the day. Sleep-wake inversion, when involuntary, can be a sign of a serious disorder. Symptoms Individuals with the delayed sleep phase type of the disorder exhibit habitually late sleep hours and an inability to change their sleeping schedule consistently. They often show sleepiness during the desired wake period of their days. Their actual phase of sleep is normal. Once they fall asleep, they stay asleep for a", " A delay, caused by light exposure before sleeping, means that the individual will tend to wake up later on the following day(s).\nThe hormones cortisol and melatonin are effected by the signals light sends through the body's nervous system. These hormones help regulate blood sugar to give the body the appropriate amount of energy that is required throughout the day. Cortisol levels are high upon waking and gradual decrease over the course of the day, melatonin levels are high when the body is entering and exiting a sleeping status and are very low over the course of waking hours. The", "relax. Sleep Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher", "do the exact opposite of what they have been doing in bed: They shall stay awake and avoid falling asleep. The goal of this method is to decrease performance anxiety which may inhibit sleep onset. Paradoxal Intention has been shown to be an effective treatment for sleep initiation insomnia but might not be effective for sleep maintenance or mixed insomnia. Indication CBT-I is indicated when the following criteria is met:\n1.The patient must complain about difficulties initiating or maintaining sleep. These difficulties must cause a significant distress and/or impact daily functioning. Complaints of non-restorative sleep without troubles of initiating or", "in order to see the screen better. From this, neck and back pains and problems increase, commonly referred to as repetitive strain injuries. Using electronics before going to bed makes it difficult for people to fall asleep, which has a negative effect on human health. Sleeping less prevents people from performing to their full potential physically and mentally and can also “increase rates of obesity and diabetes,” which are “long-term health consequences”. Obesity and diabetes are more commonly seen in students and in youth because they tend to be the ones using electronics the most. “People who frequently use their", "very difficult to diagnose because doctors can't exactly tell if a person has sleep apnea in a regular routine visit. Additionally the patient himself may not even realize he has sleep apnea because it occurs during sleep, so a partner or roommate is usually the first to notice symptoms. \nThere are two types of sleep apnea, obstructive and central. Obstructive sleep apnea is more common among overweight patients, and occurs when the airway is fully or partially blocked at times during sleep. Any air that does sneak by the blocked passage can cause loud snoring. The second type of sleep", "one at night. Frequently I'd have to do both. A few times I worked so hard that I actually threw up from the exertion. But I was young then. I didn't get tired easily. And I never complained about the working conditions. I thought that's just how it was supposed to be. Now I know that's wrong. But at the time I had no clue. Whatever they'd give me, I'd do. And as soon as I was done working I could just fall asleep. They'd say, 'Go to sleep', and I'd go right to sleep.\nThe hard work of the cast", "go to sleep or stay awake as it likes but it is staying in the bed until morning (remember Proust at the opening of Swann’s Way?), we sit there with it, reading to it and singing to it and distracting it with swirling night lights until it decides it feels like going to sleep, all the while thinking to ourselves, Go the fuck to sleep, kid.\"\nAccording to Mark Rotella, an editor at Publishers Weekly (and father of two), this is one of the books \"that are less earnest about raising your child. They help parents step back and laugh at", "REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements. Hypocretin The hypothalamus region of the brain regulates basic functions of hormone release, emotional expression and sleep. A study in 2006 in \"Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine\" concluded that the neurochemical hypocretin, which is regulated by the hypothalamus, was significantly reduced", "Sleepless Nights (Never Let Her Go) Music video The music video shows a child, mother and father. The child wakes up in the middle of the night due to his parents fighting. The father gets mad over small things and usually directs his anger at his wife. Anytime the father yells, the child goes up to their room and watches in terror. He quickly manages to retreat back to his room before his father catches him. However, when he's finally caught, the father pins him to the wall and angrily tells him never to do it again. This finally results" ]

[ "It's a tradition. Traditionally, traditions aren't based on logic and reason, but an irrational continuation of *older* logic and reason. Primarily the celebration of an historically relevant and important event.\n\nPlus, \"vile\" is entirely relative. If you think *he* was vile, then you'd probably feel the same about most people in his society. (Just as future generations might easily find our points of view to be vile.) Many people massacred indigenous people, as they did their own people, and nobody did it all by themselves." ]

[ "includes Austin, Boise, Cincinnati, Denver, Los Angeles, Mankato, Minnesota, Portland, Oregon, San Francisco, Santa Fe, New Mexico, Seattle, St. Paul, Minnesota, Phoenix, Tacoma, and \"dozens of others.\" Columbus, Ohio has chosen to honor veterans instead of Christopher Columbus, and removed Columbus Day as a city holiday. Various tribal governments in Oklahoma designate the day as Native American Day, or name it after their own tribe. Día de la Raza The date Columbus arrived in the Americas is celebrated in some countries of Latin America. The most common name for the celebration in Spanish (including some Latin American communities in the", "was an Italian explorer, citizen of the Republic of Genoa.\nIn Italy, Columbus Day has been officially celebrated since 2004. It is officially named Giornata nazionale di Cristoforo Colombo.\nThe \"Lega Navale Italiana\" has created a Regata di Colombo as a celebration of the Columbus achievement. Italians have celebrated their \"Cristoforo Colombo\" naming after him many civilian and military ships, like the ocean liner SS Cristoforo Colombo. Spain Since 1987, Spain has celebrated the anniversary of Columbus's arrival in the Americas as its Fiesta Nacional or \"National Day\". Previously Spain had celebrated the day as Día de la Hispanidad, emphasizing Spain's ties", "boasts the largest, with over 35,000 marchers and one million viewers around 2010.\nAs in the mainland United States, Columbus Day is a legal holiday in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico. In the United States Virgin Islands, the day is celebrated as both Columbus Day and \"Puerto Rico Friendship Day.\"\nVirginia also celebrates two legal holidays on the day, Columbus Day and Yorktown Victory Day, which honors the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown in the Revolutionary War. Non-observance The celebration of Columbus Day in the United States began to decline at the end of the 20th century, although many", "and 11–19 October). They were declared as a \"national holiday of touristic interest\" (Fiesta de Interés Turístico Nacional) by the Ministerio de Comercio y Turismo in 1980.\nAs 12 October happens to coincide with the day of the year 1492 when land was first sighted on Columbus' First Voyage, \nthe Fiesta de la Raza Española, first proposed in 1913 by Faustino Rodríguez-San Pedro y Díaz-Argüelles (in the USA later dubbed \"Columbus Day\", as Columbus tends to be considered Italian rather than Spanish in North America) falls on the same date.\nThe Fiesta de la Raza Española was declared the national holiday of", "Washington, Columbus Day is not an official holiday.\nIowa and Nevada do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official holiday, but the states' respective governors are \"authorized and requested\" by statute to proclaim the day each year. Several states have removed the day as a paid holiday for state government workers, while still maintaining it—either as a day of recognition, or as a legal holiday for other purposes, including California and Texas.\nThe practice of U.S. cities eschewing Columbus Day to celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day began in 1992 with Berkeley, California. The list of cities which have followed suit as of 2018", "the man; it is the celebration of a racist legal and political legacy - embedded in official legal and political pronouncements of the U.S. - such as the Doctrine of Discovery and Manifest Destiny.\"\nHawaii, Alaska, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, and South Dakota are U.S. states that do not recognize Columbus Day at all, though Hawaii and South Dakota mark the day with an alternative holiday or observance. South Dakota is the only state to recognize Native American Day as an alternate. Hawaii recognizes Discoverer's Day. Christmas Day Christmas Day as a federal or public holiday is also sometimes objected to by", "the Americas have honored Native American people as part of Columbus Day, or by designating two holidays for the same date. Especially since Native American activism has increased since the 1960s and 1970s, a variety of protests have been staged against celebrating Columbus Day. These have included mock trials of Christopher Columbus in St. Paul, Minnesota, and protests and disruptions of Columbus Day parades in the United States.\nIndigenous peoples in other nations have also lobbied to have holidays established to recognize their contributions and history. For instance, Brazil celebrates \"National Indigenous Peoples' Day\" on April 19. In the Philippines, the", "following Monday. Brazil In Brazil, Columbus Day is not celebrated. Instead, the country celebrates the arrival on the coast of present-day Brazil of the fleet led by Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral on April 22, 1500. This date is known in Brazil as \"O Descobrimento do Brasil\" (The Discovery of Brazil). The date began to be celebrated after the country's independence from Portugal, when Brazilian Emperor Pedro II instituted the date as part of a plan to foster a sense of nationalism among Brazil's diverse citizenry—giving them a common identity and history as residents of a unique Portuguese-speaking empire surrounded", "over the legacy of Columbus. Several other California cities, including Richmond, Santa Cruz, and Sebastopol, now celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day and encourage people to donate to a neighboring tribe and recognize the trauma and pain indigenous peoples have been subjected to by colonizers.\nAt least three states do not celebrate Columbus Day (Hawaii, Oregon, and South Dakota); South Dakota officially celebrates Native American Day instead. Various tribal governments in Oklahoma designate the day as \"Native American Day\", or have renamed the day after their own tribes. In 2013, the California state legislature considered a bill, AB55, to formally replace Columbus Day", "National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, as well as various local indigenous towns, designated October 29, 2008, as Indigenous Peoples' Day. Reception Much controversy remains in the school system over Columbus's legacy and which holiday should be celebrated. Children in schools have been taught about Christopher Columbus as a hero, but the book Rethinking Columbus: The Next 500 Years, presents an argument that children should also be taught about the truth of what Christopher Columbus started and what effect his actions had upon the native people of the Americas. International Day of the World’s Indigenous People In 1994, the United Nations", "Marine Corps with either a 72- or 96-hour liberty period. Local observance of Columbus Day Actual observance varies in different parts of the United States, ranging from large-scale parades and events to complete non-observance. Most states do not celebrate Columbus Day as an official state holiday. Some mark it as a \"Day of Observance\" or \"Recognition.” Most states that celebrate Columbus Day will close state services, while others operate as normal.\nSan Francisco claims the nation's oldest continuously existing celebration with the Italian-American community's annual Columbus Day Parade, which was established by Nicola Larco in 1868, while New York City", "Our Lady of Aparecida. Caribbean observance Only a handful of Caribbean countries still observe holidays related to Columbus Day. In Belize, October 12 is celebrated as Day of the Americas or Pan American Day. In the Bahamas, it was formerly known as Discovery Day, until 2001 when it was replaced by National Heroes Day. In 1937, Cuban President Federico Laredo Brú (1936–1940) spoke to the nation and countries of America in Cuba on October 12 commemorating Christopher Columbus's voyage to the New World. Federico Laredo Brú spoke about Columbus' impact on the land and the future of its settlement. He", "Italian-Americans, and others, continue to champion it. The states of Florida, Hawaii, Alaska, Vermont, South Dakota, New Mexico, Maine,, Wisconsin, and parts of California including, for example, Los Angeles County do not recognize it and have each replaced it with celebrations of Indigenous People's Day (in Hawaii, \"Discoverers' Day\", in South Dakota, \"Native American Day\"). A lack of recognition or a reduced level of observance for Columbus Day is not always due to concerns about honoring Native Americans. For example, a community of predominantly Scandinavian descent may observe Leif Erikson Day instead. In the states of Oregon and", "Columbus. 12 October 1892\" (A Cristóbal Colón. 12 de octubre de 1892). At the inauguration of the statue, there were speeches making reference to Spain, but the symbolism of Columbus was as navigator, not as a conqueror, an innocuous message at the time.", "Unlike the other Columbus statue in Mexico City, the 1892 statue has no religious iconography, a departure from the usual conventions depicting the Admiral. \nThe inauguration of the second Columbus statue coincided with the 400th anniversary of Columbus's first voyage and an opportunity for the regime of Porfirio Díaz to reshape the image of Columbus for the current era in Mexican history marked by economic expansion tied to foreign investment rather than Christian evangelization of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The 1877 statue had been sponsored by a wealthy Mexican railway magnate, Antonio Escandón, who had collaborated", "In 2018, the Republican-controlled Oklahoma Legislature passed a law changing the name of Columbus Day to Native American Day; however, former Oklahoma governor Mary Fallin vetoed that legislation claiming that \"combining a new Native American Day designation with the current Columbus Day holiday could be viewed as an intentional attempt to diminish the long-standing support of November being proclaimed annually as Native American Heritage Month.\" Chapman said Fallin's veto of a nonpartisan bill \"defied logic\" and was a slap in the face to Native Americans in Oklahoma to deny them a day to commemorate their unique history.\nIn 2019, the Philadelphia", "through people who had encountered her earlier (when she was first named); it may also be indexically fixed to Jane at the moment of my utterance. Thus our modern day use of a name such as 'Christopher Columbus' can be thought of as referring to Columbus through a causal chain that terminates not simply in one instance of his naming, but rather in a series of grounding uses of the name that occurred throughout his life. Under certain circumstances of confusion, this can lead to the alteration of a name's referent (for one example of how this might happen, see", "with \"almost all the [Columbus] monuments, the gift or inspiration of Europeans or Europeans of mixed descent, include some reference to religion.\" In Mexico, where anticlericalism and suppression of the power of the Catholic Church had embroiled Mexico in a civil war and a foreign intervention during the nineteenth-century liberal Reform, the Columbus statue's combination of religious iconography and symbolic embodiment of European conquest and domination, has made the statue a target of protesters. One scholar suggests that Columbus \"is portrayed as a conqueror, or even a conjurer, for he plucks a veil from the globe he holds.\"", "with the French-supported regime of Maximilian of Habsburg. Creating a second Columbus monument with different symbolic signifiers for the Mexican capital. The statue was placed by the Buenavista railway station, at the time a major site in the capital. The Mexican government fully embraced the celebrations of the Columbus anniversary, with many state-sponsored events. The government also shaped the rhetoric concerning Columbus for their own ideological purposes, pointing to him as the one who initiated an era of global trade. The 1892 monument makes no reference to Spain, and the engraving on the pedestal reads simply \"To Christopher", "declared an International Day of the World’s Indigenous People, establishing it on August 9. This international holiday has been celebrated also in various nations. Observing locations The following locations celebrate Indigenous Peoples' Day instead of Columbus Day, with the exceptions of Lewiston, New York, Tompkins County, New York, West Hartford, Connecticut, and Lawton, Oklahoma, which celebrate both.", "150 years after Bradford wrote this passage, except when quoting him. The Mayflower's story was retold by historians Nathaniel Morton (in 1669) and Cotton Mather (in 1702), and both paraphrased Bradford's passage and used his word pilgrims. At Plymouth's Forefathers' Day observance in 1793, Rev. Chandler Robbins recited this passage. Popular use The name Pilgrims was probably not in popular use before about 1798, even though Plymouth celebrated Forefathers' Day several times between 1769 and 1798 and used a variety of terms to honor Plymouth's founders. Pilgrims was not mentioned, other than in Robbins' 1793 recitation.\nThe first documented use", "with Native American Day but did not pass it. On August 30, 2017, following similar affirmative votes in Oberlin, Ohio, followed later by Bangor, Maine in the earlier weeks of the same month, the Los Angeles City Council voted in favor of replacing Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples Day. On October 10, 2019, just a few days before Columbus Day would be celebrated in Washington, D.C., the D.C. Council voted to temporarily replace Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples' Day. This bill was lead by Councilmember David Grosso and must undergo congressional approval to become permanent. Other celebrations Numerous efforts in", "a fantastic god descended from the sky. They sweep her up and she goes with them, becoming part of their celebration. Act 2 Columbus is at the court of Queen Isabella bidding them farewell as he prepares to set sail for the Indies. He is promised untold riches and power on his return. Suddenly this scene fades and we realise that we are aboard Columbus' ship; he has been reminiscing about his departure. It is the 32nd day of the voyage. Doubts are beginning to set in as they sail the endless blue ocean. Isabella appears to him in a", "co-hosts an Indigenous Peoples' Day event. Bills to replace Columbus Day have so far been unable to pass the Baltimore City Council. In August 2017, a monument to Christopher Columbus was vandalized. The unidentified vandals declared the monument to be racist and denounced \"European capitalism\" and claimed that Christopher Columbus symbolizes \"terrorism, murder, genocide, rape, slavery, ecological degradation and capitalist exploitation\" directed against Native Americans and African Americans.", "Christopher Columbus (Racioppi) Columbus is a statue in Astoria, Queens created by Angelo Racioppi with funds from the New York City Works Progress Administration Art Project. It sits in Columbus Square park. Dedicated in 1941, it is in bronze on a cast stone base. It depicts Christopher Columbus as a young, energetic explorer at the helm. The base the statue sits on suggests the prow of a ship. History The origins of the statue lie in the 1920s in the Italian-American community in Long Island and Astoria. It began raising money for the statue, but work stalled when the community", "Statue of Christopher Columbus (Chicago) A bronze statue of explorer Christopher Columbus is installed in Chicago's Grant Park, in the U.S. state of Illinois. It was created by Milanese-born sculptor Carlo Brioschi, and installed in 1933. It is set on an exedra and pedestal designed with the help of architect Clarence H. Johnson.\nIn 1933, Chicago celebrated its 100th anniversary with the Century of Progress World's Fair. In conjunction with the fair, Chicago's Italian-American community raised funds and donated the statue of the Genoese navigator and explorer Christopher Columbus. It was placed at the south end", "at Strasburg in 1509, and thus the name of America was spread about. Thus, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges is honored today with the title of \"godmother of America\", the city that named America. The work was re-edited with an English version by Charles Herbermann (New York, 1907). Gallois proved that in 1507, Waldseemüller inserted this name in two maps, but that in 1513, in other maps Waldseemüller, being better informed, inserted the name of Columbus as the discoverer of America. But it was too late; the name of America had been already firmly established.\nIn 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced in St Dié also a", "Caroni, this is said to be first publicly funded monument to Christopher Columbus in the United States. It was purchased for $18,000 with money raised by Italian-Americans and the Columbus Monument Association, through the efforts of Alonzo Viti of Philadelphia and his brothers. The statue's initial installation began an annual tradition for the colony of mostly Italian Americans in South Philadelphia to march each year on Columbus Day to the statue in Fairmount Park. The 6-mile (9.7 km) journey was found to be too exhausting and in 1920 the celebration changed locations. In 2018, the words \"Italian-Americans against racism\" were painted", "Columbus's vow Columbus's vow (Spanish: El Voto colombino) was a vow by Christopher Columbus and other members of the crew of the caravel Niña on 14 February 1493, during the return trip of Columbus's first voyage to perform certain acts, including pilgrimages, upon their return to Spain. The vow was taken at Columbus's behest during a severe storm at sea. History Of the three ships on Columbus's first voyage, the flagship, the Santa María, had been shipwrecked in Hispaniola on December 25, 1492, leaving only the Niña and Pinta to make the homeward voyage. 39 men were left behind, the", "to them by name; it is always a relative position: \"the first seen\", \"the second seen\", and so on. Some editions include the names dubbed in from the Biography. At the time Chanca wrote, the names were not known or not assigned. In fact Columbus had overshot Hispaniola to the southeast and was picking his way among the Lesser Antilles in the vicinity of Guadeloupe. He knew where he was roughly. All the ship captains had received instructions how to get to Navidad in case they were separated. Those were sealed until required, if ever. The point of this nicety" ]

[ "Because they prolapse their anuses then they put them back to normal. I'm not a vet but my dad is and that's kind of what he told me.", "I would have to assume it's the butt cheeks. Most animals have anuses that are uncovered, whereas humans have anuses between butt cheeks where the fecal matter tends to touch when passed.", "Okay, so this is when random facts that reddit has taught me comes in handy! When we take a shit, our asscheeks are a contributing factor in needing to wipe afterwords, but that's not the *only* reason why. When dogs poop, their anuses prolapse a little bit, so as they poop, it's still technically the \"inside\" of the asshole that's now outside, so it doesn't get anything stuck in its fur or on its legs. Unless it rolls in it afterwards. Human anuses do not prolapse when we poop, so that's another reason why we have to wipe afterwards. \n\nIt's all really just the lack of a prolapsing anus when we take a shit, and the fact that our cheeks are usually too close together, that contributes to having to wipe.", "It's because of the way we sit when we poop. Prior to toilets, humans squatted to poop and there was no need for toilet paper. The sitting position puts the ass-cheeks too close together. The need to deal with residual poop is the cost of the comfort of toilets.\n\nNext time you take a shit, try squatting with your feet on the toilet seat. It'll be a no-wiper, I guarantee it.\n\nEdit: So apparently squatting on a toilet is an incredibly bad idea. Instead, place a wooden block on either side of the toilet and squat on those. If you're going to do this you should probably put the seat up as well.", "Humans don't need toilet paper if we sh*t in the correct position... ass to grass squat will leave your bunghole clear and free to release those freedom fighters with collateral damage!", "They prolapse more. No Need to wipe (they can't, obviously). simply that. nothing else needs to be said.", "Because we can't reach our asshole with our tongue. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(@)" ]

[ "that results when a litter box is not cleaned often enough. Some cat behaviorists advise against toilet training because it restricts the owner from monitoring changes in the cat's urine and feces (which are often related to the health of the pet). Another criticism is that toilet training can cause various stresses to the cat, partly because using the toilet goes against a cat's natural instinct to dig and cover its own feces, and because the toilet seat can be physically difficult for cats to straddle (especially those who are old or ill). Positive reinforcement Cats are known for their", "household and shared toilets being too far or too dangerous to reach, e.g., at night. Toilet bags People might already use plastic bags (also called flying toilets) at night to contain their feces. However, a more advanced solution of the plastic toilet bag has been provided by the Swedish company Peepoople who are producing the \"Peepoo bag\", a \"personal, single-use, self-sanitizing, fully biodegradable toilet that prevents feces from contaminating the immediate area as well as the surrounding ecosystem\". This bag is now being used in humanitarian responses, schools, and urban slums in developing countries. Bucket toilets and urine diversion Bucket", "as toilet paper is liable to cause blockages.\nThis practice continues today in parts of Africa; while rolls of toilet paper are readily available, they can be fairly expensive, prompting poorer members of the community to use newspapers.\nPeople suffering from hemorrhoids may find it more difficult to keep the anal area clean by only using toilet paper and may prefer washing with water as well.\nAlthough wiping from front to back minimizes the risk of contaminating the urethra, the directionality of wiping varies based on sex, personal preference, and culture.\nSome people wipe their anal region standing, others wipe theirs sitting. Water Water", "Slopping out Slopping out is the manual emptying of human waste when prison cells are unlocked in the morning. Inmates without a flush toilet in the cell have to use other means (formerly a chamber pot, then a bucket, now often a chemical toilet) while locked in during the night. The reason that some cells do not have toilets is that they date from the Victorian era and were therefore not designed with plumbing. As a result, there is no space in which to put a toilet, together with the expense and difficulty of installing the necessary pipes. \"Dirty Protest\"", "to determine which techniques will work best on whom.\nDogs who locate themselves in high traffic areas realize that, in such places, they often won't need to make any effort to procure food, as pedestrians will simply toss it as they pass by. Malnourished-looking dogs are uncommon. Food is often easy to come by, allowing dogs the luxury of being selective.\nThe reduced need to compete for food has contributed to stable social behavior, although incidents in which humans were harmed by packs of dogs have been known to occur, particularly in less urban areas.\nAccording to Alexei Vereshchagin, a graduate student of", "toilet training book with illustrations by Susan Kathleen Hartung. In the book, animal parents ask their young offspring if they have \"made a poop\"; readers are then invited to lift flaps to see illustrations of each animal's leavings. Peter Mandel of The Providence Journal described the book as \"[e]ven more bizarre than Walter [the Farting Dog],\" but Kim Boatman of the San Jose Mercury News called it \"a necessity. . . for parents prone to despair over potty training\". Courteney Cox named it one of her children's favorite books in a People magazine feature. Shhhhh! Everybody's Sleeping Shhhhh! Everybody's Sleeping", "examples of animals that can learn behaviors, such as dogs and cats. A dog doesn't know instinctively not to urinate or defecate indoors, but it can be taught not to do so. Dogs are capable of learning specific behaviors. Concepts, generalizations, abstractions and ideas A dog's acquisition of a behavior satisfies one of the requirements of culture, but it also fulfills another. If you were to take a dog that has learned not to eliminate indoors to a different house, it would still know not to urinate there. This is because the dog has made a generalization. It knows not", "Toilet-related injuries and deaths There have been many toilet-related injuries and deaths throughout history and in urban legends. Accidental injuries Infants and toddlers have fallen into toilets and drowned. Safety devices exist to help prevent such accidents. Injuries to adults include bruised buttocks, tail bones, and dislocated hips from unsuspectingly sitting on the toilet bowl rim because the seat is up or loose. Injuries can also be caused by pinching due to splits in plastic seats or by splinters from wooden seats, or if the toilet itself collapses under the weight of the user. Older high tank cast iron cisterns", "girls along with baby-friendly toilets in Anganwadi Centers to inculcate the habit of using sanitary latrines at a young age. However, many toilets lie dysfunctional due to lack of maintenance and damage. Earlier schemes of providing free plastic squatting plates has not produced results as most of them lie unused as many people cannot afford to construct a toilet. Open defecation has created problems of diarrhea and vulnerability to malaria. Irrigation Most of the agriculture is rain-fed, barring the areas near streams and rivers. Perennial irrigation is very minimal with only Manu barriage being a large structure for storing water.", "close to the ground. Squat toilets are designed to facilitate this posture. These kinds of toilets are widespread in countries with a Muslim or Hindu majority and are often set up to enable anal cleansing with water (see Islamic toilet etiquette). \nStraining in the squatting position while defecating may increase the risk of severe hemorrhoids. Prolonged and repeated straining on a sitting toilet has the same effect.\nPeople who are not used to squat toilets, as well as overweight people, people with disabilities, and elderly people tend to find squatting as a defecation posture difficult, and may therefore prefer sitting.", "real health risk and squat toilets allow splatter on one's own legs and feet. The waterless trough minimizes the risk of splash-back of water during defecation. Perceptions There are two different attitudes towards squat toilets, largely dependent on what users are used to, or whether the toilet is at a public or private place:\nSome people regard squat toilets as more hygienic compared to sitting toilets. They might be easier to clean and there is no skin contact with the surface of the toilet seat. For that reason, some people perceive them as more hygienic, particularly for public toilets.\nSome people regard", "As children, they soiled their pants whenever they pleased in rebellion against using the toilet. They did not like to be ordered how and when they should use the toilet. These adults will want to share things with their peers and give things away. They can sometimes be messy, disorganized, and rebellious. They will also be inconsiderate of others' feelings.\nHowever, a child who has successfully completed this stage will be characterized as having used proper toilet training techniques throughout toilet training years and will successfully move on to the next stage of Freud's psychosexual developmental stages. Although the anal stage", "after defecation is generally done with toilet paper only, although some individuals may use water or wet wipes as well, until the person bathes or showers. In some parts of developing countries and during camping trips, materials such as vegetable matter, mud, snow, stones, sticks, and leaves are sometimes used for anal cleansing.\nHaving hygienic means for anal cleansing available at the toilet or site of defecation is important for overall public health. The absence of proper materials in households can, in some circumstances, be correlated to the number of diarrhea episodes per household. The history of anal hygiene, from ancient", "past.' \" \"...Service dogs are not an option because they're too heavy and restless to sit on her shoulder.\" Non-aggressive, bathed biweekly, and never touching the ground, Dani Moore's rats are rarely even noticed by people when she is out in public,; nonetheless, she is understanding of people who have phobias of rats. However, a fear of rats, just like a fear of dogs, is not a valid reason \"for denying access or refusing service to people using service animals.\". A video of one of her rats working at his job is available from the", "toilets are a simple portable toilet option. They can be upgraded in various ways, one of them being urine diversion which can make them similar to urine-diverting dry toilets. Urine diversion can significantly reduce odors from dry toilets. Examples of using this type of toilet to reduce open defecation are the \"MoSan\" toilet (used in Kenya) or the urine-diverting dry toilet promoted by SOIL in Haiti. Media The mainstream media in some affected countries have recently been picking up on this issue of open defecation, for example, in India and Pakistan. Legal status In certain jurisdictions, open or public defecation", "been reported regarding the dangers of using a toilet in a variety of situations. Several of them have been shown to be questionable. These include some cases of the presence of venomous spiders Except for the Australian redback spider who has a reputation for hiding under toilet seats. These recent fears have emerged from a series of hoax emails originating in the Blush Spider hoax, which began circulating the internet in 1999. Spiders have also been reported to live under seats of airplanes, however, the cleaning chemicals used in the toilets would result in an incompatibility with spider's survival. ", "Toilet training Toilet training (also potty training or toilet learning) is the process of training someone, particularly a young child or infant, to use the toilet for urination and defecation. Little is known about toilet training in pre-modern societies, but attitudes toward training in recent history have fluctuated substantially, and may vary across cultures and according to demographics. Many the contemporary approaches to toilet training favor a behaviouralism- and cognitive psychology-based approach.\nSpecific recommendations on techniques vary considerably, although a range of these are generally considered effective, and specific research on their comparative effectiveness is lacking. No single approach may be", "an offering to ask the toilet god to protect the house's inhabitants from bladder problems in the coming year.\nThe Ainu people of far northern Japan and the Russian Far East believed that the Rukar Kamuy, their version of a toilet god, would be the first to come to help in the event of danger.\nIn the Ryukyu Islands (including Okinawa Islands), the fuuru nu kami, or \"toilet god\", is the family protector of the area of waste. The pig toilet (ふーる / 風呂), lacking this benevolent god, could become a place of evil influence and potential haunting (such as by an", "fear, and is more likely to be associated with both toileting refusal and withholding.\nAlthough some complications may increase the time needed to achieve successful bladder and bowel control, most children can be toilet trained nonetheless. Physiological causes of failure in toilet training are rare, as is the need for medical intervention. In most cases, children who struggle with training are most likely not yet ready. Risks An examination of data from hospital emergency rooms in the US from 2002 to 2010 indicated that the most common form of toilet training related injury was caused by falling toilet seats, and occurred", "Squat toilet A squat latrine (or squatting latrine) is a toilet used by squatting, rather than sitting. There are several types of squat toilets, but they all consist essentially of a toilet pan or bowl at floor level. Such a toilet pan is also called a \"squatting pan\". The only exception is a \"pedestal\" squat toilet, which is of the same height as a sitting toilet. It is in theory also possible to squat over sitting toilets, but this requires extra care to prevent accidents as they are not designed for squatting.\nA squat toilet may use a water seal and", "because they are intended to teach children about language and the environment. Pet-speech contains perhaps half the sentences of this form, as rather than instructive, its primary purpose is as a social function for humans; whether the dog learns anything does not seem to be a concern.\nAs well as the raised vocal pitch, pet-speech strongly emphasizes intonations and emotional phrasing. There are diminutives such as \"walkie\" for walk and \"bathie\" for bath. Although there is no evidence that speaking to a dog in this manner helps the dog understand what is being said, there is evidence suggesting that talking to", "pit latrines and bucket toilets which are usually placed in outhouses. Globally, nearly one billion people have no access to a toilet at all, and are forced to do open defecation (particularly in India). Diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route or via water, such as cholera and diarrhea, can be spread by open defecation. They can also be spread by unsafe toilets which cause pollution of surface water or groundwater. Historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. The Sustainable Development Goal Number 6 calls for \"adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and", "that understands dog language and are not recommended for beginners.\nThey learn fast, and they are very smart, but get bored easily with repetitious games like \"fetch\". Care The lack of hair leads to a reputation for being clean, for being easy to wash with a sponge, and for a natural lack of fleas or other parasites. They also do not cause typical allergic reactions to dog-sensitive humans because they lack the normal dog dander. Despite this, the dog needs care, but in another way. The skin should be washed from time to time to remove dirt and prevent clogging", "that the blame on hygienic problems is on the pet owners, rather than on the pets; even if an irresponsible person does not keep pets, he/she will still make the living environment dirty. Give Dogs A Home (給狗狗一個家) In the July 1 march in 2015, 懇請政府重訂屋宇飼養犬隻條例聯盟 (the former name of “Give Dogs A Home”) called the public to pay more attention to the dogs’ living space in Hong Kong. They advocated that banning of dog keeping would lead to the problem dog abandonment, and wished the government to evaluate the current policies.\nIn June 2017, Give Dogs A Home conducted a", "people or in a public place. Posture The positions and modalities of defecation are culture-dependent. Squat toilets are used by the vast majority of the world, including most of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. The use of sit-down toilets in the Western world is a relatively recent development, beginning in the 19th century with the advent of indoor plumbing. Health aspects Attempting forced expiration of breath against a closed airway (the valsalva maneuver) is sometimes practiced to induce defecation while on a toilet. Cardiac arrest and other cardiovascular complications can in rare cases occur due to attempting to defecate", "of dog urine (leptospirosis) which is a product of territory marking may become pungent among unspayed or neutered dogs, not to mention the presence of feces (toxocariasis). Skills and adaptations Dogs are known to be a highly adaptive and intelligent species. To survive in modern cities, street dogs must be able to navigate traffic. \nSome of the stray dogs in Bucharest are seen crossing the large streets at pedestrian crosswalks. The dogs have probably noticed that when humans cross streets at such markings, cars tend to stop. The dogs have accustomed themselves to the flow of pedestrian and automobile", "amount of water, which can have enough force for flushing, but that also requires some degree of artistry in the way one douses the water. Cultural issues Non-Filipinos might be disgusted about this practice, but Filipinos will cringe if they learn that a person uses only toilet paper.\nA controversy where in a Filipino machine operator was reportedly sacked by an engineering firm in Australia allegedly for his toilet habits sparked last January 2009.\nA Townsville Bulletin report posted on news.com.au said that Amador Bernabe, 43 years old, who is a Filipino machine operator, was kicked out of his job by the", "working animals. This is often due to the animal not being housebroken, or for older, sick, or injured pets who have become incontinent. In some cases, these are simply baby diapers with holes cut for the tails to fit through. In other cases, they are diaperlike waste collection devices.\nThe diapers used on primates, canines, etc. are much like the diapers used by humans. The diapers used on equines are intended to catch excretions, as opposed to absorbing them.\nIn 2002, the Vienna city council proposed that horses be made to wear diapers to prevent them from defecating in the street. ", "larger than one used for travel. Crates used for international transport should adhere to international regulations stipulated by IATA. If the crate is too big the pet will be able to use one end for rest and sleep while using the other as a toilet, which will undermine one of the purposes of crate training.\nA dogs natural instincts are to eliminate away from the area in which they eat and sleep. So if a crate is small enough that they cannot possibly defecate while having enough room to sleep well away from it, a dog will 'hold it' as long", "alternative etymology posits dog walking as the origin of the term; audience members, and indeed participants, could use the ordinary exercise of their pets as cover for their sexual assignations." ]

[ "Economist here. There is no such thing as free. They are just making college payments compulsory for everyone regardless of whether they use it or not.\n\nThe system used by the US was fine until universities realized the government would subsidize them raising tuition to ridiculous rates by lending to students.", "Other countries could easily accomplish this and other social programs by simply raising [income tax to 42%](_URL_0_) on any income above $60,000 per year, which is the level in Germany.", "Norway has had free university since we built our first one. Or, not free... I pay $30 per semester. The state pays the salaries of th professors and their research. With also some private money as well", "They know that the [top tax rate has no bearing on economic growth](_URL_1_) and set responsible tax rates.", "What do you mean by \"just\"? I can't find anything in the news.\n\nIf you're asking why they're so cheap:\n\n##THIS IS EXTREMELY SIMPLIFIED. GERMAN UNIVERSITIES ARE CONFUSING\n\nalso this is only about \"Universitäten\" and not tons of other places you can study. yup, confusing.\n\nThey aren't actually free but rather cost about 300 euros (depending on what federal state you're in) of a Semesterbeitrag (literally semester comtribution) per semester. These (depending on what federal state you're in) might pay for stuff like free public transportation, but (depending on what federal state you're in) you might also have to pay for.\n\n~~Some places, not all (you guessed right: depending on what federal state you're in!) also have a Studiengebühr (fee for studies) up to around 500 euros, but of course, exceptions apply.~~ apparently this changed although wikipedia disagrees\n\nThere's also no such thing as dorms, so you sleep off-campus—which you have to pay for.\n\ntl;dr: studying in germany is not free but super cheap. If you speak german and would like to study in germany but you don't live in germany, check out the [DAAD](_URL_2_)\n\nif you have further questions, ask them.\n\nedit: damn it, this was already answered. well, I guess this can be helpful if you know what you, the student, have to pay.", "Swedish universities are free for citizens. Loans are available with good rates for living expenses.", "Taxes. All of these social programs still cost money. That money comes from increased taxes. Whether this is a good thing or not depends on your perspective.", "Have a generally strong economy and high taxes. Also have a well structured education system- Germany doesn't try and send everyone to universities, instead it also has very strong technical/vocational training starting in high school to create highly skilled workers who wouldn't necessarily thrive in a university. In comparison, in the US everyone is told to go to college and take out huge government subsidized loans. Many universities as a result have bloated budgets with way too many administrators. My guess is many US universities also have a lot more \"amenities\" like nicely manicured campuses, gyms, student activities, sports, etc.", "In Spain public universities cost a minimum of 750€/year (more or less). The price goes up if you have to repeat a course. For example, the first time you study Maths II the price is ~70€, the secont time its ~140€, the third ~350€. It caps at the forth time (I dont know at what price).\n\nYou can aply for grants though, if your income is low or your marks are high, or a mixture of both.", "This thread is full of radical misinformation on the nature of college funding in America and other countries and already people are talking about more general government funding like the military.\n\n\nIn theory college is available quite cheaply and in given \"Western Country X\" a single-payer (free, tax based) system of college would probably not reach beyond 5% of GDP (and that's huge! nearly a trillion in the US, 250billion in Deutschland). Hence why most Western Countries are able to do that. \n\nUS college costs come from:\n > At the better universities, research facilities, sports, and high profile professor acquisitions all present costs exponentially higher than routine costs\n\n > I read a stat (for american unis) recently about how the ratio of academic (professor) employee to support employee (janitor/secretary) has exploded, i.e. what used to be 1:1 is now 1:4 so like, your given hour of college learning now has an overhead with a huge upside bias. \n\n > > How does Europe avoid this? Well for instance, I get health insurance from my university, of all fucking places, this being America. I'm sure in total at least 50 people get a paycheck at this 15,000 student uni to handle health insurance. In Europe this is you know, being handled by the actual government at all times. \n\n > Haven't read on this, but I would assume Euros dont do all this \"online learning\" or other alternative approach nonsense. These efforts have a \"long tail\". You have to employ a lot of people to get new infrastructure up and running.\n\nFinally, college education is at an all time high in the US. Colleges are in low supply and loans are not. As a corollary to this, colleges are paying for construction costs to expand, often a very big cost. \n\nEveryone in this thread is pathetically ignorant.", "In France, University after high school are free (maybe ~400€/yr for insurance that a lot of student don't pay thanks to the scolarship)\nPrivate Business/Engineer school are expensive though (4000-20000€/yr) but public one are good and free and they have a national recognition (that some private don't have)\nSo you can become a doctor only paying for your food/rent etc... But studies are very hard (that's how they don't end up overwhelmed)\n\nAnd all of this are available thanks to ... ... ... TAX(s) (education is the first source of expense) (46 billions € + 26 for superior(?) studies)\n\n_URL_3_\n\nSorry if I'm not clear enough (I'm a bit in a rush)", "\"Universities in the US just raised their tuitions by 5%\"", "Ain't nothing free - taxpayers are paying for it." ]

[ "German universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment. The general requirement for university is the Abitur. However, there are a number of exceptions, depending on the state, the college and the subject. Tuition free academic education is open to international students and is increasingly common.\nAccording to an OECD report in 2014, Germany is the world's third leading destination for international study.\nGermany has a long tradition of higher education. The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world, with Heidelberg University (established in 1386) being the oldest. It is followed by the Leipzig", "smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).\nIn Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have the power to confer bachelor, master and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot be founded without government approval. The term Universitaet (i.e. the German term for university) is protected by law and any use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are always research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule). Fachhochschule means a higher", "authorities, a number of Berlin academics and politicians, eventually with the necessary backing of the US governor, General Clay, created of an alternative free university in the US administered sector. The Free University's first lectures were delivered in November 1948. By the time Monika Richarz enrolled there were already 10,846 students. The recent date of the university's foundation meant that, unusually in Germany, it was institutionally unencumbered by the shadows of a Nazi past. Its pioneering spirit attracted large numbers of overseas students and a number of returning high profile German academics", "in Germany, Free University of Berlin is one of the first choices both for the ERASMUS and Tempus as well as for the Fulbright program and the international programs of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD).\nAn International Summer and Winter University (FUBiS) has been set up for international students offering (semi-)intensive German courses and numerous subject courses. International Branch Offices The Free University of Berlin operates foreign branch offices in New York City, Brussels, Moscow, Beijing, Cairo, São Paulo and New Delhi. The foreign branch offices work to expand upon cooperation partnerships already existing with universities in the country.\nIn April", "solve the problems, which are part of the university itself.\nEventually, all German states scrapped the experiment with university tuition fees in public universities, after mass student protests.", "of private higher education institutions also participate in exchange programmes with German and European partner universities.\nIn 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees (equivalency agreement) was signed. This is designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students’ admission to German and Cypriot universities and the subsequent recognition of university degrees obtained at these institutions in the respective partner country.", "jobs which do require an academic degree in other countries (such as nursing) require completed vocational training instead in Germany.\nThe rate of university graduates varies by federal state. The number is the highest in Berlin and the lowest in Schleswig-Holstein. Similarly, the ratio of school graduates with university entrance qualification varies by state between 38% and 64%.\nThe organizational structure of German universities goes back to the university model introduced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the early 19th century, which identifies the unity of teaching and research as well as academic freedom as ideals. Colleges elsewhere had previously dedicated themselves to", "possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact. The situation in Germany is similar; public universities usually do not charge tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are", "religion and classic literature, and Germany's shift to a research-based model was an institutional innovation. This model lead to the foundation of Humboldt University of Berlin and influenced the higher education systems of numerous countries. Some critics argue that nowadays German universities have a rather unbalanced focus, more on education and less on research.\nAt German universities, students enroll for a specific program of study (Studiengang). During their studies, students can usually choose freely from all courses offered at the university. However, all bachelor's degree programs require a number of particular compulsory courses and all degree programs require a minimum number", "without authorization through an act of the respective state's Ministry of Education. It is also a misdemeanor to falsely claim a degree in Germany if it is not accredited, see de:Missbrauch von Titeln, Berufsbezeichnungen und Abzeichen.\nSome corporate training programs in Germany use the English term \"corporate university\". Such use of the term is tolerated since it is widely understood that such programs are not actual universities. Similarly, Fachhochschulen frequently use the English term \"university of applied science\". Neither are permitted to use the German word Universität. Greece Institutions of higher Tertiary education Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα (ΑΕΙ) (universities and technical universities)", "16 September 1950 in Munich. Witten/Herdecke University opened in 1982 and Zeppelin University in 2003. Though private universities are numerous in Germany, they represent only less than 1% of all students. Some private universities, including Hanseatic University Rostock (2007–2009) and the International University in Germany in Bruchsal, have gone out of business.\nMost of the church universities are run by the Protestant or Catholic churches; however, there is one Jewish university (Hochschule für Jüdische Studien) in Heidelberg. Greece In Greece private universities are prohibited by the constitution (Article 16). However, laboratories of liberal studies (Εργαστήρια ελευθέρων σπουδών, ergastiria eleftheron spoudon)", "courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities. Professors across the humanities and sciences focused on their advanced research. Practically all the funding came from the central government, and it could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable.\nThese reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where", "Liberties and Responsibilities of Universities (France) Liberties and Responsibilities of Universities is the official name of a French law aiming at revamping entirely the French public higher education system. The bill was presented by the French Ministry of Higher Education Valérie Pécresse and was officially voted on 11 August 2007 by the Parliament. The law is commonly referred to as the law LRU (after the acronym of the official name), or Law Pécresse. It is sometimes called the law on the autonomy of universities, because the law give universities more financial autonomy, so that the government will stop funding them.\nThe", "both the public and private sectors.\nPublic universities are absolutely free (no fee is paid during the studies), as is the access to books in the universities' libraries. Buying in bookstores and studying material (such as photocopies of books which are very common) is, however, usually paid for by each student. For low-income students there is a great variety of scholarships. Brazil In Brazil, there are a few hundred public universities funded by the Federal or State governments, and they include the most renowned universities in the country, such as the University of São Paulo, University of Campinas, Federal University of", "of Education, even the private ones. Norway Almost all universities are public and state funded. Poland Universities are divided into a few categories; private universities which are operated by private citizens, societies or companies, and public universities created by Acts of Parliament. The Government pays all tuition fees, and other costs of students. Most private universities charge tuition fees directly to students, and these institutions are generally held in lower regard than public universities. A small number of private universities do not charge fees, such as John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, founded in 1918 and property of the", "university's other country of operation (concerning CEU, the agreement is between the State of New York and the city of Budapest). In addition, universities operating outside of the European Union should have a campus in their other country of operation, where comparable degree programs would be offered (in 2017 it was not the case for CEU). Furthermore, both existing and new non-EU academic staff would be required to apply for working permits. This requirement is seen by critics as placing CEU at a particular disadvantage, given that it relies largely on non-EU faculty. Finally, the law would also prohibit both", "higher education have led to ironic results in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Though elite private universities in the US do charge high tuition fees, both universities and their students also benefit from charitable donations as well as from government support. This combination of resources results in lavish funding that far exceeds the budgets of German universities, which are state-funded and mostly tuition-free. Current debate While during Humboldt's time universities mainly conducted state-organized academic research, there are now in Germany's tertiary education new forms of higher education, which now all have a scientific mission to research. However, Humboldt", "of credits that must be earned in the core field of the program of study. It is not uncommon to spend longer than the regular period of study (Regelstudienzeit) at university. There are no fixed classes of students who study and graduate together. Students can change universities according to their interests and the strengths of each university. Sometimes students attend multiple different universities over the course of their studies. This mobility means that at German universities there is a freedom and individuality unknown in the US, the UK, or France. Professors also choose their subjects for research and teaching freely.", "Free University of Berlin is currently the lead university for eight collaborative research centers of the German Research Foundation and also has five DFG research units. It is part of the Berlin University Alliance. Global partnerships Free University of Berlin maintains wide-ranging international contacts to top universities and organizations which provide key impulses for research and teaching. In the 1950s, the Free University of Berlin had already established partnerships with leading universities in the United States such as the University of California System (including University of California, Berkeley, University of California, Los Angeles and University of California, Santa Cruz), University", "main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. Enrollment into Diplom and Magister programs is no longer possible. However, programs leading to Staatsexamen did usually not make the transition to Bologna degrees.\nDoctorates are issued", "has been a proliferation in the last 10 years of private universities which are interested in providing professional training to their undergraduates. These private colleges are not interested in nurturing research centers, since it is not part of their business model to get involved with research.\nIn European countries such as France and Malta, tuition is usually free for European students, and in Germany, tuition is free for all European and international students. In Scotland, university tuition is free for all Scottish nationals and is discounted for all European students, except from students coming from other parts of the United Kingdom.\nIn", "shared vision of history. The Franco-German University enables students to attain international double degrees from both countries. Additionally, a so-called Élysée-Fond was established to promote Franco-German culture projects in third countries. Also, double citizenships for French and German citizens in the opposite country are now easier to obtain, or in some cases finally possible.\nChancellor Angela Merkel and President Emmanuel Macron, along with lawmakers from both countries, called for a \"new Élysée Treaty\" in January 2018 on the occasion of its 55th anniversary, the so-called Aachen Treaty as signed on the 22 January 2019.", "often recognized as an equivalent to the Abitur. The one-year course covers similar topics as the Abitur and ensures sufficient language skills to take up studies at a German university. Tuition fees Public universities in Germany are funded by the federal states and do not charge tuition fees. However, all enrolled students do have to pay a semester fee (Semesterbeitrag). This fee consists of an administrative fee for the university (only in some of the states), a fee for Studentenwerk, which is a statutory student affairs organization, a fee for the university's AStA (Allgemeiner Studentenausschuss, students' government) and Studentenschaft (students'", "degrees granted at the other universities in Germany. Students at the Federal Armed Forces Universities need at least four academic years to achieve the master's degree.\nSince 2003, civilian students have also been admitted to study at the universities of the Federal Armed Forces, provided that spaces for enrollment are available and that industrial companies are willing to underwrite the costs.\nThe academic program at the universities of the Federal Armed Forces can be finished faster than at civilian universities because the curriculum contains about one third more content per year (trimesters instead of semesters are utilized). In exchange, the officers and", "can be found at almost every university in Germany. The time where lectures are being held varies each year, normally beginning around mid-October and ending as early as mid-February.\nFree University of Berlin offers a broad spectrum of subjects in over 190 degree programs. A speciality of the FU is the possibility to study a vast number of \"small subjects\" (e.g. theater and film studies, Egyptology, Byzantine studies, Jewish studies, Turkology, Sinology, Communication studies, Meteorology, Bioinformatics, Biochemistry) with a high level of specialization. Due to the Bologna process, most of the undergraduate programs are now leading to the three-year Bachelor's degree", "Higher education in Norway Higher education in Norway is offered by a range of eight universities, nine specialised universities, 24 university colleges as well as a range of private university colleges. The national higher education system is in accordance with the Bologna process, with bachelor's degrees (first cycle, three years), master's degrees (second cycle, two years) and doctoral degrees (third cycle, three years). Acceptance is offered after finishing upper secondary school with general university admissions certification.\nPublic education is free, with an academic year with two semesters, from August to December and from January to June. The ultimate responsibility for", "l'éducation\" states that \"Private higher education establishments can in no case take the title of \"university\"\". But many private institutions such as the Catholic University of Lyon, use \"university\" as their marketing name. Germany Most higher education institutions are public and operated by the states and all professors are public servants. In general, public universities are held in higher esteem than their private counterparts. From 1972 through 1998, public universities were free of tuition fees; since then, however, some states have adopted low tuition fees. Greece In Greece according to its Constitution all Higher Education Institutions HEIs are universities which", "the needs of the economy and the government. Rather, they wanted to adjust the universities to their own principles. They wanted more rights in the running of universities, better-equipped workplaces and the expulsion of the professors who had been active during the Third Reich. The university boards did not react to the students' protest and introduced the time limit for studying.\nWhen this time limit was introduced at the Free University of Berlin during the summer holidays of 1966 the students were not there, and so were unable to protest against it; instead, the first big sit-in of the German student", "graduation they are allowed to access university, but only in subjects that belong to the \"branch\" they studied in at Berufsschule, and by taking a second foreign language they get an Abitur, which gives them full access to university. Berufsoberschule is one of the hardest ways in whole Germany to get a permit to enter Fachhochschule or University", "or English depending on the programme or university. Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, and Turkey provide free education at all levels, including college and university for its citizens. Countries In Brazil, free education is offered by the Ministry of Education, which offers scholarships for graduate degrees, masters, doctoral and post-doctoral for Brazilians and immigrants who have Brazilian citizenship. The best universities and research centers are public institutions, financed by either the local state (state universities) or the federal government (federal universities). Graduate students can get paid if they qualify for the incentive but competition is extremely fierce. There" ]

[ "This is a marketing trick. It does two things. One, it's get you in the habit of ordering the grouped items (for other things like meals, it cost more). You will subconsciously do this in the future out of habit. \n\nTwo, if they add coffee then it sets you in the morning routing of going there. If you miss your coffee, then oh didn't get your egg sandwich and you pretty much missed breakfast. Remember, coffee is very cheep and addictive (believe it or not). This will also keep the buyer coming back every day. In the very short term, McDonalds looses pennies. In the long term, they gain a small fortune per person.", "Also a sausage biscuit with egg is like $2.59 but if you order a $1 menu sausage biscuit you can add egg for $.50", "They also do the same with McNuggets. 20 is more expensive than 2 orders of 10." ]

[ "providing free coffee for a two-week period. Similarly, McDonald's Canada recently began offering free coffee for a week during Tim Hortons' \"Roll Up the Rim to Win\" campaign. Taco Bell's new value menu Dollar Cravings was instigated in reaction to McDonald's and Wendy's value menus. Burger King's McWhopper proposal On August 26, 2015, Burger King released an open letter to McDonald's proposing a joint promotion for Peace Day called the \"McWhopper\", a combination of the two restaurants' signature burgers. The overture was rejected by McDonald's, a response that drew mostly criticism for its tone and the sense of a missed", "as follows:\n… when we pay four bits for a meal, we do expect to have something near its equivalent set before us, whether we partake of it or not; and having been but recently engaged in the hotel business, we claim to know what a meal should be for which half a dollar is charged. The breakfast furnished us, to which we have above alluded, consisted of a piece of very tough beaf, cooked till it was dry and quite tasteless. We set it aside. The coffee was black as tar-water, nearly cold and without milk. Disposition", "year and was a $114m business, with a fifth of revenue from making and packaging private label coffees for McDonald's, 7-Eleven and Costco stores, according to the Los Angeles Times. The company, which remains family owned, still produces roasts for different ethnic markets, as well as supplying supermarkets, such as Ralphs, Walmart and Safeway. It sells coffee in 20 states and its range includes the Don Francisco and La Llave brands.", "Great Canadian Dollar Store History Founded in 1993 by Bud & Vivian Walker, Great Canadian Dollar Store sold products with a retail price of $1.00. As the company grew and product lines expanded, the maximum retail price moved between $1 to $3. Now with the greater access to product, Great Canadian Dollar Store has moved their to retail prices from between $1 to $20 for the majority of the product. With the purchase of Great Canadian Dollar Store by Kevin Kane, the emphasis is to grow the brand in smaller rural communities.", "Maharashtra.\nMcDonald's introduced a coffee line called \"McCafé\" nationwide in the United States. \nIn August 2014, the company announced it was going to start to selling its coffee for home brewing in supermarkets across the United States. Manufactured and distributed in partnership with Kraft Foods, the coffee is currently available in prepackaged bags and K-Cups.\nIn December 2015, McDonald's Canada opened its first standalone McCafe store in Toronto Union Station's newly built York concourse area.\nOn March 20, 2018, the first McCafé in Minsk, Belarus was opened. Another McCafé opened its doors in Minsk on June 24, 2018, and one more was", "line: \"Hark! the shrill Muffin-Man his Carol plies..\" Muffin top The muffin top is the crisp upper part of the muffin, which has developed a \"browned crust that's slightly singed around the edges\". In 2018, McDonalds restaurant announced they were planning to sell muffin tops as part of its McCafe breakfast menu. History The use of the term to describe what are essentially cupcakes or buns did not become common usage in Britain until the last decades of the 20th century on the back of the spread of coffee shops such as Starbucks. Recipes for quickbread muffins are common in", "the world's most expensive coffees, at US$1,100 per kilogram. It has limited availability, and at a few luxury hotels it is available at the price of US$50 a cup. The supply of Black Ivory coffee depends on the availability of coffee cherries, the appetite of the elephants, the number of beans destroyed through chewing of the beans and the ability of the mahouts and their wives to recover intact beans. The high price of the product is largely due to the large number of coffee cherries needed to produce the finished product: 33 kilograms (72 pounds) of raw coffee cherries", "Dollar watch A dollar watch was a pocket watch or later, a wristwatch, that sold for about one US dollar.\nAttempts to make a watch that could be sold for as little as a dollar began in the 1870s. By 1880 the Waterbury Clock Company had lowered costs to the point where they could sell their so called long wind watch for $3.50. In the early 1890s the Ingersoll Watch Company started selling a Waterbury clock company clock in a watch case for $1.50\nThe dollar price point was reached in 1896 when Ingersoll introduced a watch called the Yankee, setting its", "Royal Canadian Mint also increased the number of loonies released into circulation from 1 million in January 1989 to 9.8 million during one week in June. Acceptance of the loonie was initially poor, so banks and retailers continued to conduct transactions using the banknotes. By March 1989, support for the change to the $1 coin was 39% amongst Canadians surveyed by the Royal Canadian Mint, and 36% were opposed to the change.\nWithdrawal of the $1 banknote resulted in operational cost reductions for some businesses and organizations, such as the Toronto Transit Commission which previously invested over US$500,000 paying individuals to", "rather limited.\nMcDonald's switched from foam cups to paper cups in 2014, and is moving to recycle paper cups in the UK, as of 2016, in partnership with Simply Cups and James Cropper. Alternatives Several coffee chains offer a discount if the customer brings along their own cup.\nAt festivals such as the Bavarian Oktoberfest, costs due to theft or breakage are avoided without using disposables: The customer pays an upfront fee for a drinking glass or mug and receives a rebate at its return.", "coffee was the top-selling brand in Los Angeles grocery stores, with its ground coffee ranked third behind Folgers and Maxwell House and the company decided to expand supermarket supplies to other regions of the US.\nGaviña had begun selling its coffee to a small group of McDonald's restaurants in Southern California in 1983 and, in 2005, it created a stronger blend that resulted in double-digit growth in coffee sales through the fast-food outlets. It was one of three U.S. suppliers subsequently chosen to produce espresso for the McCafe program.\nBy 2010, Gaviña was roasting about 40 million pounds of coffee per", "content of muffins has changed: the \"3-inch muffins grandmother made had only 120 to 160 calories. But today’s giant bakery muffins contain from 340 to 630 calories each.\" Manufacture Quickbread muffins are made with flour, sieved together with bicarbonate of soda as a raising agent. To this is added butter or shortening, eggs and any flavourings (fruit, such as blueberries, chocolate or banana; or savouries, such as cheese). Bran muffins use less flour and use bran instead, as well as using molasses and brown sugar.The mix is turned into a pocketed muffin tray, or into individual paper moulds, and", "went up again, making the average sandwich $7.50. Canada Subway launched the $5 footlong promotion in the province of Ontario on January 11, 2010. It featured the same value submarine sandwiches found on the value menu in the United States, although Canada also made them available as $5 salads. By April 20, 2010, the promotion was extended to Quebec and called \"12 pouces, 5$\" (12 inches, 5 dollars) in French. The deal was made available throughout Canada on December 30, 2011. Outside of Québec, the promotion ceased by Q4 2012 and now charged at least $5.25", "the number of free cups of coffee would number between two and four million. Alcoholic drinks For many years Burger King has sold beer in several of its international locations, such as Germany, but not in its home territory. The company began to sell beer at its BK Whopper Bar limited service concept restaurants in Miami, New York, and Los Angeles in 2010. The company is selling products from SABMiller and Anheuser-Busch, including Budweiser, Bud Lite, and Miller Lite in aluminum bottles designed to maintain temperature. The move, designed to target the important 30-and-under demographic, has been called risky by", "is somewhat smaller than it was previously, as it is now on the Dollar Menu & More (previously just the Dollar Menu), which offers various food products starting at US$1.00.\nThe meat of the McChicken sandwich used to be 50% white meat and 50% dark meat. Viewed in April 2015, McDonald's website states that the McChicken contains a blend of dark and white meat chicken. Variants In certain regions and at specific McDonald's franchises, the McChicken is adapted to appeal to the local population's tastes. Spiced McChickens When the McChicken was reintroduced to McDonald's menu in mid-to-late 1997 as a smaller", "kopi luwak may constitute a significant threat to wild civet populations. Price and availability Kopi luwak is one of the most expensive coffees in the world, selling for between US$100 and $500 per pound in 2010. The specialty Vietnamese weasel coffee, which is made by collecting coffee beans eaten by wild civets, is sold at US$500 per kilogram. Most customers are Asian, especially those originating from Japan, China and South Korea. Sources vary widely as to annual worldwide production.\nThe price of farmed (considered low-grade by connoisseurs) kopi luwak in large Indonesian supermarkets is from US$100 per kilogram (five times the", "price of a high quality local arabica coffee).\nThe price paid to collectors in the Philippines is closer to US$20 per kilogram.\nSome specialty coffee shops sell cups of brewed kopi luwak for US$35–80. Authenticity and fraud Investigations by PETA and the BBC found fraud to be rife in the kopi luwak industry, with producers willing to label coffee from caged civets with a \"wild sourced\" or similar label.\nGenuine kopi luwak from wild civets is difficult to purchase in Indonesia and proving it is not fake is very difficult – there is little enforcement regarding use of the name \"kopi luwak\", and", "under $1.00, one could enjoy a large, if somewhat plain, meal purchased with nickels usually obtained from the cashier. Each stack of glass-doored dispensers had a metal cylinder that could be rotated by the staff on the other side of the vending wall, hiding the contents while they refilled each dispenser in the stack with a plate of salad, pudding, meat, or vegetables. Each dispenser had a slot for one or more nickels, and a knob to rotate the nickels out of view into the internal cash box and to allow the glass door to be raised up and locked", "at your local coffeeshop, but with muffins' \"...often refined flours, high sodium, and plenty of added sugar...and large portion size, they’re far from the optimal food choice to start your day.\" Consumers think that commercial muffins are a healthier choice than donuts; however, according to Registered Dietician Karen Collins, yeast or raised donuts have from 170 to 270 calories each (cake doughnuts have from 290 to 360 calories), while large bakery muffins have from 340 to 630 calories each and 11 to 27 grams of total fat. \"Most muffins are deceptively high in fats\", with up to 40% fat content,", "with Real California Milk. Thrifty ice cream contains 10.25% butterfat, compared to 12–16% butterfat in premium rivals costing twice as much. As recently as 1974, a single scoop could be purchased for just a nickel. The price increased to $0.10 by 1976, to $0.15 by 1981, to $0.35 by 1991, to $1.29 by 2010, to $1.69 by 2011, to $1.79 by 2013, and to $1.99 by 2018.\nFor many decades, Thrifty Drug Stores was using the extremely low price that it was charging customers for a single scoop of ice cream that was usually eaten inside the store as a loss", "was $1,000 per pound, or US$2,200 per kilogram. In February 2013, a retail bottle containing 0.06 ounces (1.7 g) could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of $4,336 per pound or as little as about $2,000/pound in larger quantities. A pound contains between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron. Nutrition Dried saffron is 65% carbohydrates, 6% fat, 11% protein (table) and 12% water. In a serving of one tablespoon (2 grams), manganese is present as 28% of the Daily Value, while other micronutrients", "Coffee machine under their company, North American Systems. North American Systems debuted Mr. Coffee in the U.S. consumer market in 1972. The maker was priced at $39.99, equal to $226 in 2015 dollars, but the machine proved a hit with consumers. To market the product, Marotta recruited baseball player Joe DiMaggio as Mr. Coffee's spokesman. DiMaggio's commercials were popular, though, in reality, DiMaggio rarely drank coffee due to ulcers.\nNorth American System sold more than a million Mr. Coffee machines by 1975. Total sales reached $50 million by 1979, with Mr. Coffee machines accounting for 50% of the U.S. consumer coffee", "sandwich averages 730 calories, 51g of fat and 1120 mg of sodium.\nAdditionally, Hardee's sister chain, Carl's Jr. also introduced its version of the Big Hardee, The Big Carl, though unlike Hardee's only has two patties and is priced at $3.49.\nThe Big Hardee was reintroduced in response to McDonald's inclusion of Angus beef into its own sandwich lineup. The Big Hardee costs approximately $2.29, 70 cents less than a Big Mac.", "of August 2019, sandwiches were US$3.50, a pound of meat US$7.00 and a pint of sauce US$3.00. \nThe diner opens at 6 a.m. six days a week and closes whenever it sells out, often by 11 a.m. According to The Chicago Tribune, \"On a summer Saturday, that could happen before 10 a.m.\" There are only two tables, providing seating for at most ten. \nAs of 2010 the restaurant offered smoking service to hunters who would bring their catches in. Recognition In 2012 the James Beard Foundation named it an American Classic, making it Arkansas' only Beard Award winner. According to The", "and Swiss Lunchables contained 1,780 milligrams of sodium, which is 47 percent of the recommended daily allowance for an adult.\nDue to the growing concern of childhood obesity, UK Lunchables opted to create healthier options for children by eliminating Capri Sun drinks and mini Daim bars, and replacing the sugary drink and candy with orange juice and strawberry yogurt in 2004. The brand also began offering lower calorie candy alternatives, rather than including the standard Reese's cup in the package. Capri Sun and candy are still available as options in the U.S. Lunchables.\nAs of 2007, eight varieties of Lunchables are considered", "months, supposedly because they melt easily in summer temperatures, though this is as much for marketing reasons as for practical ones. Devoted eaters of the cookie have been known to stock up during winter months and keep them refrigerated over the summer, although Nabisco markets other chocolate-coated cookie brands year-round. Eighty-five percent of all Mallomars are sold in the New York metropolitan area. They are produced entirely within Canada, at a factory in Scarborough, Ontario. Schokokuss / Negerkuss / Mohrenkopf In Germany Schokokuss were first commercially made 1920, although the first mention of them in dates back to 1829. Industrial", "a dollar's worth of cookies or potato chips yields 1200 calories, while a dollar's worth of carrots yields only 250 calories.\"\nThe farm bill contributes to the low prices that fast food provides because farmers feed the commodity crops to the cows and livestock that people eventually eat. Essential nutrients are taken away when cows are fed corn and/or soybeans instead of their natural grass diet. \"Grass-fed beef has been shown to be higher in health-promoting nutrients, omega-3 fatty acids and cancer-fighting conjugated linoleic acid (cla) than beef that is fed grain.\" Because the government provides a subsidy for the corn", "brand remained heavily dependent on coffee sales. In 2009, it was reported that 60% of their sales occur in the morning, and of that more than 50% is coffee. The coffee served is a blend of 100% arabica beans. The \"original blend\" is a medium, balanced roast that is the most popular served coffee in Canada. The chain has an \"always fresh\" policy where coffee is served within 20 minutes of brewing.\nIn November 2011, the company announced that they would be adding espresso machines in 1,000 of their locations, later that month. Lattes were added to Ontario stores on November", "McDonald's Canada had 1,400 stores (including Walmart Canada locations) in Canada, and more than 85,000 Canadian employees.\nThere are McDonald's restaurants in all of the provinces and territories with the exception of Nunavut. The flagship location opened in 2013 near the Yonge-Dundas Square in Toronto.\nIn 2019, McDonald's Canada donated 50 cents from every medium, large and extra large coffee purchased at these locations, all day long. Last year's event raised more than $10,000 for the Alzeheimer Society of Hastings-Prince Edward. In September of that year, McDonald's Canada observed its third annual McDelivery Night. Products Hamburger Criticisms and controversies McDonald's Canada faced", "modified so that the word Premium appears in its description in its print, online and broadcast media. The word is capitalized, which indicates its association with the line.\nMcDonald's stopped selling chicken selects in 2013, but they were brought back for a limited time promotion in March 2015 to combat McDonald's low sales. Beverages In the United States McDonald's has upgraded its coffee line. In the Northeastern States coffee is sold under the Newman's Own brand. In 2007 McDonald's expanded the Premium coffee line to include flavored iced coffee. In 2008–2009 it was expanded once more to lattes, cappuccinos and mochas" ]

[ "It can, especially people with heart disease. Son who had heart surgery has to take penicillin before going to the dentist every time.", "There are a lot of bacteria in the mouth that are commonly referred to as the HACEK group. Two main ones to concern yourself with are Eikenella if you get bit by a human or Cardiobacterium if you get a tooth pulled, have severely rotting teeth or become unable to fight off infection (if you are getting treated for cancer) because it can cause heart damage. \n\nBut, specific to the revolving door of hundreds of types of different species of bacteria that may be ingested or stuck at any given moment..it is dependent on many variables. Three main things you would look for in that stuck foreign body would be is there one predominant bacteria beating out everything else? Are they creating toxins? Are they organisms consistently considered pathogenic?" ]

[ "for acid-creating bacteria in the mouth.\nChewy and sticky foods (such as candy, cookies, potato chips, and crackers) tend to adhere to teeth longer. However, dried fruits such as raisins and fresh fruit such as apples and bananas disappear from the mouth quickly, and do not appear to be a risk factor. Consumers are not good at guessing which foods stick around in the mouth.\nFor children, the American Dental Association and the European Academy of Paediatric Dentistry recommend limiting the frequency of consumption of drinks with sugar, and not giving baby bottles to infants during sleep (see earlier discussion). Parents", "Consequences Spoilage bacteria do not normally cause \"food poisoning\"; typically, the microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses are odorless and flavourless, and otherwise undetectable outside the lab.\nEating deteriorated food could not be considered safe due to mycotoxins or microbial wastes. Some pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium perfringens and Bacillus cereus, are capable of causing spoilage.\nIssues of food spoilage do not necessarily have to do with the quality of the food, but more so with the safety of consuming said food. However, there are cases where food has been proven to contain toxic ingredients. 200 years ago, Claviceps purpurea, a type of", "bacteria can leave a person with lasting dental problems. According to Dr. Robert Gandola, a dentist, “A number of bacteria can cause decay [and many] are suspected in periodontal (gum) disease.”\nOral bacteria work with our immune system to keep our bodies disease free by fighting disease-producing germs that try to come in through the mouth. For example, some of these bacteria produce organic acids that kill the organisms that cause intestinal problems. Without these good bacteria, our immune systems would be constantly bombarded by airborne and saliva-transferred germs. Bacteria are also needed to control the growth of fungus. “Balance between", "the spoilage of food. When bacteria breaks down the food, acids and other waste products are created in the process. While the bacteria itself may or may not be harmful, the waste products may be unpleasant to taste or may even be harmful to one's health.\nThere are two types of pathogenic bacteria that target different categories of food. The first type is called Clostridium perfingen and targets foods such as meat and poultry, and Bacillus cereus, which targets milk and cream. When stored or subjected to unruly conditions, the organisms will begin to breed apace, releasing harmful toxins that can", "in our mouths are harmful and can cause serious illness, much of our oral bacteria are actually beneficial in preventing disease. Streptococci make up a large part of oral bacteria.\nThere are four main species within streptococci: the mutans, salivarius, anginosus, and mitis groups. Streptococcus mutans make up a large majority of what affects our mouths and create acids which may cause decay. The enzymes “leach down the tooth and begin to dissolve the ligaments and bone that help to hold the teeth in your mouth.” By turning simple sugars and carbohydrates into acids and enzymes that dissolve tooth enamel, this", "the teeth or gums. The less one brushes their teeth, the better chance that bacteria will form plaque, which may potentially cause serious oral health issues.\nDiet has an influence in our oral health as well. Much of the bacteria in our mouths are nourished by simple sugars and carbohydrates. An excess of candy, soda, or other simple sugars is an easy way to let bacteria thrive in our mouths. \nFluoride is extremely effective in protecting enamel on the teeth. “Fluoride, a chemical that appears naturally in groundwater in many areas of the world, quickly bonds with the tooth's enamel to", "cases associated with exposure to poultry. In children, bacteria are the cause in about 15% of cases, with the most common types being Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, and Campylobacter species. If food becomes contaminated with bacteria and remains at room temperature for a period of several hours, the bacteria multiply and increase the risk of infection in those who consume the food. Some foods commonly associated with illness include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, seafood, and eggs; raw sprouts; unpasteurized milk and soft cheeses; and fruit and vegetable juices. In the developing world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, cholera is", "or eating.” We never really lose all of it because it is constantly being replenished by our own saliva. Bacteria can then reattach and start to grow and the cycle continues. Bacteria and its growth are two of the principal components of oral ecology. Saliva Saliva keeps the ecosystem of the mouth in balance. It contains its own bacterial enzymes that are beneficial to our health. An example of these are lysozomes. These antibacterial agents in saliva kill bacteria in our mouths and protect from potentially dangerous diseases. In addition, saliva contains phosphate and calcium ions that help repair microscopic", "influenced by the mouth's ecology and bacteria. Streptococcus mutans, a common oral bacteria discussed above, is a pathogen that causes pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis media, and meningitis. Prevention Although disease is possible through oral interactions, there are many ways to prevent or reduce the risk of infection and disease. Brushing and flossing teeth regularly are the most basic ways to reduce these risks. These two hygiene tips help to get rid of bacteria that try to stick to surfaces in the mouth to form plaque (oral biofilms). Brushing and flossing the teeth disrupts biofilms and their ability to permanently damage", "bacteria, therefore being at a disadvantage in environments where bacteria are. Yeasts can be responsible for the decomposition of food with a high sugar content. The same effect is useful in the production of various types of food and beverages, such as bread, yogurt, cider, and alcoholic beverages. Signs Signs of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as a change in color, a change in texture, an unpleasant odour, or an undesirable taste. The item may become softer than normal. If mold occurs, it is often visible externally on the item.", "to dental caries. Heavy or frequent consumption of high-sugar foods, especially lollipops, sugary cough drops, and other sugar-based candies that stay in the mouth for a long time, increases the risk of tooth decay. Candies that also contain enamel-dissolving acids, such as acid drops, increase the risk. Cleaning the teeth and mouth shortly after eating any type of sugary food, and allowing several hours to pass between eating such foods, reduces the risk and improves oral health.\nHowever, frequent consumption of fruits and fruit juice, which contain both acid and sugars, may be a more significant factor in", "bacterial growth, by inhibiting their metabolism of ingested sugars in the diet. It does this by inhibiting various metabolic enzymes within the bacteria. This leads to a reduction in the acid produced during the bacteria's digestion of food, preventing a further drop in pH and therefore preventing caries.\nThe application of glass ionomer sealants to occlusal surfaces of the posterior teeth, reduce dental caries in comparison to not using sealants at all. There is evidence that when using sealants, only 6% of people develop tooth decay over a 2-year period, in comparison to 40% of people when not using a sealant.", "actual cases of poisoning from excessive consumption of potatoes are rare.\nTomato plants can be toxic to dogs if they eat large amounts of the fruit, or chew plant material. Salmonella Tomatoes were linked to seven Salmonella outbreaks between 1990 and 2005, and may have been the cause of a salmonellosis outbreak causing 172 illnesses in 18 US states in 2006. The 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak caused the temporary removal of tomatoes from stores and restaurants across the United States and parts of Canada, although other foods, including jalapeño and serrano peppers, may have been involved. Potential health effects No", "is an oral infection that can damage the bones supporting teeth and lead to tooth loss. One of the major risk factors for periodontitis is the disruption of the oral microbiome such that there is an accumulation of pathogenic bacteria. Antibiotics Because of the complex interactions in the microbiome, not much data exists on the efficacy of using antibiotics to treat dysbiosis. However, a broad-spectrum antibiotic that has low impact on the intestinal gut microbiome called rifaximin, has been shown to be effective in improving several of the ailments associated with dysbiosis, including irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis and Crohn's", "if careful periodontal examination is not carried out.\nFactors indicating infection include movement of fluid in the tissues during palpation (fluctuance), swollen lymph nodes in the neck, and fever with an oral temperature more than 37.7 °C. Prevention Since most toothache is the result of plaque-related diseases, such as tooth decay and periodontal disease, the majority of cases could be prevented by avoidance of a cariogenic diet and maintenance of good oral hygiene. That is, reduction in the number times that refined sugars are consumed per day and brushing the teeth twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and interdental cleaning. Regular visits", "makes it difficult for bacteria to adhere to surfaces to even begin to form biofilms. Many harmful micro-organisms, therefore, are unable to attach quick enough to a surface before they are caught in saliva and swallowed. Although saliva does a lot to keep our bodies healthy, it cannot completely keep all bacteria from adhering to tooth, tongue or gum surfaces. Diseases transmitted through saliva Each day numerous bacteria grow in a person's mouth. Many diseases are related to oral bacteria. Proper oral care and habits often protect against and reduce the effects of some harmful bacteria.\nBecause of the amount of", "that may enter the mouth area. When cooking, one should take care to heat foods to at least 167 °F for a minimum of ten minutes to ensure that the entire product is evenly cooked. This is because heat and ultraviolet radiation are good neutralizers of Salmonella bacterium.\nRecent outbreaks have occurred, and although not all infections can be eliminated, most can be hindered either through coating crops with Salmonella-fighting bacteria or through human precautions.", "bacteria in each person's mouth, there is a transfer of bacteria through saliva when lip balm, drinks, toothbrushes, or anything else is shared. Said bacteria transfer can lead to human illnesses. Some of these diseases that result are relatively inconsequential while others could potentially have a serious impact on one's life. Some examples of the milder diseases passed through saliva include: herpes simple virus (cold sores or canker sores), flu virus, cold virus, various bacteria that cause periodontal disease (inflammation or infection of gum tissue), venereal diseases, and candida albicans (fungus).\nMononucleosis (mono), known among teenagers as the “kissing disease”, is", "food was more likely to be contaminated by E. coli bacteria. The Environmental Working Group took exception to his report, mainly questioning his statements about bacteria, but also found that the produce had never been tested for pesticides. EWG communicated this to Stossel but the story was rebroadcast months later not only with the allegedly inaccurate statement uncorrected, but with a postscript in which Stossel reiterated his error. After The New York Times took note of the error, ABC News suspended the producer of the segment for a month and reprimanded Stossel, who issued an apology over the incident,", "presented by the Human Oral Microbiome Database. A study conducted by the University of Texas uncovered that while a bacteria called S. mutans is the biggest culprit for tooth decay, various lactobacilli are also associated with the progression of lesions. GLB44 does not increase the risk of tooth decay due to its inability to live in the human mouth, an advantage versus other probiotics that contain any of the following lactobacilli that live naturally in the human mouth and could contribute to the tooth decay: L. acidophilus, L. brevis, L. casei, L. fermentum, L. gasseri, L. paracasei, L plantarum, L.", "and drinks. A tooth weakened by extensive internal decay can sometimes suddenly fracture under normal chewing forces. When the decay has progressed enough to allow the bacteria to overwhelm the pulp tissue in the center of the tooth, a toothache can result and the pain will become more constant. Death of the pulp tissue and infection are common consequences. The tooth will no longer be sensitive to hot or cold, but can be very tender to pressure.\nDental caries can also cause bad breath and foul tastes. In highly progressed cases, an infection can spread from the tooth to the", "these bacteria are abundant. Because of the anti-salmonella bacteria limiting its spread, fewer people on the West Coast report cases of salmonellosis. Additionally, street-sold natural tomatoes have been consistently tied to outbreaks of Salmonella. Street-sold (unregulated) items are independently produced and sold to consumers. This does not include fresh produce markets. These strong links to salmonellosis is in due in part do the lack of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) oversight on unregistered vendors. Another cause of Salmonella bacteria growth may be due to contact with contaminated irrigation water. The tomatoes (or any plant) are much more likely to", "antibiotics can lead to an \"overgrowth\" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections. Cellular components Leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate leukocytes include the phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils,", "Disease Control and Prevention attributed the food poisoning to Castleberry's Food Company's use of a defective canning process which was inadequate to destroy spores of clostridium botulinum bacteria, thereby enabling the bacteria to produce botulinum toxin as the products aged. An FDA investigation later revealed that the problem arose from the use of canners which \"had broken alarms, a leaky valve and an inaccurate temperature device.\" The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advised consumers to dispose of foods recalled due to the food poisoning incidents in the following manner:\nDo not open or puncture any unopened can of the", "decay is the most common global disease. Over 80% of cavities occur inside fissures in teeth where brushing cannot reach food left trapped after eating and saliva and fluoride have no access to neutralize acid and remineralize demineralized teeth, unlike easy-to-clean parts of the tooth, where fewer cavities occur.\nTeeth cleaning is the removal of dental plaque and tartar from teeth to prevent cavities, gingivitis, gum disease, and tooth decay. Severe gum disease causes at least one-third of adult tooth loss.\nSince before recorded history, a variety of oral hygiene measures have been used for teeth cleaning. This has been verified by", "cells to attack gut microbes that are in the intestinal tract. Food poisoning can trigger an immune response to microbial gut bacteria. Some researchers suggest that it can lead to inflammatory bowel disease. Epidemiology of gastrointestinal infection Transmission of pathogenic E. coli often occurs via fecal–oral transmission. Common routes of transmission include: unhygienic food preparation, farm contamination due to manure fertilization, irrigation of crops with contaminated greywater or raw sewage, feral pigs on cropland, or direct consumption of sewage-contaminated water. Dairy and beef cattle are primary reservoirs of E. coli O157:H7, and they can carry it asymptomatically and shed it", "is believed to exploit defects in the skin barrier of persons with atopic dermatitis, triggering cytokine expression and therefore exacerbating symptoms. Food poisoning S. aureus is also responsible for food poisoning. It is capable of generating toxins that produce food poisoning in the human body. Its incubation period lasts one to six hours, with the illness itself lasting from 30 minutes to 3 days.\nPreventive measures one can take to help prevent the spread of the disease include washing hands thoroughly with soap and water before preparing food. Stay away from any food if ill, and wear gloves if any open", "and overall loss of products. Along with economic problems, biofilm formation on food poses a health risk to consumers due to the ability to make the food more resistant to disinfectants As a result, from 1996 to 2010 the Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimated 48 million foodborne illnesses per year. Biofilms have been connected to about 80% of bacterial infections in the United States.\nIn produce, microorganisms attach to the surfaces and biofilms develop internally. During the washing process, biofilms resist sanitization and allow bacteria to spread across the produce. This problem is also found in ready-to-eat foods, because", "may show signs of oral allergy syndrome, a food allergy classified by a cluster of allergic reactions in the mouth in response to the consumption certain fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Foods commonly involved include beans, celery, cumin, hazelnuts, kiwifruit, parsley, potatoes, bananas, melons, cucumbers, and zucchini. Because cooking usually denatures the proteins that cause the reaction, the foods are more allergenic when eaten raw; exceptions are celery and nuts, which may not be safe even when cooked. Signs of reaction can include itching, burning, and swelling of the mouth and throat, runny eyes and nose, hives, and, less commonly, vomiting,", "teeth, leading to periodontal disease. In addition, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body and cause heart and kidney problems. The best prevention is regular brushing of the teeth with a toothpaste formulated specifically for dogs. Human toothpaste is not recommended, because it foams more easily and may be swallowed. Professional teeth cleaning by a veterinarian may also be required to prevent the development of dental problems. Hypoglycaemia Low blood sugar in puppies, or transient juvenile hypoglycaemia, is caused by fasting (too much time between meals). In rare cases hypoglycaemia may continue to be a problem" ]

[ "It's dropped in a casing. Sort of like a tank, so as it's dropped it's just a bunch of highly-flammable chemicals -- ignition happens after the aircraft drops the weapon. There's usually a bursting charge as well that helps distribute the napalm over a wide area. Here's a PDF with a diagram of a napalm bomb: _URL_0_", "If you are thinking about flame-thrower napalm, rather than bombs, then it's because the napalm is thickened somewhat, rather like a dish soap consistency. \n\nWhen that is pumped through the hose of a flame thrower, it is burning on the surface, but when drops land they flatten and the 'inside' of the drops are splashed on to the surface and set afire.", "napalm is basically petroleum jelly and gasoline. the gas burns while the jelly acts in the same way that wax in a candle does.", "Combustion is generally a surface action involving fuel/air vapour mixtures, the napalm is sufficiently clumped to delay this process otherwise it would just be another explosion." ]

[ "part of an incendiary weapon, napalm can cause severe burns (ranging from superficial to subdermal), asphyxiation, unconsciousness, and death. In this implementation, napalm fires can create an atmosphere of greater than 20% carbon monoxide and firestorms with self-perpetuating winds of up to 70 miles per hour (110 km/h).\nNapalm is effective against dug-in enemy personnel. The burning incendiary composition flows into foxholes, trenches and bunkers, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by hyperthermia, radiant heat, dehydration, asphyxiation, smoke exposure, or carbon monoxide poisoning.\nOne firebomb released from a low-flying plane can", "40%. Due to these attacks, the soldiers and airmen refer to the base as \"Mortaritaville\", though this name is shared with other bases in Iraq.\nJoint Base Balad had a burn pit operation as late as the summer of 2010. The pit, which was visible for miles, was in continuous use which resulted in 147 tons of waste burnt per day, some of which was considered toxic. Respiratory difficulties and headaches were attributed to smoke inhalation from the burnt waste; however, according to research conducted on behalf of the US Department of Veteran Affairs, there is insufficient evidence to connect those", "Airport) and also within a mile of camps Cropper and Stryker was one of these burn pits. The ash rained down on us like snowflakes - not only on US troops, but also Iraqi detainees and Iraqi correctional officers (aka ICO's). There were flakes of ash the size of half a sheet of notebook paper. That installation was perpetually downwind of one particular burn pit, and while this wasn't an everyday occurrence, during winter of 2007 into 2008 it did happen often. This is not to speak for the frequency of the burnings, but the ash literally", "Ash pit An ash pit is a remnant of a wildfire. It is a hole in the ground filled with ash, possibly containing hot embers beneath. It is one of the many hazards faced by those fighting wildfires. It is also a danger to residents and their pets returning after a wildfire has gone out.\nAn ash pit may be imperceptible from the ground above, and can remain hot for days. Those accidentally walking into one may be severely burned or killed. \nAfter a wildfire has gone out, firefighters may detect ash pits from helicopters using infrared sensors. Then can then", "fire has no flame and there are only embers, it deviates slightly them, so as to leave uncovered or only covered a few ashes, soil, sand; in this hot sand or hot ashes these, we practice a hollow round, 4 to 5 cm depth and width such that it can contain the flour mixture and water; poured this mixture into the hollow; it is slightly dry to the surface by passing a short distance above him for a short time in the grassland fire flame; then covered with ashes of bread, and put an ember bed above the ash. When", "media such as dry soil. In contrast, a military flamethrower's viscous or gelled fuel sticks to the surfaces of its targets and is harder to dissipate with water, so it easily re-ignites after the flame has been extinguished. It also spreads less than mobile fluids, so that it permits a more manageably targeted burn. \nFrom the military point of view, when flamethrower fuel burns in a confined space such as a tunnel or dugout, its effects go beyond the threat of burning; it quickly consumes the enclosed oxygen and pollutes the air within, so that smoke inhalation and asphyxiation may", "to ensure that the fire will burn out shortly after this optimal cooking temperature is achieved. The ashes are then swept off the stones and raked between them to form an insulating \"bed.\" A layer of wet seaweed is placed over the stones, followed by traditional regional foods such as steamers, mussels, quahogs, and lobsters. Side dishes usually include corn on the cob, potatoes, carrots, and onions. Alternating layers of seaweed and food are piled on top and the entire mound is covered with canvas that has been drenched in water to seal in the heat and prevent the canvas", "as fuel for fires. Under this layer, the pocosin soil is high in organic material, which acts as a charcoal-like substance that helps fires start.\n450 firefighters battled it. 71 high capacity pumps moved billions of gallons of water.", "dig down into them, and extinguish them to prevent flare ups. Causes After a fire burns underground fuels, it can create a void that becomes filled with ash from the burned fuel. There are several environmental factors that increase the likelihood of an ash pit being formed. It may result from the presence of extensive root systems of trees and shrubs, as well as peat and deep duff covering mineral soil. Holes created by animals, such as coyote and badger dens, can become ash pits. Abandoned rodent holes can become filled with dry, organic debris. Once this debris is burned,", "highly flammable litter that B. tectorum produces. In early trials it has consistently out competed imazapic. As of 2017, indaziflam has not been approved for use outside of residential and commercial properties. Prescribed burning Prescribed burning alone reduces Bromus tectorum biomass for approximately two years. The goal of a prescribed burn in a B. tectorum invaded area is to remove the highly flammable plant litter in a controlled manner. The timing of prescribed burns can affect the variety and amount of returning vegetation. A study shows spring burns may result in a significant reduction of native vegetation, but fall", "or latrine wastes can emit disease-laden aerosols.\" Locations Joint Base Balad, the largest U.S. base in Iraq had a burn pit operation as late as the summer of 2008 burning 147 tons of waste per day when the Army Times published a major story about it and about health concerns. An Air Force spokesman speaking for the 609th Combined Air and Space Operations Center Southwest Asia vigorously contested allegations of health effects and emphasized mitigation efforts. In Afghanistan, at its peak, more than 400 tons of trash were disposed using burn pits a day.\n\"Within a mile of BIAP (Baghdad International", "alight the kiln would be heated slowly as the moisture was burned out of the clay, this was known as \"smoking\". Then the kiln would be taken to full temperature, and kept there for three hours then allowed to cool. A biscuit firing took three days and a glost firing took two days. After 48 hours the kiln had cooled sufficiently to be drawn by the placers, and the wares checked. The placers' earnings were dependent on the success of the firing.\nEach firing would use 14 tons (13 tonnes) of coal. It was very energy inefficient, and popular sources say", "China, Russia, Iran and North Korea) maintain large stockpiles of napalm-based weapons of various types. Forms Napalm was used in flamethrowers, bombs and tanks in World War II. It is believed to have been formulated to burn at a specific rate and to adhere to surfaces to increase its stopping power. During combustion, napalm rapidly deoxygenates the available air and generates large amounts of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.\nAlternative compositions exist for different uses, e.g. triethylaluminium, a pyrophoric compound that aids ignition. Development Use of fire in warfare has a long history. Greek fire, also described as \"sticky fire\" (πῦρ", "Burn pit A burn pit refers to an area in military sites devoted to open-air combustion of trash. The phrase was first used to refer to the common way of getting rid of waste at the U.S. military sites in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the practice was used well before these conflicts. Due to modern waste at and around these sites containing significant amounts of plastic and other material which may emit toxic aerial compounds and particulates when burned, the burn pits were heavily criticized and resulted in a suit by veterans. Global environmental consciousness has especially criticized these instances", "hot summer days can break down flame retardants into more toxic degradation products. However, blood serum levels of PBDEs appear to correlate most highly with levels found in dust in the home. 60-80% of exposures are due to dust inhalation or ingestion.. In addition to this, 20% to 40% of adult U.S. exposure to PBDEs is through food intake as PBDEs bioaccumulate in the food chain. High concentration can be found in meat, dairy and fish with the remaining exposure largely due to dust inhalation or ingestion. Individuals can also be exposed through electronic and electrical devices. Young children in", "the sand and it would then be ignited. A second can of the same size could be placed on top and used as a cooking vessel. It was used because the standard pressure stove issued to armoured vehicle crews, known as the \"Cooker, Portable No 2\", was prone to blockages caused by sand. The Benghazi burner had the advantages that it was silent, fast and that empty cans, sand and fuel were readily available in the desert. The disadvantage was that it was unpredictable and the fuel would often burn out too early; it was tempting to add petrol to", "Köte A Köte (also Köthe) is the term used in the Harz Mountains of central Germany for a charcoal burner's hut (Köhlerhütte). A Köte was occupied by a charcoal burner in order to look after a nearby wood pile (Kohlenmeiler). The charcoal burner prepared the necessary charcoal for the smelting of ores.\nToday, Köten are used for tourism purposes as shelters and rest stops for hikers.", "the ground for some distance around was burned up by the spread of the ignited petrol.", "trays. In addition to limited burning and disposal of burnt matter, NCFS suggest individuals monitor the intentional burning of acres and keep materials handy for eliminating the fire, such as water and shoveled dirt. Meanwhile, NCFS campfire guidelines indicate campers should construct small campfires with small amounts of debris and only add additional, larger debris as the fire grows. Campers are also instructed to maintain a 10-foot diameter clearing around the campfire to prevent the fire from spreading to surrounding debris and to never leave a campfire unattended. The campfire should be continually monitored with water and shoveled dirt handy", "limit at 15 ppm (75 mg/m³).\nMothballs and other products containing naphthalene have been banned within the EU since 2008.\nIn China, the use of naphthalene in mothballs is forbidden. Danger to human health and the common use of natural camphor are cited as reasons for the ban.", "just before the storage period begins to warm it up.\nAfter the hole is hot enough, the fire is extinguished and the bottom is lined with bamboo and straw. On top of this goes the radishes, which are then pressed down firmly with more vegetation, boards, rocks and mud to create a mostly air-tight barrier. It takes twenty to thirty days for the sinki to properly ferment by a series of lactic acids. Then finally, before it can be eaten, the sinki is dried in the sun. Consumption A common dish that utilizes sinki is a simple soup made by", "process the potter adds firewood directly into the firebox of the kiln every 20 minutes, day and night. The temperature initially reaches 600 degrees Celsius, and it is increased only gradually in order to avoid cracking the ceramic. The pieces are left in the kiln for 10 days. \nOn the eighth day, the firing is almost complete, with a temperature close to the peak of 1200 Celsius, or even 1300 Celsius. Glowing white charcoal completely covers the pottery at the peak of 10 days of firing. The final step is to throw charcoal directly into the kiln. This reduces the", "is released into the environment, it ends up being broken down into the air, and some cases groundwater too. If in the air, trichloroethane has a 49-day expectation to break down half way, therefore spreading far away from the origin before fully being broken down. If the chemical is underground, it is not expected to break down until about after 16 weeks, or even years. Exposure to trichloroethene can be from breathing it in or direct contact to it on the skin. Temporary side effects include stinging and burning of the skin upon contact. Animal testing has been used when", "operation was carried out for 10 days until 25 September in areas such as Kuching, Sri Aman, Kota Samarahan and Sarikei in Malaysian Borneo and Klang Valley in peninsular Malaysia.\nThe Indonesian government also started building retention basins to restore moisture to the peatland in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Dry peatland, due to the dry season and also drainage for oil palm cultivation, was cited as the reason that fire spread quickly. Retention basins were built by blocking water flow in drainage canals, and the re-wetted peatland would serve to check the fire.\nFirefighting efforts involved Singapore, Malaysia and Australia. Russian-made Beriev Be-200", "the air hole as it burns. Because the air passes freely around the fuel, near complete combustion is achieved, the result being a fire that burns strongly and brightly and with little or no seen smoke. The Dakota fire pit is a tactical fire used by the United States military as the flame produces a low light signature, reduced smoke, and is easier to ignite under strong wind conditions. Fire pits in history Many cultures, particularly nomadic ones would cut the turf above the fire-pit in a turf cutting ceremony, replacing the turf afterwards to hide any evidence of the", "fire was later determined to be firework-related. Sand Fire The Sand Fire was ignited in El Dorado County, five miles north of the Amador County town of Plymouth, on July 25, at 4:34 PM PDT, by a vehicle driving over dry vegetation. A total of 4,240 acres (1,720 ha) were burned, claiming 20 residences and 47 outbuildings. Twelve hundred residences were evacuated before full containment of the wildfire was achieved on August 2. Gulch Fire On September 10, a car fire started a fire in the Bella Vista area. On September 16, the Gulch Fire was fully contained after burning 1,375", "into the ovens' top openings.\nDuring the coking process, a laborer would level the deposited coal through the side window using a scaper. Once the coal was ready, the side window would be sealed with clay, leaving a 1-inch (2.5 cm) opening to allow the entry of air. The process, which essentially involves heating bituminous coal in a closed chamber to remove its volatile material, took about 72 hours. At the end of the process, the clay seal was broken, and the coke was removed and placed on a train for shipment to an iron furnace in Chattanooga. ", "minor smoke inhalation.\nThe Dubai Police forensic department released its findings on the fire, which burnt half the building in the early hours of November 18, 2012. According to the report, the fire started at the back of the building on the ground floor, where the waste material was piled by the laborers working on a shop in the building. The waste material contained papers, tapes and woods which fueled the flame.\nJLT includes the Al Seef Towers, a group of three apartment buildings. One of these, the Tamweel Tower, was gutted by fire in November 2012. The Tower was repaired by", "supply large companies that claim to discourage the practice but admit the chain of custody is a \"complicated web.\"\nIn 2019, fires have been burning in multiple provinces of Sumatra and Kalimantan within Indonesia. These regions possess large areas of peatland, which is highly combustible during the dry season. Peat, which is made up of layers of dead vegetation and other organic matter, contributes heavily to carbon emissions when it is burnt, because of its high density and carbon content.\nAccording to the Asean Specialised Meteorological Centre, most of the hotspots for Indonesia and Malaysia occurred in August and September 2019. As", "may fall and burning materials may roll across the line, effectively negating the barrier. Mop-up The threat of wildfires does not cease after the flames have passed, as smoldering heavy fuels may continue to burn unnoticed for days after flaming. It is during this phase that either the burn area exterior or the complete burn area of a fire is cooled so as to not reignite another fire. Rehabilitation Constructed firelines, breaks, safety zones and other items may damage soil systems, encouraging erosion from surface run-off and gully formation. The loss of plant life from the fire also contributes to" ]

[ "Elevators have become much more complex with new ideas and technology. At first they were single shafts, single boxes, with living elevator operators. Then automation came in. Elevator operators persisted for a while. \n\nNow there can be multiple cars in one elevator shaft. This works when one company rents several adjacent floors. A lot of traffic becomes local during the day. Using one shaft for several cars reduces the total footprint of the elevator shafts in the building. \n\nLoading and unloading always takes a certain amount of time. At peak times people always have to wait." ]

[ "one elevator arrives going up and another going down. This also occurs with 30 elevators spaced 2 minutes apart – on odd floors they alternate up/down arrivals, while on even floors they arrive simultaneously every two minutes. The real-world case In a real building, there are complicated factors such as: the tendency of elevators to be frequently required on the ground or first floor, and to return there when idle; lopsided demand where everyone wants to go down at the end of the day; people on the lower floors being more willing to take the stairs; or the way full", "most elevators. It is activated by a key switch either inside the elevator itself or on a centralised control panel in the lobby. When an elevator is placed on this mode, it will no longer respond to hall calls. (In a bank of elevators, traffic is rerouted to the other elevators, while in a single elevator, the hall buttons are disabled). The elevator will remain parked on a floor with its doors open until a floor is selected and the door close button is held until the elevator starts to travel. Independent service is useful when transporting large goods or", "they have had their doors opened for a certain period of time. The next elevator to be dispatched usually has its hall lantern or a \"this car leaving next\" sign illuminated to encourage passengers to make maximum use of the available elevator system capacity. Some elevator banks are programmed so that at least one car will always return to the lobby floor and park whenever it becomes free.\nThe commencement of up-peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the departure of a certain number of fully loaded cars leaving the lobby within a given time period, or by a", "destination dispatch system depends upon each passenger indicating their destination intention separately. In most cases, the elevator system has no way of differentiating a group of passengers from a single passenger if the group's destination is only keyed in a single time. This could potentially lead to an elevator stopping to pick up more passengers than the elevator actually has capacity for, creating delays for other users. This situation is handled by two solutions, a load vane sensor on the elevator or a group function button on keypad. The load vane tells the elevator controller that there is a high", "switch manually operated by a building attendant. Down peak During down-peak mode, elevator cars in a group are sent away from the lobby towards the highest floor served, after which they commence running down the floors in response to hall calls placed by passengers wishing to leave the building. This allows the elevator system to provide maximum passenger handling capacity for people leaving the building.\nThe commencement of down-peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the arrival of a certain number of fully loaded cars at the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated", "two. These are separate modes that the elevator can go into.\nPhase one mode is activated by a corresponding smoke sensor or heat sensor in the building. Once an alarm has been activated, the elevator will automatically go into phase one. The elevator will wait an amount of time, then proceed to go into nudging mode to tell everyone the elevator is leaving the floor. Once the elevator has left the floor, depending on where the alarm was set off, the elevator will go to the fire-recall floor. However, if the alarm was activated on the fire-recall floor, the elevator will", "which is a hindrance to make operation of the elevator require more work-energy. However, when a person descends an elevator, the person's weight helps move the elevator in the downward direction, so the person is considered physically to cause the elevator to move down. Accordingly, some authorities permit ascending in an elevator, but prohibit descending.\nThe movement of an elevator may also indirectly cause other events to take place that are forbidden under Jewish law. For example, in many systems, one light turns off, and another light turns on, as the elevator passes from one floor to the next. Some commentators", "open its doors. This allows a security guard or a receptionist at the landing to visually inspect the passengers. The car stops at this landing as it passes to serve further demand. Up peak During up-peak mode (also called moderate incoming traffic), elevator cars in a group are recalled to the lobby to provide expeditious service to passengers arriving at the building, most typically in the morning as people arrive for work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period when people are going back to work. Elevators are dispatched one-by-one when they reach a pre-determined passenger load, or when", "to one another.\nIn addition to lanterns, most elevators have a chime to indicate if the elevator is going up or down either before or after the doors open, usually in conjunction with the lanterns lighting up. For example, one chime can indicate \"up\", two \"down\", and no chimes indicate an elevator that is 'free'.\nObservatory service elevators often convey other facts of interest, including elevator speed, stopwatch, and current position (altitude), as with the case for Taipei 101's service elevators.\nThere are several technologies aimed to provide better experience to passengers suffering from claustrophobia, anthropophobia or social anxiety. Israeli startup DigiGage uses", "well and usage patterns. Doors Elevator doors prevent riders from falling into, entering, or tampering with anything in the shaft. The most common configuration is to have two panels that meet in the middle, and slide open laterally. In a cascading telescopic configuration (potentially allowing wider entryways within limited space), the doors roll on independent tracks so that while open, they are tucked behind one another, and while closed, they form cascading layers on one side. This can be configured so that two sets of such cascading doors operate like the center opening doors described above, allowing for a very", "moving groups of people between certain floors. Inspection service Inspection service is designed to provide access to the hoistway and car top for inspection and maintenance purposes by qualified elevator mechanics. It is first activated by a key switch on the car operating panel usually labelled 'Inspection', 'Car Top', 'Access Enable' or 'HWENAB' (short for HoistWay access ENABled). When this switch is activated the elevator will come to a stop if moving, car calls will be cancelled (and the buttons disabled), and hall calls will be assigned to other elevator cars in the group (or cancelled in a single elevator", "at a floor is indicated by a sound, depending on the elevator.\nDirection lanterns are also found both inside and outside elevator cars, but they should always be visible from outside because their primary purpose is to help people decide whether or not to get on the elevator. If somebody waiting for the elevator wants to go up, but a car comes first that indicates that it is going down, then the person may decide not to get on the elevator. If the person waits, then one will still stop going up. Direction indicators are sometimes etched with arrows or shaped", "to avoid this due to the laws of negiah and tzniut.\nAccording to most Poskim, there are no restrictions on being secluded together momentarily in a temporary environment, such as an elevator. Since elevators are boarded constantly, there is always a chance that anyone could enter without warning. Business In a location of business, a male and female may be together for business purposes provided that the location where they are has the potential to be viewed from outside. Otherwise, the door has to be unlocked or people with a key allowed to come in unexpectedly. This applies also if they", "their knees. Self service elevators were not allowed in New York City until 1922. Prior to this, non-luxury buildings that could not afford an attendant were built as five-story walk ups. These electromechanical systems used relay logic circuits of increasing complexity to control the speed, position and door operation of an elevator or bank of elevators.\nThe Otis Autotronic system of the early 1950s brought the earliest predictive systems which could anticipate traffic patterns within a building to deploy elevator movement in the most efficient manner. Relay-controlled elevator systems remained common until the 1980s and their gradual replacement with", "remaining elevators may see an indicator light or hear a voice announcement informing them that the elevator will return to the lobby shortly. Once all cars have successfully returned, the system will then automatically select one or more cars to be used for normal operations and these cars will return to service. The car(s) selected to run under emergency power can be manually over-ridden by a key or strip switch in the lobby. To help prevent entrapment, when the system detects that it is running low on power, it will bring the running cars to the lobby or nearest floor,", "locking mechanism to open the doors. Finally they pry open the elevator, unlock the locking mechanism and break through a block of drywall into a janitor's room; only Eve gets out before the elevator's breaking cables make it impossible for the others to escape. Jeffrey tells Eve that he loves her and promises to meet in the lobby before everyone in the elevator lie on their backs and brace for impact as the elevator begins falling. The elevator speeds down to the lobby level, but everyone survives. Eve finds a firefighter to help her open the elevator door and", "and escalators Elevators often have a red two-way button on the control panel which is either marked \"Emergency Stop\" or \"Run/Stop\". Normally, the button is in the \"up\" or unpushed position, allowing the elevator to \"run\" in normal service. When the button is pushed, the elevator comes to an immediate stop. When the button is pulled back out, it resumes normal service, thus the reason for the use of the phrase \"Run/Stop\". Escalators will typically have a key-operated control that will turn the escalator off, or change its direction to up or down. Next to the key switch will be", "allow some control over the energy supplied to the motor and so enabled the elevator to be accurately positioned — if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically, the operator would have to \"jog\" the control, moving the cab in small increments until the elevator was reasonably close to the landing point. Then the operator would direct the outgoing and incoming passengers to \"watch the step\".\nAutomatic elevators began to appear as early as the 1920s, their development being hastened by striking elevator operators which brought large cities dependent on skyscrapers (and therefore their elevators) such as New York and Chicago to", "more elevator banks that in turn took up space. Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system that included sky lobbies, which are floors where people can switch from a large-capacity express elevator, which goes only to the sky lobbies, to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. Thus, the local elevators can be stacked within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, while also increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to", "more elevators, the call buttons may be linked to a central dispatch computer, such that they illuminate and cancel together. This is done to ensure that only one car is called at one time.\nKey switches may be installed on the ground floor so that the elevator can be remotely switched on or off from the outside.\nIn destination control systems, one selects the intended destination floor (in lieu of pressing \"up\" or \"down\") and is then notified which elevator will serve their request. Anti-crime protection The anti-crime protection (ACP) feature will force each car to stop at a pre-defined landing and", "Between Floors Plot Between Floors focuses on five stuck elevators, each containing people inside them. As time passes, the people in each elevator deal with the isolation and containment in various ways.", "use those clocks to assert whether the elevator's program satisfies properties such as \"assuming the elevator is not kept on a floor for more than fifteen seconds, then no one has to wait for the elevator for more than three minutes\". In order to check whether this statement holds, it suffices to check that, in every run of the model in which the clock is always smaller than fifteen seconds, each clock is turned off before it reaches three minutes. Definition Formally, a set of clocks is simply a finite set. Each element of a set of", "from the track by a wall, typically of glass, with automatic platform-edge doors (PEDs). These open, like elevator doors, only when a train is stopped, and thus eliminate the hazard that a passenger will accidentally fall (or deliberately jump) onto the tracks and be run over or electrocuted.\nControl over ventilation of the platform is also improved, allowing it to be heated or cooled without having to do the same for the tunnels. The doors add cost and complexity to the system, and trains may have to approach the station more slowly so they can stop in accurate alignment with them.", "hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools. Fire service Depending on the location of the elevator, fire service code will vary state to state and country to country. Fire service is usually split up into two modes: phase one and phase", "elevators ignore external floor-level calls. These factors tend to shift the frequency of observed arrivals, but do not eliminate the paradox entirely. In particular, a user very near the top floor will perceive the paradox even more strongly, as elevators are infrequently present or required above their floor.", "Towers and Chicago's John Hancock Center use sky lobbies, where express elevators take passengers to upper floors which serve as the base for local elevators. This allows architects and engineers to place elevator shafts on top of each other, saving space. Sky lobbies and express elevators take up a significant amount of space, however, and add to the amount of time spent commuting between floors.\nOther buildings, such as the Petronas Towers, use double-deck elevators, allowing more people to fit in a single elevator, and reaching two floors at every stop. It is possible to use even more than two levels", "Double-deck elevator Double-deck goods/passenger elevators Not all double-deck elevators are used to transport passengers simultaneously in both decks. Sometimes one or more elevators in a building has a double-deck car, where the second deck is used for transportation of goods, typically outside of peak traffic periods. This technique has the advantages of preventing damage to interior fixtures due to impact from trolleys, and does not require a dedicated shaft solely devoted to a goods-only elevator car. During peak periods, the car is switched back to passenger mode, where it can expedite passenger movement into or out of the building.\nAs of", "at transit stations must be designed to cater for the peak traffic flow discharged from a train, without excessive bunching at the escalator entrance.\nIn this regard, escalators help manage the flow of people. For example, at many airports an unpaired escalator delivers passengers to an exit, with no means for anyone entering at the exit to access the concourse.\nEscalators are often built next to or around staircases that allow alternative travel between the same two floors. Elevators are necessary for disability access to floors serviced by escalators. Landing platforms Landing platforms are the two platforms (at the two ends) that", "for use in an emergency situation. Each floor will have a code-blue recall key switch, and when activated, the elevator system will immediately select the elevator car that can respond the fastest, regardless of direction of travel and passenger load. Passengers inside the elevator will be notified with an alarm and indicator light to exit the elevator when the doors open.\nOnce the elevator arrives at the floor, it will park with its doors open and the car buttons will be disabled to prevent a passenger from taking control of the elevator. Medical personnel must then activate the code-blue key switch", "elevator, through double doors. Passing through the doors the passengers in small groups enter a horizontal cylindrical compartment containing seats on each side and a flat floor. A number of these compartments are linked to form a train. These compartments each individually retain an appropriate level orientation by tilting while the entire train follows curved tracks up one leg of the arch.\nThere are two tramways within the Arch, one at the north end, and the other at the south end. The entry doors have windows, so people travelling within the Arch are able to see the interior structure of the" ]

[ "Turns out is derived from Railroad signal. Originally, there were two signals: White for \"go\" and red for \"stop.\" White was easy to make because no color filter was necessary. Red was chosen because it was associated with danger.\n\nBut after on incident where a red filter fell out of a light, appeared white, and caused a train to go, and hit another, green was chosen to replace white. Yellow was selected as a third \"slow\" signal because it was easy to differentiate from green and red.\n\nSource: _URL_0_" ]

[ "orange), though it is less visible at twilight, when green is the most visible color. Red also stands out more clearly against a cool natural backdrop of blue sky, green trees or gray buildings. But it was mostly chosen as the color for stoplights and stop signs because of its universal association with danger and warning. The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals of 1968 uses red color also for the margin of danger warning sign, give way signs and prohibitory signs, following the previous German-type signage (established by Verordnung über Warnungstafeln für den Kraftfahrzeugverkehr in 1927). The", "light has turned green, as it usually takes a line of cars some time to accelerate to cruising speed from a red light. These are relatively common in areas such as the United States, Canada, Western Australia, New South Wales, New Zealand and Liberia. Japan uses a variant signal with two lamps, a green one and a flashing yellow one, for the same purpose. Red signal ahead A common way of warning that an obscured traffic light ahead is red is a red-signal-ahead sign. It is shaped like a standard yellow diamond shape sign with LEDs spelling out \"Signal Ahead\".", "sometimes designed with a red cross to indicate that the light is red. Change from green to yellow In Austria, Cambodia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, most of Israel, Malaysia, parts of Mexico, Turkey, and in certain other parts of Europe, the green lights will start flashing at the end of the Go or Turn phase to indicate that the yellow (Caution phase) lights are about to be engaged. This is useful in fast-paced roads to allow for longer slowing down time, and for pedestrians crossing broad streets. Some traffic lights in Pennsylvania illuminate the yellow light a few seconds before", "between the time that the lights in one direction turn red and the lights in the perpendicular direction turn green. However, this is considered redundant in other places, as the yellow light itself indicates that the light is about to change to red. Change from red to green In most European countries (including Austria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, Norway, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom), as well as in Argentina, Botswana, Colombia, Hong Kong, India, some places", "Just before the traffic light goes yellow, the word \"Red\" will light up above Signal Ahead and they will begin to flash alternately. Strobed red lights In some parts of the United States, a few traffic lights have slowly flashing white strobe lights superimposed on the center of the red light, which are activated when the red light itself is illuminated. These are common on highways with few traffic signals, in high-traffic, and/or high-speed areas (where drivers running red lights are a major problem), in a place where a regular traveler wouldn't expect a signal (such as a newly erected", "a double head and show two coloured lights. The top light has the same meaning as that of an automatic signal. The second light is red if the top light is red; otherwise it shows yellow if the switches are set for a secondary route, and green for the main route or if no relevant switches exist. Thus the combination yellow over green means the same as a single yellow.\nAt locations such as downgrades, curves, and switches, the same signals additionally serve to enforce speed limits. A system called \"grade timing\" regulates speeds, and is indicated by an", "the green light turns off, to give this same warning.\nNote that the 2009 Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices prohibits any display that gives warning of an upcoming signal change, unless that display is placed well upstream of the signal (See \"Warnings of traffic light ahead\" below), so traffic at the stop line can not see it. Change from yellow to red At some intersections in Quebec, Canada, the yellow and red lights will appear together to indicate that the light is about to change to red. This mitigates the fact that at most Quebec intersections, there is no delay", "relay operated signals. It is also the case in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Turn on red Some jurisdictions allow turns when a solid red light is shown. In other contexts The symbolism of a traffic light (and the meanings of the three primary colours used in traffic lights) are frequently found in many other contexts. Since they are often used as single spots of colour without the context of vertical position, they are typically not comprehensible to up to one in ten males who are colour blind.\nTraffic lights have also been used in computer software, such as the macOS user interface,", "green or red, while newer ones, called \"half-moons\", have only the top half colored, while the bottom half is milky white; this is to provide more light, and the half-colored globes have the same meanings as the globes with full colors. There are also some square lamps.\nThe meaning of the lights is poorly understood by passengers, and was originally more complicated. Green, yellow, and red lights were introduced in the early 1980s to indicate the entrance's availability, mostly to prevent muggings by warning riders away from entrances that were closed at night. Originally, green signified an entrance located at a", "and blue because the red stood for the element of fire whereas the blue would represent the element of water. Coincidentally, red and blue are also the colors recognized world-wide to signify emergency services; therefore, red and blue being the best choice of color to recognize an international holiday. The ribbon is traditionally worn on the lapel-otherwise known as the fold of fabric on a shirt- but is not limited to that certain spot. Some people may also put it on their cars visors, hats, hang them in windows or off of car mirrors, or even hang them from trees", "of this system turn from green to red, the diminishing green bar will flash once two-thirds (note: not the full bar) of the green bar is \"eaten up\", with the remaining third intact. A full, uninterrupted yellow bar will appear for a few seconds before, after a short blink, lights turn red. Immediately after the full red bar appears, a tiny (almost unnoticeable) split/division appears to signify the bit that will not be \"eaten up\". This corresponds to the usual position of a red light (leftmost, or rightmost if at the other end of the road and at the other", "tend to learn to use texture and shape clues and so may be able to penetrate camouflage that has been designed to deceive individuals with normal color vision.\nColors of traffic lights are confusing to some dichromats as there is insufficient apparent difference between the red/amber traffic lights and sodium street lamps; also, the green can be confused with a grubby white lamp. This is a risk on high-speed undulating roads where angular cues cannot be used. British Rail color lamp signals use more easily identifiable colors: The red is blood red, the amber is yellow and the green is a", "at the same time. For the Sportsman tree, the amber light will flash from top to bottom. When the green light comes up, the race officially begins but if a driver crosses the line before that happens, then a red light will come up and that will be a foul. As a rating mechanism The colours red, yellow and green are often used as a simple-to-understand rating system for products and processes. It may be extended by analogy to provide a greater range of intermediate colours, with red and green at the extremes. In Unicode In Unicode, the symbol for", "considered shades of \"青\". In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (lán, in Mandarin) and 綠 (lǜ, in Mandarin) respectively. Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (midori, which is derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru \"to be in leaf, to flourish\" in reference to trees) and グリーン (guriin, which is derived from the English word \"green\"). However, in Japan, although the traffic lights have the same colors as other countries have, the green light is described using the same word as for blue, aoi, because green is considered a shade of", "the direction of the arrow may turn when the main light is green, provided they give way to pedestrians and other traffic.\nIn the state of Victoria, some intersections of this type employ a turn arrow without the red arrow. This would turn green with the main signal, before turning yellow, then off, giving priority to oncoming traffic. The nationwide standard seems to now include a red arrow that turns off. This arrow turns red simultaneously with the main light. After the cross traffic has had its turn, the arrows on opposite sides would both turn green, until one side runs", "newer signals, notably in the city of Bend, Oregon, the green and flashing yellow arrows emanate from the same light section through the use of a dual-colour LED array, while the solid yellow arrow is mounted above it. In Las Vegas, the arrow turns flashing yellow from a red light, before turning red again.\nGenerally, a dedicated left-turn signal is illuminated at the beginning of the green phase of the green-yellow-red-green cycle. This is called a leading turn. This allows left-turn traffic, which often consists of just a few cars, to vacate the intersection quickly before giving priority to vehicles traveling", "in Indonesia, Israel, Liberia, Macau, Pakistan, Paraguay, and South Africa, the red and yellow lights are displayed together for one, two, or three seconds at the end of the red cycle to indicate that the light is about to change to green. This phase aids the drivers of vehicles to turn on the engines again (there are requests/advice to turn off engine in front of red traffic lights in some countries, e.g. Switzerland), or drivers with manual gearboxes, giving them time to change into first gear during the short phase, as well as drivers of vehicles that may have been", "the end of 1973, so for two years drivers still had to use the old and new. Yellow was adopted because it was already the standard color of warning signs, and because it was easy to teach drivers to associate yellow lines with dividing opposing traffic and white lines with dividing traffic in the same direction. In turn, this simple mnemonic device greatly reduced head-on collisions and improved road traffic safety.\nThe major downside to the MUTCD white-yellow system is that yellow has slightly less contrast than white, especially at night, so for maximum contrast, bright yellow—and highly toxic—lead chromate was", "three colours. Performance monitoring In many factories, different stations on the production line(s) are equipped with factory monitoring and control systems; attached to such systems is a 'traffic light' status indicator which is generally visible from many places within the factory. Green typically indicates normal levels of production; amber indicates that production has slowed (or attention is otherwise warranted); red indicates that production has stopped or the line is down.\nIn the British Civil Service and other departments of the United Kingdom government, traffic light colours are used as a coding system for good or bad performance, usually known", "the \"Irish\" green, threw stones at the signal and broke the red light. John \"Huckle\" Ryan, then alderman of the Tipperary Hill section, requested that the traffic signal be hung with the green above the red in deference to the Irish residents. This was done, but soon the State of New York stepped in (state law dictates that traffic signals must follow the same sequence to avoid confusing the color-blind), and city officials reversed the colors.\nThe red lights were again broken regularly. Members of a group called Tipperary Hill Protective Association addressed the town rulers. On March 17, 1928,", "additional \"lunar white\" light below the one or two coloured lights previously mentioned. The white light means that the next signal is red (or double red) only because of grade timing, and if the train approaches at the proper speed, the signal will clear to a less restrictive aspect before the train gets there. If the train goes too fast, it will pass the red signal and be stopped by the train stop.\nIn 1995 the second signal did not provide any confirmation that it was about to change and the operator was expected to remember the previous signal aspect correctly.", "on when the red light they are associated with is on. Some intersections will also have multiple confirmation lights for a single direction of travel if there are different signals for different directions. These lights are separate from the main ones, often protrude above or below the main traffic light, and are much smaller than a standard light to help avoid confusion.\nIn the Netherlands, many traffic signals that are red can be seen from the side via a small bulbous window, indicating to drivers (and police officers) whether the signal in the crossing direction is actually red or not, by", "since the Hixon rail crash; previously there were just two red lights. The whole warning light module is known colloquially as a \"wigwag\" (due to the nature of the alternate flashes). They are also used at lifting and swing bridges, some airports, fire stations, police stations and ambulance stations in the UK. When a level crossing activates, the yellow light is usually illuminated for 3–5 seconds and then the two red lights flash alternately for the duration of the closure. The lights are normally rectangular and landscape orientated, but where space is limited or to improve visibility special lights can", "side of the pavement; or the upper third). When two-thirds of the red bit is \"eaten up\", the red light extinguishes, only to be replaced nearly immediately with a full chunk of green (again with the minute division). The process then repeats itself. Arrow lights Another system, which is also common in the other cities in China, is where there is a set of three lights as traffic lights. Every light is an arrow pointing in a different direction and every arrow has a colour of its own, to show whether traffic flow is permitted or prohibited in that direction.\nThe", "proceed forward or turn as they wish.\nIn the United Kingdom, there are no red or yellow \"arrow\" lights. Layouts are typically simple: either a plain three-disc all-directions signal; the same with a green left or right \"filter\" arrow which lights up either independently of the main green (permitting a left or right turn at an otherwise red light) or along with it (showing that any conflicting traffic has been stopped so turning traffic does not need to yield); or in multiple full sets where the horizontal positioning and lane layout (particularly where lanes are segregated by kerbs or islands) denotes", "lights, already existed, but they did not leave drivers sufficient time to stop at high speeds. Some municipalities experimented with leaving the green on for a few seconds after the red was illuminated, to caution the driver that the right of way was soon to change. In 1917, Potts devised a new system by inventing a 'yellow' or 'amber' light which would shine after the green light and before the red light to indicate the impending transition.\nIn 1920, Potts designed the first four-way, three-color traffic signal tower, which was installed at the intersection of Woodward and Michigan Avenues in Detroit", "red and blue because these are used for emergency purposes only. States where there is a lot of traffic and have a lot of cities have stricter regulations due to the high risk of crashes. Police and the state government officials believe that bright colors at night could be dangerous for people who are also driving.\nGround effects lighting is illegal in the state of Michigan.\nIn California, underglow lights are allowed to be used in places other than public roads and there could be a penalty if found using them in public roads. In Vermont, there is a penalty if underglow", "the typical red, often referred to as \"Mean and Green.\" They were originally pine green, but the more modern trucks are a fluorescent lime green, almost yellow, making them instantly stand out and recognizable.\nThe Flagtown Fire Department was the first fire company formed in the township of Hillsborough, the largest township in the county of Somerset, state of New Jersey. In 1937, seven members of the Township Board of Trade decided that Hillsborough needed its own fire company, and on May 27, 1938, the Hillsborough Volunteer Fire Company No. 1 received its charter. They purchased its first fire truck that", "different kinds of information. One type lights or blinks to indicate a failure (as of oil pressure, engine temperature control, charging current, etc.); lighting and blinking indicate progression from warning to failure indication. Another type lights to alert the need for specific service after a certain amount of time or distance has elapsed (e.g., to change the oil).\nColour may also communicate information about the nature of the tell-tale, for example red may signify that the vehicle cannot continue driving (e.g. oil pressure).) Many older vehicles used schemes which were specific to the manufacturer, e.g. some British Fords of the 1960s", "during which all directions have a red light. It has been posited that the regulatory minimum yellow duration has been decreased over the years, that this is a cause of the increase in red-light running, and that the latter countermeasures amount to a reversion to earlier, longer regulated yellow-light durations." ]

[ "It is not illegal to have a monopoly. It is illegal to obtain a monopoly by unfair competitive practises or to hold onto a monopoly by actively keeping competitors from entering the market. Comcast doesn't do that. The reason why comcast has regional monopolies in certain places is because setting up an ISP is ridiculously expensive. It takes a huge investment and the government can't make other companies invest in certain areas when they aren't even certain that is going to pay off.", "It's not a monopoly, they've just agreed not to compete with each other /s\n\nYes, that actually is their argument, and thanks to satellite TV they can technically still argue that there is still competition." ]

[ "to several measures, including interconnection with non-competing independent phone companies, to avoid antitrust action, thus formalizing the Bell System monopoly. Meanwhile, the Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 made AT&T subject to regulation by the Interstate Commerce Commission.\nUniversal service in telecommunications was eventually established as U.S. national policy by the Communications Act of 1934, whose preamble declared its purpose as “to make available, so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, a rapid, efficient, Nationwide, and world-wide wire and radio communication service with adequate facilities at reasonable charges”. The chief purpose of this law was to", "not permitted under one of the terms of the 1982 Modified Final Judgement settling the government's antitrust case against the former Bell System monopoly) once they made a showing that their local markets had been opened up to competition. The list of Bell Operating Companies in the bill are: Bell Telephone Company of Nevada, Illinois Bell Telephone Company, Indiana Bell Telephone Company, Incorporated, Michigan Bell Telephone Company, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company, New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, New York Telephone Company, U S West Communications Company, South Central Bell Telephone Company, Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company, Southwestern Bell", "Bell System The Bell System was the system of companies, led by the Bell Telephone Company and later by AT&T, which provided telephone services to much of Canada and the United States from 1877 to 1984, at various times as a monopoly. On December 31, 1983, the system was divided into independent companies by a U.S. Justice Department mandate.\nThe general public in the United States often used the colloquial term Ma Bell (as in \"Mother Bell\") to refer to any aspect of this conglomerate, as it held a near-complete monopoly over telephone service in most areas of the country, and", "Willis Graham Act The Willis Graham Act of 1921 effectively established telephone companies as natural monopolies, citing that \"there is nothing to be gained by local competition in the telephone industry.\" This repealed the Kingsbury Commitment, allowing AT&T to merge with or acquire competing telephone companies if the ICC approved. Background AT&T was incorporated in 1885 as a wholly owned subsidiary of American Bell. On December 30, 1899, AT&T acquired the assets of American Bell and became the parent company of the Bell System. In order to extend service nationwide, some inventions had to be developed to propagate the telephone", "furnish it to the telephone company for rewiring, pay a service charge, and a monthly lease fee for using it.\nIn 1949, the United States Department of Justice alleged in an antitrust lawsuit that AT&T and the Bell System operating companies were using their near-monopoly in telecommunications to attempt to establish unfair advantage in related technologies. The outcome was a 1956 consent decree limiting AT&T to 85% of the United States' national telephone network and certain government contracts, and from continuing to hold interests in Canada and the Caribbean. The Bell System's Canadian operations included the Bell Canada regional operating company", "wholly owned subsidiary of AT&T Co. Member telephone companies paid a fixed fraction of their revenues as a license fee to Bell Labs.\nAs a result of this vertical monopoly, the Bell System effectively owned most telephone service in the United States by 1940, from local and long-distance service to the telephones. This allowed Bell to prohibit its customers from connecting equipment not made or sold by Bell to the system without paying fees. For example, if a customer desired a style of telephone not leased by the local Bell company, he or she had to purchase the instrument at cost,", "States, AT&T had a legal monopoly on the provision of local telephone service and in long distance until 1984 when local service was vertically divested. The divested local companies continued to be protected in lesser degree from competition in the local exchange market as a public utility.\nNational Postal, telegraph and telephone service monopolies were enforced in many countries until the late 20th century. Telstra, for example, had a legal monopoly on telecommunications in Australia.\nAs do the Post Office departments in many countries, the United States Postal Service has a legal monopoly on delivery of non-overnight letters.\nIn many cities bus service", "Breakup of the Bell System The breakup of the Bell System was mandated on January 8, 1982, by an agreed consent decree providing that AT&T Corporation would, as had been initially proposed by AT&T, relinquish control of the Bell Operating Companies that had provided local telephone service in the United States and Canada up until that point. This effectively took the monopoly that was the Bell System and split it into entirely separate companies that would continue to provide telephone service. AT&T would continue to be a provider of long distance service, while the now-independent Regional Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs)", "\"dual service\" that had become common since the original Bell telephone patents expired in 1894, where independent telephone companies operated not only in non-Bell System markets, but also as a competitor in Bell markets.\nThese independent phone companies did not interconnect to the Bell System; though modern commentators suggest Bell refused to do so as an excuse for monopolization, it was argued then that phone systems of that day could not interconnect unless all phone companies used the same technology, as the Bell System did. This required many businesses to maintain phones with both companies, or else risk losing customers", "telegraph carriers.\nBTMC eventually came under complete ownership by Western Electric, and also established other divisions as national companies across Continental Europe and Russia. Western Electric was itself later majority owned by the American Bell Telephone Company, returning indirect control of BTMC back to the Bell organization. Divestiture of most international divisions At the close of 1899, the American Bell Telephone Company was acquired, for business purposes, by its own subsidiary, the American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T), which then became the head of the monolithic and monopolistic Bell System.\nSignificant criticism of AT&T (a monopoly) had emerged in the United", "its ownership of BTMC in 1890 in order to concentrate on telephone system operations, but since American Bell had been Western Electric's majority shareholder since 1881 it maintained an indirect ownership of IBTC.\nThe IBTC was created for \"...the production, sale, purchase and leasing of equipment for telephony and telegraphy and everything directly or indirectly related to electricity\" Later, as demand for services bloomed, the Bell Telephone Company had insufficient operating funds to quickly increase the telephone exchange network, resulting in Western Electric buying out all 45% of the shares held by Bell in 1890.\nEzra Gilliland of Western Electric helped establish", "signal, since the signals weaken as they travel through the telephone wires. Until Bell's second patent expired in 1894, Bell Telephone was the only company that could legally operate telephone systems in the USA. Between 1894 and 1904, after Bell's patents expired, over six thousand independent telephone companies arose in the US.\nThe rise of these new companies brought new problems. Telephone customers on different carriers had no way of contacting each other—there was no inter-connectivity between carriers. In order to connect all of the telephone customers, AT&T began acquiring independent telephone providers, much to the dismay of remaining independents. These", "Interconnection United States Under the Bell System monopoly (post Communications Act of 1934), the Bell System owned the phones and did not allow interconnection, either of separate phones (or other terminal equipment) or of other networks; a popular saying was \"Ma Bell has you by the calls\".\nThis began to change in the landmark case Hush-A-Phone v. United States [1956], which allowed some non-Bell owned equipment to be connected to the network, and was followed by a number of other cases, regulatory decisions, and legislation that led to the transformation of the American long distance telephone industry from a monopoly to", "monopoly of Telmex and America Movil (telcel) on national cellular phone service and claiming that customers were being overcharged; also claiming that fees to interconnect to existing cellular grid and infrastructure to third parties were excessively high. This fight occurred when both companies were trying to obtain from the Federal Government the rights to offer to customers \"Triple Play\" which means that one carrier could provide cellular service, television and internet in one complete package. However, this matter resulted on interminable courtroom fights between both parties and the decision has been delayed so far. Pablo Salazar Mendiguchia In 2011 Televisa", "Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly Background William Twombly and Lawrence Marcus brought a class-action lawsuit alleging that Bell Atlantic and a number of other large telecommunications companies had engaged in anti-competitive behavior in violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Specifically, the plaintiffs alleged that the companies had acted to disadvantage smaller telephone companies and charge consumers more by, for example, refraining from entering markets where another large company was dominant (thereby preventing a price war), even though the Telecommunications Act of 1996 had made it relatively inexpensive to do so.\nTheir complaint was dismissed by Judge Gerard E.", "Frontier Communications of Connecticut History It started operations on January 27, 1878 as the District Telephone Company of New Haven. It was the founder of the first telephone exchange, as well as the world's first telephone book. Since its inception, SNET has held a monopoly on most of the telephone services in the state of Connecticut; the only remaining exceptions are the Greenwich and Byram exchanges where Verizon New York provides telephone service.\nSNET and Cincinnati Bell were the only two companies in the old Bell System that the old AT&T only had a minority stake in; by 1983, AT&T's stake", "broadcast companies had with AT&T.\nAT&T was allowed to enter the computer market after the breakup; observers expected that with Bell Labs and Western Electric, American Bell would challenge market leader IBM. The company's post-breakup strategy did not work out the way it had planned. Its attempt to enter the computer business failed, and it quickly realized that Western Electric was not profitable without the guaranteed customers the Bell System had provided. In 1995, AT&T spun off its computer division and Western Electric, exactly as the government had initially asked it to do. It then re-entered the local telephone business that", "to the U.S. Government's regulatory intervention, AT&T president Walter Gifford divested almost all international interests held by the Bell System in 1925, with the exceptions of the Bell Telephone Company of Canada and Northern Electric.\nThe European division and its subsidiaries were sold to the International Telephone & Telegraph Company of Cuba, at the start of that company's meteoric rise in the international telecommunications industry.", "to 1984, the Bell System's dominant reach into all forms of communications was pervasive within the United States and influential in telecommunication standardization throughout the industrialized world.\nThe 1984 Bell System divestiture brought an end to the affiliation branded as the Bell System. It resulted from another antitrust lawsuit filed by the U.S. Department of Justice in 1974, alleging illegal practices by the Bell System companies to stifle competition in the telecommunications industry. The parties settled the suit on January 8, 1982, superseding the former restrictions that AT&T and the DOJ had agreed upon in 1956. Present-day usage of the", "system.\nOn December 30, 1899, the assets of American Bell were transferred into its subsidiary American Telephone and Telegraph Company (formerly AT&T Long Lines); this was because Massachusetts corporate laws were very restrictive, and limited capitalization to $10 million, forestalling American Bell's further growth. With this assets transfer on December 30, 1899, AT&T became the parent of both American Bell and the Bell System.\nJohn Elbridge Hudson joined Bell Telephone as counsel in 1880 and served as president from 1889 to 1900. In 1984, the US Justice Department forced AT&T to divest its local phone companies. \nIn 1947, there was a", "were sure that someone was listening. As a result, WEAF began broadcasting entertainment material, drawing amateur talent found among its employees. Opposition to AT&T's expansion into radio and an agreement with the National Broadcasting Company to lease long distance lines for their broadcasts resulted in the sale of the station and its developing network of affiliates to NBC. Monopoly Throughout most of the 20th century, AT&T held a monopoly on phone service in the United States and Canada through a network of companies called the Bell System. At this time, the company was nicknamed Ma Bell.\nOn April 30, 1907, Theodore", "would provide local service, and would no longer be directly supplied with equipment from AT&T subsidiary Western Electric.\nThis divestiture was initiated by the filing in 1974 by the United States Department of Justice of an antitrust lawsuit against AT&T. AT&T was, at the time, the sole provider of telephone service throughout most of the United States. Furthermore, most telephonic equipment in the United States was produced by its subsidiary, Western Electric. This vertical integration led AT&T to have almost total control over communication technology in the country, which led to the antitrust case, United States v. AT&T. The plaintiff in", "Bell and sold to a non-Baby Bell. Some historically Bell local access lines have been sold to non-Baby Bells over the years by BellSouth, US West, and Verizon; however, the Bell Operating Companies from which those exchanges were split have remained in existence with the Baby Bells.\nAT&T announced on December 17, 2013 that it plans to sell Southern New England Telephone to Frontier Communications. Although SNET is not legally defined as a Bell Operating Company since it was not majority-owned by the original AT&T, it is an original member of the Bell System and now shares a common affiliation", "the phone service.\nAfter privatization, Telmex began investing in new modern infrastructure, creating a nationwide fiber optic network, thus offering service to most of the country.\nIn 1991, the Mexican government sold its remaining stock in Telmex.\nAlthough Telmex is now a private company, it stills remains as a quasi-monopoly. There are other telephone companies in Mexico, but they have failed to be fierce competitors for Telmex. Among these companies are: Alestra (formerly AT&T), Axtel, Maxcom, Megacable, Totalplay and Televisa-owned subsidiaries (Izzi/Cablemás). <axcom filed for bankruptcy on August 19, 2019 in the Southern District of New York. The case is registered", "and Pacific Telegraph, Gold and Stock Telegraph, and American Speaking Telephone, based their New York and San Francisco operations on the telephone exchange principle and thus were larger and more advanced than the local Bell operations. Under the November 1879 settlement of the Elisha Gray patent infringement lawsuit, Western Union handed over its telephone operations to National Bell Telephone, which then renamed itself American Bell Telephone. The merged local company was called the Metropolitan Telephone and Telegraph Company. In 1896 the operations of Metropolitan Telephone and Telegraph Company and the Westchester Telephone Company (which served northern suburban areas, including parts", "Western Union, including the caveat that he had filed against Alexander Graham Bell's patent application for the telephone. The ensuing legal battle between Western Union and the Bell Telephone Company over patent rights ended in 1879 with Western Union withdrawing from the telephone market and Bell acquiring Western Electric in 1881.\nWestern Electric was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital. In 1899, it invested in a 54% share of the Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. Western Electric's representative in Japan was Walter Tenney Carleton.\nIn 1901, Western Electric secretly purchased a controlling interest in a principal", "was only 19.6 percent. Therefore, neither was considered a Bell Operating Company; rather, they were considered independents. Sale to SBC SNET was purchased for $4.4 billion in 1998 by SBC Communications, which subsequently purchased the old AT&T, taking its name as the \"new\" AT&T. Under AT&T, SNET was known as AT&T Connecticut.\nIn 2006, AT&T merged the operations of SNET into AT&T Teleholdings, formerly Ameritech, making it a subsidiary of the latter.\nOn June 1, 2007, the operations of Woodbury Telephone were merged into SNET. Sale to Frontier On October 24, 2014, Frontier Communications completed its purchase of AT&T's Connecticut operations, including Southern", "company Hawaiian Telcom, for $650 million. The Hawaiian Telcom acquisition grew Cincinnati Bell's fiber network to over 14,000 route miles (23,000 km). Relationship to the Bell System Cincinnati Bell and Southern New England Telephone (SNET) were the only two companies in the old Bell System that operated independently because AT&T Corporation only owned minority stakes in the companies. Therefore, neither is considered a Regional Bell Operating Company (RBOC), AT&T was not obligated to dispose of their ownership stakes in the companies, and restrictions placed on the Baby Bells did not apply to these two companies. AT&T owned 32.6% of Cincinnati Bell", "Telecommunications Corporation amalgamated in 1992, Telstra was formed. Approximately, 33 percent of Telstra shares were sold, indicating a partial privatization. Consequently, Telstra gained a monopoly over pay TV infrastructure and did not improve its network unless it received government funding. Telstra's monopoly over telecommunications infrastructure in Australia was a direct result of privatization, limiting market competition and efficiency, which contradict the objectives of privatization. Sale of NSW Electricity (2015) A more recent example of privatization was the sale of NSW electricity by the state Government in 2015, which accumulated over $16 billion in revenue. Half of NSW electricity was sold,", "as exempted by the FCC. Telephone The FCC regulates interstate telephone services under Title II. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was the first major legislative reform since the 1934 Act and took several steps to de-regulate the telephone market and promote competition in both the local and long-distance marketplace. From monopoly to competition The important relationship of the FCC and the American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company evolved over the decades. For many years, the FCC and state officials agreed to regulate the telephone system as a natural monopoly. The FCC controlled telephone rates and imposed other restrictions" ]

[ "Imagine that you are trying to break into a house. You will first try every door, then every window. Then you might have the schematics for the garage door remote so you'd craft yourself one and try it. Then maybe if all fails, you will wait until somebody comes in and follow them, or copy their keys from a photograph you take from far away. \n\nThere are tons of different hacking \"kinds\", but a recurring topic is that you try to input what you can and wait for the system to break. Then you carefully craft your input so the system crashes in a controlled way.\n\nTake your url bar for example. This guy saw a pattern in the urls generated by AT & T. He modified some numbers and bingo, he got (illegal, apparently) access to other people's accounts. \n_URL_0_", "One type of hacking involves \"exploits\" - bugs in software that allow the hacker to run his own code on a machine. A computer works by basically following a long list of instructions the programmer gave it. Sometimes the instructions are not perfect (aka a bug). Some bugs can actually cause some of the instructions to be altered. When a hacker finds a bug like this, he can often send the right data to not only cause the bug to change the instructions, but to change them to his own instructions. For example, if there's a bug in the instructions for displaying a jpg, the hacker could create a special broken jpg that includes his own instructions. When you open that jpg, the computer hits the bug in the original instructions to show the jog, and now the hacker owns your computer.\n\nAnother type of hacking involves social engineering - instead of a bug in the instructions, the hacker emails you a program and convinces you to run it (e.g. look at this poon video!).\n\nSide note: this is often referred to as cracking instead of hacking.\n\nFolks have mentioned running scripts and such. Once a hacker finds an exploit, he often wraps it up as part of a script package and releases it. \"Script kiddies\" take these scripts and use them wherever.", "there are SO many areas within hacking, this explanation barely scratches the surface of one of them. (SQL injection)\n\ncomputers are big dumb dummys that will do what you want if you speak to them nicely enough < 3\n\nfor example, you may go to a website that has many products on it. something like\n\n _URL_3_\n\nwhat's happening there is your computer is asking the website a question. after the question mark in that URL, your computer says to the website \"i'd like to see your products, but ONLY where the product ID = 5\". and the website says \"okay!\". behind the scenes, the website goes through a big table of products, and finds product number 5, and generates a page.\n\nbut what if you were to ask for something else?\n\n _URL_3_ and 6 and 7\n\nnow if this site is hilariously vulnerable, the website will come back with an error (or may even try and fill a webpage with three products). most websites are smarter than this.\n\nyou could go further and ask some more questions:\n\n _URL_3_ OH AND ALSO show me `username`,`password` where ID= anything -- \n\nnow obviously nearly every site is smarter than this, and there's TONS more to know about SQL injection, but you'll find the odd site that will let you login by typing something like\n\n Username: admin\n Password: whatever' OR '8' = '8\n\nwhat's happening there is that the website sees the username and password, and goes to match them up. you're saying to the computer \"my username is admin, and my password is *EITHER* the word 'whatever', or my password is 8 = 8. that doesn't make much sense, and i don't understand all that much of the backend, but becuase '8 = 8' is ALWAYS true, and if the website is ludicrously insecure, the website says \"okay the password's true, you can log in, welcome admin!' something like that. [it's rare but it still happens.](_URL_3_)\n\n*(note: that last picture, i had full permission of the owner to expl0it security holes on that website)*", "Real hacking takes time, involves trial and error, and is essentially testing software and hardware. The hacker will typically make a script, like a recipe, to run the exploit automatically. People that just use these scripts are called \"script kiddies.\" A good example is in the second Matrix movie, where an actual script is run.", "A good example of hacking, in the sense that OP was using the term (assumes some basic familiarity with computers, software, and Unix/Linux)\n\n_URL_5_\n\nThe target in this case is an embedded device, but the techniques used are essentially the same as you would use for any web server, PC, etc.\n\nEssentially the point is to find some unintentional flaw (a vulnerability) in the target that lets you perform an arbitrary action *inside* the target (an exploit), e.g. using an poorly written administrator feature in the embedded web server to run some shell command. Discovering the vulnerable point of entry takes a lot of trial and error, and then figuring out exactly how to exploit it to make it do what you want takes even more trial and error, this could be hours, days, or weeks of effort. There are frameworks (e.g. Metasploit) that are essentially libraries of known exploits combined with an automation framework for utilizing them, a lot of \"hackers\" are not genius-level nerds, they are simply using these libraries developed by others to attack known weaknesses.\n\nAs SRScansuckmydick pointed out, people are also a vulnerability/exploit, and a fair number of famous \"hacks\" were implemented through \"social engineering\" i.e. calling up someone on the phone, gaining their trust, and then asking them for some valuable bit of information.\n\nSome good links explaining the foundations of all this:\n_URL_6_\n_URL_4_" ]

[ "removing or changing vertical or horizontal sync pulses in television signals; televisions will not be able to display a picture from such a signal. Some modern scramblers are actually encryption devices, the name remaining due to the similarities in use, as opposed to internal operation.\nIn telecommunications and recording, a scrambler (also referred to as a randomizer) is a device that manipulates a data stream before transmitting. The manipulations are reversed by a descrambler at the receiving side. Scrambling is widely used in satellite, radio relay communications and PSTN modems. A scrambler can be placed just before a FEC coder,", "multiple bands.\nThe \"scramblers\" used in cable television are designed to prevent casual signal theft, not to provide any real security. Early versions of these devices simply \"inverted\" one important component of the TV signal, re-inverting it at the client end for display. Later devices were only slightly more complex, filtering out that component entirely and then adding it by examining other portions of the signal. In both cases the circuitry could be easily built by any reasonably knowledgeable hobbyist. (See Television encryption.)\nElectronic kits for scrambling and descrambling are available from hobbyist suppliers. Scanner enthusiasts often use them to listen", "in the UK in 1970. Teletext is a system allowing viewers to choose which stories they wish to read and see it immediately. The information provided through teletext is brief and instant, similar to the information seen in digital journalism today. The information was broadcast between the frames of a television signal in what was called the Vertical Blanking Interval or VBI.\nAmerican journalist, Hunter S. Thompson relied on early digital communication technology beginning by using a fax machine to report from the 1971 US presidential campaign trail as documented in his book Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail.\nAfter the", "example, the game features clunky machinery like phone receivers, monochrome displays, and distorted CRT monitors. To create period authentic distortion on in-game monitors, the developers recorded their in game animations onto VHS and Betamax video recorders, then filmed those sequences playing on an \"old curvy portable TV\" while adjusting the tracking settings. As digital hacking was not conceived in the 1970s, the game's hacking device was built the way it would have been built on the set of the movie, and requires players to tune into a computer's signal while selecting icons on its screen. Artist Jon McKellan noted, \"We", "and possibly video cameras to record their surroundings, while the televisions falsely appear to be turned off. The recorded data is then either stored locally into the television's memory or sent over the internet to the CIA. Allegedly both the CIA and MI5 agencies collaborated to develop that malware and coordinated their work in Joint Development Workshops. As of this part 6 publication, \"Weeping Angel\" is the second major CIA hacking tool which notably references the British television show, Dr. Who, alongside \"Sonic Screwdriver\" in \"Dark Matter\". Part 7 - \"Scribbles\" On 28 April 2017 WikiLeaks published Vault 7 part", "such as the September 11 terrorist attacks, during which the webpages of major news sites became inaccessible because of the high demand. Teletext is also used for carrying special packets interpreted by TVs and video recorders, containing information about subjects such as channels and programming.\nAlthough the term \"teletext\" tends to be used to refer to the PAL-based system, or variants, the recent availability of digital television has led to more advanced systems being provided that perform the same task, such as MHEG-5 in the UK, and Multimedia Home Platform. History Teletext is a means of sending text and simple geometric", "is generally considered an ad hoc, inelegant technique, often used only as a \"last resort\" when no other mechanism for data interchange is available. Aside from the higher programming and processing overhead, output displays intended for human consumption often change structure frequently. Humans can cope with this easily, but a computer program may report nonsense, have been told to read data in a particular format or from a particular place, and with no knowledge of how to check its results for validity. Screen scraping Although the use of physical \"dumb terminal\" IBM 3270s is slowly diminishing, as more", "computer-generated imagery can result in the Uncanny Valley effect. This effect refers to the human ability to recognize things that look eerily like humans, but are slightly off. Such ability is a fault with normal computer-generated imagery which, due to the complex anatomy of the human body, can often fail to replicate it perfectly. This is where motion capture comes into play. Artists can use a motion capture rig to get footage of a human performing an action and then replicate it perfectly with computer-generated imagery so that it looks normal.\nThe lack of anatomically correct digital models contributes to the", "this game makes fun of video disclaimers as well as advertising buzzwords such as \"Blast Processing\" used during the 16-bit era. The game claims to have \"thermographics\" which are released by the mothership. A disclaimer (that the player cannot skip past, even though the game is still playable) appears beforehand, and a dramatic voice states that these thermographics make the screen dangerous to touch. The prank involves entering a code before playing, which causes the TV to cut to static after the third time the thermographics appear, suggesting the game has broken the TV. The owner is also meant to", "of TVs have a button on the unit and/or remote labeled something like \"TV/VIDEO\", \"INPUT\" or \"AUX\" which manually switches between coax and other sources, ensuring no problems when using both sets of connections simultaneously.", "The Machine The Machine is an artificially intelligent system, created at the request of the U.S. government, to sift through the data collected by NSA mass surveillance. It is able to accurately predict premeditated lethal crime by analysing the data from all surveillance cameras and electronic communications worldwide which are fed to it by arrangement with the NSA. It divides those crimes based on whether they are relevant to national security; those relevant cases are handled by the U.S. government, while the non-relevant cases in New York City are the focus of the show. Built by Harold Finch following the", "Neuros Technology Neuros LINK The Neuros LINK is an open set-top device designed to bring Internet television and other video to the television, it comes pre-installed with XBMC Media Center. The Neuros LINK supports the web's open standards allows Internet television sites to be viewed directly on a television set. The Neuros LINK is positioned between three categories, a HTPC (Home Theater PC), digital media receiver (a.k.a. media extender), and the standard Internet-to-television devices or set-top-boxes. It is open and allows access to all content sources using software and hardware components from a PC, but positioned as", "to intricate graphical user interfaces. Known problems Several problems exist with regard to on-screen displays. One of them is diagnostics if a television's display system is damaged. Without any external screens, it is almost impossible (without opening the TV) to determine the source of the error. TV accessories that depend heavily on OSDs, such as VCRs or DVD players, are also difficult to configure without the use of a TV. On older VCRs, it was possible to program recording timers without turning on the TV; a modern VCR requires the user to turn on the TV to do so. Usability", "that appeared to be a game, but proved to have more a more \"nefarious purpose\". However, they recognized there would be too much jarring between the live-action and in-game segments, and instead took a different route, by envisioning how a member of the hacker culture would interact. The viewer of the work would be put in place of a hacker, looking at the hacker's computer monitor, showing various streams from cameras, video calls, and other audiovisual elements that they could bring anyone to the forefront at any time. Rather than having the viewer make any explicit decision, the work would", "own purposes. Hacking is an intrusion combined with direct alteration of the security or data structures of the breached system. The word hacking is often confused with cracking in popular media discourse, and obfuscates the fact that hacking is less about eavesdropping and more related to interference and alteration. However, because of the consistent abuse by the news media, in 2007 the term hacker was commonly used for someone who accesses a network or a computer without authorization of the owner.\nIn 2011, Collins Dictionary stated that the word hacker can mean a computer fanatic, in particular one who by means", "recorded media, which generally have a good signal. However, it may be seen in significantly damaged media, which is at the edge of readability.\nThe term is also used in economics for an unrelated phenomenon. Digital television This effect can most easily be seen on digital television, including both satellite TV and over-the-air terrestrial TV. While forward error correction is applied to the broadcast, when a minimum threshold of signal quality (a maximum bit error rate) is reached it is no longer enough for the decoder to recover. The picture may break up (macroblocking), lock on a freeze frame, or", "analog signal will be faithfully recorded, but might be identified and removed by a subsequent step by digital signal processing.\nGIGO is commonly used to describe failures in human decision-making due to faulty, incomplete, or imprecise data. This sort of issue predates the computer age, but the term can still be applied.\nGIGO was the name of a Usenet gateway program to FidoNet, MAUSnet, e.a. In statistics Incorrect data can still permit statistical analysis. Although in Statistics incorrect or inaccurate data can hamper proper analysis, it can still be handled. The classic a broken clock is right twice a day can", "data previously stored on the device is not accessible. Additionally, any device holding sensitive data should be kept secure when not in use.\nRemovable media can also be used as a vector for malware. Attackers generally use social engineering to get someone to put a media device into a computer, for example by leaving an infected drive in a busy location, from which someone may pick up the device and put it into their computer to find its contents, such an attack is known as baiting. Once the device has been plugged in it can be used to infect an entire", "in to scrambled communications at car races and some public-service transmissions. It is also common in FRS radios. This is an easy way to learn about scrambling.\nThe term \"scrambling\" is sometimes incorrectly used when jamming is meant. Descramble Descramble in cable television context is the act of taking a scrambled or encrypted video signal that has been provided by a cable television company for premium television services, processed by a scrambler and then supplied over a coaxial cable and delivered to the household where a set-top box reprocesses the signal, thus descrambling it and making it available for viewing", "the name set-top box for the device. Moreover, some sockets' relative position may enforce the belief that the TV is physically the last in the down direction.\nLogically, the TV is on top and ends the \"up\" chain-path, translating the electrical info into an image and sound. From the same logical point of view the info stream, wherever it originates, may need processing such as decrypting (decoding, descrambling) or adding captioning/subtitles. In this case the info stream is sent logically \"down\" to dedicated function devices. From the last processing device the info stream is sent logically \"up\" to the TV, through", "Scrambler In telecommunications, a scrambler is a device that transposes or inverts signals or otherwise encodes a message at the sender's side to make the message unintelligible at a receiver not equipped with an appropriately set descrambling device. Whereas encryption usually refers to operations carried out in the digital domain, scrambling usually refers to operations carried out in the analog domain. Scrambling is accomplished by the addition of components to the original signal or the changing of some important component of the original signal in order to make extraction of the original signal difficult. Examples of the latter might include", "generated and there is a camera in place, the camera could be viewed to verify the alarms. In instances when an attack has already occurred and a camera is in place at the point of attack, the recorded video can be reviewed. Although the term closed-circuit television (CCTV) is common, it is quickly becoming outdated as more video systems lose the closed circuit for signal transmission and are instead transmitting on IP camera networks.\nVideo monitoring does not necessarily guarantee that a human response is made to an intrusion. A human must be monitoring the situation in real time in order", "Media, to describe aspects of culture that computer images enter into dialog with.", "the presented image, and copied through choices from an infinite number of variables that a program might supply\".\nFor instance, someone gets a record of you walking and talking, your facial expressions. These impressions can be broken down to their individual matrix composites, can be analyzed, rearranged, and can then be extrapolated through known standard human behavioral patterns, so that an image of you may be re-projected doing and saying things that you have not in fact done or said.\nTo Wodhams, pornography is not the major danger of this technology.\nThere is just a chance that this could be a matter of", "consumers needs.\"\nMany think of interactive TV primarily in terms of \"one-screen\" forms that involve interaction on the TV screen, using the remote control, but there is another significant form of interactive TV that makes use of Two-Screen Solutions, such as NanoGaming. In this case, the second screen is typically a PC (personal computer) connected to a Web site application. Web applications may be synchronized with the TV broadcast, or be regular websites that provide supplementary content to the live broadcast, either in the form of information, or as interactive game or program. Some two-screen applications allow for interaction from a", "the device is powered on. Interface navigation on the television is usually done with an infrared remote control, while more-advanced digital media players come with high-performance remote controls which allow control of the interface using integrated touch sensors. Some remotes also include accelerometers for air mouse features which allow basic motion gaming. Most digital media player devices are unable to play physical audio or video media directly, and instead require a user to convert these media into playable digital files using a separate computer and software. They are also usually incapable of recording audio or video. In the 2010s,", "television's effect upon themselves, while offering dispositional reasons for other members of an audience. Priming This is a concept derived from a network model of memory used in cognitive psychology. Information is stored in this model as nodes, clustered with related nodes by associated pathways. If one node is activated, nearby nodes are also activated. This is known as spreading activation. Priming occurs when a node is activated, causing related nodes to stand by for possible activation. Both the intensity and amount of elapsed time from the moment of activation determine the strength and duration of the priming effect.\nIn media", "transmission devices either within the communication device, or in the premises concerned. Computers (general) Any security obtained from a computer is limited by the many ways it can be compromised – by hacking, keystroke logging, backdoors, or even in extreme cases by monitoring the tiny electrical signals given off by keyboard or monitors to reconstruct what is typed or seen (TEMPEST, which is quite complex). Laser audio surveillance Sounds, including speech, inside rooms can be sensed by bouncing a laser beam off a window of the room where a conversation is held, and detecting and decoding the vibrations in the", "digital devices—has been proposed as a construct for providing a way to avoid problems with media multitasking while learning.", "and more mainframe applications acquire Web interfaces, some Web applications merely continue to use the technique of \"screen scraping\" to capture old screens and transfer the data to modern front-ends.\nScreen scraping is normally associated with the programmatic collection of visual data from a source, instead of parsing data as in Web scraping. Originally, screen scraping referred to the practice of reading text data from a computer display terminal's screen. This was generally done by reading the terminal's memory through its auxiliary port, or by connecting the terminal output port of one computer system to an input port on another. The" ]

[ "The official answer is - nobody knows. But yes 1 or 2 degrees can be huge.\n\nWe're talking about the average temperature of the entire planet. Climate is very sensitive to even small changes. In some cases small changes can create more changes; thawing trapped methane, which increases the greenhouse effect. Warming the oceans so they can't hold as much carbon dioxide. Melting ice that reflects energy back into space exposing ocean that absorbs it.\n\nHow bad will it get? Nobody knows. It depends how much carbon we add to the atmosphere in the future, which tipping points we reach, and thousands of little factors in how the ecosystem and climate works.\n\nHow soon? Some effects have already started. Droughts and floods caused by changing rainfall patterns, plant and animal extinctions, rising sea level, stronger storms (especially hurricanes), heat related deaths. \n\nMoving forward we can expect it to get worse, but how fast it gets worse and exactly what changes will happen in each part of the world is something we can only make educated guesses about.", "You have to remember that is average temperature. Just for scale the last time the average temperature raised by 5 degrees we left the ice age and now glacial ice only covers the northern most part of the planet." ]

[ "of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world, who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health, wealth and other factors, and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change. A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009, estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $125 billion in economic losses each year, and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries. Health Climate change poses a wide range of risks", "seems safe to say that (absent a radical overhaul of our best current scientific models of the Earth’s climate system) whatever negative economic effects global warming will have, they will be completely swamped by other factors that will influence economic growth rates in this century.\nOther analysts have commented on the risks of climate change damages. The German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU, 2007) comments that:\nAlthough [the Stern Review's] figures tend to be at the upper end of the scale compared to other estimates currently circulating, even [its] quantitative estimates fail to include the economic upheavals that would arise as", "from the atmosphere, our past, present, and future emissions will influence the climate system for millennia.\nWhile important scientific uncertainties remain as to which particular impacts will be experienced where, no uncertainties are known that could make the impacts of climate change inconsequential. Furthermore, surprise outcomes, such as the unexpectedly rapid loss of Arctic summer sea ice, may entail even more dramatic changes than anticipated. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America In May, 2011, the American Society of Agronomy (ASA), Crop Science Society of America (CSSA), and Soil Science Society of America", "atmosphere, climate change will continue to worsen and cause increasingly severe weather events, including hurricanes\" and that climate change had previously and would continue to \"have a tangible and harmful impact on our national security and disaster readiness.\"\nIn October 2018, after Director of the National Economic Council Larry Kudlow disputed a report by the United Nations warning the world to slash emissions by 45 percent before 2030 in order to avert the atmosphere possibly warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, Sanders stated that they had \"12 years to substantially cut the amount of carbon in our atmosphere, or this planet, our", "Effects of global warming on humans Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth's geological, biological and ecological systems. These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health, such as extreme weather, ozone depletion, increased danger of wildland fires, loss of biodiversity, stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases. In addition, climatic changes are estimated to cause over 150,000 deaths annually.\nTo date, a neglected aspect of the climate change debate, much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health, food supply, economic growth, migration,", "Climate ethics Overview An article in the scientific journal Nature (Patz, 2005) concluded that the human-induced warming that the world is now experiencing is already causing 150,000 deaths and 5 million incidents of disease each year from additional malaria and diarrhea, mostly in the poorest nations. Death and disease incidents are likely to soar as warming increases. Facts such as this demonstrate that climate change is compromising rights to life, liberty and personal security. Hence, ethical analysis of climate change policy must examine how that policy impacts on those basic rights.\nClimate change raises a number of particularly", "with losses and damages that they directly attribute to global warming that they blame on the developed world's historical emissions. Interaction of climate science and actual policy In the scientific literature, there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. With regard to the global warming controversy, the scientific mainstream puts neither doubt on the existence of global warming nor on its causes and effects.\nThe politicization of science in the sense of a manipulation of science for political gains is a part", "world is climate change. Climate change and its effects are being escalated due to the actions of many developed countries. The use of fossil fuels has resulted in an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide by 33% in the past 150 years. However, the effects of climate change will be worse in areas with less food security. Due to the changes in temperature and precipitation, combined with the increase in levels of greenhouse gasses emitted, it is becoming more and more difficult to produce sustainable crops. This dangerous combination leads to constant fluctuating levels of trade. The main", "more evident over time. Climate change — a result of greenhouse gases being emitted faster than they can be absorbed by forests and oceans — is the most obvious result and widespread effects. Other cited effects include: shrinking forests, species loss, fisheries collapse, higher commodity prices and civil unrest. Criticism The Breakthrough Institute regards the idea of Earth Overshoot Day and how many Earths we consume as \"a nice publicity stunt\". According to United Nations data, forests and fisheries are, as a whole, regenerating faster than they are depleted (but admitting that \"the surplus might be more a reflection of", "there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced enhanced greenhouse effect, produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels. In March 2009 the Copenhagen Climate Council, an international team of leading climate scientists, issued a strongly worded statement:\n\"The climate system is already moving beyond the patterns of natural variability within which our society and economy have developed and thrived. These parameters include global mean surface temperature, sea-level rise, ocean and ice sheet dynamics, ocean acidification, and extreme climatic events. There is a significant risk that many of the trends will accelerate, leading to", "whole. Climate change Climate change is one of the most heavily discussed topics around the world today, both politically and scientifically. The climate that Earth is currently experiencing has been steadily changing over time due to both natural causes and human exploitation. Climate change has the potential to be detrimental to wildlife across the world, whether that be through rising sea levels, changes in temperatures through the years, or deforestation. These are just a few of the examples of the contributing factors to climate change.\nClimate change is not something that citizens can entirely prevent from happening even if they wanted", "would have a drastic effect on our complex society, especially if the climate were to change as suddenly as it has at times in the past. Equally, it seems likely that as warming continues some areas may experience less precipitation leading to drought. With both rising seas and increasing drought, pressure for human migration could result on a large scale. International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics In July 2007, the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) adopted a resolution titled \"The Urgency of Addressing Climate Change\". In it, the IUGG concurs with the \"comprehensive and widely accepted and endorsed", "Economic impacts of climate change Non-market impacts Smith et al. (2001:942) predicted that climate change would likely result in pronounced non-market impacts. Most of impacts were predicted to be negative. The literature assessment by Smith et al. (2001) suggested that climate change would cause substantial negative health impacts in developing countries. Smith et al. (2001) noted that few of the studies they reviewed had adequately accounted for adaptation. In a literature assessment, Confalonieri et al. (2007:415) found that in the studies that had included health impacts, those impacts contributed substantially to the total costs of climate change. Market sector In", "Weather Info for All Initiative Background Climate change alters weather patterns and causes an increased number of extreme weather events, impacting heavily on the world’s poorest and most vulnerable communities. A recent Global Humanitarian Forum report estimated that climate change is responsible for some 300,000 deaths each year and over 100 billion US dollars worth of economic losses, mainly because of shocks to health and agricultural productivity. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for close to a quarter of these losses, and is the region at the most immediate risk of droughts and floods. Agricultural yields in some areas are expected to fall", "that \"climate change is a global problem with grave implications: environmental, social, economic, political and for the distribution of goods. It represents one of the principal challenges facing humanity in our day\" and warns of \"unprecedented destruction of ecosystems, with serious consequence for all of us\" if prompt climate change mitigation efforts are not undertaken.\nThe encyclical highlights the role of fossil fuels in causing climate change. \"We know that technology based on the use of highly polluting fossil fuels – especially coal, but also oil and, to a lesser degree, gas – needs to be progressively replaced without delay,\" Francis", "climate change impacts in poorer nations. Matt Damon explores the public health emergencies around the nation and world caused by more frequent, intense, and longer heat waves, which kill more Americans than hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, earthquakes and lightning combined and cause health problems associated with dehydration, such as premature birth. Friedman continues his Middle East investigation in Yemen, where the scarcity of water is already leading to local fighting. He speaks with President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. Friedman concludes that where climate change leads to more frequent droughts, it is a factor that will increasingly push volatile political situations towards", "security, societal change, and public goods, such as drinking water, than on the geophysical changes related to global warming. Human impacts can be both negative and positive. Climatic changes in Siberia, for instance, are expected to improve food production and local economic activity, at least in the short to medium term. Whereas, Bangladesh has experienced an increase in climate-sensitive diseases such as malaria, dengue, childhood diarrhoea, and pneumonia, among vulnerable communities. Numerous studies suggest, however, that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative.\nThe majority of the adverse effects", "has the potential to increase weather variability as well as gradually increase global temperatures. Both of these impacts have the potential to negatively impact the adaptability and resilience of the world's food production capacity; current research indicates climate change is already reducing the productivity of vulnerable cropping systems. European Federation of Geologists In 2008, the European Federation of Geologists (EFG) issued the position paper Carbon Capture and geological Storage :\nThe EFG recognizes the work of the IPCC and other organizations, and subscribes to the major findings that climate change is happening, is predominantly caused by anthropogenic emissions of CO\n2, and", "as global dimming the decrease is estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas. It also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming. Oceans Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate change, of a sudden alteration in", "be positive or negative. Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such as the poor. Animal agriculture is also responsible for CO\n2 greenhouse gas production and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of local species.\nAgriculture contributes to climate change both by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% of global annual emissions in 2010.\nA range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change", "factually inaccurate.\" Effect Manufactured uncertainty over climate change, the fundamental strategy of climate change denial, has been very effective, particularly in the US. It has contributed to low levels of public concern and to government inaction worldwide. An Angus Reid poll released in 2010 indicates that global warming skepticism in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom has been rising. There may be multiple causes of this trend, including a focus on economic rather than environmental issues, and a negative perception of the United Nations and its role in discussing climate change.\nAnother cause may be weariness from overexposure to", "of ecosystems. The disrupted livelihoods and severe ill-health includes storm surges and coastal and inland flooding. The breaking down of infrastructure includes the networks and critical services. There is also a risk of loss of biodiversity, ecosystem goods, functions, and services. Changes of weather It is likely that heat waves will occur more often and last longer as a result of climate change and an increase of the carbon cycle. Climate change and the carbon cycle will be amplified because of GHG emissions. Extreme precipitation events will become more intense and frequent. The global mean surface temperature change per trillion", "and Adaptation in the United States\" was released on November 23, 2018. According to Volume II, \"Without substantial and sustained global mitigation and regional adaptation efforts, climate change is expected to cause growing losses to American infrastructure and property and impede the rate of economic growth over this century.\" The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was \"administrative lead agency\" in the preparation of the Fourth National Climate Assessment. According to NOAA, \"human health and safety\" and American \"quality of life\" is \"increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change\". The USGCRP team that produced the report included thirteen", "is believed to have induced climate change and global warming.\nThere are many things that are going to be affected by climate change instead of just humans, the animals are going to suffer as well. There is a forecast for extinctions of species because of their habitats being affected. An example of this is marine animals. There are major impacts on the marine systems as a result of anthropogenic metabolism, according to Blaustein, the dramatic findings indicate that \"every square kilometer [is] affected by some anthropogenic driver of ecological change\".\nThe negative effects of anthropogenic metabolism are seen through the water footprint,", "change is just as much a distortion of science as underplaying them to claim that climate change has stopped or is not happening.\"\nShe added: \"Both undermine the basic facts that the implications of climate change are profound and will be severe if greenhouse gas emissions are not cut drastically.\" link", "a consequence of climate-induced conflicts or might be triggered by climate-induced migration.\n\nSeveral analysts have emphasized the importance of \"catastrophic\" risks due to climate change. WBGU (2007) states that due to climate change, \"significant impairment\" of the global economy is a \"distinct possibility\". Weitzman (2012) has commented:\nClimate change potentially affects the whole worldwide portfolio of utility by threatening to drive all of planetary welfare to disastrously low levels in the most extreme scenarios. With global climate change, diversification [of risk] is limited because all eggs are inherently in one basket.", "change will overstretch many societies’ adaptive capacities within the coming decades. This could result in destabilization and violence, jeopardizing national and international security to a new degree. However, climate change could also unite the international community, provided that it recognizes climate change as a threat to humankind and soon sets the course for the avoidance of dangerous anthropogenic climate change by adopting a dynamic and globally coordinated climate policy. If it fails to do so, climate change will draw ever-deeper lines of division and conflict in international relations, triggering numerous conflicts between and within countries over the distribution of resources,", "climate change. Public opinion Public opinion on climate change is significantly impacted by media coverage of climate change, and the effects of climate change denial campaigns. Campaigns to undermine public confidence in climate science have decreased public belief in climate change, which in turn have impacted legislative efforts to curb CO\n2 emissions. United States A poll conducted by The New York Times Magazine in 2006 found that only 56% of Americans believe that average global temperatures have risen even though scientists think that they have. A majority of Americans also believe that scientists are still divided on the issue.\nA study", "were \"being given incomplete, inaccurate and biased information about the effects of increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere\" when \"global warming caused by man-made emissions of greenhouse gases ... cannot be substantiated\". The Government refused on the grounds that the majority of climate scientists in the world agree that there is no longer any doubt that climate is changing due to human activity.\nIn April 2007, another member of the Coalition, Vincent R. Gray, described the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report as \"dangerous unscientific nonsense\" and \"lacking in scientific rigour\". Mr Gray spent much of his retirement criticising the IPCC.", "greenhouse gas emissions). The social impact of climate changes will be further affected by our efforts to prepare for changes that do occur. Climate engineering is another policy option, although there are uncertainties regarding its effectiveness and little is known about potential side effects.\nNear-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts. Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming (in 2100) to around 2 °C or below, relative to pre-industrial levels. Without mitigation, increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 °C. Higher magnitudes of global warming" ]

[ "Use a [TDEE calculator](_URL_0_) to calculate your daily calorie expenditure. This is not an exact science, it is just a rough estimate. If you eat less calories than your TDEE, you will lose weight. Your TDEE is constantly changing also as you lose/gain more weight and as your body composition changes (body fat %).\n\nExercising increases your TDEE. Treadmill calorie calculators are terribly inaccurate also.\n\nTo lose weight, track your calories that you eat. If you're not seeing the results you want, eat less calories and recalculate after a couple weeks.", "First, both your treadmill and the bag of chips are measuring in kilo calories (or kcal or Cal or Calores, as opposed to cal or calories). They don't always make this clear, but almost everyone will be talking about kcal.\n\nLots of people like the kcal in = kcal out because it's simple, and its a reasonable place to start. In general, yes the bag of chips cancels out the benefits. The problem is that it's much more complicated than that.\n\nThe energy you get from eating food is difficult to measure. The standard way is to measure the heat released when you burn the food. Even with an accurate measurement here, there are still a lot of variables:\n\n* People can't digest fibre, but it will burn, so that needs to be corrected for. (This is generally roughly corrected for in the kcal calculations for food.)\n* Protein isn't absorbed as easily as fat or starch/sugar. (This and the rest of these are rarely corrected for.)\n* People absorb less energy if food moves through their gut faster, so a high fibre diet can also reduce absorption, as can sex (men tend to absorb fewer calories than women), age, and genetics.\n* Some fats aren't absorbed well -- that was the entire idea behind Olestra.\n* It takes energy to break food down, so chewing more or grinding beef will increase the kcal absorbed. \n* Bactria in the gut also plays a role, that we don't understand very well, it might affect absorption or maybe it's just in how the body metabolizes.\n\nEnergy out is also difficult to measure. You treadmill makes a rough estimate based on your weight, but there can be lots of variables:\n\n* If more of your weight is muscle, you'll burn more kcal than if the weight is fat.\n* Lack of sleep affects both baseline metabolism (the kcal you burn just sitting) and kcal burnt in activities. \n* Exercise affects baseline metabolism for a while after you stop. \n* Insulin resistance means that even if you bring kcal into your body, the muscle cells can't absorb the energy (in the form of glucose), so your muscle cells starve and consume less energy, while the fat cells are getting bigger to store the extra energy.\n\nThat's only some of the factors.", "It's a pretty big simplification, but for the most part if you can make your calories in less than your calories out then you will probably lose weight.\n\nExercising burns off calories, but so does living in general. If you did literally no exercise all day, you'll still use up a certain amount of calories. Exactly how many that is depends on your gender, height, weight, build and other things. This is called your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR). For most people that will be somewhere in the range of 1500-2500 calories.\n\nSo the difficulty is knowing what your BMR is. But you can estimate it using various online calculators. Then you can estimate how many calories you burn from whatever exercise you get on a typical day.\n\nIf you want to maintain your weight, you should be eating about that many calories per day. If you want to lose weight, eat less than that.\n\nOf course this doesn't say much about nutrition and health in general. You might still lose weight if you ate just the right amount of deep fried crap every day, but you would probably be missing out on important nutrients and you wouldn't be very healthy.\n\n > For example: Last night I ran on a treadmill for a half hour. I ran 2.25 miles and burned 230 calories according to my treadmill. If I were to go home and eat 230 calories worth of potato chips, does that cancel out all the running I just did?\n\nSort of.\n\nIf you wouldn't normally eat those potato chips, then yes, you have basically wasted that exercise (in terms of losing weight, exercise is good for you in other ways). So don't fall into the trap of treating yourself to a snack after exercising.\n\nHowever if you usually eat those potato chips anyway, and still had a stable weight, then cancelling out those potato chips with exercise is a good thing. Still better to cut out the potato chips too though.\n\nIn general, it's easier to lose weight by eating less than it is to do it purely with exercise. Someone who is significantly overweight probably isn't going to be capable of doing the amount of exercise necessary to make a dent on their weight. They have to eat less, and do whatever exercise they can.", "I use _URL_1_ to track my calories. It has a calculator and food database which helps you figure out your caloric intake and how many calories you burn. Whole not perfect, it really helps you focus on what you're eating. \n\n\"Calories in/calories out\" is actually very simple. You need to know how many calories you need (TDEE) to maintain your current weight and then eat less every day. It doesn't matter what you eat, just the number of calories. So, if you wanted to eat Twinkies and potato chips, just figure them into your daily calorie calculations. Not rocket science." ]

[ "energy or energy density figures are often quoted as \"calories per serving\" or \"kilocalories per 100 g\". A nutritional requirement or consumption is often expressed in calories per day. One gram of fat in food contains nine calories, while a gram of either a carbohydrate or a protein contains approximately four calories. Alcohol in a food contains seven calories per gram. Chemistry In other scientific contexts, the term calorie almost always refers to the small calorie. Even though it is not an SI unit, it is still used in chemistry. For example, the energy released in a chemical reaction per mole", "\"dietary calorie\", \"food calorie\" or \"Calorie\" with a capital \"C\"). This is equivalent to a thousand calories (abbreviated \"cal\") or one kilocalorie (kcal). Because food energy is commonly measured in Calories, the energy density of food is commonly called \"caloric density\".\nEnergy density measures the energy released when the food is metabolized by a healthy organism when it ingests the food (see food energy for calculation) and the food is metabolized with oxygen, into waste products such as carbon dioxide and water. Besides alcohol the only sources of food energy are carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which make up ninety percent", "Facts panel displayed on all foods, to be effective by July 2018. New to the panel is a requirement to list \"Added sugars\" by weight and as a percent of Daily Value (DV). For vitamins and minerals, the intent of DVs is to indicate how much should be consumed. For added sugars, the guidance is that 100% DV should not be exceeded. 100% DV is defined as 50 grams. For a person consuming 2000 calories a day, 50 grams is equal to 200 calories and thus 10% of total calories—the same guidance as the World Health Organization. To put this", "Weights and Measures, in 1948. \nThe alternate spelling calory is archaic. Nutrition In a nutritional context, the kilojoule (kJ) is the SI unit of food energy, although the kilocalorie is still in common use. The word calorie is popularly used with the number of kilocalories of nutritional energy measured. To avoid confusion, it is sometimes written Calorie (with a capital \"C\") to make the distinction, although this is not widely understood (in part because capitalization contravenes the SI rule that the initial letter of a unit name or its derivative shall be lower case in English).\nTo facilitate comparison, specific", "sugar and high-fructose corn syrup that are added to food and beverages (particularly convenience food and soft drinks), and by the fructose in fruit juice and vegetable juice. His position is that sugars are not simply empty calories; he rejects the idea that \"a calorie is a calorie.\" \nLustig was a co-author in 2009 of the American Heart Association's guideline on sugar intake, which recommended that women consume no more than 100 calories daily from added sugars and men no more than 150. That year, a 90-minute lecture by Lustig, \"Sugar: The Bitter Truth,\" recorded in May 2009 for University", "foods while permitting some flexibility where the discretionary calories are concerned. ReViVer Score Developed by ReViVer, a nutritionally-oriented restaurant in New York City, The ReViVer Score expresses the nutrient density of menu items per calories from a variety of fast food and casual restaurants, based on the amount of ten nutrients; Vitamins A, C, and E, folate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, fiber, and omega-3 fats. A score of 100 indicates that the meal provides at least 100% of the recommended daily intake for all ten nutrients, proportionate to the energy (calorie) content of the meal. The score allows consumers", "calories (78 calories per tablespoon) and is a moderate source of vitamin C and several B vitamins (table). It is composed of 76% carbohydrates, 23% water, 0.4% fat, and negligible protein.\nHaving fructose as its primary sugar, blue-agave syrup (56% fructose) is similar in fructose content to high-fructose corn syrup (55% fructose content), the most common sweetener used in US manufactured beverages. In a tablespoon amount (about 25 ml or grams), blue-agave syrup supplies 78 calories, an amount similar to the value per tablespoon for high-fructose corn syrup (70 calories). Glycemic index Blue-agave syrup has a relatively high sweetness factor", " In most countries, the labels of industrialized food products are required to indicate the nutritional energy value in (large) calories per serving or per weight. History The calorie was first introduced by Nicolas Clément in lectures during the period of 1819–1824 as a unit of heat energy (the \"large\" calorie, viz. modern kcal). \nIt entered French and English dictionaries between 1841 and 1867. The word comes from Latin calor, meaning 'heat'. The \"small\" calorie (modern cal) was introduced by Pierre Antoine Favre (Chemist) and Johann T. Silbermann (Physicist) in 1852. \nIn 1879, Marcellin Berthelot distinguished between g-calorie", "contains no calories, fat, or sugar.\nFruit2o Plus 10 ingredients also include ascorbic acid (vitamin C), niacinamide, vitamin B₆, vitamin B₁₂, calcium pantothenate (vitamin B₅) and biotin (B vitamins), vitamin E acetate, zinc gluconate, magnesium sulfate, sodium selenite, calcium disodium EDTA.", "(table). In a 100 gram serving, it supplies 281 kilocalories, while in one tablespoon of 19 grams, it supplies 53 calories (table link). Obesity and metabolic disorders In the 1980s and 1990s some publications cautioned consumption of sucrose and of HFCS. In subsequent interviews, two of the study's authors stated the article was distorted to place emphasis solely on HFCS when the actual issue was the overconsumption of any type of sugar. While fructose absorption and modification by the intestines and liver does differ from glucose initially, the majority of the fructose molecules are converted to glucose or metabolized into", "higher than 10%. Based on a 2012 study on the use of caloric and noncaloric sweeteners in some 85,000 food and beverage products, 74% contain added sugar.", "claimed to be negative in calories are mostly low-calorie fruits and vegetables such as celery, grapefruit, lemon, lime, apple, lettuce, broccoli, and cabbage. However, celery has a thermic effect of around 8%, much less than the 100% or more required for a food to have \"negative calories\".\nExamples : a 905 Gram pineapple would have 452 calories or 50 Calories per 100g An apple 52 Calories per 100g Celery 16 Calories per 100g Cabbage 25 Calories per 100g a lemon 29 Calories per 100g a Lime 30 Calories per 100g Grapefruit has 42 Calories per 100g and Broccoli has", "Empty calories In human nutrition, the term empty calories applies to foods and beverages composed primarily or solely of sugar, fats or oils, or alcohol-containing beverages. An example is carbonated soft drinks. These supply food energy but little or no other nutrition in the way of vitamins, minerals, protein, fiber, or essential fatty acids. Fat contributes nine calories per gram, ethanol seven calories, sugar four calories. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) advises, \"A small amount of empty calories is okay, but most people eat far more than is healthy.\" The phrase is derived from low nutrient density, which", "Nutritional value Nutritional value or nutritive value as part of food quality is the measure of a well-balanced ratio of the essential nutrients carbohydrates, fat, protein, minerals, and vitamins in items of food or diet in relation to the nutrient requirements of their consumer. Several nutritional rating systems and nutrition facts label have been invented to be able to rank food in terms of its nutritional value, but absolute scales are open for debate and tend to ignore particular consumer needs.\nOn a biological scale, nutritive value of food may vary for different health conditions (leading to dietary recommendations and particular", "Nutritional information Ingredients: Carbonated Water, Sugar, Citric Acid, Taurine (0.4%), Glucuronolactone (0.24%), Acidity Regulator (E331), Colour (Caramel E150d and E104), Flavourings, Preservative (E202, E211), Caffeine, Inositol, Vitamins (Niacin, Pantothenic Acid, B₃, B₆, B₁₂), Guarana.\nRelentless contains 32 mg of Caffeine per 100 mL, in a standard can size of 500 mL (16.9 US fl oz), or about 160 mg of Caffeine in total. Sponsorship Relentless sponsor various teams and athletes from the core sports in the UK.\nIn October 2006, Relentless teamed up with Motorcross Team Rob Hooper's Suzuki to create \"Relentless Suzuki.\" Lewis Gregory, Jamie Law and Alex Snow are the riders for", "Glycemic index The glycemic index (GI) (/ɡlaɪˈsiːmɪk/;) is a number from 0 to 100 assigned to a food, with pure glucose arbitrarily given the value of 100, which represents the relative rise in the blood glucose level two hours after consuming that food. The GI of a specific food depends primarily on the quantity and type of carbohydrate it contains; but also is affected by the amount of entrapment of the carbohydrate molecules within the food, the fat and protein content of the food, the amount of organic acids (or their salts) in the food, and whether it is cooked", "over 1,600 calories, and desserts typically contained over 1,000 calories each.", "calories and 29% of the Daily Value of vitamin K. They are a moderate source of vitamin C, some B vitamins, phosphorus, and zinc.", "a certain amount, it refuses to take on more, and the daily consumption equals the supply even when this involves great waste.\"\nIn general, no essential nutrient is produced in the body. Nutrient kinetics therefore follow the plateau principle with the distinction that most are ingested by mouth and the body must contain an amount adequate for health. The plateau principle is important in determining how much time is needed to produce a deficiency when intake is insufficient. Because of this, pharmacokinetic considerations should be part of the information needed to set a dietary reference intake for essential nutrients. Vitamin C", "per eight-ounce serving, and later VitaminWater Zero, a calorie-free drink, down from the older line that serves 50 kilocalories. Both drinks include Truvia as a sweetener. VitaminWater Zero also uses Erythritol. In September 2010, a rebranded version of the 10 calorie drink was introduced to the Canadian market, although Vitaminwater Zero is still exclusively a US product. vitaminwater vitaminwater is a mineral water product distributed by Energy Brands and was introduced in 2000. Some ingredients are added according to the flavor and intended purpose of the drink. Misleading advertising In 2008, the Australian consumer organisation Choice gave one of its", "beverage contains 140% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C. Five Alive contains 110 calories and 27 grams of sugar per 240 mL. U.S. Five Alive labels list 41% fruit juice, with high fructose corn syrup as an ingredient after filtered water. In the United Kingdom, quantitative ingredient labeling is mandatory; U.K. labels show that Five Alive contains 42% fruit juice, as well as 22% sugar and several artificial sweeteners. References in popular culture Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies recorded a song for their 1989 demo tape Buck Naked called \"Couldn't Care Less\" in which there was a", "Diet food Terminology In addition to diet other words or phrases are used to identify and describe these foods including light, zero calorie, low calorie, low fat, no fat and sugar free. In some areas use of these terms may be regulated by law. For example, in the U.S. a product labeled as \"low fat\" must not contain more than 3 grams of fat per serving; and to be labeled \"fat free\" it must contain less than 0.5 grams of fat per serving. Process The process of making a diet version of a food usually requires finding an acceptable low-food-energy", "citric acid, acesulfame potassium, caffeine, potassium sorbate (preserves freshness), calcium disodium edta (to protect flavor) \nAll Values per 8 fl.oz\nCalories 0 \nTotal Fat (g) 0 \nSodium (mg) 25 \nPotassium (mg) 37 \nTotal Carbohydrates (g) 0 \nSugars (g) 0 \nProtein (g) 0 \nCaffeine (mg) 25", "(modern cal) and kg-calorie (modern kcal). Berthelot also introduced the convention of capitalizing the kg-calorie, as Calorie.\nThe use of the kg-calorie (kcal) for nutrition was introduced to the American public by Wilbur Olin Atwater, a professor at Wesleyan University, in 1887.\nThe modern calorie (cal) was first recognized as a unit of the cm-g-s system (cgs), in 1896,\nalongside the existing cgs unit of energy, the erg, first suggested by Clausius in 1864 (under the name ergon), and officially adopted in 1882.\nThe joule was adopted as equivalent to 10⁷ erg in 1889.\nUse of the calorie was officially deprecated by ninth General Conference on", "reports: \"Unlike Spurlock, Naughton has a page on his Web site that lists every item (including nutritional information) he ate during his fast-food month.\" About 1/3 of Spurlock's calories came from sugar. His nutritionist, Bridget Bennett, warned him about his excess intake of sugar from \"milkshakes and Cokes\". It is revealed toward the end of the movie that over the course of the diet, he consumed \"over 30 pounds (14 kg) of sugar, and over 12 pounds (5.4 kg) of fat from their food\". About 2000 calories in a lb. of sugar, of nearly 5000 calories consumed per day, accounted for", "calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar.\nIn the strict sense, \"sugar\" is applied for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Structure Formerly the name \"carbohydrate\" was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cₘ (H₂O)ₙ. Following this definition, some chemists considered formaldehyde (CH₂O) to be the simplest carbohydrate, while others claimed that title for glycolaldehyde. Today, the term is generally understood in the biochemistry sense, which excludes compounds with only one or two carbons and includes many biological carbohydrates which deviate from this formula. For example, while the above", "baseline calorie requirements are precisely determined before the trial: in a two-week laboratory test the rate of carbon dioxide production is measured, allowing to compute the number of burned calories. The subjects are then taught a diet of low-energy density foods, such as vegetables, fruits (especially apples), insoluble fiber and soups. Most subjects reported that they felt hungry for the first few weeks, after which they adjusted to the new diet. Complaints focused on the rigid bookkeeping scheme imposed on them.\nResults were posted to the Clinical Trial website in 2018 with a (paywalled) Lancet article published in 2019. MSN", "total of 120 calories (500 kJ). Other versions In 2007, Kraft introduced a new version of Tang which replaced half of the sugar with artificial sweeteners. The new packaging advertises \"1/2 the sugar of 100% juice\". The artificial sweeteners used in the new formulation are sucralose, acesulfame potassium, and neotame. The new formula is more concentrated and distributed in smaller containers, with a 12.3 US fl oz (360 ml) (348 g (12.3 oz)) making 8 US quarts (7,600 ml).\nThe recommended usage is two and one-half teaspoons per 8 US fluid ounces (240 ml) of water. The lid on the new smaller plastic container acts as a measuring", "Elemental calcium Elemental calcium is a term used on dietary supplement labels to refer to the amount of calcium in a product. Calcium pills contain calcium in a variety of molecules, such as calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, calcium citrate-maleate, etc. Each pill supplies a different amount of elemental calcium. For example, calcium carbonate is 40% elemental calcium by weight and calcium citrate is about 20%. Thus a 500 mg pill of calcium carbonate contains 200 mg of calcium and the container will indicate each pill has 200 mg of elemental calcium. This is the actual calcium content.", "Caloric deficit A caloric deficit is any shortage in the amount of calories consumed relative to the amount of calories required for maintenance of current body weight (energy homeostasis).\nA deficit can be created by reducing input/calories consumed (lower food intake, aka dieting). A deficit can also be created by increasing output without a corresponding increase in input. Increased output is created by increasing physical activity, from increased caloric requirements necessary to heal an injury, or from growth. There are also some substances, including Caffeine, which can create a small (3-5%) increase in caloric expenditure, via a variety" ]

[ "One of the symptoms of major depressive disorder is anhedonia - this literally means an inability to experience happiness. So it's not doing the opposite from things that will make one happy, since *nothing will actually make you happy*, so why put in the effort?\n\nIt might actually help to understand depression if you think of it as \"anti-happiness\". You don't try to be miserable. It's just not a choice you have.", "It's not about 'doing the opposite' of whatever would make you feel better. It's the natural result of a lack of energy (physical) and motivation (emotional), coupled with the fact that most healthy behaviours (exercise, socializing, preparing nutritious meals, etc.) require energy and effort, which are in short supply. It's like your body is permanently set to energy-saving mode." ]

[ "larger increase in negative mood. On the other hand, people who refrain from taking better choices through drugs or other forms of escapism tend to be much happier in life.\nOthers say that there is never too much choice and that there is a difference between happiness and satisfaction: a person who tries to find better decisions will often be dissatisfied, but not necessarily unhappy since his attempts at finding better choices did improve his lifestyle (even if it wasn't the best decision he will continually try to incrementally improve the decisions he takes).\nChoice architecture is the process of encouraging people", "the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one's ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move.", "unnecessary harm. In this way, depression helps maintain a social hierarchy. This theory is a special case of a more general theory derived from the psychic pain hypothesis: that the cognitive response that produces modern-day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal, and if they are, to motivate them to desist. Social risk hypothesis This hypothesis is similar to the social rank hypothesis but focuses more on the importance of avoiding exclusion from social groups, rather than direct dominance contests. The fitness benefits of forming cooperative bonds", "for example, that Abraham Lincoln's lifelong depression was a source of insight and strength. Some even suggest that \"we aren't designed to have happiness as our natural default\" and so a state of depression is the evolutionary norm.\nThe following hypotheses attempt to identify a benefit of depression that outweighs its obvious costs.\nSuch hypotheses are not necessarily incompatible with one another and may explain different aspects, causes, and symptoms of depression. Psychic pain hypothesis One reason depression is thought to be a pathology is that it causes so much psychic pain and distress. However, physical pain is also very distressful, yet", "major depression serve as costly and therefore honest signals of need, they also compel reluctant social partners to respond to that need in order to prevent their own fitness from being reduced. Social navigation or niche change theory The social navigation or niche change hypothesis proposes that depression is a social navigation adaptation of last resort, designed especially to help individuals overcome costly, complex contractual constraints on their social niche. The hypothesis combines the analytical rumination and bargaining hypotheses and suggests that depression, operationally defined as a combination of prolonged anhedonia and psychomotor retardation or agitation, provides a focused sober", "with depression act in ways that maintain their depression and locates the origin of depressive episodes in the environment. While BA theories do not deny biological factors that contribute to depression, they assert that it is ultimately the combination of a stressful event in an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces a depressive episode. Individuals with depression may display socially aversive behaviors, fail to engage in enjoyable activities, ruminate on their problems, or engage in other maladaptive activities. According to BA theory, these behaviors most often function as avoidance mechanisms while the individual tries to cope", "This can lead to depression and other self-esteem issues as well as decrease their satisfaction of life as they feel if their life is not exciting enough to put online it is not as good as their friends or family.\nStudies have shown that self comparison on social media can have dire effects on physical and mental health because they give us the ability to seek approval and compare ourselves. Social media has both a practical usage- to connect us with others, but also can lead to fulfillment of gratification. In fact, one study suggests that because a critical aspect of", "the distortion of one uncontrollable aspect of a person's life being viewed as representative of all aspects of their life – suggesting a mismatch between ultimate cause and modern manifestation. Analytical rumination hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that depression is an adaptation that causes the affected individual to concentrate his or her attention and focus on a complex problem in order to analyze and solve it.\nOne way depression increases the individual's focus on a problem is by inducing rumination. Depression activates the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which increases attention control and maintains problem-related information in an \"active, accessible state\" referred to", "or minimal fashion. When presented with some negative information, they will often generate spontaneous happy thoughts or feelings, minimizing its impact. Depressed people process information much more thoroughly, whether it is good or bad. This high level of processing develops strong associative links with similar information. When a depressed person tries to avoid a damaging cognition, they often think of some other negatively affecting thought. Evidence from human and animal studies shows that isolation prompts sensitivity to social threats and motivates the renewal of social connections.\nOne study showed that people would remain satisfied with their performance in the", "the depressive under status quo socioeconomic arrangements.\nThus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared", "as \"working memory\", or WM. As a result, depressed individuals have been shown to ruminate, reflecting on the reasons for their current problems. Feelings of regret associated with depression also cause individuals to reflect and analyze past events in order to determine why they happened and how they could have been prevented.\nLikewise, ruminative tendency itself, some cognitive psychologists argue, increases the likelihood of the onset of depression.\nAnother way depression increases an individual's ability to concentrate on a problem is by reducing distraction from the problem. For example, anhedonia, which is often associated with depression, decreases an individual's desire to", "or even biology. Aaron Beck argues that depression is due to unrealistic negative views about the world. Beck starts treatment by engaging in conversation with clients about their unhelpful thoughts. Pessimists, however, are often able to provide arguments that suggest that their understanding of reality is justified; as in Depressive realism or (pessimistic realism). Deflection is a common method used by those who are depressed. They let people assume they are revealing everything which proves to be an effective way of hiding. The pessimism item on the Beck Depression Inventory has been judged useful in predicting suicides. The", "a 1℃ change in body temperature. Therefore, depression allows one to conserve and allocate energy to the immune system more efficiently.\nDepression further prevents infection by discouraging social interactions and activities that may result in exchange of infections. For example, the loss of interest discourages one from engaging in sexual activity, which, in turn, prevents the exchange of sexually transmitted diseases. Similarly, depressed mothers may interact less with their children, reducing the probability of the mother infecting her kin.\nLastly, the lack of appetite associated with depression may also reduce exposure to food-borne parasites.\nHowever, it should also be noted that chronic illness", "refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a", " This model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as \"evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain.\" Depression is characteristically associated with anhedonia and lack of energy, and those experiencing it are risk-aversive and perceive more negative and pessimistic outcomes because they are focused on preventing further loss. Although the model views depression as an adaptive response, it does not suggest that it is beneficial by the standards", "know what it feels like to be hopeless. There is some point where I learnt enough about myself to know that I don't have the tolerance to create other hurdles as well.\" In 1999, Cornell said the following about depression:\nNo one really knows what run-of-the-mill depression is. You'll think somebody has run-of-the-mill depression, and then the next thing you know, they're hanging from a rope. It's hard to tell the difference. But I do feel that depression can be useful. Sometimes it's just chemical. It doesn't seem to come from anywhere. And whenever I've been in any kind of depression,", " The solution to depression offered, therefore, is to end the conflict (get these needs met): Navigate oneself into an unconditionally accepting social environment, so one can internalize this social acceptance into self-acceptance, winning one peace both internally and externally (through self-acceptance and social acceptance—self-esteem and belonging, respectively), ending the conflict, and the depression. (Treynor obtained this result and framework by piecing together social psychological science research findings using mathematical logic.) But what if one cannot find an unconditionally accepting group to navigate oneself into? If one cannot find such a group, the solution the framework", "happiness will cause bad things to happen; (2) that happiness will cause you to become a bad person; (3) that expressing happiness is somehow bad for you and others; and (4) that pursuing happiness is bad for you and others. For example, \"some people—in Western and Eastern cultures—are wary of happiness because they believe that bad things, such as unhappiness, suffering, and death, tend to happen to happy people.\"\nThese findings \"call into question the notion that happiness is the ultimate goal, a belief echoed in any number of articles and self-help publications about whether certain choices are likely to make", "respond appropriately and avoid upsetting someone already in physical or emotional pain. Again, this is important in maintaining social relationships.\nBehavioral control is an important application of cognitive inhibition in behavioral psychology, as is emotional control. Depression is an example of cognitive inhibition failure in emotion control. Correctly functioning cognitive inhibition would result in reduced selective attention to negative stimuli and retention of negative thoughts. \"There is emerging evidence that depression is characterized by deficits in the inhibition of mood-congruent material. These deficits could result in prolonged processing of negative, goal-irrelevant aspects of presented information thereby hindering recovery from negative mood", "ideals. The motivational nature of this discrepancy also suggests that it could be associated with frustration because of these unfulfilled desires. Emotions such as blameworthiness, feeling no interest in things, and not feeling effective was also associated with this discrepancy. In addition, this discrepancy is also associated with dejection from perceived lack of effectiveness or self-fulfillment. This discrepancy is uniquely associated with depression. Actual/own vs. ideal/other Here, one's view of their actual attributes does not match the ideal attributes their significant other hopes or wishes for them. The ideal self-guide is characterized by the absence of positive outcomes, and accompanied", "make negative internal attributions predisposes individuals to the development of hopelessness and depression. The opposite effect is seen for those who make positive internal attributions. Wendy Treynor's Theory of Depression According to social psychologist Wendy Treynor, depression happens when one is trapped in a social setting that rejects the self, on a long-term basis (where one is devalued continually), and this rejection is internalized into self-rejection, winning one rejection from both the self and group—social rejection and self-rejection, respectively. This chronic conflict seems inescapable, and depression sets in. Stated differently, according to Treynor, the cause of depression is", "user. Depression is also associated with drug use and prostitution. There are also trapping factors: injecting any kind of substance into their body, using hard drugs such as crack cocaine or methamphetamine, taking part in sex work while underage, working outdoors or in multiple areas, and having any convictions. These factors \"trap\" a person into the life they are in, especially if multiple of the factors effect them, making it much harder for them to escape their situation. The people most vulnerable to prostitution are those that have experienced these factors. The way behavioral therapies are used Behavioral therapies help", "also complained about periods of writer's block. In a 2010 interview he explained:\nI think a lot of people who suffer from depression feel guilty. They feel like being selfish, they feel like they shouldn't talk about it because they sound like they are whining. I think it is important to not be like that and talk about it, so that people think that it is OK to talk about it. If anybody sees me talking about it and therefore thinks that it is alright for them to talk to their friends about it, than that is a good thing. I", "with a stressful life event, resulting in a decrease in positive reinforcers or perceived control. Rumination is particularly important in the onset of depression. There are two main coping mechanisms, rumination and distraction. Ruminators spend time focusing on the stressful event and their feelings, while distractors engage in activities that distance them from the event and their feelings. Ruminators are much more likely to become depressed than distractors. Social skills Deficits in social skills and positive social interactions have been empirically proven to be main contributors to the maintenance of depression. Individuals with depression typically interact with others less frequently", "learning to ask themselves whether their thoughts are completely true, and whether those thoughts are helping them to meet their goals. Thoughts that do not meet this description may then be shifted to something more accurate or helpful, leading to more positive emotion, more desirable behavior, and movement toward the person's goals. Cognitive therapy takes a skill-building approach, where the therapist helps the person to learn and practice these skills independently, eventually \"becoming his or her own therapist.\" Depression According to Beck's theory of the etiology of depression, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and", "affect any individual, those who are depressed are more sensitive to these painful experiences. Due to the importance of social experiences to people's well-being, and to etiology and maintenance of depression, it is vital to examine how depressed people's well-being is enhanced or eroded by positive and negative social interactions.\nWhen people experience positive social interactions, they should feel a sense of belonging. However, depressed people's social information-processing biases make them less likely to recognize cues of acceptance and belonging in social interactions. For example, in a laboratory study using information-processing tasks assessing attention and memory for sad, physically threatening, socially", "depression, even pain. Those with plenty of soul, conversely, are dynamic, energetic and full of life.\nSoul is also a valuable resource and commodity. It can be expended to use supernatural Abilities and Powers, it can be traded and it can even be stolen.\nIt is also a moral barometer – different actions are regarded as either 'soul-cultivating' or 'soul rotting'. In this way it is possible to gain or lose soul based purely upon how your character acts, although the justification for action is also important. Players are thus encouraged to role-play in a selfless and virtuous manner, and also to", "situations in which effort to pursue a major goal will likely result in danger, loss, bodily damage, or wasted effort.\" Being apathetic can have a fitness advantage for the organism. Depression has also been studied as a behavioral strategy used by vertebrates to increase their personal or inclusive fitness in the threat of parasites and pathogens.\nThe lack of neurogenesis has been linked to depression. Animals with stress (isolated, cortisol levels) show a decrease in neurogenesis and antidepressants have been discovered to promote neurogenesis. Rene Hen and his colleagues at Columbia University ran a study on rats in which they", "often used when people are thinking about their specific qualities, or more of who they are overall. So when thinking about oneself in the present, people tend to be more focused on their individual concrete qualities in more detail, versus when they think of themselves in the future, they think more of how they will be in the years to come in an overall abstract way. Decision-making and risky behavior Distance or high-level construals can make alternative choices that are hard to accomplish more desirable. Near-future or low-level construals can oppositely make alternative choices that are hard to accomplish", "negative cognitions or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Thus, negative cognitions can cause inflammation that can, in turn, lead to depression.\nIn addition there is increasing evidence that inflammation can cause depression because of the increase of cytokines, setting the brain into a \"sickness mode\". Classical symptoms of being physically sick like lethargy show a large overlap in behaviors that characterize depression. Levels of cytokines tend to increase sharply during the depressive episodes of people with bipolar disorder and drop off during remission. Furthermore, it has been shown in clinical trials that anti-inflammatory medicines taken in addition to" ]

[ "Non-verbal display of distress or hardship. say you can't verbally communicate for whatever reason but need to convey a sense of emergency, pain, hardship.... crying i a good way of doing that/" ]

[ "Zoo told him that their charges shed tears in sorrow. \nTears produced during emotional crying have a chemical composition which differs from other types of tears. They contain significantly greater quantities of the hormones prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and Leu-enkephalin, and the elements potassium and manganese. Function The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic helping behavior from others. Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress", "of protolanguage, namely the patterns of crying change dramatically when it exceeds a certain pain threshold \nMeaning of weeping: Bellieni analysed the weeping behavior, and concluded that most animals can cry but only humans have psychoemotional shedding of tears, also known as “weeping”. Weeping is a behavior that induces empathy perhaps with the mediation of the mirror neurons network, and influences the mood through the release of hormones elicited by the massage effect made by the tears on the cheeks, or through the relief of the sobbing rhythm.", "appeasement, need, or attachment. Oren Hasson, an evolutionary psychologist in the zoology department at Tel Aviv University believes that crying shows vulnerability and submission to an attacker, solicits sympathy and aid from bystanders, and signals shared emotional attachments.\nAnother theory that follows evolutionary psychology is given by Paul D. MacLean, who suggests that the vocal part of crying was used first as a \"separation cry\" to help reunite parents and offspring. The tears, he speculates, are a result of a link between the development of the cerebrum and the discovery of fire. MacLean figures that since early humans must have relied", "high. However, tears have a limited ability to eliminate chemicals, reducing the likelihood of this theory.\nRecent psychological theories of crying emphasize the relationship of crying to the experience of perceived helplessness. From this perspective, an underlying experience of helplessness can usually explain why people cry. For example, a person may cry after receiving surprisingly happy news, ostensibly because the person feels powerless or unable to influence what is happening.\nEmotional tears have also been put into an evolutionary context. One study proposes that crying, by blurring vision, can handicap aggressive or defensive actions, and may function as a reliable signal of", "humors from the brain. William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.\nWilliam H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too", "it is more socially acceptable for women and children to cry than men, reflecting masculine sex-role stereotypes. In some Latin regions, crying among men is more acceptable. There is evidence for an interpersonal function of crying as tears express a need for help and foster willingness to help in an observer.\nSome modern psychotherapy movements such as Re-evaluation Counseling encourage crying as beneficial to health and mental well-being. An insincere display of grief or dishonest remorse is sometimes called crocodile tears in reference to an Ancient Greek anecdote that crocodiles would pretend to weep while luring or devouring their prey. In", "weeping, wailing, whimpering, bawling, and blubbering.\nFor crying to be described as sobbing, it usually has to be accompanied by a set of other symptoms, such as slow but erratic inhalation, occasional instances of breath holding and muscular tremor.\nA neuronal connection between the lacrimal gland (tear duct) and the areas of the human brain involved with emotion has been established. Scientists debate over whether humans are the only animals that produce tears in response to emotional states. Charles Darwin wrote in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals that the keepers of Indian elephants in the London", "and tears are formed (Hoyt 2008). Crying due to one's mental state is an event that is common across all cultures and demographics. Whether we cry due to sadness or joy, these are all events that have their origination in mental causation. It would be inhuman to claim otherwise.\nHow Emotions are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain by Lisa Feldman Barrett for a rigorous discussion. One’s crying is not planned, unless one is an actor, then we are able to tap into the mechanism that causes tears to flow. Otherwise it just happens outside of out", "the advent of crying. Crying is a physical effect coupled with either a physical cause or a mental (emotional) cause. There are three types of tears: basal tears, reflex tears, and emotional tears (Hoyt 2008). Basal tears keep our eyes from drying out, reflex tears are in response to eye irritants (physical causation), and emotional tears are a result of mental causation such as sadness, joy, etc (Hoyt 2008). I am going to focus on the latter, emotional tears. Once sadness is registered in the cerebrum, the endocrine system releases hormones to the ocular area,", "1872. In Chapter VI, \"Special Expressions of Man: Suffering and Weeping\", Darwin discusses cultural variations in the acceptability of weeping and the wide differences in individual responses to suffering. The chapter contains the following sentence:\nWe must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding of tears by the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint; for certain brain-diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a special tendency to induce weeping. Terminology Historically, there have been a variety of terms used for the disorder, including pseudobulbar affect, pathological laughter and crying, emotional lability, emotionalism, emotional", "have been used to conclude that there is a high functional connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting that the former regulates activity in the latter. In those people who had greater intensity of sadness, there was a low functional connection between the rostal anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala activity, suggesting a lack of regulation of the former part of the brain upon the latter. Evolutionary theories From an evolutionary perspective, grief is perplexing because it appears costly, and it is not clear what benefits it provides the sufferer. Several researchers have proposed functional explanations for grief,", "and clearance of the eyes. Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.\nIndividuals tend to remember the positive aspects of crying, and may create a link between other simultaneous positive events, such as resolving feelings of grief. Together, these features of memory reinforce the idea that crying helped the individual.\nIn Hippocratic and medieval medicine, tears were associated with the bodily humors, and crying was seen as purgation of excess", "cries because the child's crying in the past has led to attention. These are the response, and consequences. The response is the child crying, and the attention that child gets is the reinforcing consequence. According to this theory, people's behavior is formed by processes such as operant conditioning. Skinner put forward a \"three term contingency model\" which helped promote analysis of behavior based on the \"Stimulus - Response - Consequence Model\" in which the critical question is: \"Under which circumstances or antecedent 'stimuli' does the organism engage in a particular behavior or 'response', which in turn produces", "responses due to evolution. It would not be expected to observe the same physiological responses for emotions not specifically linked to survival, such as happiness or sadness.\nEkman's theories were early challenged by James A. Russell, and have since been tested by a variety of researchers, with ambiguous results. This would seem to reflect methodological problems relating to both display rules and to the Components of emotion. Current thinking favors a mix of underlying universality combined with significant cultural differences in the articulation and expression of emotion. The fact that emotions serve different functions in different cultures must also be", "exist merely because they oppose an expression that is useful. Third, The Principle of the Direct Action of the Excited Nervous System on the Body suggests that emotional expression occurs when nervous energy has passed a threshold and needs to be released.\nDarwin saw emotional expression as an outward communication of an inner state, and the form of that expression often carries beyond its original adaptive use. For example, Darwin remarks that humans often present their canine teeth when sneering in rage, and he suggests that this means that a human ancestor probably utilized their teeth in aggressive action. A domestic", "leaving an offspring alone at a watering hole. More recently, Winegard, Reynolds, Winegard, Baumeister, and Maner argued that grief might be a socially selected signal of an individual’s propensity for forming strong, committed relationships. From this social signaling perspective, grief targets old and new social partners, informing them that the griever is capable of forming strong social commitments. That is, because grief signals a person's capacity to form strong and faithful social bonds, those who displayed prolonged grief responses were preferentially chosen by alliance partners. The authors argue that throughout human evolution, grief was therefore shaped and elaborated by", "remember crying as being helpful and beneficial.\nThe most common side effect of crying is feeling a lump in the throat of the crier, otherwise known as a globus sensation. Although many things can cause a globus sensation, the one experienced in crying is a response to the stress experienced by the sympathetic nervous system. When an animal is threatened by some form of danger, the sympathetic nervous system triggers several processes to allow the animal to fight or flee. This includes shutting down unnecessary body functions, such as digestion, and increasing blood flow and oxygen to necessary muscles. When an", "of the sobbing rhythm. Many ethologists would disagree. Biological response It can be very difficult to observe biological effects of crying, especially considering many psychologists believe the environment in which a person cries can alter the experience of the crier. However, crying studies in laboratories have shown several physical effects of crying, such as increased heart rate, sweating, and slowed breathing. Although it appears that the type of effects an individual experiences depends largely on the individual, for many it seems that the calming effects of crying, such as slowed breathing, outlast the negative effects, which could explain why people", "it unnecessary to posit innate human characteristics fostering attachment. Learning theory saw attachment as a remnant of dependency and the quality of attachment as merely a response to the caregivers cues. Behaviourists saw behaviours such as crying as a random activity that meant nothing until reinforced by a caregivers response therefore frequent responses would result in more crying. To attachment theorists, crying is an inborn attachment behaviour to which the caregiver must respond if the infant is to develop emotional security. Conscientious responses produce security which enhances autonomy and results in less crying. Ainsworth's research in Baltimore supported the attachment", "heavily on fire, their eyes were frequently producing reflexive tears in response to the smoke. As humans evolved the smoke possibly gained a strong association with the loss of life and, therefore, sorrow.\nIn 2017 Carlo Bellieni analysed the weeping behavior, and concluded that most animals can cry but only humans have psychoemotional shedding of tears, also known as \"weeping\". Weeping is a behavior that induces empathy perhaps with the mediation of the mirror neurons network, and influences the mood through the release of hormones elicited by the massage effect made by the tears on the cheeks, or through the relief", "the eventual determination of the neural underpinnings of emotion.\nContemporary\nMore contemporary views along the evolutionary psychology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and social emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that were adaptive in the ancestral environment. Emotion is an essential part of any human decision-making and planning, and the famous distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient", "of the aqueous portion of the tear film. Human culture In nearly all human cultures, crying is associated with tears trickling down the cheeks and accompanied by characteristic sobbing sounds. Emotional triggers are most often sadness and grief, but crying can also be triggered by anger, happiness, fear, laughter or humor, frustration, remorse, or other strong, intense emotions. Crying is often associated with babies and children. Some cultures consider crying to be undignified and infantile, casting aspersions on those who cry publicly, except if it is due to the death of a close friend or relative. In most Western cultures,", "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1872. Darwin's work inspired William James's functionalist approach to psychology. Darwin's theories of evolution, adaptation, and natural selection have provided insight into why brains function the way they do.\nThe content of evolutionary psychology has derived from, on the one hand, the biological sciences (especially evolutionary theory as it relates to ancient human environments, the study of paleoanthropology and animal behavior) and, on the other, the human sciences, especially psychology.\nEvolutionary biology as an academic discipline emerged with the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. In the 1930s the study of", "of the requirement of different and higher brain centers. With secondary emotions it allows one (in this case the animals that do feel grief) to create the connection between feelings and actions. Early Research on Animal Grief In 1879, Arthur E. Brown studied how a male chimpanzee reacted after the death of his female counterpart. He saw the male chimpanzee display grief and \"a cry which the keeper of the animals assures [Brown] he had never heard before\"). Continuing to the next day, the chimpanzee sulked and barely moved. Brown deciphered that the male chimpanzee was depressed after the female", "Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).\nFor example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured before the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.\nThe motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. With the", "it has an evolved function: to inform the organism that it is suffering damage, to motivate it to withdraw from the source of damage, and to learn to avoid such damage-causing circumstances in the future. Sadness is also distressing, yet is widely believed to be an evolved adaptation. In fact, perhaps the most influential evolutionary view is that most cases of depression are simply particularly intense cases of sadness in response to adversity, such as the loss of a loved one.\nAccording to the psychic pain hypothesis, depression is analogous to physical pain in that it informs the sufferer that current", "Evolutionary theories 19th century\nPerspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with Charles Darwin's 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Surprisingly, Darwin argued that emotions served no evolved purpose for humans, neither in communication, nor in aiding survival. Darwin largely argued that emotions evolved via the inheritance of acquired characters. He pioneered various methods for studying non-verbal expressions, from which he concluded that some expressions had cross-cultural universality. Darwin also detailed homologous expressions of emotions that occur in animals. This led the way for animal research on emotions and", "Emotion in animals Etymology, definitions, and differentiation The word \"emotion\" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means \"to stir up\". However, the earliest precursors of the word likely date back to the very origins of language.\nEmotions have been described as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Emotions have also been described as the result of evolution because they provided", "that there are no preset emotional responses that are consistent and specific to one emotion or another. Basic model The basic model of emotions finds its roots in Charles Darwin's The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin claimed that the expression of emotions involves many systems: facial expression, behavioral response, and physical responses, which include physiological, postural, and vocal changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression was consistent with his theories on evolution and thus, the expression of emotion is universal and should therefore be expressed similarly across race or culture. This is known as the universality", "to notice others' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly. For example, whereas babies cry because of pain, two-year-olds cry to summon their caregiver, and if that does not work, cry louder, shout, or follow. Tenets Common attachment behaviours and emotions, displayed in most social primates including humans, are adaptive. The long-term evolution of these species has involved selection for social behaviors that make individual or group survival more likely. The commonly observed attachment behaviour of toddlers staying near familiar people would have had safety advantages in the environment of early adaptation, and has similar advantages today. Bowlby saw" ]

[ "Because the difference between the highest note and the lowest note is fairly large, making it hard for an inexperienced singer to be able to correctly sing the whole song.", "It's sang at most sporting events and many other situations. Not sure where you heard this. \n\nI wouldn't say it is very hard but it certainly benefits from a skilled singer." ]

[ "time, John Howard. He said, \"the public will not be able to sing along. The anthem should only be played and sung to allow maximum audience participation. It is after all our national anthem and I don't think it should be played around with. It's become widely accepted and I think people should be encouraged to sing it with great gusto, but it's got to be played in a way that enables them to do so. Most of us are pretty inadequate singers at the best of times and trying to keep pace with that, I don't know about you", "the United States are divided on the intended meaning of the anthem. Some believe it salutes military and police officers who have died on duty; for others, it honors the United States generally. Between 2012 and 2015, the Department of Defense gave $6.8 million to teams across all major sports in exchange for holding various military and patriotic events at their games, including the performance of the national anthem.\nKaepernick and his 49ers teammate Eric Reid say they choose to kneel during the anthem to call attention to the issues of racial inequality and police brutality. \"After hours of careful consideration,", "should go down and live in Cuba or Iran, then have them come back and see if their attitude has changed.\" The college, loosely affiliated with Mennonite Church USA, which is traditionally a peace church, published an online fact sheet stating that \"historically, playing the national anthem has not been among Goshen College's practices because of our Christ-centered core value of compassionate peacemaking seeming to be in conflict with the anthem’s militaristic language.\"\nThe college's then president, Dr. James E. Brenneman, announced on August 19, 2011 that as an alternative, \"America the Beautiful\" would be played before select athletic events.", "within a state, the state's citizenry may interpret the national anthem differently (such as in the United States some view the U.S. national anthem as representing respect for dead soldiers and policemen whereas others view it as honoring the country generally). Creators Most of the best-known national anthems were written by little-known or unknown composers such as Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, composer of \"La Marseillaise\" and John Stafford Smith who wrote the tune for \"The Anacreontic Song\", which became the tune for the U.S. national anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner.\" The author of \"God Save the Queen\", one of the", "anthem, because of the struggle faced by African Americans at the time: \"I couldn't stand there and sing the words because I don't believe they're true. I wish they were. I believe we have the potential to have a beautiful country, but I don't think we do.\" The pair were banned from future Olympic competition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). IOC president Avery Brundage deemed it to be a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were intended to be. Since John Smith had pulled a hamstring 80 meters into the final while leading", "an apology letter to the country through the Interior Ministry. In addition, the national anthem is sometimes used as a tool against people who might not be \"true Mexicans\". In one case, a young man of Afro-Mexican descent was stopped by police and forced to sing the national anthem to prove his nationality. In a separate incident in Japan, police officers asked four men to sing the Mexican national anthem after they were arrested in Tokyo on charges of breaking and entering. However, when the men could not sing the song, it was discovered that they were Colombians holding forged", "from Texas.\" In addition, the Department of State offers several Spanish translations of the anthem on its website.\nOn 4 May 2006, comedian Jon Stewart called the controversy over the translation \"unbelievably stupid,\" and jokingly suggested that the first verse (the only verse commonly sung) be kept in English, and that the other verses be given to \"whoever wants [them],\" because those are the verses \"Americans don't want or won't sing,\" alluding to the stereotype that undocumented immigrants take the jobs that other Americans don't want.\nOn the second season of Mind of Mencia, comedian Carlos Mencia decodes the first verse of", "Steve Thompson, Zurlon Tipton, Kevin Turner, Bill Wade, Fulton Walker, Tray Walker, Elmer Wingate, Al Wistert, John Wittenborn, George Yarno. National anthem protests In 2016, several professional athletes have protested the United States national anthem. The protests began in the NFL after San Francisco 49ers' quarterback Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before a preseason game. Atlanta Falcons The Atlanta Falcons played their 25th and final season at the Georgia Dome, with the team's new home field, Mercedes-Benz Stadium, slated to open in 2017. Minnesota Vikings The Minnesota Vikings played their first season", "time, a national poll found the song to be the number-one most recognized song about America, more than \"God Bless America\". It also became the anthem of his world tour two weeks after the attacks on America on September 11, 2001, when he changed the lyric at the end from; \"They're coming to America\", to \"Stand up for America!\" Earlier that year he performed it after a request from former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali.\nThe film's failure was due in part to Diamond never having acted professionally before. \"I didn't think I could handle it,\" he said later, seeing himself as", "3, 1929, he drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon saying \"Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem.\" Despite the widespread belief that \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", with its lyrics by Francis Scott Key set to the music of the English drinking song \"To Anacreon in Heaven\", was the United States national anthem, Congress had never officially made it so. In 1931, John Philip Sousa published his opinion in favor of giving the song official status, stating that \"it is the spirit of the music that inspires\" as much as it is Key's \"soul-stirring\" words. By a law signed", "de facto anthem: \"It's pretty rare, because any other projects that we've done, I don't think any of us have ever had that song that was like, 'This is our band,'\" Antonoff said. \"We're proud to say, 'Listen to this one song, and then come listen to the rest. Here it is.'\" Critical reception \"We Are Young\" has received critical acclaim. Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone called the song \"rollickingly catchy,\" writing that \"Ruess' knack for the anthemic is matched by Gen-Y humor – emo self-deprecation that leavens the bombast.\" In addition, fellow Rolling Stone columnist Steve Knopper compared the", "U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present) Background It is a tradition in the United States to play \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", the national anthem, before sporting events. According to the United States Code, those present should stand at attention with right hand over heart. National Football League (NFL) players were not mandated to be on the field for the playing of the national anthem until 2009. In 2016 the NFL stated that \"players are encouraged but not required to stand during the playing of the National Anthem\"; its game operations manual reads that players \"should stand\" for the anthem.\nThe people of", "for its political use by supporters of illegal immigrants and more liberalized immigration policies. Others criticize the rendition, believing that any variation from the official version demeans a near-sacred symbol to some Americans. According to Victor Martinez of LaLey and Radio Mex in Atlanta, Georgia, \"The flag, and the country's national anthem are sacred. You shouldn't touch them. You shouldn't change them.\"\nAnother critic of the new version is Charles Key, great-great-grandson of Francis Scott Key, whose poem \"Defense of Fort McHenry\" was set to music as \"The Star-Spangled Banner.\" Key has commented that he \"think[s] it's a despicable thing that", "but gee I couldn't\".\nThe NSW Opposition Leader of the time, John Brogden was quoted to say \"it is simply a bad piece of music. I think it actually strangles the national anthem, which is what I think is upsetting people the most. It's not like it's a slight change on the version that people are willing to entertain for a party. What it is on this occasion is a very bad piece of music and that's why I think the public anger has been so strong. I think people actually regard the treatment of the national anthem as disrespectful, cause", "willing.\nAuthor Shashi Tharoor argues that an Earth Anthem sung by people across the world can inspire planetary consciousness and global citizenship among people.", "most highly regarded version of our lifetimes,\" ranked second in his 'The 10 Best National Anthems Ever' list. Mike Vaccaro of New York Post recalled the performance that \"Not only because she [Houston] was at her peak that January of 1991, not only because we were at war, but she hits the final note ('brave') in a different way than almost anyone else who’s ever tried to sing it, and it is unforgettable,\" choosing it as his all time number-one favorite among the national anthems. Both Jack Yacks and Gary Mills of The Florida Times-Union described the song as \"the", "last 4 bars, of the National Anthem\". Criticism In the 1933 Dáil debate on the state's acquisition of the song's copyright, there was discussion of its merits or lack thereof. Frank MacDermot said, 'Leaving out sentiment, I must confess, from both a literary and a musical point of view, I would regard the \"Soldier's Song\" as, shall we say, a jaunty little piece of vulgarity, and I think we could have done a lot better.' Thomas F. O'Higgins responded, \"National Anthems come about, not because of the suitability of the particular words or notes, but because they are adopted generally", "errors, changed or forgotten lyrics Perhaps the most notorious rendition of the national anthem was sung by comedian Roseanne Barr at a San Diego Padres baseball game in July 1990. Barr screeched the lyrics out loud (claiming that there was an audio problem) as the crowd heckled her and threw objects onto the field in her direction in disgust. She also made several gestures associated with baseball players (such as adjusting one's protective cup and spitting on the ground), which further drew widespread complaints, including those from President George H.W. Bush. Barr has not been asked to sing again at", "The reason it was prerecorded was, that was a moment that no one wanted any mistakes. They didn't want any feedback, they didn't want any technical difficulties ... and it was great.\" \nIn later years, when controversies arose involving lip-syncing by performers, Houston's Super Bowl performance was sometimes mentioned. When Jennifer Hudson delivered a lip-syncing of \"The Star Spangled Banner\" at Super Bowl XLIII in February 2009, it caused some controversy. David Hinckley of New York Daily News remarked, \"The national anthem is different. Yes, it's a musical performance and yes, we're interested in how a Jennifer Hudson will interpret", "someone is going into our society from another country and ... changing our national anthem.\"\nDuring a press conference on 28 April 2006, President George W. Bush commented, \"I think people who want to be a citizen of this country ought to learn English. And they ought to learn to sing the anthem in English.\" However, author Kevin Phillips has noted that \"[w]hen visiting cities like Chicago, Milwaukee, or Philadelphia, in pivotal states, he would drop in at Hispanic festivals and parties, sometimes joining in singing \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" in Spanish, sometimes partying with a \"Viva Bush\" mariachi band flown in", "People were considered part of the anti-war music groups and were featured on both the Tonight Show (Johnny Carson) and the Smothers Brother's Comedy Hour. \"Anthem\", one of their most popular pieces, was banned in several cities due to the anti-war lyrics that had made it popular.\nHello People performed as Todd Rundgren's back-up band and background vocalists on some of his early tours in the 1970s. They also were part of his Back to the Bars tour, singing background vocals and doing mime routines. They also were the main focus for TEAC's \"Homemade With TEAC\" LP, being", "it became a staple of Washington-area sporting events as well. Yelling \"O!\" during the national anthem has caused controversy when used at Washington sports events in the past, and the yelling of \"O!\" during the anthem at Nationals games, even when the Nationals were not hosting the Orioles, reignited such controversy because some Nationals fans resent importing Orioles traditions into Nationals baseball culture and some sports fans view the shouting of \"O!\" during the national anthem at any sporting event as disrespectful of the American flag. Other fans disagree, arguing that many fans never understood or have forgotten the connection", "heard after September 11, 2001, as U.S. senators and congressmen stood on the capitol steps and sang it after the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. It is often played by sports teams such as major league baseball. The Philadelphia Flyers hockey team started playing it before crucial contests. When the 1980 U.S. Olympic hockey team pulled off the \"greatest upset in sports history,\" referred to as the \"Miracle on Ice\", the players spontaneously sang it as Americans were overcome by patriotism. Other songs Though most of his works for the Broadway stage took the form of revues—collections of", "American ideals we all hold close to our hearts – freedom, liberty and equality.\" Project events The National Anthem Project toured the United States in 2006, making \"Road Show\" stops in every state and Washington, D.C. The Road Shows featured music performances by student ensembles, an interactive education center, and music education advocacy materials. Visitors were encouraged to try singing \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" to test themselves on its lyrics. At each stop, one singer was designated a winner and given $1000 to donate to the local school music program of his or her choice.\nHaving concluded its Road Show, the National", "playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegiance versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9/11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the national anthem became nearly universal.\nSince 1998, federal law (viz., the United States", "and parade song of Confederate troops. However, in 1950 Richard Harwell wrote: \"[Dixie] can hardly be said to meet the requirements of a national anthem, [although] it has become a truly national tune, permanently enshrined in the hearts of Americans in both the North and the South. That honor rightly belongs to 'God Save the South' not just by virtue of its status as the new nation's first published song but also because of its stirring poetry and its outstanding musical setting.\" Composition While the anthem mostly used Ellerbrock's music, it was also set to the tune of the British", "used at Yankee Stadium, mainly at Old Timer's Day.\nMerrill preferred a traditional approach to the song, devoid of additional ornamentation, as he explained to Newsday in 2000, \"When you sing the anthem, there's a legitimacy to it. I'm extremely bothered by these different interpretations of it.\" Merrill appeared as himself in a cameo role, singing the national anthem, in the 2003 film Anger Management. Merrill joked that an entire generation of people know him as \"The 'Say-Can-You-See' guy!\" (Agmazine, April 1996). Personal life While there has been dispute regarding his birth year (some claim he was born in 1919), the", "reflected he could not stand again and sing the anthem like he did 20 years earlier. \"I know that I am a black man in a white world.\" Similarly, Colin Kaepernick and others protested against police brutality and racism against African-Americans in the United States.", "Most national anthems are pompous, brassy, ceremonious, but this is genuinely thrilling. Very important in the song ... is the line 'before us is tyranny, the bloody standard of tyranny has risen'. There is no more ferocious tyranny right now than ISIS, so it's extremely easy for the tragically and desperately grieving French to identify with that\".", "bands and artists as Boyzone, B*Witched and Peter Andre and Backstreet Boys. His rendition of the US National Anthem has garnered such respect that he has even been invited to sing it for President George W. Bush at the Annual White House Christmas Pageant of Peace and Tree Lighting Ceremony in Washington, D.C." ]

[ "I’m just guessing here, but it seems to me that longer words allow for more patterns to be recognized. That is to say attraction may be noticed due to seeing “att” or “tion” or “action” or “trac” and probably a few more whereas arm has... well... “arm”.", "The same reason you could pick an obese person out of a crowd of normal sized people faster than a skinny one.\n\nThey take up more space so they're easier to notice." ]

[ "be solved. The shallow search is because the Maven author argues that, due to the fast turnover of letters in one's bag, it is typically not useful to look more than 2-ply deep, because if one instead looked, e.g. 4-ply, the variance of rewards will be larger and the simulations will take several times longer, while only helping in a few exotic situations: \"We maintain that if it requires an extreme situation like CACIQUE to see the value of a four-ply simulation then they are not worth doing.\" As the board value can be evaluated with very high accuracy in", "may be more trouble than it is worth.\nAs a result, even though in theory other search algorithms may be faster than linear search (for instance binary search), in practice even on medium-sized arrays (around 100 items or less) it might be infeasible to use anything else. On larger arrays, it only makes sense to use other, faster search methods if the data is large enough, because the initial time to prepare (sort) the data is comparable to many linear searches", "from a word list must be circled or crossed through in the puzzle. There is also one or more extra word or phrase hidden in the puzzle that is not in the word list. This word or phrase usually answers the trivia question at the bottom of the page. Snaking puzzles Some word search puzzles are snaking puzzles, in which the word is not a straight vertical, horizontal, or diagonal line, but \"bends\" at 90 degrees at any given letter. These are much more difficult than conventional puzzles. The difficulty level is further heightened when the next letter", "long words. The inevitable problem of pronounceability is solved by breaking very long words up into smaller clusters of letters called \"subwords\", which nonetheless have no meaning outside of the word they belong to and are not interchangeable.\nLength of words, like everything else in Ptydepe, is determined scientifically. The vocabulary of Ptydepe uses entropy encoding: shorter words have more common meanings. Therefore, the shortest word in Ptydepe, gh, corresponds to what is so far known to be the most general term in natural language, whatever. (The longest word in Ptydepe, which contains 319 letters, is the word for \"wombat\" in", "an inherent, relatively high, probability within the document structure that words used together are related. On the other hand, when two words are on the opposite ends of a book, the probability of a relationship between the words is relatively weak. By limiting search results to only include matches where the words are within the specified maximum proximity, or distance, the search results are assumed to be of higher relevance than the matches where the words are scattered.\nCommercial internet search engines tend to produce too many matches (known as recall) for the average search query. Proximity searching is one method", "Word search A word search, word find, word seek, word sleuth or mystery word puzzle is a word game that consists of the letters of words placed in a grid, which usually has a rectangular or square shape. The objective of this puzzle is to find and mark all the words hidden inside the box. The words may be placed horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. Often a list of the hidden words is provided, but more challenging puzzles may not provide a list. Many word search puzzles have a theme to which all the hidden words are related such as", "are usually better than large ones, as they correspond to constraints that are easier to violate. On the other hand, finding a small inconsistent subset of the current partial evaluation may require time, and the benefit may not be balanced by the subsequent reduction of the search time.\nSize is however not the only feature of learned constraints to take into account. Indeed, a small constraint may be useless in a particular state of the search space because the values that violate it will not be encountered again. A larger constraint whose violating values are more similar to the current partial", "end in -gry, it is a simple question asking you what the third word in the sentence is. As you take tests, remember this. Similar puzzles There are numerous similar puzzles, giving letter sequences that rarely occur in words. The most-notable of these is the -dous puzzle of finding words ending in -dous, which was popular in the 1880s. This took various forms, sometimes simply listing all words or all common words, sometimes being posed as a riddle, giving the three common words, tremendous, stupendous, and hazardous, and requesting the rarer fourth, which is jeopardous. This form originated in 1883,", "food, animals, or colors. The puzzles have, like crosswords and arrowords, become very popular. Also in common with these latter puzzles, have had complete books and mobile applications devoted to them. \nWord searches are commonplace in newspapers and magazines. Strategies A common strategy for finding all the words is to go through the puzzle left to right (or vice versa) and look for the first letter of the word (if a word list is provided). After finding the letter, one should look at the eight surrounding letters to see whether the next letter of the word is there. One", "intersections of words are valid. Fill-in crosswords may often have longer word length than regular crosswords to make the crossword easier to solve, and symmetry is often disregarded. Fitting together several long words is easier than fitting together several short words because there are fewer possibilities for how the long words intersect together. These types of crosswords are also used to demonstrate artificial intelligence abilities, such as finding solutions to the puzzle based on a set of determined constraints. Crossnumbers A crossnumber (also known as a cross-figure) is the numerical analogy of a crossword, in which the solutions to the", "method several times. Deeper recursion Some puzzles may require to go deeper with searching for the contradictions. This is, however, not possible simply by a pen and pencil, because of the many possibilities that must be searched. This method is practical for a computer to use. Multiple rows In some cases, reasoning over a set of rows may also lead to the next step of the solution even without contradictions and deeper recursion. However, finding such sets is usually as difficult as finding contradictions. Multiple solutions There are puzzles that have several feasible solutions (one such is a picture of", "answers for gry. The most plausible answer at the time was meagry, found in the Oxford English Dictionary. A more elaborate strategy is to list words that have endings similar to gry, such as -gary, and then search a larger dictionary for obsolete variants ending in -gry, for example begry for beggary.\nFrom around 1980 electronic word lists became widely available on Unix systems, and searching for answers to the gry puzzle was an occasional benchmark; this also turned up gryphon in some cases, if match is not required to be at the end. This is now easily done in milliseconds", "so that they can be solved from either side. This adds a level of complexity, because it cannot be certain that the correct side of the piece is being viewed and assembled with the other pieces.\n\"Family puzzles\" come in 100–550 pieces with three different-sized pieces from large to small. The pieces are placed from large to small, going in one direction or towards the middle of the puzzle. This allows a family of puzzlers of different skill levels and different-sized hands to work on the puzzle at the same time. Companies like Springbok, Cobble Hill, Ravensburger, and Suns Out", "can then continue this method until the entire word is found.\nAnother strategy is to look for 'outstanding' letters within the word one is searching for (if a word list is provided). Since most word searches use capital letters, it is easiest to spot the letters that stand out from others. These letters include Q, J, X, and Z.\nLastly, the strategy of looking for double letters in the word being searched for (if a word list is provided) proves helpful, because it is easier to spot two identical side-by-side letters among a large grid of random letters.\nIf a word list is", "this approach are that it is simple, fast, and easily handles exceptions. The disadvantages are that all inflected forms must be explicitly listed in the table: new or unfamiliar words are not handled, even if they are perfectly regular (e.g. cats ~ cat), and the table may be large. For languages with simple morphology, like English, table sizes are modest, but highly inflected languages like Turkish may have hundreds of potential inflected forms for each root.\nA lookup approach may use preliminary part-of-speech tagging to avoid overstemming. The production technique The lookup table used by a stemmer is generally produced semi-automatically.", "not provided, a way to find words is to go row by row. First, all the horizontal rows should be read both backwards and forwards, then the vertical, and so on. Sometimes the puzzle itself will help. The puzzles generated by a computer tend to put words in patterns. Furthermore, the bigger the words and the more words, the easier they are to spot. In some computer-generated puzzles, if the person solving the puzzle sees one word, all they have to do to find more is to look in adjacent rows, columns, or diagonals. The puzzle might", "much shorter, although storing the dictionary itself will cost some space. However, the more repeats there are in the string, the better the compression will be.\nOur algorithm can do better though, if it can view the string in chunks larger than 4 characters. Then it can put 12349999 and 1234 into the dictionary, giving us:\n@0@0@1\nEven shorter. Now consider another string:\n1234999988884321\nThis string is incompressible by our algorithm. The only repeats that occur are 88 and 99. If we were to store 88 and 99 in our dictionary, we would produce:\n1234@1@1@0@04321\nUnfortunately this is just as long as the", "words. The differences between a Roget-style thesaurus and a dictionary would be the indexing and information given; the words in thesaurus are grouped by meaning, usually without definitions, while the latter is by alphabetical order with definitions. When users are unable to find a word in a dictionary, it is usually due to the constraint of searching alphabetically by common and well-known headwords and the use of a thesaurus eliminates this issue by allowing users to search for a word through another word based on concept.\nForeign language learners can make use of thesaurus to find near synonyms of a word", "can be at 45 degrees, and using the same letter more than once is permitted, too. Snaking puzzles either hide words in a random fashion, or are designed to trace out a path in a definite shape, like a square, rectangle, horseshoe, or donut. Teaching Word search puzzles are often used in a teaching or classroom environment, especially in language and foreign language classrooms. Some teachers, particularly those specializing in English as a Second Language (ESL), use word search puzzles as an instructional tool. Other teachers use them as a recreational activity for students, instead.\nOn a more advanced", "or she will probably be able to interpret a noun string without too much difficulty. When strings become longer than three words, they can make readers labor. This is particularly true when the reader is not already familiar with the subject or technical domain.\nBecause of this problem, overly long noun strings are increasingly recognized as a problem in technical and business writing. For instance, a noun string like \"Municipal Solid Waste Classification Methodology\" though not incomprehensible, is at least irritating to most readers. According to Burnett, strings of five words or more are open to several different interpretations and can", "requires reducing words to a skeletal form and applying pattern-matching algorithms.\nIt might seem logical that where spell-checking dictionaries are concerned, \"the bigger, the better,\" so that correct words are not marked as incorrect. In practice, however, an optimal size for English appears to be around 90,000 entries. If there are more than this, incorrectly spelled words may be skipped because they are mistaken for others. For example, a linguist might determine on the basis of corpus linguistics that the word baht is more frequently a misspelling of bath or bat than a reference to the Thai currency. Hence, it would", "the key size or the word size is very large relative to the number of items (or equivalently when the number of items is small), it may again become possible to sort quickly, using different algorithms that take advantage of the parallelism inherent in the ability to perform arithmetic operations on large words.\nAn early result in this direction was provided by Ajtai, Fredman & Komlós (1984) using the cell-probe model of computation (an artificial model in which the complexity of an algorithm is measured only by the number of memory accesses it performs). Building on their work, Fredman & Willard", "The Easy difficulty is easy for young players, as there is only one predetermined Gruzzle in the level. The Hard difficulty, however, often has as many or more Gruzzles as there are words to find and 20 books must be collected to reveal the mystery word. This makes the game challenging even for adults.", "has a certain number of hint points that the player can used if stumped, but will also add a minute to the player's time. When a puzzle is completed the game will show the amount of time it took to complete, and give the player a grade. Word searches Word searches each have a certain category (i.e. \"animals\") that determine what kind of words the player will be searching for. Like a normal word search the word may appear forwards, backwards, or diagonally. The player touches the starting letter of the word, and drags the stylus to the ending letter", "members from the editor; a member directory; and book compilations of hard cryptograms and cryptic crosswords. Puzzles The Enigma specializes in the types of puzzles that flourished in the 19th century; the crossword, invented as late as 1913, is spurned by the journal, which relegates it to the category of \"extras\". However, all of its puzzles are based on wordplay and linguistics.\nThe NPL groups puzzles into four primary categories. The oldest two are the \"flat\" (which has a one-line answer) and the \"form\" (which has a multi-line answer). Flats (verse puzzles and anagrams) were a leading type of wordplay before", "comparisons is to search two or more languages for words that seem similar in their sound and meaning. While similarities of this kind often seem convincing to laypeople, linguistic scientists consider this kind of comparison to be unreliable for two primary reasons. First, the method applied is not well-defined: the criterion of similarity is subjective and thus not subject to verification or falsification, which is contrary to the principles of the scientific method. Second, the large size of all languages' vocabulary makes it easy to find coincidentally similar words between languages.\nBecause of its unreliability, the method of searching for isolated", "English words (or nonce words) have been proposed. The lack of a conclusive answer has ensured the enduring popularity of the puzzle, and it has become one of the most frequently asked word puzzles.\nThe ultimate origin and original form of the puzzle is unknown, but it was popularized in 1975, starting in the New York area, and has remained popular into the 21st century. Various similar puzzles exist, though these have straightforward answers. The most notable is \"words ending in -dous\", which has been popular since the 1880s. History There are anecdotal reports of various forms of the puzzle dating", "search is optimal (meaning the best moves are always searched first), the number of leaf node positions evaluated is about O(b×1×b×1×...×b) for odd depth and O(b×1×b×1×...×1) for even depth, or . In the latter case, where the ply of a search is even, the effective branching factor is reduced to its square root, or, equivalently, the search can go twice as deep with the same amount of computation. The explanation of b×1×b×1×... is that all the first player's moves must be studied to find the best one, but for each, only the best second player's move is needed to refute", "should read all the words in the word list, then look at the puzzle. Once a word is found, circle each letter of the word or highlight it. The letters are used more than once so it’s recommended not to circle the entire word. It is best to find the long words first. As each word is found, strike it out from the list. Once every word is found, the remaining letters will spell out the solution, or “Wonderword” in order. Recognition Wonderword has done puzzles that have caught the attention of Boeing, Swarovski and Bill O’Reilly among others.", "Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the practice of combining words in various ways:\nYou see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word.\nIn his introduction to The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll uses portmanteau when discussing lexical selection:\nHumpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words \"fuming\" and \"furious\". Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced" ]

[ "Heh...so, here is something that, as an undergraduate in math, made me angry when I first came across it.\n\n0.99999... = 1\n\nThat infinitely small 0.000...1 isn't there, because there isn't a last 9. Your question is one way of showing that 0.999... = 1, actually.", "Because of the recurring 9 after the decimal point, 99.9999 = 100. Proof:\n\nX = 99.9999\n\n10X = 999.9999\n\n10X - X = 9X\n\n999.9999 - 99.9999\n\n=900\n\n900= 9X\n\n100 = X", "No, you're absolutely right. 3/3 is 0.999... repeating. It is also 1. They are the same number.\n\nThere is no infinitely small .000...1 at the end because there is no end. There is no measurable difference between the 2 numbers because they are the same number.", "Yes, and it would also equal 100%. The does .999... equal 1 question gets asked a lot, and the answer is, yes, it equals 1. It's not an approximation, .999... and 1 are the same number, mathematically provable.\n\nAnd before someone says something about hyperreals, let's just not go there.", "Okay so here we go\n\nx = .11111...\n\n10x = 1.1111...\n\n9x = 10x - x\n = 1\n\nHowever \n9x = .1111... x9\n = .9999...\n\nTherefore .9999... = 1", "There is no infinitely small 0.0000000...1, because that would imply it stopped repeating.\n\nRather, 99.99999....% (ad infinitum) is equal to 100%. Just like 33.33333....% is equal to one third." ]

[ "7). If \"50% +1\" is used, the number calculated would be 3.5+1, and thus a majority may be mistaken as 4.5, and by using Swedish rounding would be rounded up to 5. This confusion would exist for all odd numbers using the erroneous definition of \"50%+1\", though this can be fixed by remembering to always round down, in which case both odd and even numbers would work out correctly.\nIn another example, say a convention has 1000 delegates. Using the erroneous definition of 51% would result in a majority being mistaken as 510 instead of 501. The same logic applies for", " B. Divide by 2 starting at the left.\n 1. Divide 1 by 2 to get .5, rounded down to zero.\n 2. Divide 7 by 2 to get 3.5, rounded down to 3.\n 3. Divide 6 by 2 to get 3. Zero divided by two is simply zero.\nThe resulting number is 0330. (This is not the final answer, but a first approximation which will be adjusted in", " = 100\n13 (7+6) = 10×(a+b)\n 42 (7×6) = a×b\n272 (total) Multiplying two numbers close and below 100 This technique allows easy multiplication of numbers close and below 100.(90-99) The variables will be the two numbers you multiply.\nThe product of two variables ranging from 90-99 will result in a 4-digit number. The first step is to find the ones-digit and the tens digit.\nSubtract both variables from 100 which will result in 2 one-digit number. The product of the 2 one-digit", "that 10 is positioned as close to 100 as 100 is to 1000. Increasing education shifts this to a linear estimate (positioning 1000 10x as far away) in some circumstances, while logarithms are used when the numbers to be plotted are difficult to plot linearly. Probability theory and statistics Logarithms arise in probability theory: the law of large numbers dictates that, for a fair coin, as the number of coin-tosses increases to infinity, the observed proportion of heads approaches one-half. The fluctuations of this proportion about one-half are described by the law of the iterated logarithm.\nLogarithms also occur in", " As 5+9+4+2=20, the total mixture contains 5/20 of A (5 parts out of 20), 9/20 of B, 4/20 of C, and 2/20 of D. If we divide all numbers by the total and multiply by 100, we have converted to percentages: 25% A, 45% B, 20% C, and 10% D (equivalent to writing the ratio as 25∶45∶20∶10).\nIf the two or more ratio quantities encompass all of the quantities in a particular situation, it is said that \"the whole\" contains the sum of the parts: for example, a fruit basket containing two apples and three oranges and no other", "A count down until A reaches zero, at which point the prescaler is switched to a division ratio of M. At this point, the divider N has completed A counts. Counting continues until N reaches zero, which is an additional N - A counts. At this point the cycle repeats.\nSo while we still have a factor of M being multiplied by N, we can add an additional count, A, which effectively gives us a divider with a fractional part. Only the prescaler needs to be constructed from high-speed parts, and the reference frequency can remain equal to the desired output frequency spacing.\nThe", " 1 1 1\n − 1 0 1\n -----\n 1 0\nThus, the quotient of 11011₂ divided by 101₂ is 101₂, as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 10₂. In decimal, this corresponds to the fact that 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.\nAside from long division,", "= 1.79. Subtracting m from each value of the series gives mean adjusted series {-1,1,-1,-2,0,3}. To calculate cumulative deviate series we take the first value -1, then sum of the first two values -1+1=0, then sum of the first three values and so on to get {-1,0,-1,-3,-3,0}, range of which is R = 3, so the rescaled range is R/S = 1.68.\nIf we consider the same time series, but increase the number of observations of it, the rescaled range will generally also increase. The increase of the rescaled range can be characterized by making a plot of the logarithm", "dividend is copied down and appended to the result 15:\n 3 \n 37)1260257\n 111\n 150\nThe process repeats: the greatest multiple of 37 less than or equal to 150 is subtracted. This is 148 = 4 × 37, so a 4 is added to the top as the next quotient digit. Then the result of the subtraction is extended by another digit taken from the dividend:\n ", "34 \n 37)1260257\n 111\n 150\n 148\n 22\nThe greatest multiple of 37 less than or equal to 22 is 0 × 37 = 0. Subtracting 0 from 22 gives 22, we often don't write the subtraction step. Instead, we simply take another digit from the dividend:\n 340 \n 37)1260257\n ", "half-line (1,∞), where the ratio of 1 corresponds to equality. In an analysis where X and Y are treated symmetrically, the log-ratio log(X / Y) is zero in the case of equality, and it has the property that if X is K times greater than Y, the log-ratio is the equidistant from zero as in the situation where Y is K times greater than X (the log-ratios are log(K) and −log(K) in these two situations).\nIf values are naturally restricted to be in the range 0 to 1, not including the end-points, then a logit transformation may be appropriate: this yields values in", "6, 9, 12, etc.\nFactors - In this mode you find factors divisible by the number given. If the number is 12, you would choose to eat 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12.\nPrimes - This mode helps you find prime numbers that are only divisible by 1 and themselves. e.g., 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13.\nEquality - This mode gives you the chance to find equations equaling the current number. If given the number 6, you would 'munch' 3 x 2, 3 + 3, 12 / 2, and so on.\nInequality - This mode gives you the number and", "0 placed on top of the other number.\nTwo numbers can be multiplied as in this example: To multiply 5 × 3, note that this is the same as 5 + 5 + 5, so pick up the length from 0 to 5 and place it to the right of 5, and then pick up that length again and place it to the right of the previous result. This gives a result that is 3 combined lengths of 5 each; since the process ends at 15, we find that 5 × 3 = 15.\nDivision can be performed as in the following", "a number by 5,\n1. First multiply that number by 10, then divide it by 2. The two steps are interchangeable i.e. you can halve the number and then multiply it.\nThe following algorithm is a quick way to produce this result:\n2. Add a zero to right side of the desired number. (A.)\n3. Next, starting from the leftmost numeral, divide by 2 (B.)\nand append each result in the respective order to form a new number;(fraction answers should be rounded down to the nearest whole number).\nEXAMPLE: Multiply 176 by 5.\n A. Add a zero to 176 to make 1760.\n", "% This shortens the output.format long % This prints more decimal places.for i=1:1000 % get ready to do a large, but finite, number of iterations.\n % This is so that if the method fails to converge, we won't\n % be stuck in an infinite loop.\n p1=f(p0); % calculate the next two guesses for the fixed point.\n p2=f(p1);\n ", "1 7 3\nResult: 70 33 10 0 0 0 0 0 0\nSum: 70 + 33 + 10 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 113\nThe remainder of the division of 113 by 10 equals 3 (113 mod 10 = 3), and is also equal to the first", "is not changed. That\n final answer is 0880.\n The leftmost zero can be omitted, leaving 880.\n So 176 times 5 equals 880.\nEXAMPLE: Multiply 288 by 5.\nA. Divide 288 by 2. We can divide each digit individually to get 144. (Dividing smaller number is easier.)\nB. Multiply by 10. Add a zero to yield the result 1440. Multiplying by 9 Since 9 = 10 − 1, to multiply", "or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 10), one can imagine dividing that interval into ten pieces that overlap only at their endpoints: [0, 1], [1, 2], [2, 3], and so on up to [9, 10]. The number x must belong to one of these; if it belongs to [2, 3] then one records the digit \"2\" and subdivides that interval into [2, 2.1], [2.1, 2.2], ..., [2.8, 2.9], [2.9, 3]. Continuing this process yields an infinite sequence of nested intervals, labeled by an infinite sequence of digits b₀, b₁, b₂, b₃, ..., and one writes\nIn this", "the Trachtenberg system. It is intended to mean \"half the digit, rounded down\" but for speed reasons people following the Trachtenberg system are encouraged to make this halving process instantaneous. So instead of thinking \"half of seven is three and a half, so three\" it's suggested that one thinks \"seven, three\". This speeds up calculation considerably. In this same way the tables for subtracting digits from 10 or 9 are to be memorized.\nAnd whenever the rule calls for adding half of the neighbor, always add 5 if the current digit is odd. This makes up", "remember is that the factors of the operands still remain. For example, to say that 14 × 15 was 211 would be unreasonable. Since 15 is a multiple of 5, the product should be as well. Likewise, 14 is a multiple of 2, so the product should be even. Furthermore, any number which is a multiple of both 5 and 2 is necessarily a multiple of 10, and in the decimal system would end with a 0. The correct answer is 210. It is a multiple of 10, 7 (the other prime factor of 14) and 3 (the other prime", "same as that of decimal long division; here, the divisor 101₂ goes into the first three digits 110₂ of the dividend one time, so a \"1\" is written on the top line. This result is multiplied by the divisor, and subtracted from the first three digits of the dividend; the next digit (a \"1\") is included to obtain a new three-digit sequence:\n 1\n ___________\n1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1\n ", "and is unknown to his biographer, James Gleick. Related statistics π is conjectured to be, but not known to be, a normal number. For a randomly chosen normal number, the probability of a specific sequence of six digits occurring this early in the decimal representation is usually only about 0.08%. However, if the sequence can overlap itself (such as 123123 or 999999) then the probability is less. The probability of six 9's in a row this early is about 10% less, or 0.0686%. But the probability of a repetition of any digit six times starting in the first 762 digits", "fraction are equal to each other, then the fraction is equal to one. So as long as the numerator and denominator of the fraction are equivalent, they will not affect the value of the measured quantity.\nThe following example demonstrates how the unity bracket method is used to convert the rate 5 kilometers per second to meters per second. The symbols km, m, and s represent kilometer, meter, and second, respectively.\nThus, it is found that 5 kilometers per second is equal to 5000 meters per second. Software tools There are many conversion tools. They are found in the function libraries of", "rounding), namely the 5th, 10th, 20th, or 40th root of 10 (approximately 1.58, 1.26, 1.12, and 1.06, respectively), which leads to a geometric sequence. This way, the maximum relative error is minimized if an arbitrary number is replaced by the nearest Renard number multiplied by the appropriate power of 10. One application of the Renard series of numbers is to current rating of electric fuses.", "(for example fuses) or are defined in relevant product standards (for example IEC 60228 for wires). Overview The E series of preferred numbers were chosen such that when a component is manufactured that it will end up in a range of roughly equally spaced values on a logarithmic scale. Each E series subdivides the interval from 1 to 10 (decade) into steps of 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192. Subdivisions of E3 to E192 ensure the maximum error will be divided in the order of 40%, 20%, 10%, 5%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%. Also, the E192 series is used for 0.25% and", "multiple of 5 is more \"convenient\" to measure or verify than one which is not. In addition, where operations involve the subdivision of quantities into two or more equal parts, any number that is highly divisible has an explicit advantage.\"", "rules: Half- and quarter-points By the middle of the 18th century, the 32-point system had been further extended by using half- and quarter-points to give a total of 128 directions.\nThese fractional points are named by appending, for example east, east, or east to the name of one of the 32 points. Each of the 96 fractional points can be named in two ways, depending on which of the two adjoining whole points is used, for example, NE is equivalent to NbEN. Either form is easily understood but alternative conventions as to correct usage developed in different countries and organisations. \"It", "is given in the remainder of the paper. In attempting to determine this ratio afresh, from published data on real buildings, they found it impossible to reproduce the 1:5:200 ratio, in part because the data and methodology employed by Evans et al. were not published and in part because the definitions employed in the original paper could not be applied. The ratios that they determined were different by an order of magnitude from the 1:5:200 ratio, being approximately 1:0.4:12. They observed that \"everyone else who deals with real numbers\" pitches the percentage somewhere between 10% and 30%, and that their", "and 10 are added to get a sum of 40 and then 10 is divided by 40, giving 0.25, or 25%.\nTo convert any percentage or fraction to the equivalent odds, the numerator is subtracted from the denominator and then this difference is divided by the numerator. For example, to convert 25%, or 1/4, 1 is subtracted from 4 to get 3 (or 25 from 100 to get 75) and then 3 is divided by 1 (or 75 by 25), giving 3, or 3:1. Using pot odds to determine expected value When a player holds a drawing hand (a hand that", "above process. One aligns two decimal fractions above each other, with the decimal point in the same location. If necessary, one can add trailing zeros to a shorter decimal to make it the same length as the longer decimal. Finally, one performs the same addition process as above, except the decimal point is placed in the answer, exactly where it was placed in the summands.\nAs an example, 45.1 + 4.34 can be solved as follows:\n 4 5 . 1 0\n+ 0 4 . 3 4\n————————————\n 4 9 . 4 4 Computers Analog computers work directly" ]

[ "Salt, like you said, was very expensive and countries producing salt were one of biggest (like France, or Poland). What changed? Industrial Era. \n\nFirst what you need to know is how rock salt is obtained. There are two methods, one is regular mining, like with coal, or gold. When you find vain, you can dig tones of salt without any problem. Scale is the biggest factor here. You don't need so many (relatively inefficient) miners, like in, let's say, medieval ages. \n\nSecond method is finding vein and pumping there water, creating brine (I think that's how it's called in English) and then evaporate unnecessary water. \n\nAnd sea salt is similar, but in this case concentration of salt is much, much lower (depends on water, but less than 1%), so it's much less cost effective. You need much more water, and problem with water is high heat capacity, so you need a lot of energy to evaporate it. Second problem with seawater is that there is many impurities. You need clean seawater, because you don't want people eating toxins. \n\nAnd there is whole marketing around sea salt, what is bumping price too." ]

[ "common table salt. There is no scientific evidence to support such assertions. Due mainly to marketing costs, pink Himalayan salt is up to 20 times more expensive than table salt or sea salt.\nBlocks of salt are used as serving dishes, baking stones, and griddles. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration warned a manufacturer about marketing the salt as a dietary supplement with unproven claims of health benefits. \nHimalayan salt is used to make \"salt lamps\", wherein light bulbs are placed within hollowed blocks of Himalayan salt to radiate a pinkish hue. There is no evidence that", "in 2000. This increase was in part due to development of salt manufacture from mineral and lake sources. However, despite high production figures, salt prices remain expensive in China as a result of the salt monopoly; whilst average salt consumption as a percentage of personal income in the United States, France and Australia are 0.06%, 0.04% and 0.04% respectively, this value is 0.12% in China. Management The pricing of salt is set uniformly at a national level by China Salt, which centrally makes all decisions regarding market pricing. All legally manufactured table salt is branded as \"China Salt\" before shipments", "Himalayan salt, Maras salt from the ancient Inca hot springs, or rock salt (halite).\nBlack lava salt is a marketing term for sea salt harvested from various places around the world that has been blended and colored with activated charcoal. The salt is used as a decorative condiment to be shown at the table. Health The health consequences of eating sea salt or regular table salt are the same, as the content of sea salt is still mainly sodium chloride. Table salt is more processed than sea salt to eliminate minerals and usually contains an additive such as silicon dioxide to", "Sea salt Sea salt is salt that is produced by the evaporation of seawater. It is used as a seasoning in foods, cooking, cosmetics and for preserving food. It is also called bay salt, solar salt, or salt. Like mined rock salt, production of sea salt has been dated to prehistoric times. There is no scientific evidence that consuming sea salt instead of more refined sodium chloride salts has any health benefit. Taste Some gourmets believe sea salt tastes better and has a better texture than ordinary table salt. In applications that retain sea salt's coarser texture, it can provide", "salt becoming much cheaper and available than the past, has seen a rise in use in other areas. Usually temperatures of approximately 200º C are used in baking of the salt encrusted fish with the fish being flavoured and seasoned before being covered in the mixture of egg whites and salt. The head and tail are left uncovered and is baked until the crust is golden brown. To serve, the crust is broken and the moistness should be preserved.  Vegetables such as celeriac and beetroot are now being seen being baked in a salt crust as well. For beetroot, the", "experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, equivalent to 5 grams of salt per day. History All through history, the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization. What is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, which was a salt mine, providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC. Even the name Solnitsata means \"salt works\".\nWhile people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred", "The salt-crusted fish has appeared in many different countries such as France, Italy, Spain and China. A huge amount of salt is needed to prepare the dish, and as such even a few hundred years ago it was very expensive, due to salt being a rare commodity in that time period. Earlier than that, the dish would have been reserved only for the wealthy and the prosperous. Nowadays, it can easily be produced at home or in restaurants. By drizzling the crust in alcohol, restaurants burn the crust before being presented to the customer in flames. \nThe first recorded reference", "on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride. Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Iodized salt, containing potassium iodide, is widely available. Some people put a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker, in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form. Fortified table salt Some table salt sold for", "prevent clumping.\nIodine, an element essential for human health, is present only in small amounts in sea salt. Iodised salt is table salt mixed with a minute amount of various salts of the element iodine.\nStudies have found some microplastic contamination in sea salt from the US, Europe and China. Sea salt has also been shown to be contaminated by fungi that can cause food spoilage as well as some that may be mycotoxigenic.\nIn traditional Korean cuisine, jugyeom (죽염, 竹鹽), which means \"bamboo salt\", is prepared by roasting salt at temperatures between 800 and 2000 °C in a bamboo container plugged", "History of salt Salt, also referred to as table salt or by its chemical formula NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. All life has evolved to depend on its chemical properties to survive. It has been used by humans for thousands of years, from food preservation to seasoning. Salt's ability to preserve food was a founding contributor to the development of civilization. It helped to eliminate dependence on seasonal availability of food, and made it possible to transport food over large distances. However, salt was often difficult to obtain, so it was a highly valued", "hanging on wooden scaffolding or lying on clean cliffs or rocks near the seaside.\nDrying preserves many nutrients, and the process of salting and drying codfish is said to make it tastier. Salting became economically feasible during the 17th century, when cheap salt from southern Europe became available to the maritime nations of northern Europe. The method was cheap and the work could be done by the fisherman or his family. The resulting product was easily transported to market, and salt cod became a staple item in the diet of the populations of Catholic countries on 'meatless' Fridays and during Lent.", "Salt Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of solids per liter of sea water, a salinity of 3.5%.\nSalt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is", "salt tax as salt deficiency was not often recorded as a cause of death and was instead more likely to worsen the effects of other diseases and hinder recoveries. It is known that the equalisation of tax made salt cheaper on the whole, decreasing the tax imposed on 130 million people and increasing it on just 47 million, leading to an increase in the use of the mineral. Consumption grew by 50 percent between 1868 and 1888 and doubled by 1911, by which time salt had become cheaper (relatively) than at any earlier stage of Indian history.\nThe rate of salt tax", "expensive meals. The richer the host, and the more prestigious the guest, the more elaborate would be the container in which it was served and the higher the quality and price of the salt. Wealthy guests were seated \"above the salt\", while others sat \"below the salt\", where salt cellars were made of pewter, precious metals or other fine materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a diner also decided how finely ground and white the salt was. Salt for cooking, preservation or for use by common people was coarser; sea salt, or \"bay salt\", in particular, had more impurities,", "condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments. Sodium consumption and health Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6 g serving (1 teaspoon) contains about 2,400 mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of", "salt. Airlines utilize more glycol and sugar rather than salt based solutions for de-icing. Food industry and agriculture Many microorganisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage.\nSalt is added to food, either by the food producer or by the consumer, as a flavor enhancer, preservative, binder, fermentation-control additive, texture-control agent and color developer. The salt consumption in the food industry is subdivided, in descending order of consumption, into other food processing, meat packers, canning, baking,", "regulatory agencies and clinical organizations, the European Food Safety Authority, the US Centers for Disease Control, and the American Heart Association recommend that consumers use less salt in their diets, mainly to reduce the risk of high blood pressure and associated cardiovascular diseases in adults and children. The World Health Organization issued a 2016 fact sheet to encourage reducing global salt consumption by 30% through 2025.\nIn 2015, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention began an initiative encouraging Americans to reduce their consumption of salty foods. The American Heart Association defined a daily sodium consumption limit of 1500", "and is therefore less salty than an equal volume measurement of table salt. Different brands of salt vary dramatically in density; for one brand the same volume measure may contain twice as much salt (by mass) as for another brand. Brining / kashering meat The coarse-grained salt is used to create a dry brine, which increases succulence and flavor and satisfies some religious requirements, sometimes with flavor additions such as herbs, spices or sugar. The meat is typically soaked in cool water, drained, completely covered with a thin layer of salt, and then allowed to stand on a rack or", "establish new consumption standards for salt to reduce the amount of sodium in the typical American diet below levels associated with higher risk of several cardiovascular diseases, yet maintain consumer preferences for salt-flavored food. The daily maximum for sodium in the United States had been above estimated minimums for decades. For instance, the National Research Council found that 500 milligrams of sodium per day (approximately 1,250 milligrams of table salt) is a safe minimum level. In the United Kingdom, the daily allowance for salt is 6 g (approximately 2.5 teaspoons, about the upper limit in the U.S.), an amount considered \"too", "Consumers near the sea were taxed much higher, for example, this fact would be motivational to everyone to inspire them to evaporate their own salt, while in places where no salt was produced too high a tax would drive consumption down thereby reducing the revenues made. By this act of fine tuning the Chinese salt tax the Imperial Treasury of China kept up a steady flow of income of significant proportions.\nThe 5th of the imperial revenue sources was also by far the most diversified. These were the \"miscellaneous taxes and duties\", this category included everything imaginable to be taxed. There", "saltpeter.\" Salt curing Salt (sodium chloride) is a primary ingredient used to cure fish and other foods. Removal of water and addition of salt to fish creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic pressure draws water out of microorganisms, retarding their growth. Doing this requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%. Iodized table salt may be used, but the iodine generally causes a dark end product and a bitter taste. Non-iodized salts like those used for canning and pickling foods and sea salt are the preferred types of salt to use for curing meats. Sugar curing Sugar is sometimes", "it would be able to stored for longer times due to the preservative nature of salt. \nIn Japan salt is even considered sacred as they believe salt is cleansing and is often a defining flavour of Japanese dishes. It plays a major role in the making of dried fish and in the pickling of vegetables. Turkey is also another important meat which old villages utilised the salt crust to not only to hold in all the juices but also so that the crust could be sealed and marked preventing tampering. Chicken baked in a salt crust is", "by those of the food ingredients. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.\nHimalayan salt is known for its distinct pink hue. It is used in cooking as a substitute for table salt. Is it also used as cookware, in salt lamps and in spas. It is mined from the Salt Range mountains in Pakistan.\nDifferent natural salts have different mineralities depending on their source, giving each one a unique flavour. Fleur de sel, a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating", "fried rice). Chunks can also be broken off and dipped into stews and dishes or ground and used like regular table salt. Conservation Salt-makers (asinderos) were once important professions in Philippine society, but the craft is nearly extinct in modern times. Part of this is due to the time-consuming traditional methods of producing salt and the hard work that go with it. Artisanal salt-makers can not compete with the cheap imported salt prevalent today in the Philippines. The passage of Republic Act No. 8172, the Act for Salt Iodization Nationwide (ASIN), in 1995 also placed further stress on local salt-makers,", "is usually used as an ingredient due to its high purity, whereas the salts in water are derived from varying minerals. As an ingredient, \"salt is added to enhance the flavour of cakes and breads and to ‘toughen up’ the soft mixture of fat and sugar.\" If relatively soft water is being used, more salt should be added in order to strengthen the gluten network of the dough, but if not enough salt is added during the baking process, the flavor of the bread will not be appealing to consumers. Health effects Doughnuts are unhealthy, though some are less so", "powered refrigeration, salting was one of the main methods of food preservation. Thus, herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g, while kipper, its preserved form, contains 990 mg. Similarly, pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1,480 mg, and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g. Salt is also used in cooking, such as with salt crusts. The main sources of salt in the Western diet, apart from direct use of sodium chloride, are bread and cereal products, meat products and milk and dairy products.\nIn many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment. In its place,", "use of iodized salt require education of salt producers and sellers and a communication campaign directed at the public. The cost of adding iodine to salt is negligible—\"Only a few cents a ton.\"\nIodine deficiency has largely been confined to the developing world for several generations, but reductions in salt consumption and changes in dairy processing practices eliminating the use of iodine-based disinfectants have led to increasing prevalence of the condition in Australia and New Zealand in recent years. A proposal to mandate the use of iodized salt in most commercial breadmaking was adopted there in October, 2009. In a", "religious guidelines. Some brands further identify kosher-certified salt as being approved by a religious body. General cooking Because the salt has a purer flavor due to the lack of metallic or bitter-tasting additives such as iodine, fluoride or dextrose, it is often used in the kitchen instead of additive-containing table salt, so such flavors are not introduced to prepared food. Estimating the amount of salt when salting by hand can also be easier due to the larger grain size. Some recipes specifically call for volume measurement of kosher/kitchen salt, which weighs less per measure due to its lower density", "consumption of salt; Avoid mouldy cereals (grains) or pulses (legumes). It has been found that high levels of salt content can increase the risk of stomach cancer. According to the report, “Most people in the United States currently consume more than 2,400 mg.” Although most foods have a high salt content they may not taste “salty” to the consumer, further increasing the risk of stomach cancer. It is recommended that sodium levels in canned goods be checked before purchase. Sodium levels should also be checked in cereals and frozen meals.\nDietary supplements: Aim to meet nutritional needs through diet alone\nBreastfeeding (Special", "seafood): this may possibly be beneficial for those inland consumers whose diet may be iodine-deficient and who do not have access to iodized salt. Due to the high salt content which goes into the preparation, ngapi, like all salt-rich foods, should be consumed in moderation in patients with salt-sensitive hypertension." ]

[ "It's a term that emerged in reference to operas.\n\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "\"it is [all] over when the fat lady sings.\"\nThe saying has become so well known that it was the subject of an article in the journal Obesity Reviews. Attribution The words \"the fat lady of Norfolk had sung her final song\" appears in the short story \"A House to Let\" by Charles Dickens, Wilkie Collins, Elizabeth Gaskell and Adelaide Anne Procter published in 1858. The Fat Lady refers to a circus performer Fat Lady of Norfolk.\nDon Meredith, the first Dallas Cowboy quarterback, would say \"It ain't over till the fat lady sings\" as a color commentator on Monday", "Until the Fat Lady Sings\", where an overweight lady would go to a game and sing when she thought that the game was over. This segment was scrapped due to the fat lady being fired for singing after the siren had gone. The part of the fat lady was played by Pauline Smith (née Henderson). Diary of a Footballer \"Diary of a Footballer\" was a segment in which a well known footballer would read out a page of their diary. Inside 60 with Dave Hughes This involved Hughes asking questions, most of them being funny, in which many players continually", "the show’s never over until the fat lady sings. Well, I think it was her we heard warming up in the wings this week\".\nThe \"fat lady\" was in reference to Kirner being overweight. Bolger refused to apologized for this remark citing that he himself was overweight and did not want to make \"an international incident\" out of it.\nIt did, however, anger women from Bolger's own National Party.\nThe Coalition won the election in a landslide, scoring a 19-seat swing—the second-worst defeat that a sitting government has ever suffered in Victoria. The Liberals actually won enough seats that they could have governed", "isn't over 'til the fat lady sings!\" Motta is sometimes erroneously credited with coining the celebrated phrase: The opera ain't over 'til the fat lady sings. In fact, the first recorded use of the phrase was by Texas Tech sports information director Ralph Carpenter, as reported in the Dallas Morning News on 10 March 1976.\nDuring a KENS-TV broadcast of the 1978 NBA Eastern Conference semi-finals between the Washington Bullets and the San Antonio Spurs, Cook used the phrase in an attempt to encourage Spurs fans, as their team was down three games to one against the Bullets. Motta heard the", "solid and satisfying back-story for the character\". Megan Kirby of xoJane questioned the negative effect the show's fat jokes would have on its overweight viewers, writing, \"What does this mean for the girls like me who never become thin? Are we relegated to side roles and stereotypes in our own lives? Of course, this isn’t true. But I think it sometimes, dark and secret: The fat girl doesn’t get to be the protagonist.\" Emma Tarver of Feminspire reflected that Fat Monica \"made me think as a child that I was unworthy of love, was going to be mocked relentlessly by", "It ain't over till the fat lady sings It ain't over till (or until) the fat lady sings is a colloquialism which is often used as a proverb. It means that one should not presume to know the outcome of an event which is still in progress. More specifically, the phrase is used when a situation is (or appears to be) nearing its conclusion. It cautions against assuming that the current state of an event is irreversible and clearly determines how or when the event will end. The phrase is most commonly used in association with organized competitions, particularly sports.", "reduced down \"because he's lost a lot of weight.\" Conway Twitty performed two songs in the episode; MacFarlane comments that he loves these scenes. The scene of Lois and Peter mocking Stewie's picture which he drew after pretending to like it was originally designed for \"Prick Up Your Ears,\" but was moved as that episode was exceeding its time limit. The two people typing on their laptops in Starbucks was a scene originally designed for the introductory sequence of \"Chick Cancer\", as was the scene of Peter having to push Uma Thurman's eyes back together when they move away from", "the wife of Jeff Greene (portrayed by Jeff Garlin), on the HBO comedy series Curb Your Enthusiasm. Essman told The New York Times that, by the show's third season, she could not \"walk down the street anymore without people stopping her and begging her to say [her character's catchphrase] 'You fat fuck'\". In 2007, Slate named Essman's character one of the best on television, and a reason the publication looked forward to the return of the show.\nShe also provided the voice of Helen Higgins on the Comedy Central series Crank Yankers; she was an occasional correspondent on the first season", "Song\" to strong applause.\nDuring rehearsals the next day, she sings \"Get Happy\" with an authentic quality which brings her accompanist (one of a duo of fans she met at her stage door with whom she returns to their apartment for a late night snack) to tears because of the irony of its lyrics in comparison to her increasing frailty of health. Mickey comes to London on a surprise visit which cheers her up. Judy still has trouble making her stage performances on time because of substance abuse issues and anxiety. She appears to not know at one point if she", "great comedy – is that because she's full-figured? No. Is it because her character is well-written? Yes. It’s kind of sad to see Rosie lambaste what the show is trying to do.\"\nRaymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called Lauren's performance of \"I Know What Boys Like\" the highlight of \"Comeback\". Gonzalez was less than enthused. She graded it \"C−\", after \"deductions\", and said the only reason it started with a \"C\" was due to it being interspersed with shots of the cast in their underwear. Patrick Burns of The Atlantic was also unimpressed, and questioned Lauren's spot in the", "the town librarian (1989–1990).\nKinney has avoided auditions for what she calls \"the heavy-girl roles\". Critics occasionally grumble that Mimi, her character on The Drew Carey Show, is a waddling fat joke, but her weight has never seemed to be the point of a fat joke. \"One time I had to say to Drew, 'Aw, you're just fat,' as the ultimate put-down. I personally don't like it, but if fat jokes slip in because they're funny, I don't care.\" She is, however, less comfortable about being typecast because of her weight. \"Once in a while I would lose", "Fat Bottomed Girls Song and lyrical content The two songs were released together on a double A-sided single, and both songs refer to each other. Near the end of Fat Bottomed Girls, the song references the band's song \"Bicycle Race\", with Mercury shouting, \"Get on your bikes and ride!\" \"Bicycle Race\" reciprocates with the lyric \"fat bottomed girls, they'll be riding today\". Live performances Queen performed \"Fat Bottomed Girls\" in concert from 1978 to 1982. Since its release, the song has appeared on television and film, and has been covered by a number of artists.\nThe song was performed on the", "she is \"proud of\". Roberts' behaviours left her late for several recording sessions, stating that she'd \"rather be late\" than feel bad. Whilst talking to The Sun, Roberts described herself as a \"perfectionist\" and decisive. She found that she was becoming increasingly frustrated with the production of \"Sticks and Stones\", when producers would change parts of the track without notifying her. Roberts said \"when the producer's like, 'It's not changed, I haven't done that,' I'm like, 'I know you have because I don't feel the same as I did when I first heard it so we either sit here and", "of the Women Rule Concert Series, where she sang \"Over\" accompanied by a performance of \"Rumors\". While she sang \"Over\" with no problems, her mouth was not moving for a second during the performance of \"Rumors\", leading the media to accuse her of lip synching. Lohan denied that she was lip synching, claiming that there was a background track because she had fallen ill recently. Kim Jakwerth, of Casablanca Records, supported this statement by saying, \"Yes, on the first song there were background tracks, which were not on the second song.\" In addition to these performances, she sang the song", "Ma'ruf “has started what could be considered a revolution” and has raised “eyebrows with her stage appearances” because she “likes to blatantly address highly controversial issues that are usually avoided by 'popular' comics for the sake of keeping their faces on your television screens.” Tampubolon states that given her “distinctive look and growing popularity,” Ma'ruf “could have easily become a major mainstream comedic star on TV,” but because of constant demands by TV producers that she censor herself, “she opted to perform live instead, delivering her uncensored messages to preserve her art.” She has said that “for her, being a", "I really wanted to do it with a woman singing because I thought it would take on a different meaning — maybe broaden the meaning a little bit — as compared to hearing the songs being sung by the two brothers. And so my wife said, 'Why don’t you get Norah Jones to do it?' and I was like, 'Well, I kinda know her.' Well, I mean, we had Stevie Wonder in common. And so I called her and she said yes. So it was kinda like a … well, I keep saying it was kinda like a blind date.\"", "were denied to me because of my color\". She also noted, regarding her light complexion, \"Though there is no place on earth without prejudice. In fact, a French journalist wrote an article during one of my tours there asking: 'Why does she say she is colored? She's as white as any singer. It's just a trick to get people interested.' Can you imagine? Of course I was advertised as 'a Negro soprano.' What is 'a Negro soprano'?\" She also stated that she felt her singing was better received in Europe because she mainly sang works by European composers, such as", "up (because she knows how much he hates fat people), and then makes him fall in love with her. She plans to break up with him and break his heart. However, Tina found herself falling for him too!", "It's a Little Too Late (Mark Chesnutt song) Content The song describes a narrator whose woman had recently walked out on him, wanting him to be a better man. The narrator keeps stating in his mind that he should have done something for the woman: \"I should've done this and I should've done that / I should've been there then she'd have never left / I should've been hangin' on to every word she ever had to say / But it's a little too late, she's a little too gone / She's a little too right, I'm a little too", "and raspy. Her vocal style on \"Worn Me Down\" has been compared to that of Tori Amos, P.J. Harvey and KT Tunstall. Prior to the album's release, several critics believed that \"Worn Me Down\" would be the first single Yamagata would put out off of the full-length album, but with differing reasons.\nThe lyrics convey feelings of helplessness and obsessiveness; they are from the viewpoint of a woman in a twisted romance, and she has virtually given up on the man she is with, who is in fact infatuated with another woman. Reception In general, critics gave positive to review to", "and author of What Are You Looking At?: the First Fat Fiction Anthology, described hogging as a \"sad\" practice, saying that it reveals how \"our attraction or our revulsion to fat has a lot to do with our culture\". She commented that the fat stigma is so extreme that even men who are genuinely attracted to overweight women cannot admit or discuss their feelings.\nThe practice has also been suggested as a manifestation of hypermasculinity, in which men who do not fit into normative expectations of manhood exhibit insecurity, defensiveness, and sexual aggression to make up for their incapacity to meet", "we see her on Saturday Night Live and she’s singing a song about why do you look so good in those jeans, it’s almost the antithesis of where we started,\" Gaga said. \"That is relatively shallow.\" Use in film In A Star Is Born, \"Why Did You Do That?\" is performed by Lady Gaga's character Ally on an Alec Baldwin-hosted episode of Saturday Night Live. The performance represents Ally's transformation from a simple singer-songwriter into a \"full-fledged radio pop star\". Cooper's character, Ally's husband rock musician Jackson Maine, watches her perform it. This drives him to start drinking again. According", "that the self-deprecating humour common to standup comedy is doubly painful for marginalised people, because it is joining the chorus of people who insult and belittle them already. This leads her to conclude that she can no longer do standup comedy, and structures the piece around claiming she is giving up comedy. She has since stated that she is not doing so after all due to the surprising response to her show. Performances Gadsby has performed Nanette throughout Australia, at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe, and in the United States. Her 2018 performances in New York City received positive reviews. The", "why don't you sing it?\" and some people said I sounded a little bit like John Lennon, you know, my hero. It's triple tracked because my singing's so bad! I triple tracked it to try and even the tuning out a little bit.\" Release \"When the Lights Are Out\" was released on 7\" vinyl by Warner Bros. Records in America only, but also in Belgium as an import. The B-side, \"How Can It Be\", was written by Holder and Lea, and also included on Old New Borrowed and Blue. In addition to the main US release, a promotional version was", "be bettered. 'A Long Way Down' is based on the themes of excess and materialism but also serves as a song about a comedown. It was written for an unreleased film about a Glaswegian artist who becomes entangled in the New York high life, losing his values and sense of perspective in the process. The song 'Undressed' has a double meaning, Cole explained: Half the song is about nakedness, and the other half about emotional nakedness and, vulnerability. That's why it opens with the line, 'You look so good when you're depressed', because women do. It's really unfair! Promotion", "part of herself hidden, even when she seems to be exposing herself. Maybe that's why she can still cause such a fuss. And maybe that's also how she's managed to last so long.\" Neil Strauss of Rolling Stone called the album \"all things to all pop fans\", ranging from \"whiffs of classic Eighties Janet, teeny-bopper pop, a Nelly impression, old-school funk, push-button rock & roll, even a little country & western.\" Mikael Wood of The City Paper declared it Jackson's \"most sonically sumptuous album\" and an \"explosion of finely finessed sound\". Los Angeles Times praised its balance between \"assembly-line product\"", "puts up her \"middle finger to the sky\" to \"let 'em know that she's still rock and roll,\" promising \"she’ll never cover up her tattoo and revealing that she prefers her jeans ripped.\" \"I don't care if I'm a misfit, I like it better than the hipster bulls**t,\" she admits on the opening of the song, over bouncy, cheerleader-esque stomps. In the chorus, Lavigne declares, \"When it’s you and me, we don’t need no one to tell us who to be / We keep turning up the radio / When it’s you and I, just put up our middle", "her excuse for what, in 2002, she called her retirement: \"I thought, 'Well, I'm part of history now. And how do I top that? I can't top that.' So, it was an easy [decision to stop singing].\" But in a 2014 interview celebrating her return to the stage, Ernie Manouse asked about the song, \"Ever regret it because it's so iconic? Does it overshadow everything else? Because people forget how many hit songs you had, and yet this song becomes so big. Is it ever too much to have on your back?\" Reddy begins, \"No, no,\" and after a", "song grows in intensity, it reaches its bridge: \"Tell her that it's too late / 'Cause I'm never walking away, my love is here to stay! / Didn't she hear me say I ain't going nowhere?\". According to Robbie Daw from Idolator, the opening lyric from the song (\"Sometimes is it better to let go\") is a metaphor for the group, who split in 2001 due to constant fighting. The lyrics to \"One Woman Man\" were inspired directly by their own lives and highlight their diverse personal experiences in the past ten years. Critical reception Jennifer Ruby from the Evening", "worked with an incredible singer, and I don't think she gets enough credit for her singing ability as she deserves. There's no autotune on there. It's just really, really great, but I think people forget about that because she can rap so well also. I don't see why she couldn't compete in the US. She's a great artist.\" Lyrics and style The song starts with Lloyd singing \"da da da da dum dum da dum dum\", which according to The Guardian's Alexis Petridis \"pinches its opening hook from Ann Peebles' I Can't Stand the Rain.\" Less than a minute into" ]

[ "Instant rice is basically cooked at the factory, then they put it in an oven to dehydrate it so it's hard again." ]

[ "major advantage of instant rice is the rapid cooking time - some brands can be ready in as little as three minutes.\nCurrently, several companies, Asian as well as American, have developed brands which only require 90 seconds to cook, much like a cup of instant noodles.", "Fast-ripening rice Fast ripening rice is a type of rice that ripens faster than other strains. It is also able to withstand abiotic factors, such as Tempatures (Hot and Cold), Floods, droughts, and Salinity. Fast-ripening rice was discovered in China during the Song dynasty. History New developments in rice cultivation during the Song dynasty in China, such as new strains of rice and better methods of water control and irrigation, greatly increased rice yields. Champa rice, which belongs to the aus subspecies and ripens faster than regular rice, originated in this time. Farmers were able to grow two or", "is left on the rice. Because of this, it cooks somewhat faster than an unmilled brown rice. When cooked, the rice is pale pink, soft and slightly sticky.\nThis rice became available in the United States in the mid-1990s.", "either cooked or uncooked capacity. Rice roughly doubles in size during cooking; therefore, a 10 cup (uncooked) rice cooker can produce up to 20 cups of cooked rice. The prices vary greatly, depending on the capacity, features, materials used, and the country of origin.\nThe majority of modern electric rice cookers are equipped with a stay-warm or keep-warm feature, which keeps the rice at an optimal temperature for serving without over-cooking it. Some gas cookers also have electric stay-warm mechanism. However, the usefulness of this feature degrades over time, a microwave may be more energy efficient or better suited to", "American measuring cup of 8 (US) fluid ounces/240 ml, and is regarded as producing enough cooked rice for a single meal for one person.\n\nInitial models did not have a keep-warm feature and the cooked rice cooled down too quickly, thus it was often necessary to move the cooked rice to heat-insulated serving containers. In 1965, Zojirushi Thermos company started selling electric rice cookers with a stay-warm function, using a semi-conductor heat regulator. The product sold 2,000,000 units per year. Other makers soon followed suit. The stay-warm function can typically keep rice warm for up to 24 hours at a temperature high", "is more chewy than standard white polished rice. Red rice takes longer to cook than white rice, but not as long as brown rice. Soaking the rice in water for at least 30 minutes before cooking produces a softer texture. History The term \"cargo\" originates from the idea that this type of rice is exported/transported by ship/sea in bulk to the importers/distributors who then package the rice in small 1 kg bags for the market, unlike white rice which is usually pre-packed by exporters into 5, 10 or 25 kg bags.", "rice, unless it is broken or flourblasted (which perforates the bran without removing it). Studies by Gujral and Kumar in 2003 estimated a cooking time between 35 and 51 minutes. Modifications Parboiled rice is a modified process that forces into the kernel some of the vitamins found in the hull before the hull is removed. The process provides more nutrition than white rice while shortening the time necessary for final meal preparation. Storage Brown rice has a shelf life of approximately 6 months, but hermetic storage, refrigeration or freezing can significantly extend its lifetime. Freezing, even periodically, can also help", "Instant rice Preparation process Instant rice is made using several methods. The most common method is similar to the home cooking process. The rice is blanched in hot water, steamed, and rinsed. It is then placed in large ovens for dehydration until the moisture content reaches approximately twelve percent or less.\nThe basic principle involves increasing moisture of the milled white rice by using steam or water to form cracks or holes in the kernels. The fast cooking properties come from the fact that, when recooked, water can penetrate into the cracked grain much more quickly. Advantages The", "Some rice, e.g., long-grain or scented rice, do not seem to require this post-absorption step.\nSome higher-end models automatically time the soaking (pre-cooking water absorption) and the resting periods, therefore, there is no need to manually manage the water absorption or time these steps. Time Depending on quantity, it takes about 20 minutes to 1 hour for most electric rice cookers to complete cooking. Some advanced models can back-calculate the cooking start time from given finish time. The time required for cooking rice depends on the amount of rice, the power of the heating elements, and atmospheric pressure, thus it is", "are typically used for the preparation of plain or lightly seasoned rice. Each rice cooker model may be optimized to cook a certain type of rice best. For example, most Japanese rice cookers are optimized for cooking Japanese rice and may not be the best for other types of rice, although cooking time can be lengthened simply by adding more water.\nThe typical methods of cooking long-grain rice are boil-and-strain and steaming. The absorption method used in Japanese rice cookers will produce slightly different texture and taste, usually stickier rice.\nBrown rice generally needs longer cooking times than white rice, unless it", "results in uneven cooking of the overall batch of rice-often leading to mushy or burnt rice on the bottom of the pot and sometimes under-cooked rice at the middle and top of the cooking pot. Finally, being able to heat the cooking pot to a higher temperature relatively quickly allows the rice to cook faster and steam properly, resulting in a better quality batch of rice.\nMost, if not all, gas rice cookers use an heat based automatic shut-off system. The basic principle of these systems is such that gas flow into the burner is halted once a specific", "this, it is steamed until the centre of the rice becomes soft. Salt is not added to the rice.\nMost modern rice cookers include a cooking-delay timer, so that rice placed in the cooker at night will be ready for the morning meal. The rice cooker can also keep rice moist and warm, allowing it to remain edible for several hours after cooking.\nPrepared rice is usually served from the rice cooker into a chawan, or rice bowl.\nAfter cooking, rice may also be held in a covered wooden box called an ohitsu. Trading The Dojima Rice Market in Osaka was the first", "be eaten alone. It is usually eaten with other foods that can reduce its glycemic index by 20-40 percent. Culinary uses Steamed jasmine rice is ideal for eating with stir fries, with grilled, fried, or braised food items, and in soups (when cooked slightly drier by adding a little less water during cooking). It often does not fare well when used for fried rice, as it is too soft and soggy when still warm. Recognition At the 2017 World Rice Conference held in Macau, Thailand's hom mali 105 (jasmine) rice was declared the world's best rice, beating 21 competitors. Thailand", "food that needs to be cooked. Air temperature, wind, and latitude also affect performance. Food cooks faster in the two hours before and after the local solar noon than it does in either the early morning or the late afternoon. Large quantities of food, and food in large pieces, take longer to cook. As a result, only general figures can be given for cooking time. With a small solar panel cooker, it might be possible to melt butter in 15 minutes, to bake cookies in 2 hours, and to cook rice for four people in 4 hours. With a high", "Cook the rice in its own steam at the lowest flame possible for a few minutes.", "rice contains 84 mg of magnesium, while one cup of white rice contains 19 mg.\nIt has been found that germinated grains in general have nutritional advantages. Germinated brown rice (GBR), developed during the International Year of Rice, is brown rice that has been soaked for 4–20 hours in warm 40 °C (104 °F) water before cooking. This stimulates germination, which activates various enzymes in the rice, giving rise to a more complete amino acid profile, including GABA. Cooked brown rice tends to be chewy; cooked GBR is softer, and preferred particularly by children. Cooking time Brown rice generally needs longer cooking times than white", "mechanism. When the rice is determined to be fully cooked, the unit will automatically switch to the \"keep warm\" cycle, thus preventing the rice from being overcooked and keeping the rice warm until it is ready to be served. The degree of insulation provided by the casing can also be used to keep cold solids cold. Features and specifications For modern home rice cookers, the smallest single-person model cooks 1 rice cup (180 ml), whereas large models can cook 10 cups. Commercial models can cook 20 or more cups. As a possible source of confusion, model specifications and names may list", "the same period rice prices went up by a factor of 3 even though rice is not directly used in biofuels.\nThe USDA expects the 2008/2009 wheat season to be a record crop and 8% higher than the previous year. They also expect rice to have a record crop. Wheat prices have dropped from a high over $12/bushel in May 2008 to under $8/bushel in May. Rice has also dropped from its highs.\nAccording to a 2008 report from the World Bank the production of biofuel pushed food prices up. These conclusions were supported by the Union of Concerned", "marks for the right amount of water only for white rice, but sometimes there are separate scales for brown rice (as more water is required) or for cooking other food in the appliance.\nOnce the lid is closed and the cooking cycle has been activated, the rice cooker does the rest. Most models give a countdown in minutes to the \"ready time,\" or beep when done. After cooking cycle is completed, it is recommended that the rice is to \"rest\" for 5 minute for post-absorption and then to be stirred to prevent the grains from clinging to each other too hard.", "calories consumed worldwide by humans. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally.\nRice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are", "Cooked rice Preparation Rice is often rinsed and soaked before being cooked. Unpolished brown rice requires longer soaking time than milled white rice does. The amount of water added can vary depending on many factors. Newly harvested rice usually requires less water, and softer varieties need more water than firmer varieties. Rice can be boiled in a heavy-bottomed cookware or steamed in a food steamer. Some boiling methods do not require precise water measurements, as the rice is strained after boiling. This draining method is suitable for the less glutinous varieties such as basmati rice, but not-suitable for varieties like", "dish. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.\nInstant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is fully cooked and then dried, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness. Preparation Rice is typically rinsed before cooking to remove excess starch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients. Rice may be rinsed repeatedly until the rinse water is clear to improve the texture and taste.\nRice may be soaked to", "is broken, or flourblasted (which perforates the bran).\nDifferent varieties of rice need different cooking times, depending on their grain size, grain shape, and grain composition. There are three main types of Asian rice: Oryza sativa subsp. indica, i.e., Indian rice (long grain rice, e.g., basmati rice and Thai jasmine rice), O. sativa subsp. javanica, i.e., Java rice (large grain rice) and O. sativa subsp. japonica, i.e., Japanese rice (medium grain rice, e.g., Calrose rice, short grain rice, e.g., most Japanese rice and risotto rice).\nAfrican rice, Oryza glaberrima, is an entirely separate species, but can be cooked in the same way.", "Rice Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production (rice, 741.5 million tonnes in 2014), after sugarcane (1.9 billion tonnes) and maize (1.0 billion tonnes).\nSince sizable portions of sugarcane and maize crops are used for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important grain with regard to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one-fifth of the", "cooked rice in water overnight. Rice is boiled the usual way. Then phaen or starch is strained away. Rice is cooled in air temperature for 3–4 hours. Then cool water is added in a way that about an inch of water rises above the rice. Rice is generally covered with a light piece of fabric. 12–24 hours later panta bhat is ready. Panta bhat retains its taste for 2/3 days. The fluid portion is called amani or torani, and may be specially prepared. Care must be taken to cover the dish during the long soaking to avoid contamination.\nThe soaked rice", "that 70% of Japanese still eat it once or twice a day, its popularity is now declining. In the 20th century there has been a shift in dietary habits, with an increasing number of people choosing wheat based products (such as bread and noodles) over rice.\nJapanese rice is short-grained and becomes sticky when cooked. Most rice is sold as hakumai (白米, \"white rice\"), with the outer portion of the grains (糠, nuka) polished away. Unpolished brown rice (玄米, genmai) is considered less desirable, but its popularity has been increasing. Noodles Japanese noodles often substitute for a rice-based meal. Soba (thin,", "of bread dough or yogurt. Multi-purpose devices with rice cooking capability are not necessarily called \"rice cookers\", but typically \"multi-cookers\".\nMore elaborate recipes are possible using a rice cooker, and there are cookbooks devoted entirely to dishes prepared using a rice cooker. It is possible to cook soups, stews or sponge cakes in electric rice cookers. By simply adding ingredients and setting it to \"warm\", a rice cooker cooks the contents at about 65 °C (150 °F). In a few hours, the stew is fully cooked and ready to eat.\nSome rice cookers can accommodate a steaming basket for vegetables and other foods above", "also found in cheese, fruit and other cereals. It is a flavoring agent approved in the United States and Europe, and is used in bakery products for aroma.\nDuring cooking, the level of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline decreases. Soaking the rice for 30 minutes before cooking permits 20% shorter cooking times and preserves more of the 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline. Glycemic index According to the Canadian Diabetes Association, basmati, brown, wild, short and long grain rice has a \"medium\" glycemic index (between 56 and 69) opposed to jasmine and \"instant\" white rice with a glycemic index of 89, thus making it more suitable for diabetics as compared", "with curd rice. Consumption Hot rice is mixed with one or two pieces of aavakaaya and ghee (clarified butter) or groundnut oil, then made into bite-size balls. Aavakaaya is often eaten with rice and dahi (yogurt). Raw onion can be added which enhances the taste. Most people prefer to eat it along with muddapappu (pigeon pea dal) and neyyi (ghee/clarified Butter). Some people prefer to eat it within 1–2 months from preparation, when it is called Kottaavakaya.", "rice is cooked, water is added with little bit of old pakhal (something similar to making curd using milk and old curd). Pakhaḷa tastes best when served after 8 to 12 hours after preparation; in this case, no old pakhal is required to be added to the rice as fermentation usually happens after 6 hours of keeping rice in water.The Pakhala by itself tastes a bit sour, but also paste of green chilli, Green Mango and Ginger is added to give the Pakhala a little bit hot and sweet flavour.\nGenerally burnt potato or aloo poda (boiled is also used) and" ]

[ "Manual transmission gives you more control of the car. Automatic transmission is easier to pick up.\r\rI don't know why there is a difference in preference between the countries; but my preference is manual because I I feel more in control, more involved in the driving process, and I enjoy it more.\r\rElsewhere in this thread you say using a manual is like using a typewriter; that suggests to me that you don't understand the choice. Manual transmission is not an antiquated technology; whichever you pick there is a trade off. By choosing automatic you sacrifice the greater level of control that a manual offers.", "Automatics are more expensive, less responsive and worse for fuel economy, consequently they're far less popular, generally by a factor of ten, than standard transmissions in almost every single market in the world other than North America where the percentages are, rather bizarrely, reversed. \n\nThis is all the more surprising given America's love of the car. Perhaps the reason is the vast distances travelled in the US. \n\nOne can drive quite literally thousands of miles, from NY to CA, for example, in the US. The same distance would take a driver from London right across Europe, into Russia, far past Moscow and deep into Asia. \n\nIt was, until relatively recently, unlikely that the average European would embark on a road trip of such length, while, in the US, lengthy road trips have been eulogised by the Beats since the 50's.", "They're unpopular everywhere *except* the US, by a huge margin, so that might be a better question to ask.\n\nPersonally, I find driving an automatic is boring and uninvolved and if I'm going to spend that much time and money in/on a car it's not worth it if I don't enjoy driving it.\n\nThere's also the problem of only knowing how to drive automatic. I'd hate not being able to just jump in any car in emergencies/ borrowing a friends car (/ joy riding) and know that I could drive it. It seems like most people with automatics wouldn't be able to.\n\n*If that's the OP going through and downvoting everyone who says they prefer manuals, that's probably not a great way to get answers for your question.*" ]

[ "automatics were detrimental to economy, the main reason a lighter automatic transmission was developed.\nIn addition, lower differential ratios differentials were usually used in other automatic transmission applications to improve gas mileage (again due to the inefficiency of the earlier automatics, especially when used with small engines). The BW 35 was a more efficient transmission and was quite successful in the USA with the smaller engined cars. This also made it a natural for European cars that usually had much smaller engines than American cars of that era. Production was transferred in 1960 to the Borg-Warner plant at Letchworth in Great", "of a continuously variable transmission, which slip by nature. Manual transmissions also lack the parasitic power consumption of the automatic transmission's hydraulic pump. Also, manual transmissions do not require active cooling and because they are, mechanically, much simpler than automatic transmissions, they generally weigh less than comparable automatics, which can improve economy in stop-and-go traffic. Because of this, manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions; however the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions. Increased fuel economy with a properly operated manual transmission vehicle versus an", "better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\nConversely, manual transmissions are no longer popular in many classes of vehicles sold in North America, Australia, and some parts of Asia, although they remain dominant in other parts of Asia, and in Europe, Africa, and Latin America. Nearly all vehicles are available", "Semi-automatic transmission History In the 1930s, automakers began to market cars with some sort of device that would reduce the amount of clutching and de-clutching and shifting required in stop and go driving. Most typically, a fluid coupling or a centrifugal clutch replaced the standard manual clutch to allow for stop and go driving without using the clutch pedal every time the car was brought to a stop. More sophisticated systems allowed for shifting while driving without using the clutch, and some systems did away with the clutch pedal altogether. Semi-automatic transmissions were phased out as technology advanced and automatic", "amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some systems will override the driver's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speeds. Comparison with manual transmission Most cars sold in North America since the 1950s have been available with an automatic transmission, based on the fact that the three major American car manufacturers had started using automatics. Conversely, in Europe a manual gearbox is standard, with only 20% of drivers opting", "Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck", "for an automatic gearbox compared to the United States. In some Asian markets and in Australia, automatic transmissions have become very popular since the 1980s.\nVehicles equipped with automatic transmissions are not as complex to drive. Consequently, in some jurisdictions, drivers who have passed their driving test in a vehicle with an automatic transmission will not be licensed to drive a manual transmission vehicle. Conversely, a manual license will allow the driver to drive vehicles with either an automatic or manual transmission. Countries in which such driving license restrictions are applied include some states in Australia, Austria, Botswana, Belgium, Belize, China,", "(which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to \"slippage\" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.\nAttempts to improve fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut", "equivalent automatic transmission vehicle can range from 5% to about 15% depending on driving conditions and style of driving. The lack of control over downshifting under load in an automatic transmission, coupled with a typical vehicle engine's greater efficiency under higher load, can enable additional fuel gains from a manual transmission by allowing the operator to keep the engine performing under a more efficient load/RPM combination. This is especially true as between manual and automatic versions of older models, as more recent advances including variable valve timing reduce the efficiency disadvantages of automatic transmissions by allowing better performance over a", "automatic transmissions in countries such as the United States, but the opposite is true in Europe. As of 2008, 75.2% of vehicles made in Western Europe were equipped with manual transmission, versus 16.1% with automatic and 8.7% with other.\nWhen a driver passes their driving test using a vehicle with an automatic transmission, in some jurisdictions; the resulting driving licence is restricted to the use of vehicles with automatic transmissions only. This is the case in countries such as New Zealand (for the second-phase Restricted license, but not the final Full license), the European Union with the exception of member countries", "controls were developed to take care of changing gear ratios. Smaller, lower powered cars used semi-automatic transmissions with a dry clutch because the mechanical connection offered a more efficient powertrain compared to a fluid coupling.\nAnother early semi-automatic transmission was the Sinclair S.S.S. (synchro-self-shifting) Powerflow gearbox. which was applied to Huwood-Hudswell diesel mines locomotives. It was also applied to some road vehicles.\nImproved semi-automatics appeared in the 1950s and 1960s. The Automotive Products Manumatic and Newtondrive systems were also known as \"two-pedal transmissions\". They relieve the driver of the need for skill in operating clutch and engine speed in conjunction with the", "pedal and gear stick. Historically, cars had a manual overdrive switch. Automatic The desire for driver convenience led to the widespread implementation of the semi-automatic transmission, automatic transmission and continuously variable transmission (CVT). Some automatic transmission vehicles have extra controls that modify the choices made by the transmission system. These controls depend on the engine and road speed. Automatic transmissions generally have a straight pattern, beginning at the most forward position with park, and running through reverse, neutral, drive, and then to the lower gears. Signals and lighting Cars have controls for headlamps, fog lamps, turn signals, and other automotive", "with an automatic transmission option, and family vehicles and large pickup trucks sold in the US are predominantly fitted with automatics. However, in some cases, if a buyer wishes, they can have the vehicle fitted with a manual transmission at the factory. In Europe, most vehicles are sold with manual transmissions. Most luxury vehicles are only available with an automatic transmission. In most cases where both transmissions are available for a given model of vehicle, automatics are an at-cost option, but in some cases the reverse is true. Some vehicles, such as rentals and taxicabs, are nearly universally equipped with", "Automatic transmission History Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early \"horseless carriage\" gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston, Massachusetts. This unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged. As the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasn't up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the transmission would often fail without warning.\nOne of", "transmission built by ZF Friedrichshafen. The decision to replace the automatic transmission was primarily made to make the car more engaging to drive. This move was lauded by the purists and resulted in a positive response.\nThe interior was available in three colour combinations, those being black leather with blue and green stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel (or alternatively red stitching), red leather with red stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel and beige with maroon piping and maroon stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel. Noticeable changes to the interior include an Alpina blue instrument cluster, Alpina logos", "These systems could be fitted to smaller cars such as the Ford Anglia. Comparison to other automated transmissions Modern \"Semi-automatic transmissions\" usually have a fully automatic mode, where the driver does not need to change gears at all, operating in the same manner as a conventional type of automatic transmission by allowing the transmission's computer to automatically change gear if, for example, the driver were redlining the engine. The semi-automatic transmission can be engaged in manual mode wherein one can up-shift or down-shift using the console-mounted shifter selecter or the paddle shifters just behind the steering wheel, without the need", "energy efficient than manual transmissions due mainly to viscous and pumping losses (parasitic losses), both in the torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. 21% is the loss on a 3-speed Chrysler Torqueflite compared to a modern GM 6L80 automatic. A relatively small amount of energy is required to pressurise the hydraulic control system, which uses fluid pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms. However, with technological developments some modern continuously variable transmissions are more fuel efficient than their manual counterparts and modern 8-speed automatics are within 5% as efficient as a manual gearbox.\nManual", "AP automatic transmission Known Issues - Because the unit uses engine oil for both lubrication and for powering its hydraulic circuit, engine oil changes are critical to the long term reliability of the transmission. Typically it should be changed every 6000 miles.\n- The transmission is not interchangeable with a conventional BMC sump mounted manual gearbox. Because of an extended flywheel mounting flange on the crankshaft, the AP automatic requires to be fitted to its own unique version of the A-series engine. This causes issues for Mini owners wanting to convert to a manual gearbox, since the entire", "car from a standstill. Lincolns got an overdrive gear as a bonus.\nThe transmission proved to be so trouble-prone that Ford recalled virtually every unit, and replaced them with standard manual transmissions. The only known unit to exist is in the possession of the Early Ford V8 Foundation Museum in Auburn, Indiana. While Ford gave up on semi-automatic transmissions after Liquimatic, Lincoln started using General Motors' Hydra-Matic in 1949, while Mercury got its own automatic, Merc-O-Matic, in 1951. Maserati Duo Select Mercedes-Benz / Smart Mercedes used a system from 1957–61 similar to the VW Autostick, called Hydrak. Hydrak", "in increased fuel economy by staying in the most fuel-efficient part of the power band, or higher performance, thereby remaining closer to the engine's peak power rating. Even with more forward speeds and the potential of designing more forward gears to offer higher speed and/or torque, the manual transmission remains smaller and much more compact than its larger, automatic cousin, as referenced by the 991 Generation of the Porsche 911 and the C7 Chevrolet Corvette, which offer a 7-speed manual transmission. Engine braking In contrast to most manual gearboxes, most automatic transmissions have far less effective engine-braking. This means that", "in the United States shortly after production began due to a risk of exhaust system fires. Owners that were not made aware of the manual shifting mode (\"sport mode\") of the 4-speed automatic transmission would mistakenly leave the shifter in that position, resulting in high temperatures as the car would remain in second gear. Mazda's solution was to add a heat shield around the muffler and to alter the vehicle's software to not allow excessively high engine speeds beyond a short period of time when in \"sport mode\". Although the five-speed manual transmission equipped cars would seemingly not need to", "in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current computerized transmissions possess complex programming that both maximizes fuel efficiency and eliminates intrusiveness. This is due mainly to electronic rather than mechanical advances, though improvements in CVT technology and the use of automatic clutches have also helped. A few cars, including the 2013 Subaru Impreza and the 2012 model of the Honda Jazz sold in the UK, actually claim marginally better fuel consumption for the CVT version than the manual version.\nFor certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic transmissions can be advantageous. For instance,", "broader RPM range. In recognition of this, many current models (2010 and on) come with manual modes, or overrides on automatic models, although the degree of control varies greatly by the manufacturer. However this gap in economy is being rapidly closed, and many mid- to higher-end model automatic vehicles now get better economy than their standard-spec counterparts. This is in part due to the increasing impact of computers co-ordinating multiple systems, particularly in hybrid models in which the engine and drive motors must be managed, as well as using different automatic technology such as CVTs and dual-clutch automatics. Longevity", "was the answer to the question of how to avoid stalling the engine when the vehicle was stopped with the transmission in gear. Chrysler itself never used the fluid coupling with any of its automatic transmissions, but did use it in conjunction with a hybrid manual transmission called \"Fluid Drive\" (the similar Hy-Drive used a torque converter). These developments in automatic gearbox and fluid coupling technology eventually culminated in the introduction in 1939 of the General Motors Hydra-Matic, the world's first mass-produced automatic transmission.\nAvailable as an option on 1940 Oldsmobiles and later Cadillacs, the Hydra-Matic combined a fluid coupling with", "smooth start.\nIn 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission. The General Motors unit, dubbed the \"Automatic Safety Transmission\", was notable in that it employed a power-shifting planetary gearbox that was hydraulically controlled and was sensitive to road speed, anticipating future development.\nParallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chrysler's work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use. Invented early in the 20th century, the fluid coupling", "3rd party licensing, and certification by the automobile manufacturer.\nEach manufacturer has specific ATF requirements. Incorrect transmission fluid may result in transmission malfunction or severe damage, however this occurs where the viscosity is extremely different. History The history of automatic transmission fluids parallels the history of automatic transmission technology. The world's first mass-produced automatic transmission, the Hydra-Matic 4-speed, was developed by General Motors (GM) for the 1940 model year. The Hydra-Matic transmission required a special lubricant GM called Transmission Fluid No. 1. for the Hydra-Matic Drive. This transmission fluid was only available at Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Cadillac dealerships. Subsequent automatic transmission", "and fluid coupling technologies, and difficulties with fluids in cold and hot temperature extremes led to a need for longer lasting, higher quality transmission fluids. Additionally, a better system of automatic transmission fluid distribution and marketing was necessary for the long term success of the automatic transmission.\nIn 1949, GM released a new Type \"A\" fluid specification. In an attempt to make GM automatic transmission fluid available at retailers and service garages everywhere. It is important to understand that every automatic transmission produced by any vehicle manufacturer (Oldsmobile, Cadillac, Buick, Chevrolet, Pontiac, GMC, Ford, Mercury, Lincoln, Chrysler, Dodge, Desoto, Packard, and", "an incline, this problem is made worse because the amount of work needed to overcome the acceleration of gravity causes the clutch to heat up considerably more. For this reason, stop-and-go driving and hills tend to have an effect on the clutches to a certain degree.\nAutomatic transmissions are better suited for these applications because they have a hydraulic torque converter which is externally cooled, unlike a clutch. Torque converters also do not have a friction material that rubs off over time like a clutch. Some automatics even lock the output shaft so that the vehicle cannot roll backwards when beginning", "having \"class-exclusive\" manual transmissions. This is because the competitors stopped making manual transmissions available in the domestic market. Chevrolet Silverado trucks discontinued the option of a manual transmission after model year 2006. Ford Super Duty trucks discontinued the option of a manual transmission after model year 2010. This applies to Class 2, Class 3, Class 4 and Class 5 trucks. 2011 and 2012 models make 350 hp (261 kW; 355 PS) and 610 lb⋅ft (827 N⋅m) of torque. Horsepower remained the same for 2013 models, torque however, was increased to 660 lb⋅ft (895 N⋅m) of torque. Engine output remained the same for 2014 models. Cab options The", "the unit. After 1971, Chevrolet cancelled semi-automatic Torque Drive. Chrysler / Dodge / Jeep / Ram Historically, the first semi-automatic transmission which was marketed by a major manufacturer was the 1941 M4/Vacamatic Transmission by Chrysler. It was an attempt to compete against rivals' automatic transmissions, though it still had a clutch, it was primarily used to change range. The main difference was the addition of a fluid coupling between engine and clutch, and the shifting mechanism.\nIn normal driving, the clutch was used to select low, high or reverse. Attached to the transmission was an \"underdrive\" with a reduction gear of" ]

[ "Big and small sailboats work by the same basic principle. The sails create a big surface with a lot of area. When the wind blows, the air collides with the sail and since it's so dang big and wide, a lot of air is now pushing up against the sail, shoving it forward and pulling the rest of the boat along with it.\n\nSo that gets you going, but it could potentially be blowing you in the wrong direction. So next comes the design of the bottom of the boat. [on modern boats, a thing called the keel sticks down into the water](_URL_0_). Boat designs of yesteryear didn't have this, but the bottom was usually shaped in such a way to accomplish a similar purpose. With this design, it's only easy for the boat to move in a particular direction. If the boat tries to move forward, it cuts though the water easily, but if it tries to move sideways the keel is kinda acting like a \"reverse sail,\" bumping into all the water in it's way and slowing the ship down.\n\nLast is the rudder, which is another bit in the water. The rudder is kinda like the keel, but attached near the back and can be turned. It's connected to the ship's wheel via a rope or gear setup, or on smaller modern sailboats the guy driving just sits near the back and grabs the thing. By turning the rudder, you can drive the boat's course to the left and right.\n\nTada. Sea transport!", "A long time ago (picture old pirate ships or galleons with a bunch of square sails) the sails used to act like parachutes. The wind would come up behind, fill the sails, and push your boat along. The problem with that is the wind always needs to be behind you. If it's in our face you either row or sit and wait until you get wind at your back.\n\nThe modern triangular sail works completely differently. The sail now acts as a wing and allows you to be able to sail towards the wind. You can't sail directly at the wind, but up to about 45 degrees off either side of directly at the wind.\n\nHow it works is, the sail is positioned in a way that the wind travels across it. When it does that the sail bows out. If you look at a cross section of a wing there is one straight side and one curved side. The wind has to travel further to get around the curved side of the wingthan the flat side. A properly set up sail will have a curve in it so the wind flows straight on one side but has to travel further to get around the other side.\n\nThe effect on the wing and the sail are the same. It creates high pressure on the straight side and low pressure on the curved side which generates lift. That lift is what allows the plane to get off the ground and is also what pushes the sailboat across the water.\n\nThe keel, another wing under the boat in the water, is important in this too. If the boat had a flat bottom, the sideways forces on the sail would push the boat sideways in the water. The keel keeps the boat from sliding sideways in the water and moving forward instead." ]

[ "Outline of sailing The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sailing:\nSailing – the use of wind to provide the primary power via sail(s) or wing to propel a craft over water, ice or land. A sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails by adjusting their angle with respect to the moving sailing craft and sometimes by adjusting the sail area. Rigging Rigging – apparatus through which the force of the wind is used to propel sailboats and sailing ships forward. This includes spars (masts, yards, etc.), sails, and cordage.", "Sailing Sailing \nemploys the wind—acting on sails, wingsails or kites—to propel a craft on the surface of the water (sailing ship, sailboat, windsurfer, or kitesurfer), on ice (iceboat) or on land (land yacht) over a chosen course, which is often part of a larger plan of navigation.\nA course defined with respect to the true wind direction is called a point of sail.\nConventional sailing craft cannot derive power from sails on a point of sail that is too close into the wind. On a given point of sail, the sailor adjusts the alignment of each sail with respect to the", "Sail A sail is a tensile structure—made from fabric or other membrane materials—that uses wind power to propel sailing craft, including sailing ships, sailboats, windsurfers, ice boats, and even sail-powered land vehicles. Sails may be made from a combination of woven materials—including canvas or polyester cloth, laminated membranes or bonded filaments—usually in a three- or four-sided shape.\nA sail provides propulsive force via a combination of lift and drag, depending on its angle of attack—its angle with respect to the apparent wind. Apparent wind is the air velocity experienced on the moving craft and is the combined effect of the", "Sailing ship A sailing ship uses sails, mounted on one or more masts, to harness the power of wind and propel the vessel. There is a variety of sail plans that propel sailing ships, employing square-rigged or fore-and-aft sails. Some ships carry square sails on each mast—the brig and full-rigged ship, said to be \"ship-rigged\" when there are three or more masts. Others carry only fore-and-aft sails on each mast—schooners. Still others employ a combination of square and fore-and aft sails, including the barque, barquentine, and brigantine. Sailing ships developed differently in Asia, which produced the junk and dhow—vessels", "vessel to the other. Setting sail A sailing ship crew manages the running rigging of each square sail. Each sail has two sheets that control its lower corners, two braces that control the angle of the yard, two clewlines, four buntlines and two reef tackles. All these lines must be manned as the sail is deployed and the yard raised. They use a halyard to raise each yard and its sail; then they pull or ease the braces to set the angle of the yard across the vessel; they pull on sheets to haul lower corners of the sail, clews,", "Bareboating Bareboating is the act of chartering a sailboat that one lives upon, navigates, and operates for a vacation. Common bareboating locations are the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Whitsunday Islands, the Ningaloo Reef and other similar warm weather vacation spots.\nTo charter a sailboat, one must usually be able to demonstrate boat handling skills especially in operating the boat under power, docking, and anchoring. Typical sizes for bareboats come in the range of 30 ft to usually about 60 ft at the upper end. Most charter operators require a sailing resume listing sailing experience, boats that one has sailed and", "Shroud (sailing) On a sailing boat, the shrouds are pieces of standing rigging which hold the mast up from side to side. There is frequently more than one shroud on each side of the boat.\nUsually a shroud will connect at the top of the mast, and additional shrouds might connect partway down the mast, depending on the design of the boat. Shrouds terminate at their bottom ends at the chain plates, which are tied into the hull. They are sometimes held outboard by channels, a ledge that keeps the shrouds clear of the gunwales.\nShrouds are attached symmetrically on", "are familiar with the procedure and may recover.\nMost small monohull sailboats can normally be righted by standing or pulling down on the centreboard, daggerboard (or bilgeboard in a scow) to lift the mast clear of the water. Depending on the design of the hull, the boat's righting moment will normally take effect once the mast is around 30 degrees from horizontal and help pull the boat vertical. Righting a catamaran that is lying on its side involves using a righting line fed over the upper hull. The crew stands on the lower hull and pulls back on the righting line.", "type, running symmetrical alongside the boat controlled by lines known as a sheet and a guy running from the lower two corners of the sail. The windward line, or guy, is attached to the corner called the tack of the sail, and is stabilized by a spinnaker pole. The leeward (downwind) line is called the sheet. It attaches to the clew of the spinnaker and is used to control the shape of the sail. The spinnaker pole must be moved in each gybe, and is quite difficult for beginners to use. However, it can be sailed in all downwind wind", "and keep the boat from crabbing, or slipping sideways from the force of the wind. Both jib and main sails are fully battened and total 218 square feet (20 m²). A trapeze is usually used by the crew and helmsman.\nOne notable difficulty in sailing this boat is the tendency of the boat to 'pitchpole' when running downwind; the sail plan and distribution of the flotation of the hulls is such that it can push the bows down far enough to dip them under the water, stopping the front of the boat and leading to a cartwheel or somersault and subsequent capsize", "Sailmaker A sailmaker makes and repairs sails for sailboats, kites, hang gliders, wind art, architectural sails, or other structures using sails. A sailmaker typically works on shore in a sail loft; the sail loft has other sailmakers. Large ocean-going sailing ships often had sailmakers in the crew. The sailmaker maintained and repaired sails. This required knowledge of the sailmaker's craft and the tools of the sailmakers loft on shore.\nToday, one of a sailmaker's important jobs is to teach people how to set and trim their sails to get the most out of them. Sometimes a sailmaker will accompany the client", "can use lift to move across or into the wind. However, for most sailboats the boat speed drops if sailing closer than 45 degrees to the wind. The highest speed for most sailboats is reaching with the wind from the side or the aft quarter (a beam reach or a broad reach).\nIf the destination is upwind but the sailboat goes fastest heading away from this direction, this poses a significant problem: how to choose tack headings with the best tradeoff between maximimizing speed and minimizing distance. The ability to define an efficient tacking route is an important issue in sailboat", "(which is performed using braces); instead, they are used to haul the corners of the sails from their stowed positions down towards the tip of the yard below. They are then not adjusted significantly while sailing until the sail is to be handed (put away) again. The lowest sails, the courses, are trimmed using the sheets as these sails are loose footed and are secured to yards only at the head.", "theoretically. Sailing craft orient their sails with a favorable angle of attack between the entry point of the sail and the apparent wind even as their course changes. The ability to generate lift is limited by sailing too close to the wind when no effective angle of attack is available to generate lift (luffing) and sailing sufficiently off the wind that the sail cannot be oriented at a favorable angle of attack (running downwind). Instead, past a critical angle of attack, the sail stalls and promotes flow separation. Sail interactions Sailboats often have a jib that overlaps the mainsail—called a", "to right the boat. Standing on the keel gives the sailor additional leverage to roll the hull upright. The centerboard, daggerboard or bilgeboard can be used as a platform upon which to stand, providing increased leverage, in the event the dinghy overturns via a capsize or turtle. How it works Because water is more dense than air, the force generated by wind against the much larger surface area of the sails can be equalized by the force of a relatively small daggerboard pushing in the water below the hull. A daggerboard fits into a trunk that runs through the hull", "be sailed from the beach through the surf, and to be surfed back in on the waves to the beach. Instead of daggerboards or centreboards, the 16 has asymmetrical hulls which act like foils and keep the boat from crabbing, or slipping sideways from the force of the wind. Both jib and main sails are fully battened and total 218 square feet (20 m²). A trapeze is usually used by the crew and helmsman.\nWhile sailing a 16-foot boat offshore may sound fool hardy the Hobie 16 is the most ideal vessel for offshore sailing because its sail plan is low tech", "Fishing trawler A fishing trawler is a commercial fishing vessel designed to operate fishing trawls. Trawling is a method of fishing that involves actively dragging or pulling a trawl through the water behind one or more trawlers. Trawls are fishing nets that are pulled along the bottom of the sea or in midwater at a specified depth. A trawler may also operate two or more trawl nets simultaneously (double-rig and multi-rig).\nThere are many variants of trawling gear. They vary according to local traditions, bottom conditions, and how large and powerful the trawling boats are. A trawling boat can be a", "Two hang from ropes and harnesses attached to the top of the mast and work the rigging; three stand in the rear, steering the craft with a 2-metre (6.6 ft) long paddle; two stand amidships and adjust the sail, and up to seven additional crew members sit on wooden poles jutting from the windward side. The pole-sitters move inboard and outboard as needed, allowing the sail to make maximum use of the wind and preventing the boat from capsizing. If wind conditions are right, a second square sail may be added to the front of the boat and the main mast", "a variety of maneuvers. These can include surfing, spinning, and various vertical moves (cartwheels, loops, blunts, pistol and donkey flips, and many others), spinning the boat on all possible axis of rotation. More recently, aerial moves have become accessible, where paddlers perform tricks having gained air from using the speed and bounce of the wave. Canoes used for playboating generally have relatively low volume in the bow and stern, allowing the paddler to submerge the ends of the canoe with relative ease. Competitions for playboating or freestyle are sometimes called whitewater rodeo in the US, but more frequently just referred", "direction.\nOn a keelboat, \"outrigger\" refers to a variety of structures by which the running rigging (such as a sheet) may be attached outboard (outside the lateral limits) of the boat's hull. The Racing Rules of Sailing generally prohibit such outriggers, though they are explicitly permitted on specific classes, such as the IMOCA Open 60 used in several major offshore races. Fishing In fishing from vessels, an outrigger is a pole or series of poles that allow boats to trawl more lines in the water without tangling and simulates a school of fish. Rowing In a rowing boat or galley, an", "Clewlines and buntlines Clewlines and buntlines are lines used to handle the sails of a square rigged ship.\nAlthough the common perception of a traditionally rigged ship is that the sails are handled from \"up in the rigging\", the majority of the work is actually carried out from the deck. In particular, when sailors go aloft to stow the square sails by bundling them up and tying them to the yard (with gaskets) they don't have to pull the whole weight of the sail up towards them. That work has already been carried out from the deck using the clewlines and", "Crew boat A crew boat is a vessel specialized in the transport of offshore support personnel, deck cargo, and below-deck cargo such as fuel and potable water to and from offshore installations such as oil platforms, drilling rigs, drill and dive ships or wind farms.\nCrew boats also are known as fast support vessels or fast supply vessels.\nCrew boats range in size from small, 30-60-ft. vessels working on bays, sounds and inland waterways to 200-ft. vessels that work as much as 200 miles offshore. Crew boats typically are constructed of aluminum and offshore vessels are most often powered by four-six turbo-charged", "the back of the boat. The head (top corner) is attached to the spinnaker halyard, which is used to raise the sail up the mast.\nSymmetric spinnakers have the windward clew secured to a spinnaker pole. The pole is attached to the mast and holds the windward edge of the sail in position. Lines that control the spinnaker pole are called guys or braces. The spinnaker pole may be allowed to raise and lower with the force of the wind, or it may have lines attached to it to raise (the topping lift) and lower (the foreguy", "Fish tug A fish tug (sometimes called fishtug, fish tugboat, fishing tug, etc.) is a type of boat that was used for commercial fishing in the first half of the 20th century, primarily on the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence Seaway. History The fish tug evolved from small, open, motorized boats which had replaced sail-powered fishing boats on the Great Lakes by the early 20th century. Fishermen soon began experimenting with enclosed cabins and net lifters, making the boats safer and more convenient on the inland seas. Most of these earlier coverings left the forward deck and stern uncovered, but", "sail up, seamen on the yardarm pull on reef tackles, attached to reef cringles, to pull the sail up and secure it with lines, called reef points. Dana spoke of the hardships of sail handling during high wind and rain or with ice covering the ship and its rigging. Changing tack Sailing vessels cannot sail directly into the wind. Instead, square-riggers must sail a course that is between 60° and 70° away from the wind direction and fore-and aft vessels can typically sail no closer than 45°. To reach a destination, sailing vessels may have to change course and allow", "used to prevent low waves from splashing over the transom and flooding the boat. Sail A typical sailing rig for a dinghy is a gunter with a two-piece folding mast stepped through a thwart and resting on the keel. It is raised by pulling a rope called a halyard. A single-sailed rig is usually preferred over a marconi or Bermudan (with a triangular mainsail and jib) because this rig is simpler, with no stays to attach. Sprit rigs also have no boom, and the advantage that the sail can be brailed up out of the way against the mast when", "are used as a support for the rigging, as well as a support for the skipper.\nHas a single mast of aluminum whose inclination and bending can be varied during the navigation by means of the stays. The triangular sail is maneuvered by a sheet that slides freely on a steel rod installed between two stands fully aft of the boat.\nThe fixing point of the maneuver lines is usually placed between two stands (from the 3rd to the 5th \"stand\") in a battery of mechanisms called \"piano\". In addition to the ropes that act as stays,. there is a halyard to", "to maneuver with its own engines (to counter drift and ocean currents), but for long-distance relocation it must be moved by specialist tugboats. The rig is capable of withstanding severe sea conditions, including waves of 12 metres (39 ft).", "broadly than a close reach. Alternatively, a boat may carry smaller jibs, to compensate aerodynamics when the main sail is reefed; these more rugged sails are called storm jibs or spitfires.\nOn a boat with two staysails the inner sail is called the staysail, and the outer (foremost) is called the jib. This combination of two staysails is called a cutter rig (or in North America a yankee pair) and a boat with one mast rigged with two staysails and a mainsail is called a cutter.\nOn cruising yachts, and nearly all racing sailboats, the jib needs to be worked when tacking.", "and soot. It was rigged with a crab claw sail made from woven mats of pandanus leaves (akgak). The canoes were usually made from dokdok (breadfruit) trees. They were hollowed out and carved by men. The sails (layak) were woven by women.\nThe main hull was asymmetrical on its left and right sides to counteract the drag of the outrigger float. However, it was symmetrical at both ends, which meant the boat can be sailed in reverse. This was a necessity to accomplish the shunting technique, in which the outrigger was always kept windward. This allowed the boats to sail leeward" ]

[ "The first time Dennis Rodman went to North Korea it was sponsored by the VICE news organization.\n\nThe latter trip he made he was accompanied by an entourage of reporters.\n\nBeyond the limited amount of first hand accounts, a lot of it is from monitoring that the United States and other nations do.\n\nNorth Korea does have ties to other nations, and does heavy trading with, at least, China. Those other countries can sell information", "Because your post isn't asking a simplified conceptual explanation, but rather for an answer, its been removed. \n\nYou should try /r/answers, /r/askreddit or even one of the more specialized answers subreddits like /r/askhistorians, /r/askscience or others too numerous and varied to mention. \n\nRest assured this doesn't make your question *bad*, it just makes it more appropriate for another subreddit. Good luck!", "Military Intel (signal surveillance, human Intel,cyber hacking/warfare), interviewing people that leave the country, interaction with their neighboring countries, building military bases in South Korea literally less than 60 mi from NK and Dennis Rodman. Kidding about Rodman.", "Close and critical reading of North Korean official sources can tell you a surprising amount. See, for example, \n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_" ]

[ "Information Center on North Korea The Information Center on North Korea (Hangul: 북한자료센터; Hanja: 北韓資料센터) is an institution under the Ministry of Unification devoted to collect and study North Korea-related materials in South Korea. The center, located on the fifth floor of the National Library of Korea in Seoul, has a vast collection of over 100,000 North Korean publications and videos, including every edition of the Rodong Sinmun and the complete works of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il. Besides political propaganda, its collection also includes children's books, textbooks and daily artifacts. The center obtained these materials through the official liaison", "the \".kp\" websites was misconfigured, allowing researchers to access and publish the domain names and some of the file data about the site, including zone information for .kp, co.kp, com.kp, edu.kp, gov.kp, net.kp, org.kp, and rep.kp, revealing that North Korea has only 28 websites facing the Internet.\nIn September 2017, Russian telecommunication company TransTeleCom has established direct internet connection to North Korea. Chinese Unicom is no longer sole provider of internet access for North Korea. Government use of the Internet As of 2018, construction of an Internet Communication Bureau headquarters is underway in Pyongyang. North Korean websites There are about 30", "Photojournalism in North Korea North Korean point of view North Korean leaders believe that their rules and censorship system is necessary in order to keep people under control, “to prevent the rise of criticism about the government.\"", "the South Korean government’s North Korea policy\". Availability and successor platform Physical prints are available in various libraries. As of 2017, PDFs of all issues since 2010 are made available online in Yonhap's website. Yonhap continues to provide coverage on North Korea in the form of news articles published in its website.", "North Korea do not have internet access, however the people do have access to Kwangmyong, an intranet set up by the government. North Korea itself has a limited presence on the internet, with several sites on their national .kp domain. The Mosquito Net filtering model used in North Korea attempts to attract foreign investment, while the filter simultaneously blocks foreign ideas. Video Games In September 2019 state-run media announced the release of a motion-based video game system named the Moranbong. The system appears to exhibit similar features to the Nintendo Wii and Playstation Move. The system has two wands", "Reconnaissance General Bureau History The RGB is regarded as North Korea's primary intelligence and clandestine operations organ. Although its original missions have traditionally focused on clandestine operations such as commando raids, infiltrations and disruptions, the RGB has since come to control most of the known North Korean cyber capabilities, mainly under Bureau 121 or its speculated successor, the Cyber Warfare Guidance Bureau.\nThe foundations for North Korean cyber operations were built in the 1990s, after North Korean computer scientists returned from travel abroad proposing to use the Internet as a means to spy on enemies and attack militarily superior opponents", "in the demilitarized zone fence and defected. In 2004, a South Korean soldier was arrested for violating the National Security Law by secretly crossing into North Korea and providing information about the military unit he served in. He is suspected of providing military information to North Korea like the location of the Air Force fighter wing he served in and the location of anti-air batteries. One year later a 57-year-old South Korean fisherman crossed the maritime Northern Limit Line (NLL) into North Korea. South Korean coastal border guards fired some 20 warning shots from a 60 mm mortar, 106 mm recoilless rifle", "Military Armistice Commission challenged the status of the line. North Korea followed this up by sending large groups of patrol ships over the NLL on about 43 occasions in October and November. North Korea states that it had not been informed of the existence of the line, which is now confirmed by declassified U.S. diplomatic cables, so it could not dispute it earlier.\nNorth Korea's official state news agency KCNA described the line as the \"final line for stopping the defectors to the north\" drawn to meet \"Washington's self-justified interests.\"\nOn 1 August 1977, North Korea established an Exclusive Economic Zone of", "information censorship, preventing undesirable information from being accessed. Thus, sensitive topics and information are unlikely to surface on Kwangmyong due to the absence of a link to the outside world and the censorship that occurs. Kwangmyong is maintained by government-related entities. However, large amounts of material from the Internet end up on Kwangmyong, following processing.\nForeigners in North Korea are generally not allowed to access Kwangmyong but may have access to the global Internet. For security reasons networks with Internet and intranet access are air gapped so that computers with Internet access are not housed in the same location as computers", "send leaflets to the DMZ. Many of the retrieved Cold-War era leaflets included maps. One of the leaflets found on the DMZ included a map of Cho Dae-hum's route of defection to North Korea across the DMZ. Many North Korean leaflets during the Cold War gave instructions, in addition to maps, to help the targeted South Korean soldiers in defecting.\nNorth Korea restored its balloon leaflet campaign in July 2012 during increased peninsular tensions after the failed missile test involving Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 earlier in April. The propaganda leaflets targeting western border areas in October 2012 praised pro-North activists and criticized the South", "was difficult for the Soviets to make full use of Walker's information. In the communist camp Documents released from National Archives of Romania suggest it was the Chinese rather than the Soviets who actively encouraged the reopening of hostilities in Korea during 1968, promising North Korea vast material support should hostilities in Korea resume. Together with Blue House Raid, the Pueblo incident turned out to be part of an increasing divergence between the Soviet leadership and North Korea. Fostering a resumption of hostilities in Korea, allegedly, was seen in Beijing as a way to mend relations between North Korea and", "North Korea. This would include both loudspeaker and FM radio propaganda broadcasts across the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Meanwhile, a North Korean military commander stated, “If South Korea establishes new psychological warfare services, we will fire against them in order to eliminate them,” according to a report carried by the Korean Central News Agency (KCNA).\nSouth Korea began propaganda broadcasts into North Korea by radio on 25 May. North Korea responded by putting its troops on high alert, and severed most remaining ties and communications with South Korea in response to what it called a \"smear campaign\" by Seoul. South Korean", "them once again onto North Korean soil.\nA statement released by the Mainland Chinese government rejected these claims and a report by North Korea alleges footage from the journalists' camera showed the two knowingly entered North Korea and even intended to take home souvenirs. Kim Chol, one of the North Korean soldiers who arrested the two journalists, claimed in interviews on North Korean television that they attempted to bribe him for their release after they were caught, but that he rejected their offer.", "possible to demand North Korea to stop its hostile actions, as sending leaflets across the border is a violation of the Inter-Korean Basic Agreement from 1992. In the Inter-Korean Basic Agreement, both governments agreed to stop hostile actions against each other.\nSuzanne Scholte of the Defense Forum Foundation, an organization working mainly for Sub-Saharan self-determination and North Korean human rights, has called the balloons \"nuclear missile[s] of truth and hope for North Korean people\".\nDirector John Feffer from Foreign Policy in Focus argues that the activists should learn from the Polish 'self-limiting revolution' (the Second Solidarity) in 1988–1989, as pushing one's own", "has \"strictly monitored the Internet usage\". Many citizens of North Korea may be unaware of the existence of the Internet.\nSince Apple Inc., Sony, and Microsoft are not allowed to distribute their products to North Korea, third-party companies have bought their products and been selling them to customers. Very little is known about the electronics industry in North Korea due to the government's isolation policies.\nFrom April 2016, North Korea started to block Facebook, YouTube, Twitter and South Korean websites, due to \"its concern with the spread of online information\".\nOn 19 September 2016, North Korea's nameserver that contains information about all of", "NLL. Many sources suggest this was done promptly, but in 1973 Deputy Secretary of State Kenneth Rush stated, in a now declassified, \"Joint State-Defense Message\" to the U.S. Embassy in Seoul that \"We are aware of no evidence that NLL has ever been officially presented to North Korea.\"\nHowever, South Korea argues that until the 1970s North Korea tacitly recognized the line as a sea demarcation line. North Korea recorded in their 1959 Central Almanac a partial demarcation line close to the UNC controlled islands, at about three nautical miles distance, which South Korea argues shows North Korean acceptance of the", "North Korea will begin in a week that would make the operation impossible after it has begun.\nGeneral Hale disobeys orders by personally flying an F-86 on a reconnaissance mission without escort over the target. After he is aloft, intelligence discovers the air base is located elsewhere and that what the General is flying over is a stronghold full of anti-aircraft weapons and enemy fighter aircraft.\nThe General is shot down; Jane is with the General's wife Marge (Julie Bishop) when Gil breaks the news of the loss of the General. Marge's incredible composure and courage brings Jane to tears and", "detected and to determine the completeness and correctness of the initial declaration provided, the IAEA requested access to additional information and to two sites which seemed to be related to the storage of nuclear waste. The DPRK refused access to the sites, and on 12 March 1993, North Korea announced its decision to withdraw from the NPT.\nOn 1 April 1993, the IAEA concluded that North Korea was in non-compliance with its Safeguards Agreement, and referred this to the UN Security Council. Following UN Security Council resolution 825, which called upon the DPRK to reconsider its decision to withdraw from the", "among them. \nThe timing of the attack led some analysts to be suspicious of North Korea. The attack started on July 4, 2009, the same day as a North Korean short-range ballistic missile launch, and also occurred less than one month after the passage of UN Security Council Resolution 1874, which imposed further economic and commercial sanctions on North Korea in response to an underground nuclear test conducted earlier that year.\nSouth Korean police analyzed a sample of the thousands of computers used by the botnet, stating that there is \"various evidence\" of the involvement of North Korea or \"pro-North elements,\"", "Joint Advisory Commission, Korea The Joint Advisory Commission, Korea (JACK) was a U.S. covert operations unit that participated in the Korean War. \nOperating under the direction of the Central Intelligence Agency, JACK was responsible for inserting and extracting U.S.-trained Korean agents into North Korea, conducting covert maritime raids along the North Korean coast, and providing escape and evasion support for downed Air Force pilots.", "on North Korean affairs and has composed articles related to North Korea on top of regular international affairs coverage.\nJoo operates a reporter's blog called \"서울에서 쓰는 평양이야기\" (\"Pyongyang Story Written in Seoul\"), one of the most widely read online information channels about North Korea that has attracted 69 million page views as of October 3, 2015. Furthermore, despite North Korea's repeated murder threats for whom the country deems a traitor, Joo continues to broadcast every week information from the outside world across the border to North Koreans, via Radio Free Asia.", "had stolen classified South Korean military data, including a plan for the killing of Kim Jong-un. According to cybersecurity experts, North Korea maintained an army of hackers trained to disrupt enemy computer networks and steal both money and sensitive data. In the previous decade, it was blamed for numerous cyber-attacks and other hacking attacks in South Korea and elsewhere, including the hack of Sony Pictures supposedly in retaliation for the release of the 2013 film The Interview, which depicts the assassination of Kim Jong-un. Tension and détente 2017 saw a period of heightened tension between the U.S. and North Korea.", "visitors can link their computers to the Internet through international phone lines available in a few hotels in Pyongyang. In 2005 a new Internet café opened in Pyongyang, connected not through China, but through the North Korean satellite link. Content is most likely filtered by North Korean government agencies.\nSince February 2013, foreigners have been able to access the internet using the 3G phone network. Access to foreign media \"A Quiet Opening: North Koreans in a Changing Media Environment\" a study commissioned by the U.S. State Department and conducted by Intermedia and released May 10, 2012 shows that despite extremely strict", "Internet in North Korea Internet software Connection to the internet in North Korea is done via Naenara, a modified version of Firefox that can access approximately 1,000 to 5,500 websites in the internet. It runs on Red Star OS, a North Korean Linux distribution.\nIn 2016 an IPTV service called Manbang started, accessed by a Wi-Fi enabled set-top box. Service providers and access Internet access in North Korea is available from Internet service provider Star Joint Venture Co., a joint venture between the North Korean government's Post and Telecommunications Corporation and Thailand-based Loxley Pacific. Star JV took control of North Korea's", "but said they may not find the culprit. Intelligence officials with the South Korean government warned lawmakers that a \"North Korean military research institute had been ordered to destroy the South's communications networks.\"\nJoe Stewart, researcher at SecureWorks' Counter Threat Unit, noted that the data generated by the attacking program appeared to be based on a Korean-language browser. \nVarious security experts have questioned the narrative that the attack originated in North Korea. One analyst thinks that the attacks likely came from the United Kingdom, while technology analyst Rob Enderle hypothesizes that \"overactive students\" may be to blame. Joe Stewart of SecureWorks", "foot into North Korea\" as the authors asserted the paper had not reported the event.", "later history, the CIA and other sixteen U.S. intelligence agencies have primarily focused strictly on the DPRK'S weapons and capabilities (potentially successful long-range ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons). Intelligence analysis In the 16 July 1949 Weekly Summary, the Agency described North Korea as a Soviet puppet regime. On 29 October, a Weekly Summary states that a North Korean attack on the South is possible as early as 1949, and cites reports of road improvements towards the border and troop movements there. \nThese reports establish the dominant theme in intelligence analysis from Washington that accounts for the failure to predict", "said that \"it will be worked on.\" no further elaboration were given. Other activity There have been several confrontations between the two nations over North Korean clandestine activity in Japan besides the abductions including drug smuggling, marine poaching, and spying. North Korean missile tests are a concern for Japan because the missiles sometimes travel through Japanese airspace and territory.\nIn 1998, North Korea successfully fired a Taepodong-1 ballistic missile that crossed over Japan and landed in the Pacific Ocean. This test launch was viewed as an act of political defiance as negotiations on the future of North Korea's nuclear program development", "Bureau 121 Bureau 121 is a North Korean cyberwarfare agency, which is part of the Reconnaissance General Bureau of North Korea's military. According to American authorities, the General Bureau of Reconnaissance (also termed Reconnaissance General Bureau) manages clandestine operations and has six bureaus. Cyber operations are thought to be a cost-effective way for North Korea to maintain an asymmetric military option, as well as a means to gather intelligence; its primary intelligence targets are South Korea, Japan, and the United States. Bureau 121 was created in 1998.\nAnother known cyberwarfare unit in the General Bureau of Reconnaissance is called No. 91", "in 1980 and the launching of missiles. Restrictions on the dissemination of information do not only apply to the civilian population, but to North Korean officials themselves, depending on ranking.\nIn contrast, the idea of reunification of the two Koreas is a pervasive theme in the North Korean media, as is the near constant \"threat\" of an \"imminent attack\" by the foreign countries. In recent years, the media describes in detail satellite launches launched by the country as a sign of the DPRKs \"economic prowess.\" The media rarely reports bad news from the country; however on one rare occasion, the press" ]

[ "Originally, for most of its history, China was extremely innovative and powerful. Because of their power, the last dynasty, the Qing, didn't feel a need to continue improving infrastructure and innovations. As such, they quickly fell behind the Europeans that were visiting. This lead to crushing defeats of the Qing dynasty against other nations, such as the UK in the Opium Wars. That's the main reason why the Chinese started to fall.", "It's not as much that China declined, as simply that rapid growth occurred in the west because of the industrial revolution. In that time China wasn't getting weaker they were just remaining the same in a world that was getting stronger around it. When Mao chose to industrialize in the 20th century it became a force to be reckoned with, and today it is in the top three strongest countries in the world.", "China was a self-sufficiant country and European imperialists and Capitalists didn't have access to China's market. The rapidly industrializing west did not like this. \n\nThe British, through India, started smuggling huge amounts of Opium into China, this started decimating the population in the country and the Emperor moved to ban Opium and block the black market trade. He took thousands of chests of contraband without paying the British. This of course led to what we now call \"FREEDOM\" coming to China in the form of British warships.\n\nThe British of course won and forced open Chinese trade and markets, basically monopolizing the markets, pumping China full of Opium and stealing their resources. \n\nThis started what was called \"The Century of Humiliation\". \n\nThe Japanese then came along, kicked out the Brits and started their own imperialism. \n\nThen Mao came along, kicked out the Japanese, stopped the Opium trade, industrialized the country, doubled life expectancy, massively boosted the population, gave medical care to hundreds of millions of people, Cut the death rate from the 38-48:1000 too 10:1000 and gave egalitarian and equal rights to the people. THEN went completely off the rocker with the GLF and Cultural Revolution which led to many deaths and famine (though still nowhere close to before Mao was in power).\n\nThis is why Mao is still a very popular figure in China and considered a national hero and why in the west we call him a monster (because we only focus on the bad parts like the GLF and Cultural Revolution, doesn't help when you have absolute bullshit anti-CCP propaganda like Mao: The Unforgotten Story becoming best sellers)", "I think these are some good answers, but I bet you'd get more elaborated answers if you posted in /r/askhistorians" ]

[ "Asian and distant European counterparts in terms of technological development, economic growth, culminating in its ability to maintain a massive territorial empire throughout succeeding medieval Chinese dynasties. Despite economic stagnation after 1450 and the rise of early modern Europe, China's economy still remained the world's largest from the 1500s until 1820 as the world's most populous country and remained the world's largest economy up until 1885, a figure higher than the US economy at the height of its economic dominance after World War II. China was the wealthiest part of the world from 1200 to the 1300s — aside", "by Macau (2010), Taiwan (2010), Hong Kong (1997), and Singapore (1993). China By the mid to late 19th century, China began losing its global economic edge as the European colonial powers and Japan were rapidly modernizing and industrializing. A number of factors such as contributed to China's stagnation behind Europe and Japan such as bureaucractic centralization that impeded innovation, creativity, and entrepreneurship, a sense of ethnic and cultural superiority, and preference of civilization continuity and resistance to modern change and technology. After 1750, driven by a modern innovation called the steam engine gave birth to the first Industrial Revolution. In", "Chinese state's fiscal weaknesses were long masked by its huge tax base. However, economic and demographic expansion in the eighteenth century exacerbated the problems of administrative control. This put a further squeeze on the nation's finances and left China ill-prepared for the challenges of the nineteenth century.\nOne reason why Japan was able to modernize and adopt the technologies of the West was due to its much smaller size relative to China.\nThe historian Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse", "most developed economies on earth. After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, for a thousand years from 500 AD to 1500 AD, China was the wealthiest country in East Asia in the aggregate total in addition to per capita income. According to The Economist, China was not only the largest economy for much of recorded history for 1800 years of the past two millennia, but it was the world's largest until the end of the 15th century boasting the worlds highest per capita income and most advanced technology at the time. Throughout this period, China outperformed its fellow East", "Western Europe were dominant at the beginning of the century; by the 2010s, China became an emerging superpower and by some measures the world's largest economy. In terms of purchasing power parity India's economy became larger than that of Japan around the year 2011.\nThe ongoing impact of technological unemployment due to automation and computerization on job employment is massive: the rate of jobs disappearing—due to machines replacing them—is expected to escalate. Automation alters the number of jobs and their skills demands of industries. As of 2019, the manufacturing sectors of first world nations' production output was doubled when compared to", "China's continued history and large population became an advantage. However, this trial-and-error approach had its developmental ceiling. And, incremental improvement faced diminishing returns. So, although China once led the world, it was unable to realize what is known as the \"Scientific Revolution\" whose origin may well have been oriental/Chinese.\nUntil the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), China was a world leader in technology and scientific discovery. Many Chinese inventions — paper and printing, gunpowder, porcelain, the magnetic compass, the sternpost rudder, and the lift lock for canals — made major contributions to economic growth in the Middle East and Europe.\nThe outside world remained", "Egypt during the Suez Crisis in 1956. However, with the United States and Soviet Union emerging from World War II as the sole superpowers, Britain's role as a worldwide power declined significantly and rapidly. China Ancient China was one of the world's oldest empires. Due to its long history of imperialist expansion, China has been seen by its neighboring countries as a threat due to its large population, giant economy, large military force as well as its territorial evolution throughout history. Starting with the unification of China under the Qin dynasty, later Chinese dynasties continued to follow its form", "1911, the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Manchus and established the Republic of China. The attendant era of warlords and civil war accelerated the decline of the Chinese economy, which rapidly declined in comparison to the world gross domestic product.\nEven though the living standard of this era was low, the Chinese population’s numeracy rate—an index which measures numerical skills of a society and shows a strong correlation to the later economic development—was comparable to those in north-western European countries and therefore among the highest in the world. The gap between the potential of the Chinese people’s human capital and the", "(581–1279), China remained the world's largest economy and most technologically advanced society. Inventions such as gunpowder, woodblock printing and the magnetic compass were improved upon. China stood in contrast to other areas at the time as the imperial governments exhibited concentrated central authority instead of feudalism.\nChina exhibited much interest in foreign affairs, during the Tang and Song dynasties. From the 7th through the 10th Tang China was focused on securing the Silk Road as the sell of its goods westwards was central to the nation's economy. For a time China, successfully secured its frontiers by integrating their nomadic neighbors such", "decline up until the late twentieth century until the Deng Xiaoping economic reforms, China's GDP grew 10 percent per year from 1978 until 2000 and tripled between 2000 to 2010. China's rise in the global economy catapulted the Middle Kingdom into East Asia's largest economy, overtaking Japan as the world's second largest economy in August 2010. Until 2015, China was the world's fastest-growing major economy, with growth rates averaging 10% over 30 years. Its rapid and sustained economic expansion has lifted hundred of millions of people out of poverty and has made the nation a major engine of economic growth", "By the early 1950s, China's international influence was extremely low. By the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, China's pretensions of universalism had been shattered by a string of military defeats and incursions by Europeans and Japanese. By the end of Yuan Shikai's reign and the subsequent Warlord Era, China's international prestige had declined to \"almost nothing\". In World War II, China's effective role was sometimes questioned by other Allied leaders. The 1950–1953 Korean War greatly exacerbated China's international position by fixing the United States in a position of animosity, ensuring that Taiwan would remain", "economic decline and reduced its productive capabilities. Internal strife, political turmoil and foreign exploitation of China resulted the share of the country's GDP to fall to 5 percent in the 1950s to accounting for one-sixth of the global economy as of 2016 with the Chinese renminbi playing a major role in establishing the modern Chinese economy on a domestic and global scale. \nFrom 1820 to 1950, China experienced a precipitous economic decline that it would not recover until its meteoric rise in 1978 with its per capita GDP income of US$154 in 1978 rising to US$6060 in 2012 while averaging", "GDP growth. Thus Song China was the richest country in the world by GPD per capita at the turn of the millennium, by the 14th century parts of Europe caught up with it and the significant gap between China and Europe appeared by the middle of 18th century. Song dynasty (960–1279) In 960, the Later Zhou general Zhao Kuanyi overthrew his imperial master and established the Song dynasty, the sixth in fifty-three years. Nineteen years later, he had reunified most of China. This was one of the most prosperous periods in Chinese history. Unlike its predecessors, the monarchy and aristocracy", "from Italy until the European Renaissance took off during the late Middle Ages and the modern Western World and Japan overtook China it during the mid and late-19th century. China accounted for around one-quarter of the global GDP until the late 1700s and approximately one-third of the global GDP in 1820 as the Industrial Revolution was beginning in Great Britain. China's GDP in 1820 was six times as large as Britain’s, the largest economy in Europe — and almost 20 times the GDP of the nascent United States. Japan Ancient Chinese coinage and money was introduced to Japan about 1500", "day. Yet, as the Cold War continued, authorities began to question if France and the United Kingdom could retain their long-held statuses as great powers. China, with the world's largest population, has slowly risen to great power status, with large growth in economic and military power in the post-war period. After 1949, the Republic of China began to lose its recognition as the sole legitimate government of China by the other great powers, in favour of the People's Republic of China. Subsequently, in 1971, it lost its permanent seat at the UN Security Council to the People's Republic of China.", "of expansions. \n\nThe most successful Chinese imperial dynasties are Tang and Qing dynasty, due to its expansions. According to historian Eric Setzekorn examining the 1850-1877 period, China's imperialism was brutal, and \"resulted in the deaths of millions....[ Chinese leaders] radically shifted the ethnic balance in favor of Han colonists. This was accomplished through the mass expulsion of ethnic communities and, more directly, the killing of unwanted minority groups, i.e. ethnic cleansing.\" France During the 16th century, the French colonization of the Americas began with the creation of New France. It was followed by French East India Company's trading posts in", "European influence prevented China from undergoing an Industrial Revolution; copying Europe's progress on a large scale would be impossible for a lengthy period of time. Political instability under Cixi rule (opposition and frequent oscillation between modernists and conservatives), the Republican wars (1911–1933), the Sino-Japanese War (1933–1945), the Communist/Nationalist War (1945–1949) as well as the later Cultural Revolution isolated China at the most critical times. Kenneth Pomeranz has made the argument that the substantial resources taken from the New World to Europe made the crucial difference between European and Chinese development.\nIn his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond postulates", "to become the world's second-largest economy and at the same time it also surpassed Germany in terms of export volume, becoming the largest in the world. The massive increase of GDP in China has led to an increase of living standards for the Chinese since their incomes have doubled or even quadrupled every 10 years. Amid this economic outburst, the income distribution in China has increased dramatically, changing China from a relatively equal socialist country to a very unequal country.\nThe economic globalization of China has transformed the nature of its national policy preferences, calling into question for the rest of", "Empire had a sound basis. As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown, India's share of world income collapsed from 22.6% in 1700, almost equal to Europe's share of 23.3% at that time, to as low as 3.8% in 1952. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th century, \"the brightest jewel in the British Crown\" was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income.\n— Manmohan Singh\nFrom the beginning of the 19th century, the British East India Company's gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies,", "1934 and recovering to $23.7 billion by 1935. By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled $3.5 billion, with Japan leading ($1.4 billion) and the United Kingdom at 1 billion. By 1948, however, the capital stock had halted with investment dropping to only $3 billion, with the US and Britain leading.\nHowever, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to massive falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were \"dumped\" in China). In 1931, imports of", "seen as one of the primary causes for China's declining economic growth in 2012.\nAs told in an Al Jazeera documentary called Chinese Dreamland by David Borenstein, China's technocrats planned to avoid the late-2000s financial crisis and economic recession by creating the greatest housing boom in human history, with then-Premier Wen Jiabao proclaiming that \"confidence is more important than gold or capital\" to maintain employment and GDP growth. China ending up using more concrete in two years than the United States did during the entire 20th century. The property bubble peaked in 2009. By 2012, as large established population centers were", "the late 19th century, and China and India in the late 20th century. For example, the process of borrowing science and technology from the West has been explored. China Modernisation theory failed to explain the experience of China. Mao modernised the People's Republic of China with massive industrialisation projects and social transformation. However, China did not become a democratic country after its modernisation. Nowadays, even though the Soviet-style authoritarian regimes have already collapsed worldwide, China did not have any major political reforms after Mao's death. The country remained authoritarian, despite the size of its economic sector.\nChina has", "Economic history of China before 1912 The economic history of China covers thousands of years and the region has undergone alternating cycles of prosperity and decline. China, for last two millennia, was one of the world's largest and most advanced economies. Economic historians usually divide China's history into three periods: the pre-imperial era before the rise of Qin; the early imperial era from Qin to the rise of the Song (221 BCE to 960 CE); and the late imperial era, from Song to the fall of the Qing.\nNeolithic agriculture had developed in China by roughly 8,000 BCE. Stratified bronze-age cultures, such as Erlitou,", "that would decide global hegemony in the 20th century. Imperial Russia In the late 19th century, with the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881), the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) China recovered the eastern portion of the Ili River basin (Zhetysu), which Russia had occupied for a decade, since the Dungan Revolt (1862–77). In that time, the mass communications media of the West misrepresented China as an ascendant military power, and applied Yellow Peril ideology to evoke racist fears that China would conquer Western colonies, such as Australia. United States In 1870s California, despite the Burlingame Treaty (1868) that allowed legal migration of", "and imperial powers.\nIn 1820, before the first Opium War, China's economy was the largest in the world, according to British economist Angus Maddison. In another investigative report published by Michael Cemblast of JP Morgan and updated by the World Economic Forum, similar conclusions were reached—i.e., China's economy was the largest in the world for many centuries until the Opium Wars. Furthermore, China was a net exporter, and had large trade surpluses with most Western countries. Within a decade after the end, and as a result of the Second Opium War, China's share of global GDP had fallen by half, and", "1930, foreign investment in China totaled 3.5 billion, with Japan leading (1.4 billion) followed by the United Kingdom (1 billion). By 1948, however, the capital investment had halted and dropped to only 3 billion, with the US and Britain being the leading investors.\nHowever, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were \"dumped\" in China). In 1931, Chinese imports of rice amounted to 21 million bushels compared", "restrict. Inflows of Japanese and Spanish silver monetized China's economy, and Spanish dollars became a common medium of exchange.\nThe size of the late Ming economy is a matter of conjecture, with Twitchett claiming it to be the largest and wealthiest nation on earth and Maddison estimating its per capita GDP as average within Asia and lower than Europe's. Ming industry After 1400, Ming China's economic recovery led to high economic growth and the revival of heavy industries such as coal and iron. Industrial output reached new heights surpassing that of the Song. Unlike the Song, however, the new industrial centres", "States\n5 - China’s impact on the world will not simply be economic; it will also have profound political, cultural and ideological effects\n6 - For thousands of years, China was at the centre of the tributary-state system in East Asia, which only came to an end with the arrival of European colonialism at the end of the nineteenth century\n7 - As the East Asian economy is rapidly reconfigured around China, we should expect elements of the tributary system to reappear\n8 - At its core, China is a civilization-state rather than a nation-state, a fact which will become steadily more apparent\n9 -", "1989 China's population was the largest in the world but its GDP was only ninth in the world, yet twenty-five years later China's economy has become the second largest after only the U.S. This major increase in economic development was not without a cost because although economic reform and globalization had brought China unprecedented wealth it also brought China a monstrous increase in carbon dioxide emissions. 21st Century China Since 2005, China has spent more than $56 billion in sub-Saharan Africa, with significant investment in oil, platinum, copper, nickel, and manganese as well as other extracting industries. China's bilateral trade", "rebellions that followed it, China's population was buoyed by the Columbian Exchange and increased greatly under the Ming (1368-1644 AD/CE). The economy was remonetised by Japanese and South American silver brought through foreign trade, despite generally isolationist policies. The relative economic status of Europe and China during most of the Qing (1644-1912 AD/CE) remains a matter of debate, but a Great Divergence was apparent in the 19th century, when British dependence on opium smuggling because of the Chinese Empire's demand for silver to pay for its tea exports led it into a series of wars that ended China's isolation and" ]

[ "> The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\n\nThe 10th Amendment to the US Constitution (part of the Bill of Rights) specifically says that, outside of the powers *specifically* granted to the Federal government, the states are responsible for making laws.", "Basically the US Constitution says that anything that isn't specifically spelled out as belonging to the Federal government will be left to the states or to the people (10th Amendment).", "In the US the Federal government only has as much power as the States give up to it. This means that everything not specifically set as a power belonging to the Federal Government is an issue for the States to control. Gun laws are one of these." ]

[ "the laws of both states. There is no longer a requirement that the other state be contiguous.\nWI statute 175.30 Title II firearms Machine guns (fully automatic firearms) are legal if the firearm is registered with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms & Explosives (BATFE), and the owner has received permission from the local sheriff or chief of police (941.26), or the weapon is exempted per statute 941.27.\nShort-barrel rifles and shotguns are legal if they are registered with ATF, state statute 941.28\nSuppressors are legal if they are registered with ATF, statute 941.298 State parks, fish hatcheries, and wildlife refuges Statute 29.091", "purchase firearms subject to certain restrictions. A 2011 survey of 28 countries over five continents found that a major distinction between different national regimes of firearm regulation is whether civilian gun ownership is seen as a right or a privilege. The study concluded that both the United States and Yemen were distinct from the other countries surveyed in viewing firearm ownership as a basic right of civilians and in having more permissive regimes of civilian gun ownership. In the remaining countries included in the sample, civilian firearm ownership is considered a privilege and the legislation governing possession of firearms is", "that someone has violated legal conditions. In countries with may-issue licensing laws (e.g. India, South Africa and Thailand) authorities have discretion at determining whether person may obtain guns. In some countries only very limited groups of people can own them (e.g. China, Japan, Myanmar). In few countries including Cambodia, Eritrea and Solomon Islands ownership of firearms is completely prohibited.\nCountries with a strong gun culture may afford civilians a right to keep and bear arms, and have more-liberal gun laws than neighboring jurisdictions. Countries which regulate access to firearms will typically restrict access to certain categories of firearms and then restrict", "State law (United States) In the United States, state law refers to the law of each separate U.S. state.\nThe fifty American states are separate sovereigns, with their own state constitutions, state governments, and state courts. All states have a legislative branch which enacts state statutes, an executive branch that promulgates state regulations pursuant to statutory authorization, and a judicial branch that applies, interprets, and occasionally overturns both state statutes and regulations, as well as local ordinances. States retain plenary power to make laws covering anything not preempted by the federal Constitution, federal statutes, or international treaties ratified by the", "versa). The reason that there is no opposite effect may be that most owners are noncriminals and that they may use guns to prevent violence. Access to firearms The US Constitution enshrines the right to gun ownership in the Second Amendment of the United States Bill of Rights to ensure the security of a free state through a well regulated Miltia. It states: \"A well regulated Miltia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.\" The Constitution makes no distinction between the type of firearm", "into California, where they are then arrested and prosecuted. The differences in gun laws and gun control philosophy between California and neighboring states has been a source of heated arguments between political figures in California who mostly support strict limitations on gun ownership and usage, and politicians in Arizona and Nevada who mostly favor individual gun rights. Roster of handguns certified for sale Dealers may not sell any new handgun unless it is listed in the state Department of Justice roster of handguns certified for sale. Listed handguns must include certain mechanical features and pass a set of laboratory tests.", "Gun law in the United States Overview of current regulations Fugitives, those convicted of a felony with a sentence exceeding 1 year, past or present, and those who were involuntarily admitted to a mental facility are prohibited from purchasing a firearm; unless rights restored. Forty-four states have a provision in their state constitutions similar to the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, which protects the right to keep and bear arms. The exceptions are California, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, and New York. In New York, however, the statutory civil rights laws contain a provision virtually identical to the", "are legally possessed under federal law. The state does not require background checks for private sales of firearms. Firearms possession Texas has no laws regarding possession of any firearm regardless of age; all existing restrictions in State law mirror Federal law except for the prohibition of zip guns. A person of any age may possess a firearm such as at a firing range. Texas and Federal law only regulate the ownership of all firearms to 18 years of age or older, and regulate the transfer of handguns to 21 years or older by FFL dealers. However, a private citizen", "Overview of gun laws by nation Gun laws and policies (collectively referred to as firearms regulation or gun control) regulate the manufacture, sale, transfer, possession, modification and use of small arms by civilians. Yemen and majority of U.S. states do not require any permit for acquisition of majority of types of firearms, meaning that any non-prohibited person can buy them from licensed dealers. Out of remaining countries some require shall-issue license (e.g. Canada, Czech Republic and Malta) which is being issued to people who meet all legal requirements. Typically in shall-issue countries in order to deny license authorities must prove", "some rural jurisdictions narrowly enforce the same firearms laws by prosecuting only those who demonstrate malicious intent, or not enforcing portions of the state's firearms laws at all. State law enforcement agencies, such as the California Highway Patrol, the California Department of Justice, and the California Department of Fish and Game strictly enforce state firearms law everywhere in California. State Constitutional Provisions The Constitution of California does not contain a provision explicitly guaranteeing an individual right to keep and bear arms. Article 1, Section 1, of the California Constitution implies a right to self-defense (without specifically mentioning a right to", "felony under state law, unless the short-barreled firearm is registered under the National Firearms Act. Owning or possessing a fully automatic firearm is not illegal under state law, but is still illegal under federal law unless the automatic firearm is registered under the National Firearms Act. Local and State authorities are not obligated to enforce federal firearms law or notify federal authorities of federal firearms law violations, however they may, or may not, choose to do so. Carrying firearms in public Carrying a handgun in public circumstances or on public land requires a valid handgun carry permit, issued by the", "Gun laws in Texas Gun laws in Texas regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of Texas.\nThe Texas Department of Public Safety shall issue a License to Carry a Handgun to an eligible person. The license permits the concealed or open carrying of a handgun. Vehicle carry is allowed without a license if the firearm is not in plain sight. Texas has state preemption of gun laws, so local governments can not further restrict or regulate the possession or use of firearms. Texas does not restrict NFA weapons that", "Gun laws in Virginia Gun laws in Virginia regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. Overview The Constitution of Virginia protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms from government infringement. The Commonwealth of Virginia preempts local regulation of several aspects of firearms, though some local regulation is explicitly permitted. Virginia passed the Uniform Machine Gun Act, which was drafted by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws. The only firearms in Virginia that are prohibited are the Armsel Striker, also known as", "and shotguns, and the 1997 Firearms Amendment Acts which restricted or made illegal many handguns) from private ownership. There has been one mass shooting since the laws were restricted, the Cumbria shootings in 2010 which killed 13 people. United States In the United States, support for gun law reform varies considerably by political party, with Democrats generally more supportive and Republicans generally more opposed. Some in the U.S. believe that tightening gun laws would prevent future mass shootings. Some politicians in the U.S. introduced legislation to reform the background check system for purchasing a gun. A vast majority of Americans", "are 23 various incarnations because so few states use exactly the same test, and consolidating those into a single list results in 42 unique factors. Naturally, the laws of different states frequently come into conflict with each other, which has given rise to a huge body of law regulating the conflict of laws in the United States.\nThe diversity of U.S. state law first became a notable problem during the late 19th-century era known as the Gilded Age, when interstate commerce was nurtured by then-novel technologies like the telegraph, the telephone, the steamship, and the railroad. Many lawyers during", "California Supreme Court has maintained that most of California's restrictive gun laws are constitutional, because the state's constitution does not explicitly guarantee private citizens the right to purchase, possess, or carry firearms. However, U.S. Supreme Court decisions of Heller (2008) and McDonald (2010) established that the Second Amendment applies to all states within the Union, and many of California's gun laws are now being challenged in the federal courts.\nCalifornia Penal Code §25850 defines what constitutes a loaded weapon.\nSemi-automatic firearms that the state has classified as assault weapons; .50 BMG caliber rifles; and large-capacity magazines (magazines that can hold more than", "law and the civil law jurisdictions do not share the same constitutional law underpinnings. Common law nations, such as those in the Commonwealth as well as the United States, derive their legal systems from that of the United Kingdom, and as such place emphasis on judicial precedent, whereby consequential court rulings (especially those by higher courts) are a source of law. Civil law jurisdictions, on the other hand, place less emphasis on judicial review and only the parliament or legislature has the power to effect law. As a result, the structure of the judiciary differs significantly between the two, with", " Regulations for other reasons, such as protection of children, are subject to strict scrutiny. Gun control Various federal and state laws restricting access to guns by certain people, laws that restrict or ban the acquisition or ownership of certain types of firearms by the general population, and laws that restrict the carrying of firearms by private citizens in public places have largely been upheld on the basis of intermediate scrutiny. In many of these cases, such laws have survived intermediate scrutiny on the basis that the government is furthering an \"important interest in public safety\" in enacting laws", "within the United States. Policy at the Federal level is/has been governed by the Second Amendment, National Firearms Act, Gun Control Act of 1968, Firearm Owners Protection Act, Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, and the Domestic Violence Offender Act. Gun policy in the U.S. has been revised many times with acts such as the Firearm Owners Protection Act, which loosened provisions for gun sales while also strengthening automatic firearms law.\nAt the federal, state and local level gun laws such as handgun bans have been overturned by the Supreme Court in cases such as", "Gun violence and gun control in Texas Federal gun laws The majority of criminal justice activity in the United States takes place at the state and local levels. The U.S. federal government supports these local efforts through national leadership and financial assistance. However, the federal government has used its regulatory authority over interstate affairs to prohibit activities on a nationwide basis that are regarded as contributing to criminal activity. Title IV (State Firearms Control Assistance) and the 1968 Gun Control Act were two federal reactions to handgun violence. More recently, the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act", "firearms laws be reviewed by balancing the interests (i.e., \"'interest-balancing' approach\") of Second Amendment protections against the government's compelling interest of preventing crime.\nThe Breyer dissent also objected to the \"common use\" distinction used by the majority to distinguish handguns from machineguns: \"But what sense does this approach make? According to the majority’s reasoning, if Congress and the States lift restrictions on the possession and use of machineguns, and people buy machineguns to protect their homes, the Court will have to reverse course and find that the Second Amendment does, in fact, protect the individual self-defense-related right to possess a machine-gun...There", "prohibited as they are defined as \"Prohibited Weapons\" under Section 5 of the Firearms Act 1968. (Section 5 Authority is usually only granted to members of the Gun Trade.)\nPistols and rifles below these energy levels are still termed firearms and are dealt with under the Firearms Act, but do not require licensing in England and Wales, and may be purchased by anyone over the age of 18. Pistols and rifles under 0.737 ft·lbf (1 J) are not included under firearms regulations in the UK but do fall under the VCR act. In Northern Ireland any air rifle or air", "Gun laws in California Gun laws in California regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of California in the United States.\nThe gun laws of California are some of the most restrictive in the United States. A 5-year Firearm Safety Certificate, obtained by paying a $25 fee, submission of applicant data to the state, and passing a written test proctored by a DOJ Certified Instructor, is required for the sale, delivery, loan, or transfer of any firearm. Handguns sold by dealers must be \"California legal\" by being listed on the state's Roster of Handguns Certified", "acquiring handguns outside their state of residence. The interstate purchase of long guns (rifles and shotguns) was not impeded by the Act so long as the seller is federally licensed and such a sale is allowed by both the state of purchase and the state of residence.\nPrivate sales between residents of two different states are also prohibited without going through a licensed dealer, except for the case of a buyer holding a Curio & Relic license purchasing a firearm that qualifies as a curio or relic.\nPrivate sales between unlicensed individuals who are residents of the same state are allowed", "Gun laws in Idaho Gun laws in Idaho regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Idaho in the United States.", "a person may buy or own under state law. Minors and firearms Minors may own firearms that are given to them by their parents, relatives, or legal guardians. However, they may not generally possess firearms unsupervised until they are 18 years of age. There are exceptions to this rule, such as when a minor possessing a hunting license (and having passed a hunter's safety course) is hunting, possession of firearm(s) on certain types of private property, and possession of firearm(s) in one's own home. NFA Title II firearms Owning or possessing a short-barreled shotgun or rifle is illegal and a", "forbidden to own in certain States and that requires a BATFE Form 4 to be filed and a payment of $200. The strict regulations of the National Firearms Act are compounded by the Gun Control Act of 1968, which prohibits the importation of such firearms, on the grounds that they are not particularly suitable for or readily adaptable to sporting purposes.", "laws which is empirically better. Because courts will almost always presume that their own state has better laws, this is effectively a device to avoid applying choice of law principles altogether. United States Constitutional limitations The United States Supreme Court has held that there are certain limitations imposed by the U.S. Constitution on the ability of states to apply their own law to events occurring in other states.\nIn one of the earliest cases in this area, Home Insurance Co. v. Dick, 281 U.S. 397 (1930), the Court held that the state of Texas could not constitutionally apply its own rule", "Army may be owned, and federal law will state the manner in which they can be used (Firearms are prohibited from importation into the Republic without proper licensing and documentation. Foreigners may not pass the border with unlicensed firearms; the commission of such act is a felony, punishable by prison term. See Gun politics in Mexico). Article 11 \"Everyone has the right to enter the Republic, exit it, travel through its territory, and change his residence without the need of a security card, passport, or any similar device. The exercise of this right will be subordinated to the", "Gun laws in Indiana Gun laws in Indiana regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the U.S. state of Indiana. State preemption Local laws regulating the possession and ownership of ammunition, firearms and shooting accessories are prohibited per IC 35–47–11.1–2, subject to the exemptions listed in IC 35–47–11.1–4. (New provisions effective 2011 Jul 01.)\nMunicipalities may regulate the discharge of firearms, and as such it is generally illegal to discharge a firearm within city limits. However, it is generally legal to discharge firearms on one's own property if located outside the city limits and with an adequate" ]

[ "These certain smells contain the basic chemicals that make up the product/object from which the smell comes from. Just as it'd be awful to have that object in your body, so are these smaller fragments that can invade the body, enter the various passage ways, and cause damage. Things like that would act like subtle pollution adding upon itself over time, resulting in catastrophic health defects if allowed to run through the body's systems, mold into various cells to the point that they either cease to function properly or force your immune system to attack their own cells.\n\nAnd then even Osmosis Jones can't save you, because the average Joe blood cells are protesting against white blood cells, saying the Immune System is working against them, killing too many good cells all because a few corrupted ones are making areas of the body slow down, deteriorate and what have you. But it's too late to smooth things down, because the corruption is spreading, and the Immune System's Commissioner can't come up with a peaceful solution to the problem nor tell the good cells from the bad cells. The entire body weakens to the point of collapse and it's only when external forces breach through the skin that it dawns on Jones: the cancerous threat originated from simple smells, infecting the bronchi neighborhoods before entering the bloodstream.\n\nWhile his epiphany may help him understand his foe, it also illuminates that the problem is out of even his control because the Commissioner simply won't listen and word won't reach the \"Think Tank\" brain boys upstairs. His only hope is something beyond the body he had sworn to protect will take up the mantle and save him and the good, honest living cells of The City of Frank." ]

[ "occur with pregnancies and occasional organ donors, cancer is generally not a transmissible disease. Chemicals Exposure to particular substances have been linked to specific types of cancer. These substances are called carcinogens.\nTobacco smoke, for example, causes 90% of lung cancer. It also causes cancer in the larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus and pancreas. Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.\nTobacco is responsible for about one in five cancer deaths worldwide and about one in three in the developed world. Lung cancer death rates in the United States have mirrored smoking patterns, with", "of developing lung cancer depends on the level, duration, and frequency of asbestos exposure (cumulative exposure). Smoking and individual susceptibility are other contributing factors towards lung cancer. Smokers who have been exposed to asbestos are at far greater risk of lung cancer. Smoking and asbestos exposure have a multiplicative (synergistic) effect on the risk of lung cancer. Symptoms include chronic cough, chest pain, breathlessness, haemoptysis (coughing up blood), wheezing or hoarseness of the voice, weight loss and fatigue. Treatment involves surgical removal of the cancer, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or a combination of these (multimodality treatment). Prognosis is generally poor unless the", "risk of bladder cancer compared to people who have never smoked. Passive smoking does not appear to be a risk.\nThirty percent of bladder tumors probably result from occupational exposure in the workplace to carcinogens such as benzidine. 2-Naphthylamine, which is found in cigarette smoke, has also been shown to increase bladder cancer risk. Occupations at risk are bus drivers, rubber workers, painters, motor mechanics, leather (including shoe) workers, blacksmiths, machine setters, and mechanics. Hairdressers are thought to be at risk as well because of their frequent exposure to permanent hair dyes.\nIn addition to these major risk factors there are also", "no lung damage has been detected in those who are exposed to cigarette smoke and who ingest a physiologic dose of β-carotene (6 mg), in contrast to high pharmacologic dose (30 mg). Therefore, the oncology from β-carotene is based on both cigarette smoke and high daily doses of β-carotene.\nIncreases in lung cancer may be due to the tendency of β-carotene to oxidize, and may hasten oxidation more than other food colors such as annatto. A β-carotene breakdown product suspected of causing cancer at high dose is trans-β-apo-8'-carotenal (common apocarotenal), which has been found in one study to be mutagenic and genotoxic in", "Lung cancer Causes Cancer develops after genetic damage to DNA and epigenetic changes. Those changes affect the cell's normal functions, including cell proliferation, programmed cell death (apoptosis), and DNA repair. As more damage accumulates, the risk for cancer increases. Smoking Tobacco smoking is by far the main contributor to lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains at least 73 known carcinogens, including benzo[a]pyrene, NNK, 1,3-butadiene, and a radioactive isotope of polonium – polonium-210. Across the developed world, 90% of lung cancer deaths in men and 70% of those in women during the year 2000 were attributed to smoking. Smoking accounts for about", "passive smoking. Radiation is a more potent source of cancer when combined with other cancer-causing agents, such as radon plus tobacco smoke. Radiation can cause cancer in most parts of the body, in all animals and at any age. Children are twice as likely to develop radiation-induced leukemia as adults; radiation exposure before birth has ten times the effect.\nMedical use of ionizing radiation is a small but growing source of radiation-induced cancers. Ionizing radiation may be used to treat other cancers, but this may, in some cases, induce a second form of cancer. It is also used in some kinds", "can cause a variety of lung diseases such as lung cancer. Tobacco smoking and asbestos both have synergistic effects on the development of lung cancer. In smokers who work with asbestos, the risk of lung cancer is increased 45-fold compared to the general population. Asbestos can also cause cancer of the pleura, called mesothelioma – which actually is different from lung cancer. Air pollution Outdoor air pollutants, especially chemicals released from the burning of fossil fuels, increase the risk of lung cancer. Fine particulates (PM2.5) and sulfate aerosols, which may be released in traffic exhaust fumes, are associated with a", "increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers. An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and brain cancer.\nIn December 2015, medical scientists reported that cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck. Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing the disease, according to the researchers. Children", "This can be due to a large variety of occupational lung diseases such as Coalworker's pneumoconiosis, autoimmune diseases or more rarely to a reaction to medication.\nLung cancer can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of metastasis from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either small-cell or non-small-cell lung carcinomas. The major risk factor for cancer is smoking. Once a cancer is identified it is staged using scans such as a CT scan and a sample of tissue (a biopsy) is taken. Cancers may be treated by surgically", "sensitive organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer. If the smoker also breathes in the asbestos fibers which commonly occur in urban and industrial environments, the risk of cancer is greatly increased.", "Lung cancer susceptibility Lung cancer and genetics Lung cancer is one of the most lethal and common forms of cancer worldwide. Pollution, smoking (active and passive), radiation (in the form of x-rays or gamma rays) and asbestos are risk factors for lung cancer. Symptoms may include persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, and swelling of the neck and face. There are different types of lung cancers, which can metastasize. Treatments include chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation. The treatment aimed at killing the cancer can also eliminate functioning lung cells (leukocytes).\nSpecific genetic factors can add to the risk of developing", "shows that tobacco smokers who are exposed to residential radon are twice as likely to develop lung cancer as non-smokers. As well, the risk of developing lung cancer from asbestos exposure is twice as likely for smokers than for non-smokers.\nNew research has found that women who smoke are at significantly increased risk of developing an abdominal aortic aneurysm, a condition in which a weak area of the abdominal aorta expands or bulges, and is the most common form of aortic aneurysm.\nSmoking leads to an increased risk of bone fractures, especially hip fractures. It also leads to slower wound-healing after", "Cancer as being carcinogenic to humans, and as a gas that can be inhaled, lung cancer is a particular concern for people exposed to elevated levels of radon for sustained periods. During the 1940s and '50s, when safety standards requiring expensive ventilation in mines were not widely implemented, radon exposure was linked to lung cancer among non-smoking miners of uranium and other hard rock materials in what is now the Czech Republic, and later among miners from the Southwestern US and South Australia. Despite these hazards being known in the early 1950s, this occupational hazard remained poorly managed in many", "Among non-smokers, radon is the largest cause of lung cancer and, overall, the second-leading cause. Public exposure Medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays, nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy are by far the most significant source of human-made radiation exposure to the general public. Some of the major radionuclides used are I-131, Tc-99m, Co-60, Ir-192, and Cs-137. The public also is exposed to radiation from consumer products, such as tobacco (polonium-210), combustible fuels (gas, coal, etc.), televisions, luminous watches and dials (tritium), airport X-ray systems, smoke detectors (americium), electron tubes, and gas lantern mantles (thorium).\nOf lesser magnitude, members of the public", "causing DNA breaks or damage,\nperhaps causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. In addition, through ingestion and blood transport, following crossing of the lung membrane by radon, radioactive progeny may also be transported to other parts of the body.\nThe risk of lung cancer caused by smoking is much higher than the risk of lung cancer caused by indoor radon. Radiation from radon has been attributed to increase of lung cancer among smokers too. It is generally believed that exposure to radon and cigarette smoking are synergistic; that is, that the combined effect exceeds the sum of their independent effects. This is", "of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second-hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer and eventually death. Therefore, prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer.\nIndividual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90% of adults in the US who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In-school prevention/educational programs, as well as counseling resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), hypnosis, and", "radioactive smoke from tobacco fertilized this way is deposited in lungs and releases radiation even if a smoker quits the habit. The combination of carcinogenic tar and radiation in a sensitive organ such as lungs increases the risk of cancer.\nIn contrast, a 1999 review of tobacco smoke carcinogens published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute states that \"levels of polonium-210 in tobacco smoke are not believed to be great enough to significantly impact lung cancer in smokers.\" In 2011 Hecht has also stated that the \"levels of ²¹⁰Po in cigarette smoke are probably too low to be involved", "cancer found in the upper respiratory tract, most commonly in the nasopharynx, and is linked to the EBV virus. It is found predominantly in Southern China and Africa, due to both genetic and environmental factors. It is much more common in people of Chinese ancestry (genetic), but is also linked to the Chinese diet of a high amount of smoked fish, which contain nitrosamines, well known carcinogens (environmental). Treatment There is no specific treatment for infectious mononucleosis, other than treating the symptoms. In severe cases, steroids such as corticosteroids may be used to control the swelling of the throat and", "smoking Results from epidemiological studies indicate that the risk of lung cancer increases with exposure to residential radon. A well-known example of source of error is smoking, the main risk factor for lung cancer. In the West, tobacco smoke is estimated to cause about 90% of all lung cancers.\nAccording to the EPA, the risk of lung cancer for smokers is significant due to synergistic effects of radon and smoking. For this population about 62 people in a total of 1,000 will die of lung cancer compared to 7 people in a total of 1,000 for people who have never smoked.", "developing cancer from radiation exposure. Children and adolescents are twice as likely to develop radiation-induced leukemia as adults; radiation exposure before birth has ten times the effect.\nRadiation exposure can cause cancer in any living tissue, but high-dose whole-body external exposure is most closely associated with leukemia, reflecting the high radiosensitivity of bone marrow. Internal exposures tend to cause cancer in the organs where the radioactive material concentrates, so that radon predominantly causes lung cancer, iodine-131 for thyroid cancer is most likely to cause leukemia. Data sources The associations between ionizing radiation exposure and the development of cancer are based", "scientific evidence of smoking's role in causing lung cancer began to accumulate in the United States and Great Britain, Wynder and Graham investigated the biological plausibility of the association between smoking and lung disease. In 1950, they initiated a study of the impact of cigarette tar condensate from tobacco smoke on the skin of mice. After a year of exposure to tar, 44 percent of the mice developed cancers. Wynder also discovered specific carcinogens in tar (e.g., benzopyrenes, arsenic), but was unable to identify the contributions of these chemicals to cancer.\nWynder's studies of tobacco smoke were timely and important. Whereas", "inhaled and can cause cancer, especially in people who smoke, and inhalation can also cause asbestosis. Inhaled silica can cause silicosis and (in very rare cases) can encourage the development of cancer. Persons working regularly with plaster containing these additives should take precautions to avoid inhaling powdered plaster, cured or uncured. (Note that asbestos is rarely used in modern plaster formulations because of its carcinogenic effects.)\nPeople can be exposed to plaster of Paris in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit", "which resides in the lung after development. Exposure to sidestream smoke for as little as twenty minutes can lead to an increase in contaminant particles within human small airway epithelial cells (SAEC). Cells exposed to sidestream smoke experienced oxidative stress, which further allowed for DNA damage as well as cell transformation and an uncontrolled cell proliferation. Such DNA mutations and uncontrolled cell division resulting from exposure to sidestream smoke may result in cancerous tumours. Toxicological experiments During the 1980s the Philip Morris Tobacco Company carried out research on sidestream smoke at the Institut für Biologische Forschung, although", "cancer. Decades of research has demonstrated the link between tobacco use and cancer in the lung, larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus and pancreas. There is some evidence suggesting a small increased risk of developing myeloid leukemia, squamous cell sinonasal cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, cancers of the gallbladder, the adrenal gland, the small intestine, and various childhood cancers. Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Tobacco is responsible for about one in three of all cancer deaths in the developed world, and about one in five worldwide. Lung cancer death rates in", "at low doses. It undergoes explosive polymerization. The burning material releases fumes of hydrogen cyanide and oxides of nitrogen. It is classified as a Class 2B carcinogen (possibly carcinogenic) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), and workers exposed to high levels of airborne acrylonitrile are diagnosed more frequently with lung cancer than the rest of the population. It evaporates quickly at room temperature (20 °C) to reach dangerous concentrations; skin irritation, respiratory irritation, and eye irritation are the immediate effects of this exposure.\nAcrylonitrile increases cancer in high dose tests in male and female rats and mice.\nPathways of", "function in general and cause cancer by oxidation damage. It is classified as a \"known human carcinogen\" (Group 1 carcinogen) by the IARC. Exposure is common for people working in tunneling, quarrying, construction, sandblasting, roadway repair, mining, and foundry work. Silo-filler's disease Silo-filler's disease (not to be confused with farmer's lung associated with inhalation of biologic dusts) results from inhalation of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) gas from fresh silage. The presentation is variable depending on level of exposure. Often the gas penetrates throughout the lung and if severe can manifest as a form of acute respiratory distress syndrome,", "and indirect methods of inducing cervical cancer. A direct way of contracting this cancer is a smoker has a higher chance of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN3) occurring, which has the potential of forming cervical cancer. When CIN3 lesions lead to cancer, most of them have the assistance of the HPV virus, but that is not always the case, which is why it can be considered a direct link to cervical cancer. Heavy smoking and long-term smoking seem to have more of a risk of getting the CIN3 lesions than lighter smoking or not smoking at all. Although smoking has been", "2014).\nFrom the 1960s, the rates of lung adenocarcinoma started to rise in relation to other kinds of lung cancer, partially due to the introduction of filter cigarettes. The use of filters removes larger particles from tobacco smoke, thus reducing deposition in larger airways. However, the smoker has to inhale more deeply to receive the same amount of nicotine, increasing particle deposition in small airways where adenocarcinoma tends to arise. The incidence of lung adenocarcinoma continue to rise. History Lung cancer was uncommon before the advent of cigarette smoking; it was not even recognized as a distinct disease until 1761. Different", "Causes of cancer Cancer is a disease caused by genetic changes leading to uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation. The basic cause of sporadic (non-familial) cancers is DNA damage and genomic instability. A minority of cancers are due to inherited genetic mutations. Most cancers are related to environmental, lifestyle, or behavioral exposures. Cancer is generally not contagious in humans, though it can be caused by oncoviruses and cancer bacteria. The term \"environmental\", as used by cancer researchers, refers to everything outside the body that interacts with humans. The environment is not limited to the biophysical environment (e.g. exposure to", "receive lung cancer from smoking often feel shame; blaming themselves for something they did not do. The stigma effects their opinions of themselves, while shame is found to blame other cancer causing factors (tobacco products/anti-tobacco products) or ignoring the disease in avoidant coping altogether. The stigma associated with lung cancer effected relationships of patients with their family members, peers, and physicians who were attempting to provide comfort because the patients felt shame and victimized themselves. Social aspects According to the anthropologist Ruth Benedict, cultures may be classified by their emphasis on the use of either shame (a shame society) or" ]

[ "There are several ways they figure out how a fire was started from when they first arrive on the scene to when the fire is completely extinguished.\n\nIt is commonly believed that a fire destroys all evidence of it's source, but actually, the fire department usually gets there in time to stop it before it incinerates everything. \n\nFirefighters note the color of the flame, color of the smoke, amount of the smoke, how fast it burns, and even the sound the fire makes while it is burning. (Burning wood sounds different when it's been soaked with kerosene, for example).\n\nThe fire inspector, investigators, or whoever it is that inspects the scene (varies by state and city) looks for things like [char pattern](_URL_0_). \n\nFire burns in a V-shape, so sometimes the char pattern can literally point to the origin (like an outlet). Narrower V-shapes say that the fire was hotter than normal so something like gasoline or kerosene was used. A U-shape says that there was a \"pool\" of origin rather than a point of origin.\n\nOther things like the direction something melts can also help figure out how the fire was started. Light bulbs tend to melt towards the point of origin. \n\nOnce the origin had been found, usually the next step is to determine if the fire was natural, electrical or chemical. \n\nNatural causes are usually pretty easy to determine. There is plenty of evidence, and usually witnesses, when a house is struck by lightning or enveloped by a California brush fire, for instance.\n\nElectrical problems are the most common cause of accidental fires. By examining a cord, or a fuse box, or an electric outlet, an expert can usually determine whether it was burned *by* the fire, or was the *source* of the fire. \n\nChemical causes cover a wide range, from gas leak explosions to smoking in bed.\n\nThey also look for unburnt clues.\n\nThe shattered or cracked glass of the windows can provide indications. A dark soot layer on the glass could indicate a slow, smoldering fire like a cigarette dropped on a couch. Clear glass with an abnormal pattern of cracking could imply a very hot fire, possibly due to an accelerant.\n\nThe depth or thickness of the ash can be indicative. For example, a thick layer of ash can mean an abnormally hot, fast-burning fire.\n\nFire burns upward, so a fire that burned downward will arouse curiosity. The most common reason for a fire to burn downward is the presence of a liquid accelerant poured on the floor before the fire started. The liquid soaked down into the floor, and then the fire followed it downward to the concrete slab.\n\n[Source of all this information.](_URL_1_)", "_URL_2_\n\nThis might not answer your question, but following this guy's case, there were fantastic advances made in house fire causes. I saw a doc on it- basically scientists took the cases away from fire inspectors and developed a science behind it.", "*Fire investigators. Fire inspectors are people who do inspections, not find the cause of a fire.", "from what i understand it goes like this:\n\nfirst you look at the burn pattern, if you see burn coming from a light socket or a section of a wall with frayed wires, that's a point towards electrical fire, if it seems to just be at some spot with no area around that would indicate a cause of a fire (like it spread out from the centre of the room) you may need to look deeper. if it seems to be spreading from a point and there is a cigarette there that's a point towards cigarette fire. if the person's body seems to be the source of the fire you may need to look deeper. in all cases you check the area for residue, all accelerates leave unburned bits in the surrounding area or have a telltale signature which can be detected with machines. if you find an accelerant, like say gasoline, good chance you are looking at arson (also if you see a line of fire burning towards the epicentre or a broken bottle with accelerant in it)\n\neven when a house \"burns down\" there is still pieces, and like a puzzle you put these pieces together to figure out what caused it, and possibly WHO caused it." ]

[ "particular area can indicate arson. Whether available combustible materials constitute an accelerant depends on the intent of the person responsible for their use.\nSales of certain accelerants are limited to the particular group allowed to purchase them for trainings and fire demolitions (to train new firefighters).", "Fire accelerant Fire investigation Indicators of an incendiary fire or arson can lead fire investigators to look for the presence of accelerants in fire debris. Accelerants can leave behind evidence of their presence and use. Accelerants present in areas they should not be can indicate an incendiary fire or arson. Investigators often use special dogs known as accelerant detection canines trained to smell ignitable liquids. The dog can pinpoint areas for the investigator to collect samples. Fire debris submitted to forensic laboratories employ sensitive analytical instruments with GC-MS capabilities for forensic chemical analysis. Types of accelerants Many accelerants are hydrocarbon-based", "sometimes work with forensic engineers, such as forensic electrical engineers when examining electrical appliances, household wiring, etc.\nWhen arsonists attack, there is very rarely much evidence left at the scene. However, arsonists usually use accelerants to speed up a blaze. Forensic scientists use technologies to heat samples taken from the scene causing any residue to separate. This sample is then analysed to determine the chemical structure. Scientists also use other tests such as using liquid nitrogen gas to trap residue which are then analysed using gas chromatography. Recommended practices In the United States, fire investigators often refer to NFPA 921: Guide", "pinpoint areas for the investigator to collect samples. Fire debris submitted to forensic laboratories employ sensitive analytical instruments with GC-MS capabilities for forensic chemical analysis. Types Many so-called accelerants are hydrocarbon-based fuels, sometimes more realistically referred to as petroleum distillates: gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, turpentine, butane, and various other flammable solvents. These accelerants are also known as ignitable liquids. Ignitable liquids can leave behind irregular patterns on the surface of a floor. These irregular burn patterns can indicate the presence of an ignitable liquid in a fire and can indicate the point of origin of the fire. Note, however,", "Fire investigation Investigating fires In common with many forensic disciplines, one of the early tasks of fire investigation is often to determine whether or not a crime has been committed. The difficulty of determining whether arson has occurred arises because fire often destroys the key evidence of its origin. Many fires are caused by defective equipment, such as shorting of faulty electrical circuits. Car fires can be caused by faulty fuel lines, and spontaneous combustion is possible where organic wastes are stored.\nA fire investigator looks at the fire remains, and obtains information to reconstruct the sequence of events leading up", "firefighters worked to find those trapped in the debris. The Connecticut Fire Marshals Office, Connecticut State Police, and The National Transportation Safety Board investigated and found a crack in a four-inch cast iron pipe near the explosion site. Connecticut's \"Call Before You Dig\" program is a direct response to this incident. Caroline Street Fire On August 12, 1991 at approximately 6:56pm EST, a fire broke out in the basement of a three-story, six-family home located at 269 Caroline Street. First arriving units found heavy fire in the nearly 100-year-old building along with reports of multiple trapped residents. The fire department", " These measures may include installation of fire sprinklers or storage remote from possible sources of ignition.\nSubstances with low combustibility may be selected for construction where the fire risk must be reduced, such as apartment buildings, houses, or offices. If combustible resources are used there is greater chance of fire accidents and deaths. Fire resistant substances are preferred for building materials and furnishings. Fire testing Various countries have tests for determining noncombustibility of materials. Most involve the heating of a specified quantity of the test specimen for a set duration. Usually, the material cannot support combustion and must not", "of Neighborhood Services later carried out an inspection of the site; they discovered that buildings within a radius of approximately 500 feet (150 m) had sustained heavy damage, such as torn-off roofs and collapsed walls. Roughly thirty separate vehicles were destroyed in the blast.\nThe nearest fire station was just six blocks away. Firefighters were initially alerted by the force of the explosion buckling the fire station door. Originally it was thought that a car had struck the fire station, but when firefighters went outside, they quickly realized this was not the case. One of the drivers soon spotted smoke and a", "the structure, but the major cause of damage is where the heat of the chimney fire will pass through the masonry materials and overheat nearby combustibles. Even though codes and standards require a specific clearance of the framing members from the masonry materials, often this is not found in actual construction. Many fires reported as chimney fires, are actually structure fires ignited by the overheating of the framing members. These structure fires can be traced to the normal use of the fireplace or sealed combustion chamber. Prevention Steps to prevent this buildup of deposits include only running appliances hot during", "16, 2007, burned the building to the ground. After an investigation, the cause of the fire could not be determined due to the extent of the damage.", "and smoke and an additional two, jumped 75 feet out of fifth story windows, to their deaths. George Moore's son, Charles W. Moore was in the building on the third floor during the fire and managed to escape. Inventory that had been recovered from the fire was sold at auction in Chicago, Illinois in February 1894.\nIn December 1893, an inquest was held to determine the fault of the fire. The firm of Edson, Moore and Company was exonerated and that the fault lay with the building inspectors. Although additional inspections were requested by Edson, himself, the inspectors routinely reported that", "their damaged buildings, only to have their valuables stolen. Warehouse explosion In the fire's first two hours, it reached a large multi-story warehouse occupied by Crocker & Warren on Broad Street, where a large quantity of combustible saltpeter was stored.\nWhen Engine Co. 22 arrived, it was ordered to pump water on the warehouse. The company's firefighters entered the warehouse and dragged a hose up a staircase to direct water onto the fourth floor. When heavy black smoke began coming down the stairway, Foreman Garrett B. Lane ordered his firemen to evacuate. Fireman Francis Hart, Jr., became trapped while trying to", "the arson evidence compiled by state deputy fire marshal Manuel Vasquez. Hurst individually discredited each piece of arson evidence, using publicly supported experiments backed by his re-creation of the elements in question, the most notable being the Lime Street fire, which created the unique 3-point burn patterns flashover.\nThis left only the chemical testing for accelerant. The front porch was the only place where an accelerant was verified by laboratory tests, and a photograph taken of the house before the fire showed that a charcoal grill was there. Hurst speculated that it was likely that water sprayed by firefighters had spread", "to form fireplaces and graffiti is evident.\nThe rubble used to fill between the ovens is visible in some sections and consists of a combination of bricks and various sized rocks.\nOn the downslope side, towards Mihi Creek, a brick wall of approximately 5 metres (16 ft) in length and between 2 and 3 metres (6 ft 7 in and 9 ft 10 in) in height, marks a drop from the mound containing the ovens down to a levelled area. The wall has been subjected to heavy graffiti.\nBrick debris, coal and coke is strewn around the site as are metal remnants of machinery such as skips, railway", "deposits around the perimeter of the foundation of the batch dryer building. Other visual evidence of burning, possibly natural gas, from the ground was discovered in various portions of the plant including beneath the gas and telephone vaults and portions of the asphalt paving.\nUSFA reported that the fire continued to spread in the stacks of drums creating a large fireball and leading to the first of four explosions in the drum storage area. USFA reported that the fire then made its way into the storage area for the filled aluminum shipping containers, resulting in two small explosions there, and a", "components (pipes and cables) penetrating the floor assembly. A firestop mortar is applied around the penetrations.\nThe completed test sample is inserted into a furnace such that one side is exposed to a fire. The test is terminated when the fire stops successfully meet the test criteria in minimizing the amount of heat and smoke allowed to pass through the assembly, when the fire penetrates the fire stops. This determines the fire stop F-Rating. The length of time required for a penetrant or sample on average to exceed a specified average heat rise above ambient at any single location determines the", "artifacts. Firefighters arrived within minutes to find the rear of the building engulfed in flames, the teams fought desperately to save the front of the building and any artifacts that hadn't already been destroyed. Despite all efforts, the entire structure was reduced to a smoldering wreck with little evidence of the building ever housing such a unique museum. The fire has been deemed unsuspicious and investigators are currently looking for clues to the cause of the blaze. Until the building is either rebuilt or relocated, a makeshift information centre will be moved to vacant premises inside the town. The building", "activities due to the belief of contamination. Later in 1988, an on-site warehouse that contained pesticide supplies caught fire and burned to the ground. The fire started in the east end of the warehouse where sulfur and diatomaceous clays were stored. To avoid health risks, businesses and residences within a 2-mile radius were evacuated. During the fire, approximately 300 tons of soil were contaminated and later disposed of in a landfill regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).\nThroughout 1988 to 1989, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) investigations found numerous pesticides in on-site soil, the", "was confined and at length consumed and extinguished. Effects: the ruins The High Level Bridge once more provided a first-class platform for the observation of the effects of the explosion and fire. Looking east from it the eye could span the whole sphere of devastation, taking in the still-smoking wreckage of property levelled to the ground.\nBesides the less serious damage to property in the outskirts of the town, the force of the explosion left its marks in blown off roofs, thrown down walls and gable ends, broken staircases, shattered doors, demolished windows, framework and sashes, making complete havoc of properties", "efforts are made to do what is required to extinguish the fire, while not destroying clues to the fires' origin. A fire investigation was once compromised by a fire fighter turning off the knobs on a gas stove in the interests of safety after a house fire was knocked down. In the following investigation the homeowner's daughter was accused by her father of leaving the stove on after she left the house but there was then no way to accurately determine the position of the burner knobs on the stove. Though there were no criminal issues involved in this fire,", "Association for Fire Service and Disaster Relief) form an independent Committee of Inquiry. The Committee of Inquiry has not given an opinion on the exact cause of the fire, but has made a number of provisional conclusions. Many of these relate to the materials used in the construction of the building, whose roof was made of so-called sandwich insulation panels containing polyurethane foam insulation. Built with steel supporting construction the side walls of the building were made largely of profiled steel plate and the lower sections consisted of cavity wall. The roof was built using coated sandwich panels, consisting of", "fires were likely accidental. Investigators discovered that DCFEMS maintenance crews (with management approval) were attempting to fix overheating vehicle air conditioners by cutting up aluminum signs and using them as heat shields. DCFEMS superiors ordered the \"heat shields\" removed after the revelation. Police arson investigators then learned that Medic 27 (which caught fire at the apartment building) had ongoing maintenance issues and that its air conditioner repeatedly failed. The investigation determined that the fire started near the air conditioner (although it did not determine exactly which piece of equipment failed and caused the fire), and concluded the fire was accidental.", "Building Conservation Incorporated in Midtown Manhattan, who had experience restoring train stations. The building conservation repainted the old station's wooden siding yellow and the bay windows to a brand new brown on the station's ground-level platform. Station building fire and explosion At approximately 5:55 a.m. on January 10, 2009, the station building for Anderson Street caught fire and ruptured two propane tanks, which caused the building to explode. Two nearby cars were damaged as well. The three-alarm fire destroyed the building, and caused damage to a nearby apartment complex. Twelve fire companies were called to battle the blaze, including fire stations", "basement The architect and engineer may look for signs of cracking of masonry wall or the settling of basement floors or upper floors which direct them to a problem in the foundation. These signs can also be detected from window sills and cornices. Appropriate survey instruments such as plumb bobs and spirit levels are recommended for use instead of a naked eye inspection. If the problem seems too severe, a test boring may reveal the cause of the problem. Additionally, the building code should be examined for fireproofing requirements. Structural system Analyzing the structural strength requires expertise and is one", "literally explode in a fire, which is why test laboratories insist on measuring water content of concrete and mortar in fire test specimens, before running any fire tests. PFP measures can also include intumescents and ablative materials. The point is, however, that whatever the nature of the materials, they on their own bear no rating. They must be organised into systems, which bear a rating when installed in accordance with certification listings or established catalogues, such as DIN 4102 Part 4 or the Canadian National Building Code.\nPassive fire protection measures are intended to contain a fire in the fire compartment", "be confusingly flawed by locating the storeroom on the wrong level. It showed the storeroom to be \"over the basement\", but there was no basement in the building, and the store and lamp rooms were located in the roof space on the first floor.\nThe list of contents of the store was not put before the inquiry and included large amounts of highly flammable and spontaneously combustible materials, mostly polishes and floor waxes, with the inquiry assuming only normal everyday items were inside.\nA re-enactment of the fire suggested that it did not happen as the tribunal had found. The conclusions of", "24, 2007, an explosion occurred in the basement, and the building was completely destroyed despite the efforts of firefighters from four different departments. While almost everything within the building was lost, none of the employees in the building were injured. On Wednesday, December 26, investigators from the Dubuque County sheriff's office, the insurance company, and the state fire marshal's office investigated the remains of the restaurant. Following this investigation, authorities stated that the exact cause of the fire was undetermined, but it was nothing other than an accident. Authorities stated that a gas leak could not", "for Fire and Explosion Investigations (National Fire Protection Association).\nAlso, Kirk's Fire Investigation by David J. Icove and Gerald A. Haynes has long been regarded as the primary textbook in the field of fire investigation. It is currently in its 8th edition (published in 2017, ISBN 978-0134237923). Spoliation Spoliation is the destruction or alteration of evidence through intention or ignorance. The mere act of extinguishing a fire can destroy potential evidence of arson\nor what is also known as an \"Incendiary fire.\" Firefighters are educated that the stream of their fire hose or the use of a Pike Pole can destroy evidence and", "On the morning of 17 January 2015, the old workshop building burnt down after an arsonist set light to it. The fire destroyed most things contained within the shed (mainly tools, parts, nuts and bolts, boxes, potato equipment, etc.) with only few very of the contents able to be recovered. The fire was reported at around 5:00am that morning. Five fire engines and a water tanker attended the blaze to bring it under control. The fire was labelled suspicious and a Police investigation is ongoing. The locomotive shed alongside the workshop was damaged, but has been made safe with minor", "March 1, 1987). A Building Safety Loan Scheme has also been established to provide financial assistance to owners of such premises and buildings to upgrade the fire safety measures where necessary. Pending implementation of the Fire Safety (Buildings) Ordinance, the Building Improvement and Support Division continues to inspect old private composite and domestic buildings with a view to enhancing fire safety and advising owners and occupiers concerned on the improved standards to be required. The Fire Service Installation Task Force inspects fire service installations in buildings, handles complaints regarding building fire service installations and monitors the performance of registered fire" ]

[ "The spicy stuff in spicy foods like peppers is a chemical compound called _capsaicin._ \n\nCapsaicin is hydrophobic, meaning it won't bind with water. So when you drink water after ingesting food with capsaicin, the capsaicin doesn't \"stick\" to the water and get washed away. The water just winds up spreading the capsaicin around so it can make the burning sensation worse. \n\nHowever, capsaicin will dissolve in or bind with other stuff, notably _casein_, a type of protein that is found in milk. So when the capsaicin comes in contact with the casein in milk, it \"sticks\" to the casein and washes away with the milk in a way that it wouldn't with water." ]

[ "powdered milk made this way tends to have a cooked flavour, due to caramelization caused by greater heat exposure.\nAnother process is freeze drying, which preserves many nutrients in milk, compared to drum drying.\nThe drying method and the heat treatment of the milk as it is processed alters the properties of the milk powder, such as its solubility in cold water, its flavour, and its bulk density. Food and health uses Powdered milk is frequently used in the manufacture of infant formula, confectionery such as chocolate and caramel candy, and in recipes for baked goods where adding liquid milk would render", "rapid cooling. Compared to canning where food products are subjected to high temperature processing, the fast heat treatment provided by aseptic processing enables heat-sensitive characteristics of the food to be better retained. Flavor The flavor of aseptically processed food products is minimally changed. Dairy products could have a cooked flavor because of exposure to sulfhydryl groups. The flavor is reduced during storage as the sulfhydryl groups oxidize. Severely treated milk could have a bitter flavor because of proteolysis. Color Dairy products could have changes in color, an effect caused by Maillard browning. This depends on the amount of", "Soured milk In recipes Raw milk that has not gone sour is sometimes referred to as \"sweet milk\", because it contains the sugar lactose. Fermentation converts the lactose to lactic acid, which has a sour flavor. Before the invention of refrigeration, raw milk commonly became sour before it could be consumed, and various recipes incorporate such leftover milk as an ingredient. Sour milk produced by fermentation differs in flavor from that produced by acidification, because the acids commonly added in commercial manufacture have different flavors from lactic acid, and also because fermentation can introduce new flavors. Buttermilk is a", "Flavored milk Flavored milk is a sweetened dairy drink made with milk, sugar, food colorings and artificial or natural flavorings. Flavored milk is often pasteurized using ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment, which gives it a longer shelf-life than plain milk. Pre-mixed flavored milk is sold in the refrigerated dairy case alongside other milk products. Flavored sweetened powders or syrups which are added to plain milk are also available, along with flavored straws. Types Flavored milk contains sugar, colorings, and (mostly inexpensive artificial) flavorings added to make it more appetizing, especially to children (a prominent example can be found in the artificial strawberry", "transformations in appearance and texture, ranging from an aggregate to smooth consistency. Some of these products include sour cream, yogurt, cheese, buttermilk, viili, kefir, and kumis. See Dairy product for more information.\nPasteurization of cow's milk initially destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life, but eventually results in spoilage that makes it unsuitable for consumption. This causes it to assume an unpleasant odor, and the milk is deemed non-consumable due to unpleasant taste and an increased risk of food poisoning. In raw milk, the presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria, under suitable conditions, ferments the lactose present to lactic acid.", "fermentation thickened the cream and made it more acidic, a natural way of preserving it. Commercial varieties Commercially produced sour cream usually contains not less than 14 percent milk fat. It may also contain milk and whey solids, buttermilk, starch in an amount not exceeding one per cent, salt, and rennet derived from aqueous extracts from the fourth stomach of calves, kids or lambs, in an amount consistent with good manufacturing practice. In addition, according to the Canadian food regulations, the emulsifying, gelling, stabilizing and thickening agents in sour cream are algin, carob bean gum (locust bean gum), carrageenan, gelatin,", "milks often have added vitamin A palmitate to compensate for the loss of the vitamin during fat removal; in the United States this results in reduced fat milks having a higher vitamin A content than whole milk.\nMilk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and has been followed more recently by strawberry milk and others. Some nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding sugar, usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, to the diets of children who are already commonly obese in", "milk until a desired pH drop (or increase in acidity) is attained. Cultured cream, cultured butter, and cultured buttermilk owe their tart flavour to lactic acid bacteria and their buttery aroma and taste to diacetyl. Production Diacetyl is produced industrially by dehydrogenation of 2,3-butanediol. Acetoin is an intermediate. In food products Diacetyl and acetoin are two compounds that give butter its characteristic taste. Because of this, manufacturers of artificial butter flavoring, margarines or similar oil-based products typically add diacetyl and acetoin (along with beta-carotene for the yellow color) to make the final product butter-flavored, because it would otherwise be relatively", "industrial milk-based desserts like yogurt or reduced-fat hard salami having about 1/3 the usual fat content. For the latter type of uses, it is an alternative to the product Olestra.\nModified starch is added to frozen products to prevent them from dripping when defrosted. Modified starch, bonded with phosphate, allows the starch to absorb more water and keeps the ingredients together. Modified starch acts as an emulsifier for French dressing by enveloping oil droplets and suspending them in the water. Acid-treated starch forms the shell of jelly beans. Oxidized starch increases the stickiness of batter.\nCarboxymethylated starches are used as a", "proteins are also known for their good whipping properties, and in milk products as described above their gelling properties. Upon denaturation of whey proteins, there is an increase in the water holding capacity of the product. Processing The manufacturing of sour cream begins with the standardization of fat content; this step is to ensure that the desired or legal amount of milk fat is present. As previously mentioned the minimum amount of milk fat that must be present in sour cream is 18%. During this step in the manufacturing process other dry ingredients are added to the cream; additional grade", "sugar. Opponents say that with rising levels of obesity and heart disease, flavored milk should be removed from schools and children should be taught to drink plain milk.\nA 2018 analysis of more than 90 popular chilled flavoured dairy milks revealed that a carton of flavoured milk can contain as much sugar as a can of soft drink, with many of the bestselling brands containing more than a day’s worth of added sugar in a single serving.", "is an immunologically mediated adverse reaction, rarely fatal, to one or more cow's milk proteins. Flavored milk in U.S. schools Milk must be offered at every meal if a United States school district wishes to get reimbursement from the federal government. A quarter of the largest school districts in the U.S. offer rice or soy milk and almost 17% of all U.S. school districts offer lactose-free milk. Of the milk served in U.S. school cafeterias, 71% is flavored, causing some school districts to propose a ban because flavored milk has added sugars. (Though some flavored milk products use artificial sweeteners", "also available at retail in 6- and 12-pack size. Spoilage and fermented milk products When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns \"sour\". This is the result of fermentation, where lactic acid bacteria ferment the lactose in the milk into lactic acid. Prolonged fermentation may render the milk unpleasant to consume. This fermentation process is exploited by the introduction of bacterial cultures (e.g. Lactobacilli sp., Streptococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp., etc.) to produce a variety of fermented milk products. The reduced pH from lactic acid accumulation denatures proteins and causes the milk to undergo a variety of different", "on by the increased surface area, the fat globules readily bind with the denatured β-lactoglobulin. The absorption of the denatured whey proteins (and whey proteins that bound with casein micelles) increases the number of structural components in the product; the texture of sour cream can be partly attributed to this. The denaturation of whey proteins is also known for increasing the strength of the cross-linking within the cream system, due to the formation of whey protein polymers.\nWhen the cream is inoculated with starter bacteria and the bacteria begins converting lactose to lactic acid, the pH begins a slow decrease. When", "particles are so minute that a person's tongue perceives the texture of the substitute as being smooth and creamy. Its texture is due to its ability to form a colloid, similar to the way fat is dispersed in homogenized milk. It differs from other whey protein concentrate mainly by virtue of the principles of food rheology; it is produced by a mechanical, rather than a chemical process. However, when heated such as by frying, the ingredients in the faux fat begin to gel similar to egg whites so the product mostly is used in ice cream, butter, spread cheeses, sour", "in Mushrooms Demystified, so it is probably absent from North America. Edibility The milk tastes mild on its own, but hot when tasted with the flesh. It is considered inedible because of its peppery taste.", "more when cooling). The result is called jarma, though any sort of dairy product (ayran, suzma, or milk) may then be added so that it's more drinkable. Jarma available commercially always contains grain and dairy elements.", "of dairy cows, causing cow's milk to be light yellow, depending on the feed of the cattle, and the amount of fat in the milk (high-fat milks, such as those produced by Guernsey cows, tend to be yellower because their fat content causes them to contain more carotene).\nCarotenes are also found in some species of termites, where they apparently have been picked up from the diet of the insects. Food additive Carotene is also used as a substance to colour products such as juice, cakes, desserts, butter and margarine. It is approved for use as a food additive in the", "to improve the quality of the sour cream in regards to the color, consistency, creaming stability, and creaminess of the cultured cream. During homogenization larger fat globules within the cream are broken down into smaller sized globules to allow an even suspension within the system. At this point in the processing the milk fat globules and the casein proteins are not interacting with each other, there is repulsion occurring. The mixture is homogenized, under high pressure homogenization above 130 bar (unit) and at a high temperature of 60 °C. The formation of the small globules (below 2 microns", "wet.\nSour flavor is cold and dry and cause dryness and coldness in the body as well. Vinegar and pickled vegetables and fruits preserved in vinegar, sour fruits or sour juices, verjuice, and Qarehqurut or black kashk (fabricated from the liquid yoghurt) are all cold and dry.\nSalty, bitter and spicy flavors which are usually used to give foods a special taste are warm and dry. Although spicy foods are warmer and dryer than bitter and salty foods respectively.\nSweet flavor is warm and wet and most food items (including main dishes and high-calorie food) are classified in this group and that's why", "milk is a slightly sweeter taste due to the generation of glucose by lactose cleavage. It does not, however, contain more glucose, and is nutritionally identical to regular milk.\nFinland, where approximately 17% of the Finnish-speaking population has hypolactasia, has had \"HYLA\" (acronym for hydrolysed lactose) products available for many years. Lactose of low-lactose level cow's milk products, ranging from ice cream to cheese, is enzymatically hydrolysed into glucose and galactose. The ultra-pasteurization process, combined with aseptic packaging, ensures a long shelf life. In 2001, Valio launched a lactose-free milk drink that is not sweet like HYLA milk but has the", "\"Flavoring Barium Sulfate\", noted that taste thresholds vary per person, and patient toleration of the medicine also varies.\nThe suspension is typically homogeneous, smooth, and white in color. When the suspension is stored at room temperature (some labels suggest 25 °C), \"warm, thick milk\" is a common description of the general weight and consistency of the drink. If the test requires the suspension to travel quickly through upper gastrointestinal tract it may be given chilled.\nMany preparations of barium sulfate have added flavors to make them easier to tolerate. In general, the flavor is considered unpleasant, and is dependent on the", "flavor, ethyl methylphenylglycidate) can be sold as a powder to be added to plain milk, or bought pre-mixed alongside other milk products. Flavoring can be included in a straw, and some flavored milk products are designed as dietary supplements by including additional vitamins or minerals. \nBottled spiced (masala) milk is a popular beverage in the Indian subcontinent. Other companies provide flavored beverages in the United Kingdom, which sells packaged beverages to the mobile vendor market. Australia has the highest consumption rate of flavored milk in the world, standing at 9.5 liters per capita in 2004.\nOver the years, Kemps, a Midwestern", "by hand or by machine.\nWhipped cream is made by whisking or mixing air into cream with more than 30% fat, to turn the liquid cream into a soft solid. Nitrous oxide, from whipped-cream chargers may also be used to make whipped cream.\nSour cream, common in many countries including the U.S., Canada and Australia, is cream (12 to 16% or more milk fat) that has been subjected to a bacterial culture that produces lactic acid (0.5%+), which sours and thickens it.\nCrème fraîche (28% milk fat) is slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as sour cream.", "Off-flavour Off-flavours or off-flavors (see spelling differences) are taints in food products caused by the presence of undesirable compounds. They can originate in raw materials, from chemical changes during food processing and storage, and from micro-organisms. Off-flavours are a recurring issue in drinking water supply and many food products.\nWater bodies are often affected by geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol, affecting the flavour of water for drinking and of fish growing in that water. Haloanisoles similarly affect water bodies, and are a recognised cause of off-flavour in wine. Cows grazing on weeds such as wild garlic can produce a ‘weedy’ off-flavour in milk.\nMany", "Sour cream Sour cream (American English) or soured cream (British English) is a dairy product obtained by fermenting regular cream with certain kinds of lactic acid bacteria. The bacterial culture, which is introduced either deliberately or naturally, sours and thickens the cream. Its name comes from the production of lactic acid by bacterial fermentation, which is called souring. Traditional Traditionally, sour cream was made by letting cream that was skimmed off the top of milk ferment at a moderate temperature. It can also be prepared by the souring of pasteurized cream with acid-producing bacterial culture. The bacteria that developed during", "thus drastically slowing bacteria growth and thereby improving milk quality. Ground water is the most common source of cooling medium for this device. Dairy cows consume approximately 3 gallons of water for every gallon of milk production and prefer to drink slightly warm water as opposed to cold ground water. For this reason, PHE's can result in drastically improved milk quality, reduced operating costs for the dairymen by reducing the refrigeration load on his bulk milk cooler, and increased milk production by supplying the cows with a source of fresh warm water.\nPlate heat exchangers have also evolved as a result", "at temperatures between 0 and 25 °C (32 and 77 °F). Drinking As is the case with milk, cream will curdle whenever it comes into contact with a weak acid. Milk and cream contain casein, which coagulates, when mixed with weak acids such as lemon, tonic water, or traces of wine. While this outcome is undesirable in most situations, some cocktails (such as the cement mixer, which consists of a shot of Bailey's mixed with the squeezed juice from a slice of lime) specifically encourage coagulation. Variant flavours In 2003, Bailey & Co. launched Baileys Glide, aimed at the alcopop market. It", "the old-fashioned product. The tartness of cultured buttermilk is primarily due to lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria while fermenting lactose, the primary sugar in milk. As the bacteria produce lactic acid, the pH of the milk decreases and casein, the primary milk protein, precipitates, causing the curdling or clabbering of milk. This process makes buttermilk thicker than plain milk. While both traditional and cultured buttermilk contain lactic acid, traditional buttermilk tends to be less viscous, whereas cultured buttermilk is more viscous. \nWhen introduced, cultured buttermilk was popular among immigrants, and viewed as a food that could slow aging.", "milk and products are easily contaminated by bacteria and spoiled." ]

[ "The speed of sound and resonant frequency in a coin changes with size and composition.\n\nSome coins are made of the right metals in the right shape that will reverberate with that characteristic ring, others aren't.\n\nA US nickel is 5g of 75% copper and 25% nickel, and will ring when flicked. A dime (92% copper) will as well.\n\nA penny (97.5% zinc) wont." ]

[ "the sound produced by dropping the coin onto a hard surface since if the coin was solid silver it would have a distinctive ring. Although this was done by contemporary merchants, it is not recommended that this method be used on ancient coin since the coin could be damaged, especially since over time silver coins can become brittle, if the silver begins to recrystallize.\nThe most obvious way to detect a plated coin would be if the base metal core was damaged or worn, revealing the base metal. There are often chisel or chop marks on ancient silver coins by merchants", "die crack, this unintentional \"bump\" in the coin is caused by a dent or gouge in the die, therefore allowing the coin to fill into the gap during the minting process. A very minuscule cud can look like a small chunk of metal that was somehow fused to the coin. Some numismatists disagree that these small disturbances, although produced in the same way as a cud, can qualify as one. A prominent cud looks like a blank section of a coin, usually toward the rim of the coin.", "of gold plated lead coins in the 19th century. Since lead is much softer than gold, biting the coins is a sensible test for counterfeiting. While fine gold is softer than alloyed gold, and galvanized lead is softer, biting coins can only detect the crudest of forgeries. And all \"gold\" coins minted for circulation in the UK and America since the Tudor period (1485-1603) contained copper which made them more durable and thus hard to bite.\nBiting a coin to determine whether it is genuine or counterfeit is a widespread cliché depicted in many films (like the 1917 The Immigrant), books", "in tone across different plucking locations; for example, the difference in brightness between plucking close to the bridge and close to the neck is much greater when using a pick compared to a fingertip. Conversely, the many playing techniques that involve the fingers, such as those found in fingerstyle guitar, slapping, classical guitar, and flamenco guitar, can also yield an extremely broad variety of tones. Metal Picks made from various metals produce a harmonically richer sound than plastic, and change the sound of the acoustic and electric guitar. Some metal picks are even made from coins, which", "with metal beads or seeds and then both halves are fitted together. Another sound can be made by holding the shaker in the palm of the hand tightly, then opening it whilst shaking it up and down. This makes a whirling sound not possible with other percussion instruments.", "deterrent to counterfeiting, an aid to the blind to distinguish different denominations, or purely decorative. Sweating In the process of sweating, coins were placed in a bag and shaken. The bits of metal that had worn off the coins were recovered from the bottom of the bag. Sweating tended to wear the coin in a more natural way than clipping, and so was harder to detect. Plugging If the coin was large, a hole could be punched out of the middle, and the face of the coin hammered to close up the hole. Or the coin could be sawed in", "is created but also one with more elasticity than the use of one alone. This allows for a better resonance and causes the bell to \"vibrate like a spring when struck\", a necessary quality as the clapper may strike at speeds of up to 600 miles per hour. The forces holding the tin and copper together cause vibrations rather than cracks when the bell is struck which creates a resonant tone. This metal combination also results in a tough, long-wearing material that is resistant to oxidation and subject only to an initial surface weathering. Verdigris forms a protective patina on", "other metals are also common, but in lower denominations. Minting technologies Coins were first made of scraps of metal. Ancient coins were produced through a process of hitting a hammer positioned over an anvil. The rich iconography of the obverse of the early electrum coins contrasts with the dull appearance of their reverse which usually carries only punch marks. The shape and number of these punches varied according to their denomination and weight-standard. \n The earliest coins have a “rough incuse” where the hammer was beaten directly onto the reverse. Later technology used a “punch” often a “square incuse” to", "to immense pressure during the minting process, cracks, causing a small gap in the die. If this damaged die continues to produce coins, the metal will fill into the crack, thus revealing a raised line of metal in the finished coin. Specimens with more prominent die cracks can command a high premium and are valued greatly by some collectors. However, less obvious errors are quite common, especially in the 50 States Commemorative Quarter Program, yielding a lower value. Cud A cud is a variation of a die defect in which the coin bears a raised portion of metal. Unlike a", "give players a unique tone as the alloys used in various coinage from around the world vary greatly.\nPlaying guitar with a silver pick gives a unique, rich and bright sound, very different from normal plectrums (Brian May of Queen often plays with a silver sixpence). Picksmiths such as Master Artisan Guitar Picks are widely recognized for handcrafting metal guitar picks from coins and antique metals. Horn, bone, leather (Animal) Plectrums crafted from natural animal byproduct are the oldest materials known due to their availability and durability, and are still regularly used by picksmiths to craft guitar, bass and mandolin picks.", "make sounds when shaken. These sounds can range from the dull sounds typical of wooden rattles to the jingling or bell type sounds that metal rattles make.\nRattles provide a source of stimulation. Babies like the sounds they produce and follow the path of the rattle with their eyes, as well as giving them a sense of discovery as they try to grab and hold the rattle.\nMany rattles have a dual function, doubling as teethers as babies grow. They have textured surfaces which are easy on the gums and provide the stimulation that babies need.", "bell.\nPlucking is accomplished by using the thumb and forefinger to force the clapper head into the casting while the bell is on the table with the handle toward the ringer, producing a staccato tone.\nShaking is accomplished by rapidly ringing the bell back and forth so the clapper strikes the front and back of the casting in quick succession. This creates a continuous sound, as opposed to normal ringing in which the tone decays rapidly after sounding. Because of their size, bass bells are rarely shaken. A suspended mallet roll is usually played if a shaking sound is desired on a", "not made for many years.\nAnother example is the US $20 gold coin (\"double eagle\"), which has raised lettering around its rim. If the coin is uncirculated, the letters will be flat on top. If slightly rounded, and the coin is uncirculated, it is a counterfeit. There are other counterfeit double eagles in which the gold and copper alloy was not thoroughly mixed. These counterfeits will have a slightly mottled appearance.", "coinage dies with a different punch, causing them to have a more legible appearance. They are considered scarce and are valued considerably higher than normal proofs of the series.", "Hungarian pengő Name The Hungarian participle pengő means 'ringing' (which in turn derives from the verb peng, an onomatopoeic word equivalent to English 'ring') and was used from the 15–17th century to refer to silver coins making a ringing sound when struck on a hard surface, thus indicating their precious metal content. (The onomatopoeic word used for gold coins is csengő, an equivalent of English 'clinking' meaning a sharper sound; the participle used for copper coins is kongó meaning a deep pealing sound.) After the introduction of forint paper money in Hungary, the term pengő forint was used to refer", "1 in 6000 for an American nickel. Angular momentum typically prevents most coins from landing on their edges unsupported if flipped. Such cases in which a coin does land on its edge are exceptionally rare and in most cases the coin is simply re-flipped.\nThe coin may be any type as long as it has two distinct sides; it need not be a circulating coin as such. Larger coins tend to be more popular than smaller ones. Some high-profile coin tosses, such as the Cricket World Cup and the Super Bowl, use custom-made ceremonial medallions. Three-way Three-way coin flips are also", "(shaving metal from the coin's circumference) and sweating (shaking the coins in a bag and collecting the dust worn off).\nUntil the mid-20th century, coins were often made of silver or gold, which were quite soft and prone to wear. This meant coins naturally got lighter (and thus less valuable) as they aged, so coins that had lost a small amount of bullion would go unnoticed. Modern coins are made of hard, cheap metals such as steel, copper, or a copper-nickel alloy, reducing wear and making it difficult and unprofitable to debase them. Clipping Clipping is the act of shaving off", "indistinguishable from the genuine product, and can thus avoid detection, and they may even be weighted to feel full. Coins A hollow container, fashioned to look like an Eisenhower dollar, is still used today to hide and send messages or film without being detected. Because it resembles ordinary pocket change, it is virtually undetectable as a concealment device. If a hollow coin is suspected, it sometimes can be easily confirmed by weighing against a normal coin on a simple balance. However, more sophisticated hollow coins have had their weight adjusted to match an unaltered coin by including a ring", "correct thickness, from which the coins were subsequently cut out. Both methods of producing hammered coins meant that it was difficult to produce coins of a regular diameter. Coins were liable to suffer from \"clipping\" where unscrupulous people would remove slivers of precious metal since it was difficult to determine the correct diameter of the coin.\nCoins were also vulnerable to \"sweating\", which is when silver coins would be placed in a bag that would be vigorously shaken. This would produce silver dust, which could later be removed from the bag. Milled coins The ability to fashion coins from machines (milled", "Jingle (percussion) In percussion, a jingle is one of a cluster of small bells, shaken or tapped on the palm of the player's hand. The small metal discs arranged around the frame of a tambourine are also called \"jingles\". In the Hornbostel–Sachs instrument-classification system, they are described as \"shaken idiophones\". Jingles were often found in ancient times as harness ornaments suspended from the trappings of horses, mules, and camels (Blades and Holland 2001).\nThat term is referenced in Bob Dylan's hit song, \"Mr. Tambourine Man\". It is an onomatopoeic term, often used together with jangle. An example of that usage is", "William May's crew were found to have traded clipped coins to Avery's crew, Avery took back nearly all the treasure he'd shared with May and his men and sent them away.\nCoin clipping is why many coins have the rim of the coin marked with stripes (milling or reeding), text (engraving) or some other pattern that would be destroyed if the coin were clipped. This practice is attributed to Isaac Newton, who was appointed Master of the Mint of Great Britain in 1699. Although the metal used in most modern fiat coins has insignificant intrinsic value, modern milling can be a", "of the coin. Off-center strike An off-center coin is produced when the coin is struck once, albeit off center. Unlike a broadstrike, the punch is not in the center of the coin, but rather the edge. This results in a coin which is not circular. The coin gives a freakish appearance as a result, and various amounts of blank planchet space are visible. The coins can vary in value because of how far off center they are struck, although coins with full dates are more desirable than coins without a date or missing digits. Double denomination A double denomination coin", "of a dense metal such as lead inside the coin. Typically coins that have no gold or silver content are used so as to further avoid suspicion.\nSuch hollow coins were created from two ordinary coins, by milling out one face and the interior of both coins (to create a cavity), and the edges of one (so it could slide into the other). The half coin with intact edges would also have a pin-prick size hole drilled through its face, so the device could be opened by inserting a pin. A scratch may be added to help line up the faces", "a ringing sound coming from the glowing pink rock that turns them into lusty nymphomaniacs. Now under the thrall of the meteor, they protecting it by seducing the men. One of the few who avoids the effect is the local TV weatherman, Clip Bacardi, who, having discovered a small fragment of the meteor, it too engrossed by it to notice the attempts by his temporarily aroused girlfriend, librarian Mary Ann Kowalski, to come on to him.\nThe next morning, the local authorities discover an empty crater where the meteor landed, with the men who went looking for it in catatonic states", "a Leyden jar, while the outside surface of the jar is put in contact with the metal stand. Thus, the central bell takes its charge from the inner surface of the jar, while the outer surface charges the two bells on the conductive chains. This causes the bells to have a difference in electrical potential equal to that between the inner and outer surfaces of the jar. The hanging metal clappers will be attracted to one bell, will touch it, pick up its charge, and be repelled; they will then swing across to the other bell, and do the same", "Coin snatching Coin snatching, often nicknamed the Chinese elbow trick, consists of a simple illusion in which a coin is placed on the elbow, the hand of the same arm is placed on the arm's shoulder, and the hand is swung forwards to catch the coin. The trick can also be performed with a stack of coins. If performed correctly with a stack of coins, it will appear that they have teleported with a bang. \nA world record of 328 coins was set in 1993 by Dean Gould, in accordance with British rules which specify that coins must be 10g", "not resonate, but a plucked string will provide a range of sounds depending on the level of applied tension. Likewise, a ringing rock boulder will only emit a dull thud if the boulder is de-stressed; however, boulders will resonate at various frequencies depending on the level of residual stress.\nThe boulders continue to ring when removed from the boulder fields. Myths have been developed by authorities to discourage the theft of boulders from the fields. At the current stage, however, most fields have been picked clean of small portable \"ringers\", and breaking of large boulders into smaller pieces releases the internal", "tin which served to make counterfeiting more difficult and to make the coins look more like silver and therefore more acceptable. The coins were produced on blanks of 12.25 millimetres diameter. The obverse shows two sceptres through a crown, and the legend IACO DG MAG BRIT — James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain — while the reverse shows a crowned harp and the continuing inscription FRA ET HIB REX — France and Ireland, King. Lennoxes Lady Harington either sold or gave the privilege of minting farthings to Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox. The Lennox issues are", "the coin. A good example can be observed on an 1839 Liberty Seated Dime. A crack-like feature is clearly seen going through the date, the shield, and the second star. This crack-like structure appears like material that is overlaid onto the surface of the coin; this is because the crack on the die allowed the planchet materiel to flow into it during stamping, just like a deliberate design feature. Some coins exhibit multiple crack-like features, indicating a die that is very close to the end of its serviceable life. Coins that do exhibit", "the “strike-through object is a blank planchet the result is a uni-face coin with one struck side and one blank side (see below). When the \"struck-through\" object is another coin, and that coin adheres to a die(as opposed to the other coin), the adhered coin is called a \"die cap\" (discussed below). Two coins which adhere to one another are called \"bonded pairs\". Softer objects, such as grease, can fill crevices in a die, producing a weak strike with a smudged appearance. These errors are often called \"missing element coins\" (discussed above and as \"filled dies.\"(A great example of" ]

[ "It all boils down to obsidian's atomic bonding energy verses that of metal and how these values compare to the materials' free surface energies. \n\nThink of it this way:\n\nThere's a really strong wind storm and two, separate groups of people are caught outside: a group of children and a group of powerlifters. In each group, everyone is holding onto each as to not get blown away. Obviously, the people on the outside of the groups are the most vulnerable because less people are around them and able to hold onto them. \n\nThe powerlifters are like the atoms within obsidian - strongly holding onto each other and unwilling to bend. In order to not be blown away, those on the outer perimeter only need the help of one other person. The grip strength of these guys is so strong that their group can form an arrow with only one person positioned at the point, holding onto just one other guy. \n\nOn the other hand, the children are like metal atoms. The children on the outer perimeter of their group need to be held onto by at least three other kids in order to avoid being blown away because their grip strength is much weaker than that of the powerlifters'. So, if this group tries to form an arrow, the arrow's tip will have to be composed of several children (instead of one) - effectively blunting the tip. \n\nThe second thing to consider is the flexibility of these groups. The powerlifters are all about gainz and rarely stretch. Therefore, if an unusually strong gust of wind hits the group of lifters, their arms will only be able to stretch a small amount before the lifters just let go. This is comparable to how obsidian breaks; it cleaves and forms sharp edges. \n\nConversely, the kids are very flexible. When that strong gust of wind hits them, they're able to stretch and bend a lot, instead of completely letting go. Rather than breaking cleanly, their group will deform in order to accommodate the strong force. \n\nHope this helps and at least one person sees it!\n\n**Edit:** I appreciate the gold! I'm glad that everyone was able to enjoy this. It was a lot of fun to think about!", "A lot of good comments but I'd like to add a bit more science if possible ( I know it's ELI5 but I like the subject so have this).\n\nObsidian can achieve a thinner edge because of its ionic bonds and amorphous structure. Not only are these bonds very rigid, but they are very stable and require but a few atoms, but they will not easily allow the reactions to change the atomic structure.\n\nMetal on the other hand is held together by metallic bonds (i know it sounds silly but it basically means metal atoms share electrons to be somewhat stable so there needs to be a lot of the them together) and has a crystalline lattice. So even if a metal were to be sharpened to be as thin as an obsidian edge, it would not be stable or it would corrode almost instantly (high surface energy is unfavorable).\n\nTldr: obsidian can \"easily\" have a few bonded atoms, metals cannot.", "The edge is far, far, far thinner than that of a forged steel scalpel. \n\nIt's an incredibly hard, glassy substance, so it can be carefully broken to display a sharp edge (as I said, thinner than any manmade metal object) and strong enough to be used as a blade.", "Obsidian is a type of glass which has no crystal structure as opposed to iron which has a crystal structure. A glass is a material that doesn't have an order to it. Pure iron's structure at room temperature is a variation of a cube. This cube is repeated, like minecraft blocks, for \"infinity\" whereas glass might have a cube but they're angled and positioned every which way, and sometimes not even cube shaped. \n\nNow imagine a knife made of minecraft blocks. Or just the minecraft sword where you can see the jagged edge because the cubes have to remain cubes and fit almost perfectly with each other. This is like iron where the edge is relatively rough even though it looks smooth to the naked eye. Because glass doesn't have a structure, its \"cubes\" can stretch and align themselves however they want, which would look like how smooth a fine-blade knife would on the microscale.", "Follow up question: Would it be possible to make a razor using obsidian blades that would actually work, or would it be too sharp and just end up cutting you?", "From [this](_URL_0_) article:\nObsidian -- a type of volcanic glass -- can produce cutting edges many times finer than even the best steel scalpels.\nAt 30 angstroms -- a unit of measurement equal to one hundred millionth of a centimeter -- an obsidian scalpel can rival diamond in the fineness of its edge.\nWhen you consider that most household razor blades are 300 to 600 angstroms, obsidian can still cut it with the sharpest materials nanotechnology can produce.", "I seem to remember reading somewhere that the reason they aren't more widespread is that they are very brittle and can break off shards rather easily. Which would be bad in situations that cutting on a cellular level would be useful, i.e. surgery.", "Just in case this wasn't clear from other comments. Obsidian has a chemical structure much like glass and it happens to shatter in a way that can produce the edges thin enough. Your answer would be a geometric analysis of why atoms in the molecules of obsidian happen to break apart along such an acute angle.", "Doesn't steel have a flat cube-like lattice so it \"rips\" things apart and glass has a jagged lattice so it \"cuts\" into and through things?", "Picture a hacksaw. Now picture a chef knife. \n\nMetal blades look like hacksaws under a microscope. Obsidian blades look like chef knives.", "What kind of facial hair are you working with that requires an obsidian razor?", "r/knapping\n\nMy teacher's teacher is a guy named Greg Nunn. Museums from around the world pay him to study and/or replicate blades/points using the appropriate technologies and materials. Local hospital pays him to make surgical knives out of obsidian. Dude uses rock and antlers to knap these blades. \n\nFriend of mine needed surgery to fix a broken bone when she was little. Surgeon used a steel knife. Scar is very noticeable. Had to go back in later to fix something, asked Greg to make the knife... Scar is negligible in comparison.\n\nShit is sharp. I've put whole flakes into the top of my leg knapping that have easily been 1/2\" deep and not realized it until I saw the blood soaking through my pants. No pain.", "What about the small slivers that come off while cutting (meat)? Would the small microscopic pieces cause havoc on a cellular level in your stomach and intestines?", "If you do any hiking around Mono Lake in California, Obsidian is everywhere. There's a place around there where there are literal boulders of it.", "It naturally breaks to a 300 nanometre blade. Razorblades are ten to twenty times as wide.", "So this is the reason it kills white walkers?!", "I was in my Archaeology 101 class. We were learning how to create arrowheads by striking obsidian with a rock. It was neat watching the way obsidian cleaved.\n\nAnyway, we were warned about how sharp obsidian edges could be. After striking a few times I stopped and looked up to pay attention to the TA. When I looked down my hand was dripping blood.\n\nNo pain, and I'm not sure I ever found the actual cut. It was that clean and thin.", "Rocks formed of amorphous or cryptocrystalline material often exhibit conchoidal fracture. [It looks like this](_URL_1_).\n\nBecause there is no regular molecular order, there is no regular fracture plane. Surfaces are irregular. It is very simply that the range of possible edges which can form naturally may exceed the fineness which can be produced in metals artificially. The difficulty of metals is that they comprise metal bonds, as well as exhibit ductility or easy energy transfer. Those are the properties that make them easy to work with. The covalent bonds of silicates rocks give them much greater hardness usually, and less electron transfer according to models.", "I've played with a lot of large chunks of raw obsidian. I quickly figured out it's just not that great at cutting in a ***useful*** way if that makes any sense. It's more like cutting with a million little 'rock splinters' or something.", "Can anyone answer me this: Are obsidian knives a good idea in the kitchen or when working with food? Would be nice having a very sharp blade when working with meat and what not...", "Okay since no explain like I'm fives is available.\n\nTake a group of kids. You can try to push them together to make a pyramid but a regular group of kids are kids, and will easily pull themselves apart due to their own high energy. Those kids are like regular blades, they can't get too thin without breaking apart because they need a large grouping of other kids around them to keep them contained.\n\nTake another group of kids, but these kids are slow, and super sticky. These kids can be smacked together with less density, and stay together because of their slow stickiness. Allowing for smaller groups of kids to stay where they are placed.\n\n\nThis is an ELI5 after reading the top two comments. And half of it won't properly apply to the actual science because (I don't know what high surface energy is yet). \n\nEssentially, one is easy to group together in smaller parts, while the other is harder.", "Everything cuts at a cellular level really.\n\nFlake knives and stuff like them trade off strength for really, really thin edges. Your scissors are plenty sharp even made out of steel but if you want something super, super sharp you need to use something more fragile. Glass is sharp! Ceramics (like pottery stuff) turns out to also be really, really sharp. Rocks are weirdly also sharp when they break just right.\n\nObsidian is a glass mostly. It's kinda a rock too I guess. Anyhow, it's really, really sharp if you break it just right but it breaks really easily no matter what. So, you can make a cool knife or wicked arrowheads or whatever but it sucks for making sharp stuff you want to use for a long time.\n\nBesides, steel makes stuff that's pretty sharp already! Not *as* sharp but 'cellular level' is kinda silly anyhow.", "If obsidian has a similar crystalline structure as glass, it is two dimensional, basically flat layers stacked on top of one another.\n\nAs the layers are removed by knapping (basically whacking the edge with a practiced eye and hand), the edge that remains is well aligned, and therefore strong for its thickness.", "Lots of great discussion here about amorphous vs. crystalline material. Which just leaves me wondering \"why *this particular* amorphous material?\" Why obsidian instead of some kind of man-made glass or fused quartz or Liquidmetal or whatnot?", "I have a bucket of [apache tears](_URL_2_) my grandpa collected over his lifetime in AZ. Should I knap a bunch of teeny knives?\n\nEDIT: corrected autocorrect.", "Are obsidian knifes not good for food prep then? Googling them shows none that look food usable.", "A follow-up question is Can obsidian knives cut diamond?", "Who are the most reputable makers for obsidian knives? I know knives can get crazy for custom work, into the thousands. I would probably be cool with spending around 100 if anyone makes one that 'cheap'.", "Followup: What does it mean to \"cut on a cellular level\"? What happens to cells when they're cut with each type of blade?", "Addon question: If obsidian scalpels are so much better than steel ones, why are they not the norm in hospitals?", "Aren't most incisions made with an electric scalpel now? Did I miss something?", "Where can I buy one and what would I even do with it?", "Would an obsidian sword be extremely good at cutting people in half?", "Obsidian Knives? Better wear your Berserker necklace for maximum efficiency.", "When did this sub become anecdotal stories and non explanations?" ]

[ "Ceramic knife Zirconium oxide Zirconium oxide is used due to its polymorphism. It exists in three phases: monoclinic, tetragonal and cubic. Cooling to the monoclinic phase after sintering causes a large volume change, which often causes stress fractures in pure zirconia. Additives such as magnesia, calcia and yttria are used in the manufacture of the knife material to stabilize the high-temperature phases and minimize this volume change. The highest strength and toughness is produced by the addition of 3 mol% yttrium oxide yielding partially stabilized zirconia. This material consists of a mixture of tetragonal and cubic phases with a bending strength", "extremely small spot size (up to 100 times smaller compared to the CO\n2) making it ideal for cutting reflective metal material. This is one of the main advantages of Fiber compared to CO\n2. Methods There are many different methods in cutting using lasers, with different types used to cut different material. Some of the methods are vaporization, melt and blow, melt blow and burn, thermal stress cracking, scribing, cold cutting and burning stabilized laser cutting. Vaporization cutting In vaporization cutting the focused beam heats the surface of the material to boiling point and generates a keyhole. The keyhole leads to", "core, together with the diamonds and the metal bond materials, into a mold and then sintering it in a sintering furnace equipment. Consequently, the diameter of wholly sintered diamond blades is not very large, normally not more than 400 millimetres (16 in). Because it is participating in the sintering process, the steel core cannot be quenched, so the hardness and strength of the core are not very high. This means that these types of diamond blade may deform in high-load and high-intensity cutting processes and can exhibit low cutting efficiency.\nSilver brazed and laser welded diamond blades do not have this weakness", "to get views of specimens at high magnifications with the transmission electron microscope (TEM). The shaft containing the final edge is then mounted in a metal trough, or \"boat\", and cemented, usually with an epoxy plastic. Diamond knives are also used for specimen preparation for Atomic Force Microscope. Types There are many styles and types of diamond knives. For the most part, they can be made for use dry or wet. Blade angles of diamond knives vary from 35 to 60 degrees. The smaller angled knives are used for finer cutting, but these knives are prone to damage. Wide angle", "Laser microtome Principle The cutting process is performed by a femtosecond laser, emitting radiation in the near-infrared range. Within this wavelength range, the laser is able to penetrate the tissue up to a certain depth without causing thermal damage. By tight focusing of the laser radiation, intensities over 1 TW/cm² (1 TW = 10¹² watts) arise inside the laser focus. These extreme intensities induce nonlinear effects and optical breakdown occurs. This causes the disruption of the material, limited to the focal point. The process is known as photodisruption.\nDue to the ultra short pulse duration of only a few femtoseconds (1", "because their diamond segments and steel core are treated separately. The steel core can be quenched and processed with other heat treatments, so its hardness and strength can be high, meaning that the blade can be used in high-load and high-intensity cutting processes with high cutting efficiency and a smaller degree of deformation.\nSilver brazed diamond blades' diamond segments are brazed to the steel core using a silver solder. These blades can only be used in wet cuttings. If they are used in dry cuttings, the silver solder may melt and the segments can break from the steel core and become", "leads to doubling of the frequency of infrared carbon dioxide lasers. In optical parametric generation, the wavelength of light is doubled. Near-infrared solid-state lasers are usually used in optical parametric generations.\nOne original problem with using gallium selenide in optics is that it is easily broken along cleavage lines and thus it can be hard to cut for practical application. It has been found, however, that doping the crystals with indium greatly enhances their structural strength and makes their application much more practical. There remain, however, difficulties with crystal growth that must be overcome before gallium selenide crystals may become more", "is often done by lasers which cut the board with no contact. Laser depaneling reduces stress on the fragile circuits, improving the yield of defect-free units. Subtractive, additive and semi-additive processes Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board to leave only the desired copper pattern. In additive methods the pattern is electroplated onto a bare substrate using a complex process. The advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed and less waste is produced. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light", "inches (1.5–2.0 mm) in diameter. This beam is normally focused and intensified by a lens or a mirror to a very small spot of about 0.001 inches (0.025 mm) to create a very intense laser beam. In order to achieve the smoothest possible finish during contour cutting, the direction of beam polarization must be rotated as it goes around the periphery of a contoured workpiece. For sheet metal cutting, the focal length is usually 1.5–3 inches (38–76 mm).\nAdvantages of laser cutting over mechanical cutting include easier workholding and reduced contamination of workpiece (since there is no cutting edge which can become contaminated by", "which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin 1.2 mm (0.047 in) sheet can be as high as 25 m (82 ft) per minute. Most laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 µm; some more recent systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 µm. Photochemical machining Photochemical machining, also known as photo etching, is a tightly controlled corrosion process", "resonator) cutting to far field (far away from resonator) cutting. Common methods for controlling this include collimation, adaptive optics or the use of a constant beam length axis.\nFive and six-axis machines also permit cutting formed workpieces. In addition, there are various methods of orienting the laser beam to a shaped workpiece, maintaining a proper focus distance and nozzle standoff, etc. Pulsing Pulsed lasers which provide a high-power burst of energy for a short period are very effective in some laser cutting processes, particularly for piercing, or when very small holes or very low cutting speeds are required, since if a", "thickness.\nThese extremely thin cuts are important for use with transmission electron microscope (TEM) and serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM), and are sometimes also important for light-optical microscopy. The typical thickness of these cuts is between 40 and 100 nm for transmission electron microscopy and often between 30 and 50 nm for SBFSEM. Thicker sections up to 500 nm thick are also taken for specialized TEM applications or for light-microscopy survey sections to select an area for the final thin sections. Diamond knives (preferably) and glass knives are used with ultramicrotomes. To collect the sections, they are floated on top of a liquid", "the material or contaminate the material). Precision may be better, since the laser beam does not wear during the process. There is also a reduced chance of warping the material that is being cut, as laser systems have a small heat-affected zone. Some materials are also very difficult or impossible to cut by more traditional means.\nLaser cutting for metals has the advantages over plasma cutting of being more precise and using less energy when cutting sheet metal; however, most industrial lasers cannot cut through the greater metal thickness that plasma can. Newer laser machines operating at higher power (6000 watts,", "crystallographic defects(physical) bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon, a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as prosthetic heart valves.\nGraphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon. Contrary to popular belief, high-purity graphite does not readily burn, even at elevated temperatures. For this reason, it is used in nuclear reactors and for high-temperature crucibles for melting metals. At very high temperatures and pressures (roughly 2000 °C and 5 GPa), it can be transformed into diamond.\nNatural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their", "dicing process, which operates with a pulsed Nd:YAG laser, the wavelength of which (1064 nm) is well adopted to the electronic band gap of silicon (1.11 eV or 1117 nm). Reactive cutting Also called \"burning stabilized laser gas cutting\", \"flame cutting\". Reactive cutting is like oxygen torch cutting but with a laser beam as the ignition source. Mostly used for cutting carbon steel in thicknesses over 1 mm. This process can be used to cut very thick steel plates with relatively little laser power. Tolerances and surface finish Laser cutters have positioning accuracy of 10 micrometers and repeatability of 5 micrometers.\nStandard roughness Rz", "knife in the kitchen. Chemistry In garlic, an alliinase enzyme acts on the chemical alliin converting it into allicin. The process involves two stages: elimination of 2-propenesulfenic acid from the amino acid unit (with α-aminoacrylic acid as a byproduct), and then condensation of two of the sulfenic acid molecules.\nAlliin and related substrates found in nature are chiral at the sulfoxide position (usually having the S absolute configuration, and alliin itself was the first natural product found to have both carbon- and sulfur-centered stereochemistry. However, the sulfenic acid intermediate is not chiral, and the final product's stereochemistry is not controlled.\nThere are", "diamond to its measured parameters: for example, a cubic zirconia (SG 5.6–6) will be 1.7 times the expected weight of an equivalently sized diamond. Optics and color Diamonds are usually cut into brilliants to bring out their brilliance (the amount of light reflected back to the viewer) and fire (the degree to which colorful prismatic flashes are seen). Both properties are strongly affected by the cut of the stone, but they are a function of diamond's high refractive index (RI—the degree to which incident light is bent upon entering the stone) of 2.417 (as measured by sodium light, 589.3 nm) and", "process of edge-emitting lasers. Edge-emitters cannot be tested until the end of the production process. If the edge-emitter does not work, whether due to bad contacts or poor material growth quality, the production time and the processing materials have been wasted.\nAdditionally, because VCSELs emit the beam perpendicular to the active region of the laser as opposed to parallel as with an edge emitter, tens of thousands of VCSELs can be processed simultaneously on a three-inch gallium arsenide wafer. Furthermore, even though the VCSEL production process is more labor- and material-intensive, the yield can be controlled to a more predictable outcome.", "constant laser beam were used, the heat could reach the point of melting the whole piece being cut.\nMost industrial lasers have the ability to pulse or cut CW (continuous wave) under NC (numerical control) program control.\nDouble pulse lasers use a series of pulse pairs to improve material removal rate and hole quality. Essentially, the first pulse removes material from the surface and the second prevents the ejecta from adhering to the side of the hole or cut.", "Svyatoslav Fyodorov to correct myopia and for the Mini Asymmetric Radial Keratotomy (M.A.R.K.), invented by Marco Abbondanza to correct astigmatism and cure the first and second stages of keratoconus. Ultramicrotomy When the development of ultramicrotomy evolved, it was also determined that metal microtome knives or razor blades were too dull to cut ultrathin sections. The metal knives were soft and fragile and would lose their cutting edges when thin sections were required for transmission electron microscopy. In 1950, Latta and Hartmann discovered that the edge of broken glass could be used to cut thin sections of specimen. Glass knives are", "materials, while the non-working layers are usually made of metal powders. This design can increase the sharpness of the diamond segment, and lower its production cost. Forms Diamond segments may come in various forms on diamond tools.\nFor a diamond blade, diamond segments are just the \"teeth\" of the blade. The form of the segments is an important factor which influences the performance of the blade, for example, the blade's cutting efficiency and the ratio of the diamonds' non-normal failure.\nThe form of diamond blades' diamond segments may be convex, layered sandwich concave, L-shaped, step-shaped, segmented, side-slotted, etc. There are mainly two", "bonds of the surface tissue, which effectively disintegrates into the air in a tightly controlled manner through ablation rather than burning. Thus excimer lasers have the useful property that they can remove exceptionally fine layers of surface material with almost no heating or change to the remainder of the material which is left intact. These properties make excimer lasers well suited to precision micromachining organic material (including certain polymers and plastics), or delicate surgeries such as eye surgery LASIK. In 1980–1983, Rangaswamy Srinivasan, Samuel Blum and James J. Wynne at IBM's T. J. Watson Research Center observed the effect of", "and optical power limiting were also demonstrated. Microfabrication and lithography One of the most distinguishing features of TPA is that the rate of absorption of light by a molecule depends on the square of the light's intensity. This is different from OPA, where the rate of absorption is linear with respect to input intensity. As a result of this dependence, if material is cut with a high power laser beam, the rate of material removal decreases very sharply from the center of the beam to its periphery. Because of this, the \"pit\" created is sharper and better resolved than if", "in straight lines only and higher stress than for routing. Laser (as of March, 2010) Laser cutting is now being offered as a sixth method by some equipment makers.\nUV laser depaneling makes use of a 355 nm wavelength (ultraviolet), diode-pumped, Nd:YAG laser source. At this wavelength the laser is capable of cutting, drilling and structuring on rigid and flex circuit substrates. The laser beam, capable of cut widths under 25μm, is controlled by high-precision, galvo-scanning mirrors with repeat accuracy of +/- 4 μm.\nA variety of substrate materials can be cut with a UV laser source including FR4 and similar resin-based substrates,", "and working principle of fiber lasers make them less affected by external disturbances, e.g. mechanical and acoustical noise, than other solid state lasers or ECDLs. In addition, the availability of integrated-optics components, such as fiber based electro-optic modulators (fiber EOMs), offers the possibility to further reduce the complexity of the setup. The first realizations of a NICE-OHMS system based upon a fiber laser and a fiber EOM have recently been demonstrated. It was shown that C₂H₂ could be detected down to 4.5•10⁻¹² atm (4.5 ppt) with an instrumentation that is very sturdy. It is clear that this has brought NICE-OHMS", "has an optical absorption edge at 0.75 eV, corresponding to a cut-off wavelength of λ=1.68 μm at 295 K.\nBy increasing the mole fraction of InAs further compared to GaAs, it is possible to extend the cut-off wavelength up to about λ=2.6 µm. In that case special measures have to be taken to avoid mechanical strain from differences in lattice constants.\nGaAs is lattice-mismatched to germanium (Ge) by 0.08%. With the addition of 1.5% InAs to the alloy, In0.015Ga0.985As becomes latticed-matched to the Ge substrate, reducing stress in subsequent deposition of GaAs. Electronic and optical properties InGaAs has a lattice parameter that increases", "dissimilar metals. Laser cladding is used to coat cheap or weak parts with a harder material in order to improve the surface quality. Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is little to no wear on the cutting tool as there is no contact to cause damage.\nMilling with a laser is a three dimensional process that requires two lasers, but drastically cuts costs of machining parts. Lasers can be used to change the surface properties of a workpiece.\nThe appliance of laser beam machining varies depending on the industry. In light manufacturing the machine is", "diamond cutting process will often leave portions of the original crystal's surface intact. These are termed naturals and are usually on the girdle of the stone; they take the form of triangular, rectangular, or square pits (etch marks) and are seen only in diamond. Thermal and electrical Diamond is an extremely effective thermal conductor and usually an electrical insulator. The former property is widely exploited in the use of an electronic thermal probe to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery-powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating", "Laser cutting Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to cut materials, and is typically used for industrial manufacturing applications, but is also starting to be used by schools, small businesses, and hobbyists. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-power laser most commonly through optics. The laser optics and CNC (computer numerical control) are used to direct the material or the laser beam generated. A commercial laser for cutting materials involved a motion control system to follow a CNC or G-code of the pattern to be cut onto the material. The focused laser beam", "beam, much like an optical fiber, through total internal reflection. The advantages of this are that the water also removes debris and cools the material. Additional advantages over traditional \"dry\" laser cutting are high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting.\nFiber lasers are a type of solid state laser that is rapidly growing within the metal cutting industry. Unlike CO\n2, Fiber technology utilizes a solid gain medium, as opposed to a gas or liquid. The “seed laser” produces the laser beam and is then amplified within a glass fiber. With a wavelength of only 1.064 micrometers fiber lasers produce an" ]

[ "Birds as well - wings are modified arms. And snakes had legs but lost them (at points in evolutionary history, snakes developed legs, and lost them again. And boids have vestigial legs that appear as tiny spurs.)\n\nThe reason they all have the same basic body plan is, all are Tetrapods. All species of birds, amphibians, reptiles and mammals evolved from a common ancestor, around 390 million years ago.", "Because 2 eyes are sufficient for depth perception, one eye means that you can perceve depth and 3 or more eyes would mean that extra energy would be needed to be expended which is not a good thing in terms of evolution. Most animals have 4 limbs because it provides a relatively stable footing into the ground while keeping the leg count low is mainly to save energy that can other wise be used on other things like developing a bigger brain and what not." ]

[ "fall into one of three categories based on shape. Rodents have more structurally complex pineal glands than other mammals.\nCrocodilians and some tropical lineages of mammals (some xenarthrans (sloths), pangolins, sirenians (manatees & dugongs), and some marsupials (sugar gliders) have lost both their parietal eye and their pineal organ. Polar mammals, such as walruses and some seals, possess unusually large pineal glands.\nAll amphibians have a pineal organ, but some frogs and toads also have what is called a \"frontal organ\", which is essentially a parietal eye.\nPinealocytes in many non-mammalian vertebrates have a strong resemblance to the photoreceptor cells of the eye.", "that appears to have held a functional third eye. This socket remains as a foramen between the parietal bones even in many living amphibians and reptiles, although it has vanished in birds and mammals. The third eye, where present, is always much smaller than the main paired eyes, and, in living species, it is always covered by skin, and is usually not readily visible externally.\nAmong fish, lampreys have two parietal eyes, one that developed from the parapineal gland and the other from the pineal gland. These are one behind the other in the centre of the upper surface of the", "they have transparent inner eyelids to protect the eyes while underwater, as well as a 'mask' which covers the eyes and eardrums. Although the common frog has long hind legs compared to the common toad, they are shorter than those of the agile frog with which it shares some of its range. The longer hind legs and fainter colouration of the agile frog are the main features that distinguish the two species.\nMales are distinguishable from females as they are smaller and have hard swellings, known as nuptial pads, on the first digits of the forelegs, used for gripping females during", "Reptiles usually retain two centralia, while mammals typically have only one (the navicular).\nIn birds, the tarsus has disappeared, with the proximal tarsals having fused with the tibia, the centralia having disappeared, and the distal bones having fused with the metatarsals to form a single tarsometatarsus bone, effectively giving the leg a third segment.", "related to iguanas (which are found only in the New World). Unlike other lizards, they do not drop their tails (autotomy), and their tails can be very long, stiff and pointy. Like other reptiles, they shed their skins. Like chameleons, Changeable Lizards can move each of their eyes in different directions. Distribution The native range of the species includes SE Iran, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (South) (Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Hainan Island), India (including the Andaman Islands), Indonesia (Sumatra), Malaysia (Western), Maldives, Mauritius (Reunion, Rodrigues), Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Thailand, Vietnam (including Pulo Condore", "stronger vertebrae and slender limbs, and a deeper skull with laterally placed eyes. They probably had watertight skin, possibly covered with a horny epidermis overlaying small bony nodules, forming scutes, similar to those found in modern caecilians. To the modern eye, these animals would appear like heavyset, lizards betraying their amphibious nature only by their lack of claws and by spawning aquatic eggs. In the middle or late Carboniferous, smaller forms gave rise to the first reptiles. In the late Carboniferous, a global rainforest collapse favoured the more terrestrially adapted reptiles, while the many of their amphibian relatives failed to", "known, and the way they attach to each other is very different from the way those of modern monitor lizards do. A small crest running between the eye sockets is a distinguishing feature of the genus.", "assumed that first reptiles were anapsids, having a solid skull with holes only for the nose, eyes, spinal cord, etc.; the discoveries of synapsid-like openings in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia, including lanthanosuchoids, millerettids, bolosaurids, some nycteroleterids, some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it's currently uncertain whether the ancestral reptile had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull. Very soon after the first reptiles appeared, they split into two branches. One branch, Synapsida (including modern mammals), had one opening in the skull roof behind each eye. The other branch, Sauropsida,", "their extinct relatives.\nSaniwa, an extinct varanid lizard, had two parietal eyes, one that developed from the pineal gland and the other from the parapineal gland. Saniwa is the only known jawed vertebrate to have both a pineal and a parapineal eye, as the only other vertebrates that have both are the jawless lampreys. In most vertebrates, the pineal gland forms the parietal eye, however, in lepidosaurs, it is formed from the parapineal gland. This implies that Saniwa reevolved the pineal eye. Anatomy The parietal eye is a part of the epithalamus, which can be divided into two major parts; the", "of the palate. Thus, it is most plausible that, like many modern amphibians, the eyes of these animals were actually significantly smaller than the orbit and positioned toward the front of the skull, though there is not enough data to make conclusive judgment about their exact position. Schoch et al. (2014) also put forward the hypothesis that the group had large, flat, lensless eyes similar to a family of abyss dwelling teleost fish, the Ipnopidae. These lensless eyes would allow plagiosaurids to detect when something is moving directly above them by causing a shadow in the light detected by the", "(mammals, birds and reptiles) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Sight The eyes of most frogs are located on either side of the head near the top and project outwards as hemispherical bulges. They provide binocular vision over a field of 100° to the front and a total visual field of almost 360°. They may be the only part of an otherwise submerged frog to protrude from the water. Each eye has closable upper and lower lids and a nictitating membrane which provides further protection, especially when the frog is swimming. Members of the aquatic family Pipidae have the eyes", "compound eyes Most species of Arthropoda with compound eyes bear just two eyes that are located separately and symmetrically, one on each side of the head. This arrangement is called dichoptic. Examples include most insects, and most of the larger species of Crustacea, such as crabs. Many other organisms, such as vertebrates and Cephalopoda are similarly and analogously dichoptic, which is the common state in animals that are members of the Bilateria and have functionally elaborate eyes. However, there are variations on that scheme. In some groups of animals whose ancestors originally were dichoptic, the eyes of modern species may", "colours. Crocodiles have vertical-slit shaped pupils, similar to those of domestic cats. One explanation for the evolution of slit pupils is that they exclude light more effectively than a circular pupil, helping to protect the eyes during daylight. On the rear wall of the eye is a tapetum lucidum, which reflects incoming light back onto the retina, thus utilizing the small amount of light available at night to best advantage. In addition to the protection of the upper and lower eyelids, crocodiles have a nictitating membrane (sometimes called a \"third eye-lid\") that can be drawn over the eye from the", "Binocular vision Etymology The term binocular comes from two Latin roots, bini for double, and oculus for eye. Field of view and eye movements Some animals - usually, but not always, prey animals - have their two eyes positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view. Examples include rabbits, buffaloes, and antelopes. In such animals, the eyes often move independently to increase the field of view. Even without moving their eyes, some birds have a 360-degree field of view.\nSome other animals - usually, but not always, predatory animals - have their two eyes", "found Saniwa had two parietal eyes, one that developed from the pineal gland and the other from the parapineal gland. The parietal eye is a light-sensitive structure present in the tuatara, most lizards, frogs, salamanders, certain bony fish, sharks and lampreys, a group of jawless fish.\nIt plays an important role in geographical orientation and regulating circadian and annual rhythms. Saniwa is the only known jawed vertebrate to have both a pineal and a parapineal eye, as the only other vertebrates that have both are the jawless lampreys. In most vertebrates, the pineal gland forms the parietal eye, however, in lepidosaurs,", "two parietal foramina in their skulls, suggesting an ancestral bilaterality of parietal eyes. The parietal eye and the pineal gland of living tetrapods are probably the descendants of the left and right parts of this organ, respectively.\nDuring embryonic development, the parietal eye and the pineal organ of modern lizards and tuataras form together from a pocket formed in the brain ectoderm. The loss of parietal eyes in many living tetrapods is supported by developmental formation of a paired structure that subsequently fuses into a single pineal gland in developing embryos of turtles, snakes, birds, and mammals.\nThe pineal organs of mammals", "the inner side of the jawbone, or pleurodont. Like Ardeosaurus, the lacrimal bone of the eye socket is absent. Also in the eye socket, the postfrontal and postorbital bones are separate elements as opposed to Ardeosaurus, and the rear process of the postorbitals are relatively wide. In E. schroederi, the contact between the latter two bones is unusually far forward compared to most lizards. A rearward-projecting spur or process is missing on the jugal bones of both species. Like most other lizards, the squamosal bones are slender and project downwards to meet the quadrate bones; unlike the Iguania and Teiidae,", "vision than carnosaurs. Their binocular field was up to 60°. Tyrannosauridae Among coelurosaurs, tyrannosauroidea had the best eyesight. The position of their eyes suggests that they had a very well developed sense of vision.\nThe eye position of Tyrannosaurus rex was similar to that of modern humans, but their eyes and optic lobe were much larger than that of modern humans. T. rex, unlike most dinosaurs, had a combination of powerful eyesight and a great sense of smell. Ceratosauria Ceratosaurs had eyes placed closer to the side. This widened their field of vision, but decreased their depth perception. Pachycephalosaurs Pachycephalosaurs, like", "cetaceans. As in cetaceans, the bronchi leading to the lungs run parallel to each other instead of splitting apart from one another as in monitors and other terrestrial reptiles. In mosasaurs, these features may be internal adaptations to fully marine lifestyles.\nIn 2011, collagen protein was recovered from a Prognathodon humerus dated to the Cretaceous.\nIn 2005, a case study by A.S. Schulp, E.W.A Mulder, and K. Schwenk outlined the fact that mosasaurs had paired fenestrae in their palates. In monitor lizards and snakes, paired fenestrae are associated with a forked tongue, which is flicked in and out to detect chemical traces", "is reinforced with plates of cartilage or bone, together forming a circular structure called the sclerotic ring. In primitive fish, this ring consists of four plates, but the number is lower in many living ray-finned fishes, and much higher in lobe-finned fishes, various reptiles, and birds. The ring has disappeared in many groups, including living amphibians, some reptiles and fish, and all mammals.\nThe eyes of all non-human primates are dark with small, barely visible sclera. Function Human eyes are somewhat distinctive in the animal kingdom in that the sclera is very plainly visible whenever the eye is open. This is", "along the bottom, but others have adapted to many different ecological niches, including burrowing, swimming, pelagic life, tube-dwelling or boring, commensalism, and parasitism, requiring various modifications to their body structures.\nThe head, or prostomium, is relatively well developed, compared with other annelids. It projects forward over the mouth, which therefore lies on the animal's underside. The head normally includes two to four pair of eyes, although some species are blind. These are typically fairly simple structures, capable of distinguishing only light and dark, although some species have large eyes with lenses that may be capable of more sophisticated vision.\nThe head also", "mosasaurs, have only one functional lung with the second often being vestigial or absent. Unlike terrestrial lizards, however, the bronchi separate in front of the area of the forelimbs rather than at the level of the limbs.\nSkin impressions are known from Platecarpus, preserved in LACM 128319 as soft impressions and phosphate material. Scales on the tip of the snout and the top of the skull are somewhat hexagonal in shape and do not touch one another. The scales on the jaws are longer and rhomboidal in shape, overlapping one another. The scales on the snout indicate that the nostrils were", "that legless lizards lack venom glands, cannot constrict prey, they have a fleshy tongue rather than a forked tongue, they have visible ear holes and they have remnant hind limbs. Furthermore, Burton’s legless lizard and the Pygopodidae, as a whole, are most closely related genetically and anatomically to geckos in the family Gekkonidae. This is despite the convergence and superficial resemblance of this species with snakes.\nBurton’s legless lizard has significant morphological adaptations to enable it to deal with large struggling prey items. The first adaptation is a skull with an elongated snout that may, along with its pointed, recurved and", "lizards do (based on similarities in their jaws), rather than bridging skin between the upper and lower jaws (such as cheeks). The proportionally large lower temporal fenestra was egg-shaped and tilted back, and located behind the eye opening. The elliptical upper temporal fenestra was visible only looking at the top of the skull. The left and right upper temporal fenestrae were separated by the sagittal crest, which would have provided lateral attachment surfaces for the jaw musculature in the living animal.\nThe lower jaw tapered towards the front, and the dentary bone (the main part of the lower jaw) was robust.", "Parietal eye A parietal eye, also known as a third eye or pineal eye, is a part of the epithalamus present in some animal species. The eye is photoreceptive and is associated with the pineal gland, regulating circadian rhythmicity and hormone production for thermoregulation. Presence in various animals The parietal eye is found in the tuatara, most lizards, frogs, salamanders, certain bony fish, sharks, and lampreys (a kind of jawless fish). It is absent in mammals, but was present in their closest extinct relatives, the therapsids. It is also absent in turtles and archosaurs, which includes birds and crocodilians, and", "et al., 2015). Another specimen showed evidence of a parietal tube, but the absence wasn't due to ontogeny but from intraspecific variability (Benoit et al., 2015).\nMany lizards have a parietal eye on top of their head (Ralph, 1975). In extant ectotherms living near the equator are less frequent to have a pineal opening due to the stability of the environment that makes the third eye not useful (Benoit et al., 2015). There is a definite relationship between latitudinal distribution of lizards and parietal eye occurrence (Ralph, 1975). Parietal-eyeless lizards are to low latitudes which suggests an equatorial trait (Ralph, 1975).", "are the \"mammal-like amniotes\", or stem-mammals, that later gave rise to the true mammals. Soon after, another group evolved a similar trait, this time with a double opening behind each eye, earning them the name Diapsida (\"two arches\"). The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move, allowing for a more powerful bite.\nTurtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving parareptiles, on the basis of their anapsid skull structure, which was assumed to be primitive trait. The rationale for this classification has been disputed, with some arguing", "hinged teeth, be an adaptation that assists it to grip its prey. In addition, this elongated snout may also promote binocular vision which would allow strikes to be more accurately directed. Another adaptation that assists Burton’s legless lizard to hold its prey is its flexible mesokinetic and hypokinetic joints which allow its jaws to encircle prey. Lastly, the ability of the species to retract its eyes is of key importance as it is a visual predator that relies on eyesight and this adaptation effectively protects them during conflict. Distribution and habitat Burton’s legless lizard occurs almost Australia wide but it", "top of the head. This allows them to stalk their prey with most of their bodies underwater. Crocodilians possess a tapetum lucidum which enhances vision in low light. While eyesight is fairly good in air, it is significantly weakened underwater. The fovea in other vertebrates is usually circular, but in crocodiles it is a horizontal bar of tightly packed receptors across the middle of the retina. When the animal completely submerges, the nictitating membranes cover its eyes. In addition, glands on the nictitating membrane secrete a salty lubricant that keeps the eye clean. When a crocodilian leaves the water and", "the water column. Typically, thick and dense bone is found in bottom feeders and low bone density is associated with mammals living in deep water.\nThe shape and function of the eyes in aquatic animals are dependent on water depth and light exposure: limited light exposure results in a retina similar to that of nocturnal terrestrial mammals. Additionally, cetaceans have two areas of high ganglion cell concentration (\"best-vision areas\"), where other aquatic mammals (e.g. seals, manatees, otters) only have one.\nAmong non-placental mammals, which cannot give birth to fully developed young, some adjustments have been made for an aquatic lifestyle. The yapok" ]

[ "SecureThruObscure explained the shield, but not what the light itself is for. The light is used to harden a special type of glue which is used on your teeth. It is designed to turn to cement only when exposed to the super bright light, which is why the dentist needs such a bright light which would hurt his eyes if he didn't have the orange shield.\n\nIt's basically because glues don't dry very well in the mouth, or very quickly, so this is an easier method to make the glue harden. The glue is often used to seal molars in the back of your mouth, they pour it in the cracks on the biting surface of the teeth to keep the cracks from collecting bacteria which can cause cavities.", "The orange shield blocks most of the blue light. \n\nLooking directly at the blue light is damaging to your eyes, dentists stare at it quite a bit, and therefore the little orange doodad blocks the vast majority of it while still letting lit of other wavelengths through, allowing the dentist to still see what's going on and make sure he's applying the light to right areas.", "Perfect answers, though OP, why didn't you just ask the dentist?", "That \"gun\" is a UV light source gun.\nWhen dentist need a quick hardening he uses a \" UV-gun \" for faster hardening.\nOrange shield block's UV reflection which came outta your mouth." ]

[ "Agent Purple Agent Purple is the code name for a powerful herbicide and defoliant used by the U.S. military in their herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the purple stripe painted on the barrels to identify the contents. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called \"Rainbow Herbicides\" that included the more infamous Agent Orange. Agent Purple and Orange were also used to clear brush in Canada.\nAgent Purple was chemically similar to the better-known Agent Orange, both of them were consisting of a", "the LG Shine \"Titanium Black\". Offering the same features as the original LG Shine, the full metal bodied jacket has received a makeover, turning it a dark metallic grey. Andy Lau Edition In August 2008, LG Electronics launched the LG \"Shine x Andy Lau Special Edition\". The phone comes complete with the actor's own handwriting inscribed motto on the back of the phone which says \"Heaven is where the kind hearted people are.\" Iron Man Edition In May 2008, an extremely limited Iron Man edition was issued. The 21 made had a red case, gold plated highlights, and an 18k", "lights mounted on light bars and those mounted anywhere else on the vehicle (e.g. headlights, indicators, brake lights) - all are covered by the same regulations. Purple Purple is permitted in some states to denote a funeral vehicle and /or coroner's or Medical examiner's office. Police Police agencies may use red, blue, or both, depending on the state, along with white and amber as optional colors; although amber is usually restricted to face behind the vehicle. Some police cars have an amber directional control bar, also known as an ‘arrow stick’, behind the lightbar to direct traffic left or", "Silver and inscribed \"H-MINUS\" in Silver.\"\nThe colors blue and white are used to symbolize Infantry. The black panther symbolizes stealth, speed and courage, all characteristics of a good Paratrooper. The wings are added to represent entry into combat via air, and the bendlets symbolize the unit's parachute drops into combat. The winged red arrowhead is used to represent the regiment's first combat attack in Sicily during World War II. The phrase \"H-Minus\" signifies the Regiment's readiness prior to the start of the operation, or \"H-Hour\".\nThe official insignia is in fact not the insignia first designed by the men of the", "system devised by the US Department of Homeland Security to measure the threat of terrorist attack, an orange level is second only to a red level. The US Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices specifies orange for use in temporary and construction signage. In the military In the United States Army, orange has traditionally been associated with the dragoons, the mounted infantry units which eventually became the US Cavalry. The 1st Cavalry Regiment was founded in 1833 as the United States Dragoons. The modern coat of arms of the 1st Cavalry features the colour orange and orange-yellow shade called dragoon", "Shades of orange Aerospace and safety Safety orange (also known as blaze orange, and a number of other names) was defined in ANSI standard Z535.1-1998 and is commonly used in a wide variety of contexts to warn of hazards, including: high-viz clothing, road cones, and as the background color in safety warning notices.\nA shade of orange known as International orange is used in the aerospace industry to set objects apart from their surroundings, similar to Safety orange, but deeper and with a more reddish tone. It was the color used for the Space Shuttle pressure suits. Wrapping the spectrum into", "offered in (pure) white. However, shorter focal length L-lenses can be black (such as the Canon EF 24–70 mm f/2.8L) and all L-lens primes under 200 mm are black. L-lenses can be identified by the distinctive red ring on the lens barrel. The off-white colour of the lens barrel is not exclusive to L lenses, since the Canon 400mm f/4 DO non-L lens is off-white with a green ring.\nWide angle L-lenses typically have a gelatin filter holder on the mounting collar of the lens, which allows the photographer to cut a small, square piece of gelatin out of a larger filter sheet", "Orange is the combination of the code names for Herbicide Orange (HO) and Agent LNX, one of the herbicides and defoliants used by the British military during the Malayan Emergency and the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. Vietnam estimates 400,000 people were killed or maimed, and 500,000 children born with birth defects as a result of its use. The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems due to Agent Orange. The United States government has", "and scarlet and gold are the colors of the Navy and Marine Corps.\nThe Navy-blue caduceus is the insignia worn on white uniforms by Hospital Corpsmen, United States Navy. This insignia and the crossed bayonets (in the colors of the Marine Corps) allude to the medical services customarily provided to the Marine Corps by the Navy. In particular, the caduceus and bayonets symbolize the combat operation in which Petty Officer Caron, though grievously wounded, was killed while giving medical assistance to his wounded comrades.", "colored plastic cones slipped over the lens of a flashlight increase the visibility when looking at the side of the light. Such marshalling wands are frequently used for directing automobiles or aircraft at night. Colored lenses placed over the end of the flashlight are used for signalling, for example, in railway yards. Colored light is occasionally useful for hunters tracking wounded game after dusk, or for forensic examination of an area. A red filter helps preserve night vision after the flashlight is turned off, and can be useful to observe animals (such as nesting Loggerhead sea turtles) without", "amber include agricultural, construction, utility, oversized, tow and airport vehicles. Green or red These are not considered emergency lights, but are often used on the roof of command vehicles at the scene of incidents. Germany Only emergency and police vehicle may use blue lights. This includes firefighters, rescue services, emergency response vehicles for public utilities and civil defense units. All other kinds of blue lights (e.g. car floor lighting or cab interior lights), including reflective stickers or paintings, are illegal on public roads. Flashing blue lights and sirens may only be used by authorized vehicles in case of emergency and", "WA State Emergency Service that do not have Red and Blue. Red lighting used to be in use for fire engines, ambulances and non WA State Emergency Service motor vehicles before they changed to red and blue. Amber Amber or yellow lights are used by roadside breakdown vehicles, Security patrol vehicles, tow trucks, road construction/repair motor vehicles and most other utility vehicles. Amber is also used by motor vehicles operating in and around airports and docks, this includes Australian Federal Police and Australian Customs vehicles which are fitted with additional amber lighting to supplement their red and blue lightbars. Queensland", "of the division on 11 December 1934, and previous authorization for the variations was canceled. The insignia is worn subdued on field uniforms after experience in the Vietnam War, where the gold was too conspicuous. Normally, the gold is changed to the base color of the uniform to subdue it. With the retirement of the green \"Class A\" uniform in October 2015, only the subdued version of the SSI is worn, on the ACU's left sleeve.\nIt consists on a yellow, triangular Norman shield with rounded corners 5.25 inches (133 mm) in height overall, a black diagonal stripe extends over", "Agent White Agent White is the code name for a herbicide used by the U.S. military in its herbicidal warfare program during the Vietnam War. The name comes from the regulatory requirements of identifying each container of the various herbicides through the addition of colored stripes. Orange, Purple, Blue, and White were colors used by the manufacturers to ensure that the contents were easily identifiable in shipment and use. Colors were selected by the U.S. Government. Largely inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency, it was one of the so-called \"rainbow herbicides\".", "dark (rifle) green, the armoured corps wearing black, and other arms and services wearing midnight blue berets, with a large coloured \"flash\" in corps colours - dull cherry for the Royal Canadian Army Medical Corps, Emerald Green for the Royal Canadian Dental Corps, etc. The coloured flashes were not popular and replaced in 1956 with forage caps bearing coloured bands in corps colours. The midnight blue beret itself was retained, however.\nWhen the Canadian Forces unified on 1 February 1968, the rifle green beret was adopted as the CF standard. The RCAC successfully fought to retain its distinctive black", "flashlight were used for her eye, the white rubber \"hood\" portion generally absent after the first couple of seasons. Foam tubing was used on her lips (usually a dull light gray), and her neck was made of a long black PVC hose. The head portion was painted a metallic purple, with a small amount of metallic blue on the inside of her mouth. Occasionally the tubing of her lips is colored red, giving the effect that she's wearing lipstick.\nDuring the initial KTMA season a different children's car seat was used for the head portion, the entire puppet painted a copper", "dark blue outfit, largely adapted from the Singapore Police Force (SPF), included the standard two front breast pockets on the shirt with aluminium-anodized collar badges, buttons and a black plastic name tag atop the right breast pocket. Since removed in the rest of the SPF, but retained by the GC, were the chromed service number pinned above the name tag, and the whistle and chain.\nThe shirt was long-sleeved and neatly folded up, unlike the short-sleeved versions adopted for the no. 3 dress of the SPF. The sleeves were rolled down when the sun sets, and rolled up again when the", "an eagle-top shield type badge, but recently switched to the 7-point star style traditional to Bay Area law enforcement. Uniforms are dark blue, similar to SFPD.\nOfficers are usually armed with either a SIG Sauer P320 or a Glock pistol for the sidearm. Bruce Edward Seward In 2001 a mentally ill man named Bruce Edward Seward was shot by an officer at the Hayward Station. Reportedly the sleeping passenger awoke and grabbed the officer's nightstick causing the officer to reflexively shoot him; resulting in death. Oscar Grant In 2009 officer Johannes Mehserle fatally shot Oscar Grant III on the Fruitvale", "Blue Shield of California History Blue Shield of California, then known as California Physicians' Service, was created by the California Medical Association on December 18, 1938, and was incorporated on August 9, 1939. The organization began offering coverage on March 6 of that same year. In 1946, the organization was among a founder of the National Association of Blue Shield Plans, which later became the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association. Today, Blue Shield of California is an independent licensee of the national association. \nThe Blue Shield of California health plan was the first in the nation", "Portland Orange International application Portland Orange is generally not used outside the United States and Canada, and is not seen in Quebec. In most of the world, red, or another specified color, is used for the dont walk symbol instead of Portland Orange.", "blackened metal screw caps over the lens and the base. Featuring improved waterproofing and a brighter PR-9 flange base bulb, the TL-122A entered service in 1939, and was designed to fit armored vehicle flashlight brackets. \nTL-122-B. First plastic (Bakelite) flashlight, issued September 1943, OD color. Manufacturer's name (Bright Star, Eveready, USALite, GITS, Micro-Lite) stamped on base of housing. \nTL-122-C. Improved plastic, moisture proof design featuring a sealed lens, battery cap and switch for near waterproof capability. Issued April 1944. Manufacturer's name (Bright Star, GITS, USA LITE) stamped on base of housing. \nTL-122-D. Extended base containing lens filters in", "the least destructive to the shooter's night vision, but some products use green or yellow illumination, either as a single colour or changeable via user selection. Graticule A graticule is another term for reticle, frequently encountered in British and British military technical manuals, and came into common use during World War One. Reticle focal plane The reticle may be located at the front or rear focal plane (First Focal Plane (FFP) or Second Focal Plane (SFP)) of the telescopic sight. On fixed power telescopic sights there is no significant difference, but on variable power telescopic sights the front plane reticle", "flying debris or hazardous splatters such as blood or chemicals. As of 2017, dentists and surgeons in Canada and other countries are required to wear safety glasses to protect against infection from patients' blood or other body fluids. There are also safety glasses for welding, which are styled like wraparound sunglasses, but with much darker lenses, for use in welding where a full-sized welding helmet is inconvenient or uncomfortable. These are often called \"flash goggles\" because they provide protection from welding flash. Nylon frames are usually used for protective eyewear for sports because of their lightweight and flexible properties. Unlike", "eye or flash burns in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Goggles and welding helmets with dark UV-filtering face plates are worn to prevent this exposure. Since the 2000s, some helmets have included a face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the intense UV light. To protect bystanders, the welding area is often surrounded with translucent welding curtains. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield people outside the welding area from the UV light of the electric arc, but cannot replace the filter glass used in", "blue and silver waves; the top portion of the shield in blue, has three iris branches. Above the shield resides a three tower gold crown. Surrounding the shield by its flanks are two palms trees leaves crossed at the bottom.", "International orange International orange is a color used in the aerospace industry to set objects apart from their surroundings, similar to safety orange, but deeper and with a more reddish tone.", "was placed with Albert Smith and Son to manufacture these signs. Over the next decade the illuminated signs were progressively installed at stations and the old style cast iron badges were returned to the Police Depot. Sometime in the late 1960s the illuminated word POLICE, was produced in white letters on a black background, and in the mid 1980s a blue light was added to the top for more effect.\nSub-Inspector Cecil Smith was appointed as the first Queensland Police Public Relations Officer on 6 July. He was expected to make regular telecasts on topical police matters by way of", "its distinctive orange color.", "Squadron. This experimental and specially trained Air Base Ground Defense (ABGD) unit adopted a light blue beret displaying a falcon as its emblem. Operation Safe Side developed into the 82nd Combat Security Police Wing, consisting of three \"combat security police\" squadrons, but was inactivated in December 1968, ending the unofficial use of the light blue beret.\nElsewhere, during the Vietnam War, although not an authorized uniform item, some local security police commanders approved a dark blue beret similar to the SAC Elite Guard beret for their units as a less-conspicuous alternative to the official white Security Police cover for certain specialized", "fez, which was dark blue instead of yellow-gold. Photographic evidence suggests that later in the war the 165th New York Infantry was given replacement sashes that were a solid red color without the light blue trim.\nThe regiment was attached to Independent Command, Department of the Gulf, to January 1863. 3rd Brigade, 2nd Division, XIX Corps, Department of the Gulf, to July 1863. 1st Brigade, 3rd Division, XIX Corps, to February 1864. 3rd Brigade, 1st Division, XIX Corps, Department of the Gulf, to July 1864, and Army of the Shenandoah, Middle Military Division, to February 1865. 3rd Brigade, 1st Provisional Division," ]

[ "Interesting username.\n\nAnyways, all cells, including red blood cells have signalling chemicals on them so other cells, namely your immune system, can identify that cell as yours, as oppose to an invader cell.\n\nFor the sake of an insane analogy, imagine each blood type was a language that only that cell spoke. Your immune system is a gun-tooting bigot and if any cell speaks the wrong language, it's going to shoot it. We don't want the immune system shooting our blood and killing it, so that's why we make sure that a person only receives a compatible blood-type. Like all uneducated bigots, some blood types/languages are similar enough to your blood type/language that your immune system/bigots can't tell the difference, and won't try to kill them." ]

[ "phenotype can occur in several ways. In some cases, this phenotype occurs because of an altered surface protein that is more common in people of European descent. An inheritable form also occurs, as a result of a weakened form of the R0 gene. Weak D may also occur as \"C in trans\", whereby a C gene is present on the opposite chromosome to a D gene (as in the combination R0r', or \"Dce/dCe\"). The testing is difficult, since using different anti-D reagents, especially the older polyclonal reagents, may give different results.\nThe practical implication of this is that people with this", "(a gene duplication), from increased mRNA or protein expression, or constitutive protein activity.\nThe phenotype of a hypermorph is worsened by increasing the wildtype gene dose, and is reduced by lowering wildtype gene dose.\nm/Dp > m/+ > m/Df Antimorph Antimorphs are dominant mutations that act in opposition to normal gene activity. Antimorphs are also called dominant negative mutations.\nIncreasing wildtype gene function reduces the phenotypic severity of an antimorph, so the phenotype of an antimorph is worse when heterozygous than when in trans to a gene duplication.\nm/m > m/Df > m/+ >>> +/Df > +/+ \nAn antimorphic mutation might affect the function", "causing a Duffy negative phenotype is known: the responsible mutation is G -> A at position 298. The genetic basis for the Fy(a-b-) phenotype is a point mutation in the erythroid specific promoter (a T -> C mutation at position -33 in the GATA box). This mutation occurs in the Fy-b allele and has been designated Fy-bᴱˢ (erythroid silent). Two isotypes have been identified. The Fy-x allele is characterized by a weak anti-Fy-b reaction and appears to be the result of two separate transitions: Cytosine265Threonine (Arginine89Cysteine) and Guanine298Adenosine (Alanine100Threonine). A third mutation (a transversion) in this gene has also been", "display allelic heterogeneity at their loci and are responsible for distinct disease phenotypes. Some of these diseases include alkaptonuria, albinism, achondroplasia, and phenylketonuria. For example, β-thalassemia may be caused by several different mutations in the β-globin gene. Allelic heterogeneity should not be confused with locus heterogeneity in which a mutation at a different gene causes a similar phenotype. Nor should it be confused with phenotypic heterogeneity in which a mutation within the same gene causes a different phenotype. Other major diseases displaying allelic heterogeneity are allelic mutations in the dystrophin gene which cause Duchenne dystrophy and mutations in the CFTR", "are less likely to be frequent in these hosts because of relatively small population sizes and relatively long generation times. Overdominant selection Overdominance occurs if the heterozygote phenotype has a fitness advantage over both homozygotes (heterozygote advantage, causing heterosis). One example is sickle cell anemia. It is due to a mutation in the hemoglobin gene leading to sickle shape formation of red blood cells, causing clotting in blood vessels, restricted blood flow, and reduced oxygen transport. At the same time, the mutation confers resistance to malaria, caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are passed off in red blood cells after transmission", "with the term progeroid syndrome, tends to affect multiple or all tissues while causing affected individuals to exhibit only some of the features associated with aging.\nAll disorders within this group are thought to be monogenic, meaning they arise from mutations of a single gene. Most known PS are due to genetic mutations that lead to either defects in the DNA repair mechanism or defects in lamin A/C.\nExamples of PS include Werner syndrome (WS), Bloom syndrome (BS), Rothmund–Thomson syndrome (RTS), Cockayne syndrome (CS), xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), trichothiodystrophy (TTD), combined xeroderma pigmentosum-Cockayne syndrome (XP-CS), restrictive dermopathy (RD), and Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS).", "SCN, which indicates they are disease phenotypes with different severity. The expression of the ELANE gene has been linked to GFI1 gene, and it is considered that interaction with other genes causes the emergence and severity of one or the other phenotypic disorder. It is not clear what causes that the levels of secretory leucocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), which influences the induction of the unfolded protein response (UPR), are not diminished and as such activation of UPR is absent in CyN. It is also unclear what causes the cyclic aspect in CyN. According to Donadieu et al. (2011), the \"cyclic", "manifestation of the phenotype.\nThe phenomenon of redundancy explains that often multiple genes are able to compensate for the loss of a particular gene. However, if two or more genes involved in the same biological processes or pathways are lost, then this leads to non-allelic non-complementation.\nIn a non-complementation screen, an ENU-induced male is crossed with a female carrying a mutant allele (a) of the gene of interest (A). If the mutation is dominant, then it will be present in every generation. However, if the mutation is recessive or if the G₁ progeny are non-viable, then a different strategy is used to", "to be as strongly associated with EF deficits as is ADHD. Causes Unlike ADHD, the general causes of SCT symptoms are almost unknown, though one recent study of twins suggested that the condition appears to be nearly as heritable or genetically influenced in nature as ADHD. That is to say that the majority of differences among individuals in these traits in the population may be due mostly to variation in their genes. The heritability of SCT symptoms in that study was only slightly lower than that for ADHD symptoms with a somewhat greater share of trait variation being due to", "Senior–Løken syndrome Pathophysiology The cause of Senior–Løken syndrome type 5 has been identified to mutation in the NPHP1 gene which adversely affects the protein formation mechanism of the cilia. Relation to other rare genetic disorders Recent findings in genetic research have suggested that a large number of genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that were not previously identified in the medical literature as related, may be, in fact, highly related in the genetypical root cause of the widely varying, phenotypically-observed disorders. Such diseases are becoming known as ciliopathies. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome,", "genome and can cause either a negative effect, positive effect or neutral effect (no effect at all). Pseudogenes Often a result of spontaneous mutation, pseudogenes are dysfunctional genes derived from previously functional gene relatives. There are many mechanisms by which a functional gene can become a pseudogene including the deletion or insertion of one or multiple nucleotides. This can result in a shift of reading frame, causing the gene to no longer code for the expected protein, introduce a premature stop codon or a mutation in the promoter region. Often cited examples of pseudogenes within the human genome include", "identical to the rhesus monkey factor, but by then, \"Rhesus Group\" and like terms were already in widespread, worldwide use. Thus, notwithstanding it is a misnomer, the term survives (e.g., rhesus blood group system and the obsolete terms rhesus factor, rhesus positive, and rhesus negative – all three of which actually refer specifically and only to the Rh D factor and are thus misleading when unmodified. Contemporary practice is to use \"Rh\" as a term of art instead of \"Rhesus\" (e.g., \"Rh Group,\" \"Rh factors,\" \"Rh D,\" etc.). History of discoveries The first rhesus blood type was discovered in", "copies to elicit a normal phenotype (i.e. haploinsufficient). Hypomorph Hypomorphic describes a mutation that causes a partial loss of gene function. A hypomorph is a reduction in gene function through reduced (protein, RNA) expression or reduced functional performance, but not a complete loss.\nThe phenotype of a hypomorph is more severe in trans to a deletion allele than when homozygous.\nm/DF > m/m\nHypomorphs are usually recessive, but occasional alleles are dominant due to haploinsufficiency. Hypermorph A hypermorphic mutation causes an increase in normal gene function. Hypermorphic alleles are gain of function alleles. A hypermorph can result from an increase in gene dose", "All the common blood types, such as the ABO blood group system, are genetic polymorphisms. Here we see a system where there are more than two morphs: the phenotypes A, B, AB and O are present in all human populations, but vary in proportion in different parts of the world. The phenotypes are controlled by multiple alleles at one locus. These polymorphisms are seemingly never eliminated by natural selection; the reason came from a study of disease statistics.\nStatistical research has shown that an individual of a given phenotype will generally be, compared to an individual of a differing phenotype, more", "cases to contrast with secondary in the sense of \"secondary to [i.e., caused by] some other condition.\" Another, less common synonym is agnogenic (agno-, \"unknown\" + -gen, \"cause\" + -ic). \nThe word cryptogenic (crypto-, \"hidden\" + -gen, \"cause\" + -ic) has a sense that is synonymous with idiopathic and a sense that is contradistinguished from it. Some disease classifications prefer the use of the synonymous term cryptogenic disease as in cryptogenic stroke, and some forms of epilepsy. The use of cryptogenic is also sometimes reserved for cases where it is presumed that the cause is simple and will be found", "a unique name was given to each new combination of symptoms, resulting in a complicated stratification of seemingly disparate disorders.\nOver the last 60 years, as reports of strikingly different phenotypes were reported to occur even among members of the same family, and as steady progress was made towards the understanding of the underlying molecular pathogenesis of AIS, these disorders were found to be different phenotypic expressions of one syndrome caused by molecular defects in the androgen receptor gene.\nAIS is now the accepted terminology for the syndromes resulting from unresponsiveness of the target cell to the action of androgenic hormones. ", "Gene redundancy Gene redundancy is the existence of multiple genes in the genome of an organism that perform the same function. This is the case for many sets of paralogous genes. When an individual gene in such a set is disrupted by mutation or targeted knockout, there can be little effect on phenotype as a result of gene redundancy, whereas the effect is large for the knockout of a gene with only one copy. Origin and Evolution of Redundant Genes Gene redundancy most often results from Gene duplication. When a gene is duplicated within a genome, the two copies are", "of diseases most commonly phenotypically affect males and rarely females. Hemophilia Hemophilia, or haemophilia, is an X-linked recessive disorder that impairs the body's control over blood clotting. Haemophilia A and Haemophilia B arise from mutations in the genes for factor VIII and factor IX, respectively. Females with this disease are almost exclusively unaffected, obligate carriers. The mutations can be passed on to offspring by mothers and fathers, but the phenotype is only expressed in males that inherit the mutation. All daughters of a hemophiliac father are obligate carriers of the disease. Autosomal Recessive In an autosomal recessive disease, if an", "dyscrasias exhibit a high degree of genetic instability. For example, the clonal plasma cell population formed by initial genetic alterations that lead to multiple myeloma contains cells that develop further genetic changes that enhance their survival, proliferation, tissue-injuring, and metastatic capacities. This allows the new cell clones to crowd out older cell clones and thereby establish a more malignant disease. Repetition of such genetic changes underlie the evolution of a clinically silent plasma cell dyscrasia to an overt malignancy. The progressive genetic changes in clonal plasma cells include accumulating numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms, increases and decreases in gene and", "and if the loss-of-function phenotype is inherited in a dominant manner relative to the wild-type allele.\nThe alteration in the gene dosage, which is caused by the loss of a functional allele, is also called allelic insufficiency. An example of this is seen in the case of Williams syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by the haploinsufficiency of genes at 7q11.23. The haploinsufficiency is caused by the copy-number variation (CNV) of 28 genes led by the deletion of ~1.6 Mb. These dosage-sensitive genes are vital for human language and constructive cognition.\nAnother example is the haploinsufficiency of telomerase reverse transcriptase which leads to", "congenital thrombophilia are those that arise as a result of overactivity of coagulation factors. They are relatively mild, and are therefore classified as \"type II\" defects. The most common ones are factor V Leiden (a mutation in the F5 gene at position 1691) and prothrombin G20210A, a mutation in prothrombin (at position 20210 in the 3' untranslated region of the gene).\nThe rare forms of congenital thrombophilia are typically caused by a deficiency of natural anticoagulants. They are classified as \"type I\" and are more severe in their propensity to cause thrombosis. The main ones are antithrombin III deficiency, protein C", "Cushing's syndrome Hyperpigmentation Cushing's syndrome due to excess ACTH may also result in hyperpigmentation. This is due to melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone production as a byproduct of ACTH synthesis from pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Alternatively, it is proposed that the high levels of ACTH, β-lipotropin, and γ-lipotropin, which contain weak MSH function, can act on the melanocortin 1 receptor. A variant of Cushing's disease can be caused by ectopic, i.e. extrapituitary, ACTH production from, for example, a small-cell lung cancer.\nWhen Cushing's syndrome is caused by an increase of cortisol at the level of the adrenal glands (via an adenoma or hyperplasia), negative feedback ultimately", "uncertain. Associated conditions Due to its overwhelming incidence on the gingiva, the condition is often associated with two other diseases, though not because they occur together. Instead, the three are associated with each other because they appear frequently on gingiva—peripheral giant cell granuloma and peripheral ossifying fibroma. Detailed analysis can be used to distinguish these conditions. Cause Pyogenic granulomas are caused by proliferation of capillaries and are not caused by infection or cancer. Management Although pyogenic granulomas are not infectious or cancer, treatment may be considered because of bleeding or ulceration. Frequently, pyogenic granulomas are treated with electrodesiccation (cauterization) and", "interaction and causes a different phenotype is considered non-neutral. Given this architecture, the probability of mutating from one phenotype to another will depend on the number of neutral-neighbors relative to non-neutral neighbors for a particular GRN, and thus, phenotypic change will be influenced by the position of a GRN within the network and will be biased towards changes that require few mutations to reach a neighboring non-neutral GRN.", "pale appearance, feeling tired, and infections. Because macrocytosis usually precedes a low platelet count, patients with typical congenital anomalies associated with FA should be evaluated for an elevated red blood cell mean corpuscular volume. Genetics FA is primarily an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. This means that two mutated alleles (one from each parent) are required to cause the disease. The risk is 25% that each subsequent child will have FA. About 2% of FA cases are X-linked recessive, which means that if the mother carries one mutated Fanconi anemia allele on one X chromosome, a 50% chance exists that male", "with missense mutation p.R961W. As both disorders originate from an identical type of mutation in the same gene, while exhibiting similar, yet distinct characteristics; LFS and FGS are considered to be allelic. In the context of MED12, this suggests that the phenotype of each disorder is related to the way in which their respective mutations alter the MED12 sequence and its function. Treatment While there is no specific treatment for the underlying genetic cause of LFS, corrective procedures, preventive intervention measures, and therapies may be considered in the treatment and management of the many craniofacial, orthopedic, and psychiatric problems associated", "Delta-beta thalassemia Signs and symptoms An individual with delta-beta thalassemia is usually asymptomatic, however microcytosis can occur where the red blood cells are abnormally small. Mechanism In regards to genetics, delta-beta thalassemia is autosomal recessive, which means both parents (two copies of the gene) must be present. A carrier gets a normal gene to produce hemoglobin A, from one parent and the other parent supplies a gene which makes no hemoglobin A. Delta-beta thalassemia is considered rare.\nIn terms of the pathophysiology of delta-beta thalassemia, one finds delta and beta chains have deletion, therefore gamma genes are what is", "GFER Syndrome Cause The disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern and is caused by a mutation in the nuclear GFER gene (also called ALR; Erv1 homolog in yeast). Treatment Currently there is no curative treatment.", "thrombosis (i.e. excessive clotting). Causes The disorders associated with Factor I deficiency are generally inherited, although certain liver diseases can also affect fibrinogen levels and function (e.g. cirrhosis). Afibrinogenemia is a recessive inherited disorder, where both parents must be carriers. Hypofibrinogenemia and dysfibrinogenemia can be dominant (i.e. only one parent needs to be a carrier) or recessive. The origin of the disorders is traced back to three possible genes: FGA, FGB, or FGG. Because all three are involved in forming the hexameric glycoprotein fibrinogen, mutations in any one of the three genes can cause the deficiency.", "DeFries–Fulker regression Approach DeFries–Fulker regression analysis is based on the differences in the magnitude of regression to the mean in a genetic trait between monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins. In DF regression, the first step is to select probands in a twin study selected with extreme scores on the trait being studied, and to regression to the mean among their co-twins depending on whether the probands are part of a MZ or DZ twin pair. DF regression is thus based on the assumption that, to the extent that genetic factors play a role in causing the extreme variation in" ]

[ "historical reasons mainly. like every country has a different flag, different countries have different uniforms for police, army, airforce, etc. usually there's high visibility versions as well, for those that have to work on the equivalent of interstates, such as that swedish one. a city patrol in sweden doesn't look like that, I think they wear all black then. dark green in germany, dark blue in the netherlands, etc. then there's a light blue uniform for desk-police and other situations. it really varies per country. and yeah in the UK they rarely wear guns, in large part because guns are exceedingly rare here in comparison." ]

[ "services exam.\nSince each state has its own police force, the uniforms and insignia of the police vary, though the rank structure is the same. The central paramilitary forces under the Ministry of Internal Affairs also maintain the same ranks as state police even though their jurisdiction varies considerably. Nearly all the police constables wear khaki-coloured uniforms which indicate that he/she is a police officer. Norway In the Norwegian Police Service the rank \"politikonstabel\" was until 2003 the lowest rank in the police, the next ranks being \"politioverkonstabel\", \"politibetjent\", \"politiførstebetjent\", \"politioverbetjent\" and \"politistasjonssjef\", \"lensmann\" or \"sysselmannsoverbetjent\" (all officially translated as chief", "European Police Achievement Badge History In 1982 the member states of the USPE decided to establish the European Police Achievement Badge in order to promote unity among the European police services and as an incentive for sports in police services. Eligibility All members of European security services are eligible. For instance members of the police services, military service members, or members of customs. Requirements The requirements have to be fulfilled within one year. The requirements vary according to age category and gender.", "uniforms but with western style sleeve and cap ensigns.\nBecause most European countries have blue police uniforms, all German states and the Federal Police have shifted to new dark blue uniforms to conform with the common blue image of the most police forces in Europe. In line with the uniforms, police vehicles and various items of equipment also changed colour from green to blue.", "ranks whereas other UK police forces have assistants, deputies and a Chief Constable as their top ranks. All Commissioners and Chief Constables are equal in rank.\nPolice Community Support Officers (PCSOs) were introduced following the passing of the Police Reform Act 2002, although some have criticised these as for being a cheap alternative to fully trained police officers. Uniform and equipment Uniforms, the issuing of firearms, type of patrol cars, and other equipment, varies by force.\nThe custodian helmet which is synonymous with the \"bobby on the beat\" image is frequently worn by male officers in England and Wales (and formerly in", "force would not be deemed necessary. Officers are dressed in dark blue tactical uniforms similar to those worn by Police Tactical Unit officers. Officers initially wore blue-coloured berets, but were given light grey-coloured berets on 30 December 2009, with the dual purpose of signifying their distinction as an independent department and increasing visibility during operations.", "U.S. Army's former battle dress uniform - are generally worn while on patrol, or performing physically intense duties, while traditional-style uniforms are more often used for station assignments, high-profile events, and ceremonial functions. In addition to these two basic uniform types, a variety of specialized clothing may be deployed as necessary, including jumpsuits (sometimes called \"Class C\") and - in the case of police pipe bands - highland dress. Many police departments restrict the use of tactical uniforms to tactical units, such as SWAT teams, or for special assignments, such as riot control, in order to present a less militarized", "the force.\nThose officers working with US Forces in the UK are required to hold a US Common Access Card for which the US Government carries out its own security checks on the officer. Uniform The majority of MDP officers are employed on firearms duties and wear black polo-type shirts and trousers with black jackets. Headdress depends on role, and is either a police baseball cap, or the standard UK police checkered flat cap (for men) or bowler hat (for women). Officers are still issued with custodian helmets and those engaged in general police duties, such as Defence Community Police Officers,", "type unit and the Special Tactics Group are also operational for different scenarios that might arise. Norway Norwegian police were generally not armed until November 25, 2014. Since then, officers with weapon training have been generally armed with loaded firearms. This temporary measure has been extended four times, the latest at July 29, 2015. United Kingdom The majority of British police are never routinely armed, relying on an extendable baton and in some cases Tasers, with specialist armed units called in when necessary. The exceptions are the Ministry of Defence Police, the Civil Nuclear Constabulary and the Police Service of", "police officers have used the PSO path as a stepping stone to their current roles.\nIn New South Wales, an armed internal unit of the New South Wales Police Force is staffed by Special Constables who hold identical powers and immunities of a police officer at the rank of Constable. Special Constables wear a similar uniform to police officers, carry arms and appointments and are issued a warrant card and badge. Special Constables provide security services to select government and police complexes. Germany The Polizei beim Deutschen Bundestag (Polizei DBT, commonly known as Bundestagspolizei) is the smallest and least known police", "Police Training and Professional Development, established June 1, 2016 to replace the police academy that was shut down the same year. Uniform The Police wear black uniforms marked with traditional black and white checked markings and the Police star. The working uniform varies from a traditional service uniform (shirt and trousers) to tactical overalls. The old traditional Icelandic service uniform is now used as a dress uniform. The trousers patrol officers use are made from a fire-resistant material. Weaponry Although police officers carry only extendable batons and MK-4 OC-spray (pepper spray) whilst on duty, they are trained in the use", "British police forces have white metal badges and buttons, those of the City Police are brass. The force also have red and white chequered sleeve and cap bands (red and white being the colours of the City of London), which in most other British police forces are black and white. Women officers wear a red and white cravat.\nTheir helmet has altered little since its introduction in 1865 and has a crest instead of the white metal boss worn on the Metropolitan Police helmet. The \"helmet plate\" or badge is the City of London coat of arms; this is unusual for", "Defence Police. Over the centuries there has been a wide variation in the number of police forces operating within the UK, most of which now no longer exist, see list of former police forces in the United Kingdom. A few miscellaneous constabularies with responsibility mostly founded on old legislation to police specific local areas, such as ports and parks, have escaped police reform. Lastly, a number of government bodies that are not police forces have detective powers and enforce laws, such as the Marine and Fisheries Agency and UK Border Agency, who employ officers with limited powers of detention and", "trousers in the winter and a white cotton bush jacket and trousers in the summer. Certain police personnel also wear a blue or black beret. Equipment Egyptian law enforcement police officers generally carry either the M&P357, CZ 75B or Glock pistol when on regular duty, however, heavy arms are always available at police stations. These include submachine guns, assault rifles, shotguns and carbines, while special units may also have additional weapons like Flash bang and stinger tear gas grenades, H&K USP series and SIG Sauer series pistols, Heckler & Koch MP5, Heckler & Koch UMP and FN P90 submachine guns,", "police forces were adapted. Officers of the grade of Inspector and above who were mostly British wore white colonial uniforms, which are still used today for ceremonial occasions. Constables wore dark blue tunics, shorts and a black round cap with a collar number. Khaki uniforms were adopted by the beginning of the 20th century for practical reasons, along with other military and police units of the British Empire. This was common for all ranks, with the constables wearing khaki tunics, shorts and hat, while always armed with a baton until 1974. Current The current standard uniform comes from the last", "length and thoroughness of this training contributes in large degree to the high level of police professionalism in Germany. Teaching all aspects of police work takes time but supports a “uniform career structure” that aims to avoid premature specialization, lets officers think in broad terms, makes career field changes easier and improves promotion opportunities.\nGerman citizenship is not required to be a police officer in Germany. Police departments in big cities are especially keen to recruit officers from ethnic minorities to reduce language and cultural barriers. However, minorities still make up less than one percent of officer numbers.\nThe", "police officers have wide-ranging powers, they are still subject to the same laws as members of the public (aside from specific exemptions such as the carrying of firearms and certain road traffic legislation). There are additional legal restrictions placed on police officers such as the prohibitions on industrial action and on taking part in active politics. Cross-jurisdiction powers Territorial police constables have certain powers of arrest in another one of the UK's three legal jurisdictions than they were attested in. There are four main provisions for them to do so – arrest with a warrant, arrest without a warrant for", "Specialist Firearms Command (SCO19).\nSince 2014, a number of SFOs serving with the Metropolitan Police Service have undergone additional training in order to qualify as Counter Terrorist Specialist Firearms Officers (CTSFOs) due to an increase in terrorist incidents, such as the 2015 Paris bombings and armed-offender rampages (such as in Belgium in 2016), where a higher level of armed response is required from police to contain active threats. SFOs in other urban-centric commands may also undergo additional training in the near future. Firearms currently used by AFOs Different police forces in the United Kingdom use different firearms. For forces in England", "officer's equipment, such as truncheon and sidearm. Beginning in the 1930s, officers more frequently began wearing their personal gear on a Sam Browne belt worn outside the coat, for ease of access.\nOne of the biggest evolutionary experiments in police uniform design began in 1969, when the police department in Menlo Park, California moved away from typical police uniforms, opting instead for a dress style designed to better emulate civilian fashion trends and communicate a \"softer\" appearance. The new uniforms consisted of green blazers, black slacks, a white shirt and black necktie. Officers wore their weapons concealed under their coats. Many", "SWAT units of the French police unit National Police, RAID and Research and Intervention Brigade (BRI) are equipped with different armoured vans. Germany Due to the occurrence in history, armoured police vehicles are used since the period after World War I by German police forces, when more than hundred armoured SWAT vehicles, so called \"Sonderwagen\" (German for special wagon) were maintained. Nowadays the Federal Police and the state police forces still maintain armoured vans, like Sonderwagen 4 and Sonderwagen 5, which is reserved for the SEK special state police units. United Kingdom The United Kingdom police, particularly the Police Service", "Military Police (Austria) Tasks Additionally to its traditional domestic tasks, the formation now also fulfills tasks in international operations. In Austria the Military Police is only tasked with internal Armed Forces matters Abroad, the Military Police is tasked with extensive assignments. It closes the security gap between a conflict that has ended and a functioning society.\nA large number of experienced specialists and modern equipment are required to meet these demanding tasks. Selection Professional and militia officers and non-commissioned officers take precedence. (International) experience in command functions of combat units is an advantage. \nThe MP selection procedure can, however, already", "Royal Military Police Role As well as policing service personnel whilst at home in the UK, the Royal Military Police are required to provide a capable military police presence in support of military operations overseas. In the United Kingdom Royal Military Police personnel are not constables under UK law and do not have any specific police powers over the general public, only whilst dealing with service personnel. The RMP are subject to inspection by HM Inspectorate of Constabulary, in the same way as UK civilian police forces.\nRMP personnel sometimes have powers, conferred by Military lands byelaws, to give lawful directions", "model, as the cars on sale in European markets are generally considered to be fit for police duty without any further alteration. Uniforms From 1945 onwards, German police forces wore completely different colored uniforms. From the mid-seventies, the police of all West German states and West Berlin wore the same green and beige uniform, most parts designed by Heinz Oestergaard. The standard uniform consisted of a tunic, parka, pullover without shroud, coat, visor cap and necktie in moss-green, trouser, pullover and cardigan in brown-beige, shirt (long and short sleeve) in bamboo-yellow. Shoes, boots, holsters, leather jackets and other leather gear", "addition, the Emergency Response Unit can use the Royal Norwegian Air Force's Bell 412 helicopters.\nThe police have two main types of uniforms, type I is used for personnel which primarily undertake indoor work, and type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor service. Both types have summer and winter versions, and type I also has a dress uniform version. Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts. Police officers are not armed with firearms during patrolling, but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars. Arming requires permission from the chief of police or", "of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the City), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crested custodian helmets whilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature either St Edward's Crown or the Brunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets in England and Wales.\nThe City's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK's gross national product, has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence.", "tactical training so as to deal with scenarios beyond that of the regular patrolman.\nPSU trained officers in the UK are commonly referred to as Level 2, Mutual Aid Support Trained (MAST), or PSU officers. Equipment The majority of UK Police Forces use Mercedes-Benz Sprinter vans, commonly referred to as 'Carriers', as standard transport for PSUs. The notable exception is the Police Service of Northern Ireland, whose Tactical Support Group officers famously use armoured Land Rovers. These vehicles are equipped with mesh window shields and/or high-impact-resistant polycarbonate windscreens and outfitted with storage compartments for officers' riot, method of entry, tactical and", "Police of Denmark Uniform The common uniform is a light blue shirt with the police insignia on the sleeve. Usually a tie is also worn. Rank-insignia is worn on the shoulders. The trousers are dark blue with reflective patches. Black shoes are also included in the standard uniform. Special tactical suits are made of flame-resistant materials and are worn in situations requiring such equipment. The tactical suit also includes a protective helmet. Vehicles For daily duties, the patrol-vehicles are white and dog-patrols are mostly dark blue. They have a blue strobe-light or flashing light and the word \"POLITI\" painted on", "peaked cap, and constables wear berets. Branches such as the Central Bureau of Investigation do not have a uniform; business dress (shirt, tie, blazer, etc.) is worn with a badge. Special-service armed police have tactical uniforms in accordance with their function, and traffic police generally wear a white uniform. Organisation The state police is headed by an IPS officer with the rank of director general of police (DGP), assisted by two (or more) additional directors general of police (ADGs). Other DG rank officers head autonomous bodies not controlled by the DGP, such as the police recruitment board, fire service and", "type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor service. Both types have summer and winter versions, and type I also has a dress uniform version. Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts.\nPolice officers are not armed with firearms during patrolling, but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars. Arming of the locked-down weapons requires permission from the chief of police or someone designated by him. The police use Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 semi-automatic pistols. The Emergency Response Unit uses Diemaco C8 assault rifles. Norwegian police", "UK special constabulary, with a command structure in parallel to that of the regular force. Uniforms and scales of equipment were identical to that of the regular force, although the KPR wore brass badges rather than the chrome badges of the regular force. KPR members were armed, and in remote areas were allowed to keep their weapons at home; but they were not issued with automatic weapons (this provision was lifted during the Mau Mau uprising). The KPR was open to Europeans, Asians and Africans, although Europeans were favoured with automatic promotion to Inspector rank.\nThe Special Police did not disband,", "Australian Border Force officers have the authority to carry firearms where a supervisor gives approval. In practice only maritime officers and specialist counter terrorism officers carry firearms. Military Military Police, also known as Service Police, are the law enforcement branches of the services of a military tasked with enforcing, and investigating offences against, military law. In Australia, each service of the Australian Defence Force maintains its own independent police force made up of military personnel from that service. Along with the independent service police forces is the Australian Defence Force Investigative Service, a special ADF unit made up of Investigators" ]

[ "Oil & alliances. Everyone has to play ball with the big oil providers, and SA is one of the big ones. But the US also has a lot of political troubles in the Middle East, and SA has been one of the more reliable allies in the past few decades." ]

[ "and Muslim worlds, Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western and pro-American, and it is certainly a long-term ally of the United States. However, this and Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, particularly the stationing of US troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally. As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the US and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.\nChina and Saudi Arabia are major allies, with relationship between the two countries growing significantly", "beneficial relationship over oil, the two countries do not always agree on issues. Significantly, Saudi Arabia and the United States have differed in foreign policy stances regarding Israel and the Middle East. Ties between the United States and Saudi Arabia led to their joint efforts during the Gulf War. Though, differences in foreign policy, specifically as they relate to Israel and the Middle East, have limited military cooperation. This did not prevent the enrollment of ten Saudi cadets at the State University of New York's Maritime College at Fort Schuyler in 1999.", "in the Middle East.\nSaudi Arabia's close political ties with the United States, born of the economic relationship created by oil, led to their support of Operation Desert Shield in 1990-1991. Although disturbed by the presence of non-Muslim and female soldiers on Arab land, the Saudis accepted over 700,000 troops from 37 nations to forge the attack against Iraq. The Gulf War (1991) led to domestic unrest in Saudi Arabia, when reform-minded citizens and human rights organizations sought to modernize the rigorous methods and policies of the Saudi government.\nWhile Saudi Arabia and the United States are linked because of a mutually", "political factions, and transforming the Pakistani army to fight a counterinsurgency war.\" Prince Muhammad bin Nayef noted that the Saudis viewed the Pakistan army as the strongest element for stability in the country. The U.S and Saudi shared the opinion that they might be able to live with some degree of instability in Afghanistan, but not with an unstable Pakistan, because of Pakistan's nuclear arms, fragile politics, and relationship with India. It's clear that Saudi Arabia has a \"unique\" relationship with Pakistan, He noted that over 800,000 Pakistanis live and work in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia was especially important", "Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia History After World War II and during the Cold War, Saudi Arabia maintained an anti-Communist, anti-secular Arab nationalist policy, often working with the leading anti-Communist power, the United States. Following the 1973 oil crisis, where Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil exporters embargoed the United States and its allies for their support of Israel, oil revenues increased dramatically and it worked to become the leading Islamic state, spending generously to advance Islam and particularly its conservative school (known as Wahhabism). The effect has been to purify and unify Islamic faith, according to supporters,", "Arabia. Many experts believe the United States of America and Saudi Arabia are almost 'perfect' for trade due to oil being an essential commodity to the American people and the overall economy of the United States.\nIn January 2017, U.S. Secretary of Defense James Mattis \"reaffirmed the importance of the U.S.-Saudi Arabia strategic relationship\". Mattis has voiced support for a Saudi Arabian-led military campaign against Yemen's Shiite rebels. He asked the President to remove restrictions on U.S. military support for Saudi Arabia. On 10 February 2017, CIA director Mike Pompeo awarded the Saudi Crown Prince Muhammad bin Nayef with the CIA's", "Arabia and the United States are strategic allies, and since President Barack Obama took office in 2009, the US has sold $110 billion in arms to Saudi Arabia. However, the relationship between Saudi Arabia and the United States became strained and have witnessed major decline during the last years of the Obama administration, although Obama had authorized US forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a joint coordination planning cell with the Saudi military that is helping manage the war, and CIA used Saudi bases for drone assassinations in Yemen.", "a counterbalance to Iran's influence in the Middle East and Saudi Arabia and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf have looked to the United States for protection against Iran.\nRelations with the US and other Western countries have been further strained by the perception that Saudi Arabia has been a source of Islamist terrorist activity, not just internally, but also world-wide. Osama bin Laden and 15 out of the 19 September 11 attacks hijackers were Saudi nationals, though some officials argue that this was planned deliberately by bin Laden in an attempt to strain U.S.-Saudi relations, and former Central Intelligence", "to 1979, Iran under Mohammed Reza Pahlavi was also an ally of the United States in the anti-communist camp. \nThe visits by US President George W. Bush to the Kingdom in 2008 reaffirmed these ties. Yet Saudis have always distanced themselves from American foreign policy, particularly with regards to Iran. Even when there was growing criticism against the former Iranian President, Mahmud Ahmadinejad, for his alleged hostile foreign policy in connection to Israel, Saudi Arabia recognised that Iran was a potential threat, and a regional power that was in position to create trouble within their borders. Therefore, Saudi Arabia's security", "other countries in the region. On the bilateral relations with Saudi Arabia, economic and trade interests used to be at the forefront of all discussions and meetings.\nSeveral private Islamic schools in Canada have been directly financed by Saudi Arabia to the tune of hundreds of thousands of dollars. This has proved controversial, with detractors claiming that these schools can be used to propagate Saudi Arabia's strict form of Islam known as Wahhabism. Military relations During the Gulf War, both Canadian and Saudi forces cooperated with the coalition forces to quell the invasion of Kuwait and the advancement of the Iraqi", "allies, the conservative monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were almost as unattractive in western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a revolution led by the Shi'a clergy overthrew the monarchy in 1979 and established a theocratic regime that was even more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. This forced the United States into a close alliance with Saudi Arabia. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as 1948 Arab–Israeli War, 1956", "Saudi Arabia–United States relations Early history (recognition) Although King Abdulaziz Al Saud, Ibn Saud as an appellation, the founder of Saudi Arabia in 1901, had an excellent relationship with the British who defended Saudi Arabia from the Turks, he eventually developed even closer ties with the United States. After unifying his country, on September 28, 1928, Bin Saud set about gaining international recognition for Saudi Arabia. The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize Saudi Arabia as an independent state, as the British had provided protection of Saudi territories from the Turks for many years (Wafa, 2005). Saud also", "Pakistan–Saudi Arabia relations History Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have sought to develop extensive commercial, cultural, religious, political, and strategic relations since the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. Pakistan affirms its relationship with Saudi Arabia as their most \"important and bilateral partnership\" in the current foreign policy of Pakistan, working and seeking to develop closer bilateral ties with Saudi Arabia, the largest country on the Arabian peninsula and host to the two holiest cities of Islam, Mecca and Medina and the destination of Muslim pilgrims from across the world.\nAccording to a Pew Research Center survey, Pakistanis hold the most favorable perception", "Saudis' increase of oil production to stabilize the oil price and the support of anti-communism have all contributed to closer relations with the U.S. In January 1979, the U.S. sent F-15 fighters to Saudi Arabia for further protection from communism. Furthermore, the U.S. and Saudi Arabia were both supporting anti-communist groups in Afghanistan and struggling countries, one of those groups later became known as the Al-Qaida terrorist organization. Government purchases After the Cold War the U.S.–Saudi relations were improving. The U.S. and U.S. companies were actively engaged and paid handsomely for preparing and administrating the rebuilding of Saudi Arabia. Saudi", "the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Saudi Arabia is one of the strongest supporters of Pakistan during Pakistan's wars with India, especially opposing the creation of Bangladesh from Pakistan's eastern wing in 1971.\nSaudi Arabia supports Pakistan's stance on the Kashmir conflict, and endorses the Pakistani position in the Indo-Pakistani peace process. With Pakistan, it provided extensive financial and political support to the Taliban and the Afghan mujahideen fighting in the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s. During the 1990–1991 Persian Gulf War, Pakistan sent troops to protect the Islamic holy sites in Saudi Arabia, but strains developed when some Pakistani politicians", "Saudi Arabia in 2008—which was the first time a U.S. president visited a foreign country twice in less than four months—and King Abdullah's three visits to the US—2002, 2005 and 2008—the relations have surely reached their peak. The two nations have expanded their relationship beyond oil and counter terrorism efforts. For example, King Abdullah has allocated funds for young Saudis to study in the United States. One of the most important reasons that King Abdullah has given full scholarships to young Saudis is to give them western perspective and to impart a positive impression of Saudi Arabia on the American", "2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal Background Saudi Arabia is a key U.S. ally in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia's security forces have relied on U.S. equipment, training, and service support for decades, officially as a counterbalance to Iranian military influence in the region, and to help protect the Kingdom from extremist attacks. Between 2011 and 2015, Saudi Arabia was the destination for nearly 10% of all U.S. arms exports. In 2016, the Obama administration proposed a series of arms deals worth $115 billion, including warships, helicopters, and maintenance. However, some parts of this deal were blocked by the administration", "of the Saudi delegation to the Annapolis Peace Conference in November 2007.\nDuring Ambassador Al-Jubeir’s tenure, Saudi Arabia and the U.S. signed a series of bilateral agreements in key areas including civil nuclear cooperation, enhanced security arrangements, reciprocal visa policies, health and medical services, science and technology cooperation, among others. The two countries also established two Joint Task Forces—one to combat terrorists, another to combat terror financing. Experts from both governments and militaries worked side-by-side, sharing real-time information about terror networks.\nIn October 2010, Saudi intelligence provided key information to American officials that foiled an attempted terrorist plot involving parcel bombs", "Saudi Arabia–Syria relations Factors affecting relations Sonoko Sunayama, a Middle East expert, argues that although economic concerns and balance of power are important, concerns about identity and ideology play the most significant role in the two countries' relations. Ian Black of the Guardian, on the other hand, states that Saudi foreign policy in general mostly focuses on business involving financial incentives and low-profile initiatives, which continued towards Syria until King Abdullah's high-profile condemnation of the Assad government in 2011.\nBoth countries share Arab nationalist and Islamic identities. However, a significant element of their identity and government, namely secular versus conservative pattern,", "United States. That's secondary from your standpoint?\" Following the vote, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell said: \"I think it's important to the United States to maintain as good a relationship with Saudi Arabia as possible.\"\nA March 2016 Human Rights Watch report states that US participation in specific military operations, such as selecting targets and aerial refueling during Saudi air raids \"may make US forces jointly responsible for laws-of-war violations by coalition forces\". In September The Guardian reported that one in three bombing raids hit civilian sites. \nUS government lawyers have considered whether the United States is legally a \"co-belligerent\" in", "domestic issues, similar to Egypt under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. These differences make it unlikely that the Sunni world could unite against both Iran and terrorism, despite shared opposition. Since King Salman came to power in 2015, Saudi Arabia has increasingly moved from its traditional Wahhabist ideological approach to a nationalist one, and has adopted a more aggressive foreign policy.\nThe complex nature of economic and security concerns, ideological division, and intertwined alliances has also drawn comparisons to pre-World War I Europe. The conflict also shares similarities with the Arab Cold War between Egypt and Saudi Arabia in the 1950s and", "its ruler's purported ally—the US. During the Iraq War, Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud Al-Faisal, criticized the U.S.-led invasion as a \"colonial adventure\" aimed only at gaining control of Iraq's natural resources. But at the same time, Bradley writes, the Saudi government secretly allowed the US military to \"essentially\" manage its air campaign and launch special operations against Iraq from inside Saudi borders, using \"at least three\" Saudi air bases.\nThe two nations cooperate and share information about al-Qaeda (Alsheikh 2006) and leaders from both countries continue to meet to discuss their mutual interests and bilateral relations.\nSaudi Arabia and the U.S.", "nuclear deal, as Saudi Arabia and Iran have strained relations and have competed for influence in the Middle East. The Obama administration attempted to defuse tensions between the two countries, as it hoped for cooperation with both countries in regards to the Syrian Civil War and military operations against ISIS. Obama also criticized the human rights record of Saudi Arabia, particularly in regards to the imprisonment of Raif Badawi. When once asked whether Saudi Arabia was America's friend, Obama replied with \"It's complicated.\" According to The Economist, opining in April 2016, thanks in large part to Obama, America's relationship with", "and mentioned \"the importance of the U.S.-Saudi relationship as a force for stability and security in the Middle East and beyond.\"\nIn March 2015, President Barack Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a \"Joint Planning Cell\" with Saudi Arabia. U.S. government lawyers have considered whether the United States is legally a \"co-belligerent\" in the conflict. Such a finding would oblige the U.S. to investigate allegations of war crimes by the Saudi coalition, and U.S. military personnel could be subject to prosecution.\nAmerican journalist Glenn", "leading nation in the Islamic and Arab world were supporting the Arab position which sparked up their first conflict. In other words, the U.S. oil interest in Saudi Arabia could be held hostage depending on the circumstances of the conflict. U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt sent the king a letter indicating that it is true that the U.S. supports the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, but it is not in any way responsible for the establishment (Alnabrab, 2008). Bin Saud was convinced by the message that the U.S.–Saudi relations had begun to run smooth again. Moreover, in March", "increasingly strained relations with the US. Despite this, the U.S. and Saudi Arabia were still close nevertheless. In 1998, Abdullah paid a state visit to the U.S. and met with then President, Bill Clinton. \nIn 2003, Abdullah's new policy was reflected in the Saudi government's refusal to support or to participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. Some US critics saw this as an attempt by the royal family to placate the kingdom's Islamist radicals. That same year Saudi and U.S. government officials agreed to withdraw all U.S. military forces from Saudi soil. Since ascending to the throne in 2005,", "Palestine–Saudi Arabia relations History While Saudi Arabia tends to be a sympathizer of Palestine after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Saudi Arabia has majority distanced themselves from the conflict and emphasizes in a more friendlier approach, sometimes even crossing with Israel. Nonetheless, at the reign of King Faisal, a liberal ruler in Saudi history and firmly pro-Palestinian, Saudi Arabia had set up a closer tie with Palestine and supportive of the Palestinian cause to a level after the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, he withdrew Saudi oil from market, causing the 1973 oil crisis. The new oil revenue also allowed Faisal to greatly", "states. With the exception of Bahrain, members rejected the proposed federation, as Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates were wary that it would lead to Saudi dominance.\nDue to the decreasing importance of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict as a wedge issue and mutual tensions with Iran, GCC states have sought strengthened economic and security cooperation with Israel, who is involved in its own proxy conflict with Iran. Saudi Arabia has also become increasingly concerned about the United States' commitment as an ally and security guarantor. The American foreign policy pivot to Asia, its lessening reliance on Saudi oil, and the", "to The Washington Post, \"In today’s Middle East, activated sectarianism affects the political cost of alliances, making them easier between co-religionists. That helps explain why Sunni-majority states are lining up against Iran, Iraq and Hezbollah over Yemen.\" Saudi Arabia The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of Shia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahabbi ideology which denounces the Shia faith. Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: \"The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion", "over time required accommodation and good relations with its geographic neighbors notably Iran. Saudi Arabia has long since looked to the United States for protection against Iran.\nPrior to this visit, Saudi National Security advisor Prince Bandar bin Sultan, seen as one of the most pro-American figures in the region, had made a trip to Tehran to voice his government's interest in building harmonious relations with Iran. During Iranian President Ahmadinejad's 3 March 2007 visit, he discussed with King Abdullah the need to protect the Islamic world from enemy \"conspiracies.\"\nIn 2007, President Ahmadinejad of Iran attended the first-ever annual summit of" ]

[ "New Orleans has the largest port in the western hemisphere, out of which sixty percent of the midwest's grain supply is exported. It would be absurdly foolish to just abandon one of the nations most important cities, simply because of some flooding, especially considering this is not the first time the city has been severely flooded and then rebuilt.", "It's our home.\n\nEDIT: Katrina hits us in the feels.", "The same reason the Colorado flood areas will be resettled: because it is their home. Would you tell those people never to move back there? Those areas, according to FEMA's flood maps, have the same flooding risk as NOLA. \n\nTo put it simply, most areas that have flood risk would be given a title like \"500 year floodplain\" or \"100-year floodplain.\" Respecively, those mean that in any given year there would be a 0.2% or 1.0% chance of the elevation being exceeded by a flood.\n\nOver 16 million people in the US live in a coastal floodplain, and about a third of them live in Florida.", "Relocation costs a lot of money, and a lot of people can't afford that. Also, a lot of these people have ties to these areas and their families live relatively close by, so moving to a new area with no support network is much more intimidating than a big storm is. It might not be reasonable, but humans almost never are.", "This is a big country. Surely there's somewhere else to live, that isn't a death trap during a storm. Am I missing something?", "That what I am screaming....it has actually been resettled other times in the past." ]

[ "Civil engineering and infrastructure repair in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina Background Flooding due to rain and storms has long been an issue since the New Orleans' early settlement due to the city's location on a delta marsh, much of which sits below sea level. The city is surrounded by the Mississippi River to the south, Lake Pontchartrain to the north, and Lake Borgne to the east. Construction of the levees along the River began soon after the city was founded, and more extensive river levees were built as the city grew. The levees were originally designed to prevent damage", "Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans Background New Orleans was settled on a natural high ground along the Mississippi River. Later developments that eventually extended to nearby Lake Pontchartrain were built on fill to bring them above the average lake level. Navigable commercial waterways extended from the lake into the interior of the city to promote waterborne commerce. After the construction of the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal in 1940, the state closed these waterways causing the town's water table to lower drastically.\nIn 1965, heavy flooding caused by Hurricane Betsy brought concerns regarding flooding from hurricanes to the forefront. That", "Orleans \"bigger and better\" while still decreasing the overall size of the city. Through the creation of various commissions, many ideas have been proposed and have incited controversy. Many planners agree that part of the effort to revitalize the area must not render the residents vulnerable to the effects of another similar hurricane. In the wake of Katrina, much planning focused on rapid reconstruction of some areas, with proposals for temporary prohibition were rejected by most residents. There are four main planning efforts in response to Hurricane Katrina's damage. Bring New Orleans Back Commission The Bring New Orleans Back", "though the metropolitan area as a whole was growing, there was simultaneously an increase in suburbanization. Many long-time residents and their needs were left out of planning decisions due to race and socioeconomic status. After Hurricane Katrina Planning for shrinkage as a result of Hurricane Katrina focuses most of its attention on reconstructing the city after the damage of the storm. There are a variety of methods proposed by academics, communities and governing bodies to develop New Orleans in the aftermath of shrinkage as well as Hurricane Katrina. A large part of the dominant planning narrative seeks to make New", "from weaker storms and from the outer edges of powerful storms spreads over wider areas. The marshes that ring New Orleans, as well as the land depression of the city itself, originally above sea level, have sunk the quickest.\nThe problem with the wetlands was further worsened by salt water intrusion caused by the canals dug by the oil companies and private individuals in this marshland. This erosion of the wetlands not only caused Louisiana to lose 24 square miles (62 km²) per year of land annually and 1,900 square miles (4,900 km²) of land since the 1930s, but it also destroyed Louisiana's", "identified the problem: the New Orleans area is like a bowl, surrounded by levees which are strongest along the outer Mississippi and primarily intended to contain river flooding. When a hurricane drives water into Lake Pontchartrain, the weaker levees bordering Pontchartrain and canals leading to it are overwhelmed. Water then flows into the below-sea-level city, accompanied by water overflowing the levees along the Mississippi on the south side of the city center. Hurricane Ivan In 2004 Hurricane Ivan's threat to the city resulted in the largest evacuation of the city to date. Mayor Ray Nagin issued a call for a", "Hurricane Katrina Hurricane Katrina made landfall near Slidell, but Covington was sufficiently elevated to escape the massive storm surge; however, the city suffered devastating wind damage. Following the storm, Covington, along with the rest of the North Shore of Lake Pontchartrain, experienced a population boom as a result of many former inhabitants of the New Orleans area being forced to move out of their storm-ravaged homes. The town's population continues to grow. Geography Covington is located at 30°28′44″N 90°6′15″W (30.479002, -90.104029) and has an elevation of 26 feet (7.9 m).\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total", "city (see: Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans). Wind damage from Katrina was the most noticeable effect. The rate of return of residents after Katrina was almost 100 percent. (National Trust, 2006) Part of the area nearest St. Charles Avenue was surveyed to be only four feet above mean sea level, compared to a Mississippi River height of 14 feet (4.3 m) above sea level; (Hogan, 1990) nevertheless, the Garden District suffered little from Katrina flooding. Government and infrastructure The Garden District is within the 6th District of the New Orleans Police Department. Transportation The New Orleans Regional Transit", "city was still in ruins. Repopulation of some parts of the city had just begun when it was canceled and the city ordered re-evacuation. The levee system again failed, re-flooding low-lying portions of the city such as the Lower Ninth Ward.\nHurricane Ernesto in 2006 originally threatened Louisiana before hitting Florida, causing early preparations and rising oil prices.\nMaking landfall in Louisiana on September 1, 2008 as a category two hurricane, Hurricane Gustav was the first to put large scale preparations in motion, although the storm was still in Caribbean on the third anniversary of Katrina. Locals were warned to prepare", "Katrina. Differing circumstances Reconstruction has been easiest and quickest in the areas least damaged by the storm, mostly corresponding to the parts of the city developed before about 1900. These areas were built on naturally higher ground along the River front (such as Old Carrollton, Uptown, the Old Warehouse District, the French Quarter, Old Marigny, and Bywater), along with areas along natural ridges (such as Esplanade Ridge, Bayou St. John, Gentilly Ridge). Most of these older areas had no flooding at all or escaped serious flooding because of the raised design of older architecture which prevented floodwaters from entering homes.", "years before Hurricane Katrina.\nHowever, an unintended consequence of the levees was that natural silt deposits from the Mississippi River were unable to replenish the delta, causing the coastal wetlands of Louisiana to wash away and the city of New Orleans to sink even deeper. The Mississippi River delta is subsiding faster than any other place in the nation. While the land is sinking, sea level has been rising. In the past 100 years, land subsidence and sea-level rise have recently added three feet to all storm surges. That extra height puts affected areas under deeper water; it also means flooding", "took weeks and was compounded by a setback in late September due to further flooding from Hurricane Rita. Katrina Aftermath By the start of October 2005, only a few small areas of flood waters remained within the city, but the disastrous flooding in the aftermath of Katrina left the majority of the city's houses and businesses so damaged as to be unusable until major renovations or repairs could be made. An article in the New Orleans Times-Picayune on 30 November 2005 reported that studies showed the 17th Street Canal levee was \"destined to fail\" as a result of fundamental design", "in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina (see: Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans). Redevelopment work has been delayed in the aftermath of the disastrous flood which devastated the majority of the city. As of late 2008, the Magnolia Projects had been vacated and the majority of buildings razed. On January 7, 2009, local, state, federal and HUD officials met to break ground on a new $183 million C.J. Peete community meant to replace the Magnolia Projects. The plans include 460 units, a Recovery School District school and YMCA in the first phase. 2/3 of the community will be", "the corner of Apollo (Carondelet) Street.\nWhile New Orleans has suffered numerous floods large and small in its history, the flood of 1849 was of a more disastrous scale than any save the flooding after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans). Katrina flooded a larger total urban area, but much of what would later become the city of New Orleans and its suburbs in Jefferson Parish was still swampland in May 1849.\nThe water level of the Mississippi River which flooded the city in 1849 was higher than that of Lake Pontchartrain, which flowed into the", "affected: when New Orleans began slowly flooding with high east/north winds, a 28-foot (9 m) storm surge eastward from Bay St. Louis devastated coastal areas with 30–55 foot (17 m) sea waves, flooding 12 miles (19 km) inland. The waves pushed barges, oil rigs, ships, and debris into submerged towns to flatten many coastal buildings across to Pascagoula with 20-foot (6 m) surge, and into Alabama with 15-foot (5 m) surge and 24-foot (7 m) waves battering beach houses inside Mobile Bay and tilting the battleship USS Alabama. (See extensive details below). Mississippi evacuation By 4:30 a.m. CDT, on August 29, 2005, just hours before Hurricane", "Katrina recovery activities, with co-creator and executive producer Jon Murray stating in a news release, \"Hurricane Katrina threw New Orleans for a punch, but the city is coming back and we're hoping our cast members and the series can play a small role in the city's rebirth.\" Nola.com viewed this announcement as an attempt by Bunim-Murray to reverse the series' reputation as a den of immature and irresponsible behavior on the part of its young cast members. The cast provides assistance to the homeless by working at the New Orleans Mission, and building homes with Habitat for Humanity. The residence", "damaged by Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, when coastal Mississippi was devastated by a storm surge exceeding 30 feet (9 m) plus higher waves. Within a few hours, all coastal towns were flooded more than 90%. Residents who had not evacuated, survived by swimming to treetops or roof lines of taller buildings.\nA park has since been constructed at the site of the fort. It includes a playground, a splash pad, a stage, a two-story structure with a viewing platform overlooking the beach, public restrooms, and an eco-friendly parking lot. The construction included improvements of pathways along the beach, and to", "during the course of 2006. As of January 2007, still less than half of the pre-Katrina residential population had returned, and many were living in FEMA trailers as they gutted and repaired their flood-devastated homes. Some residents returned on weekends to repair their property, while others gave up and abandoned the area. By November 2006 only 40,000 residents had returned to Eastern New Orleans, compared to the 96,000 that had inhabited the area before the levee failures. However, consistent with the ongoing recovery in New Orleans' population from its post-Katrina trough, Eastern New Orleans' population likewise continued to increase. By", "breaches in navigational canal levees, drainage canal levees, and floodwalls occurred as a result of Katrina’s storm surge. With these failures, 80% of New Orleans became flooded, which in turn caused over 200,000 homes to be destroyed and 800,000 residents to be displaced. At the time, the disaster had a large impact on the politics, population, and economics for a sizable portion of the United States.\nA decade after the incident, the effects of Hurricane Katrina are still visible and catastrophic. Although many companies offer bus tours of the still-damaged regions, critics argues that these tours interfere with the relief effort.", "consideration given to other sites in Eastern New Orleans, as well as on the Northshore in suburban St. Tammany Parish. Facing strong opposition from environmentalists, the Times-Picayune and many residents of the East, Barthelemy's idea came to nought.\nOn August 29, 2005, the majority of Eastern New Orleans flooded severely from Hurricane Katrina and associated levee failures (see: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans). Recovery initially unfolded slowly. By early 2006, only a handful of businesses had reopened, mostly those sited along the historic Gentilly Ridge (i.e., the Chef Menteur Highway corridor). Utility service was fully restored to the area", "and the city's poor black residents were often not seen as having a place in the \"new\" New Orleans that officials hoped would rise from the blank slate left in Katrina's wake.\nIn many instances, public authorities have not only failed to rebuild homes in some of the city's most disadvantaged neighborhoods, but policies adopted by such organizations as HANO and HUD have seemingly been purposefully designed to prevent members of poor communities from returning home. The availability in New Orleans of affordable housing, which was not adequate before Hurricane Katrina, was greatly reduced by the storm. 142,000 housing units were", "New Orleans East area along south Lake Pontchartrain was in the eyewall with winds, preceding the eye, nearly as strong as those experienced in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. Canals near Chalmette began leaking at 8 am, and some levees/canals, designed to withstand Category 3 storms, suffered multiple breaks the following day (see Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans), flooding 80% of the city.\nThe walls of the Industrial Canal were breached by storm surge via the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet, while the 17th Street Canal and London Avenue Canal experienced catastrophic breaches, even though water levels never topped their", "city after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. This is particularly evident in areas of Uptown. Higher water levels were recorded in certain places in 1849 than when they were flooded again in 2005. Also, the flooding of 1849 extended into a significant part of Uptown that remained dry during the flooding after Hurricane Katrina.\nNew Orleans has not experienced flooding directly from the Mississippi River since Sauvé's Crevasse, although it came dangerously close during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927.", "which caused hundreds of billion in damage and left thousands of houses damaged or destroyed. There were initial fears that Ernesto would make landfall days after Hurricane Katrina's one-year anniversary, and that the levees in New Orleans might not be able to withstand a strong storm surge. Officials in New Orleans prepared buses and trains in the event that people needed to evacuate but could not. A possible path over the Gulf of Mexico oil fields, as well as tension with Iran, caused the price of oil to increase, although the prices receded when the threat of the storm receded.\nOn", "Many concerns also focused around the fact that the city's levee system was only designed for hurricanes of no greater intensity than category 3. As it turned out, Katrina was Category 3 when it made landfall and most of New Orleans experienced Category 1 or 2 strength winds. However, due to the slow moving nature of the storm in its pass over New Orleans, several floodwalls lining the shipping and drainage canals in New Orleans collapsed and the resulting flood water from Lake Ponchartrain inundated the city within the two days following the storm, causing costly damage to buildings and", "Gulf Coast of the United States in August 2005 Metroblogging New Orleans sprang to action providing first hand accounts of the destruction. Since some of the Metroblogging New Orleans writers did not leave the city prior to the Hurricane making landfall, they were already there on-scene, able to provide coverage that mainstream media could not.\nThe writers for Metroblogging New Orleans were able to report on the anarchy that had befallen the city days before any of the major news outlets did. They were able to report on the dire needs and the terrible conditions that people were in", "Orleans Avenue and created a bonfire with the trees. They then threw fireworks into the bonfire. Joanna Weiss of the Boston Globe reported that \"a fire truck waited down the street, almost as an afterthought.\" Hurricane Katrina Mid-City experienced extensive flooding in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina and has been involved in an ongoing rebuilding effort. Repopulation and reconstruction are concentrated along major thoroughfares; March 2007 estimates were that 55% of the residents were again living in the area. Education New Orleans Public Schools and Recovery School District operate the public school system.\nWarren Easton Senior High School is in", "in eastern New Orleans in 1965, while storm surge funneled in by the Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet Canal and a levee failure flooded most of the Lower 9th Ward. After this the levees encircling the city and outlying parishes were raised to heights of 14 to 23 feet (4.3 to 7.0 m). Due to cost concerns, the levees were built to protect against only a Category 3 hurricane; however, some of the levees initially withstood the Category 5 storm surge of Hurricane Katrina (August 2005), which only slowed to Category 3 winds within hours of landfall (due to a last-minute eyewall replacement", "for weeks. Many roads and buildings were damaged by Hurricane Katrina.\nIn a June 2006 report on the disaster, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers admitted that faulty design specifications, incomplete sections, and substandard construction of levee segments, contributed to the damage done to New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina. A report released by the American Society of Civil Engineers in June 2007 concluded that two-thirds of the flooding in the city could have been avoided if the levees had held.\nThe failure of the Hurricane Protection Project of New Orleans has prompted many government officials to call for many congressional committee hearings", "September 1998 galvanized some scientists, engineers and politicians into collective planning, with Scientific American declaring that \"New Orleans is a disaster waiting to happen\" in October 2001. However, even the most insistent calls from officials to evacuate ahead of Katrina did not warn that the levees could breach.\nOn August 29, 2005, flood walls and levees catastrophically failed throughout the metro area. Many collapsed well below design thresholds (e.g., 17th Street and London Canals). Others (like the Industrial Canal) collapsed after a brief period of overtopping caused “scouring” or erosion of the earthen levee walls. In eastern New Orleans, levees along" ]

[ "To answer this you should know how sound waves interact with each other\n\nHave you ever used *real* noise cancelling headphones? The headphones aren't just little earmuffs. They have a microphone in them and work by sending frequencies to your ears that are related to the sounds coming into the microphone, cancelling out the sound.\n\nAnd have you ever been to a concert, where everyone sings along and it actually sounds pretty good? (Even though most of them are probably tone-deaf) That's because on average, people are singing the right note, so wrong notes get cancelled out by other people singing similarly wrong notes and everything sounds pretty good.\n\nWhen you're out in a noisy environment, lets say a construction worker is using a jackhammer, it's really fricken' loud. But if it was in the city where there's lots of loud car horns it would seem less loud: partly because you're gradually getting more accustomed to louder noises, and partly because some frequencies will cancel eachother out.\n\n\nObviously, a random loud noise is scary. But if you're at a really loud concert you'll quickly get used to it because your body realizes that you're not in a dangerous environment. So if you turned up your volume too high, you'd be fine eventually, you just might suffer hearing loss. (Note: most - all headphones these days do have the ability to damage your hearing if turned up too loud, please preserve your ears.)\n\nYou should also know that, not all noises are created equal. Higher pitches are actually louder to our ears than lower notes, ~~so a song with some gnarly violin solos is going to mess up your hearing a lot more than a bass guitar.~~\n\n\nI generalized a lot and I'm sure others may have more to add, I encourage any questions or corrections! :)\n\nedit: correction from /u/codefromcoffee", "Our ears have a way of protecting themselves from high energy sound – it's called the [acoustic reflex](_URL_0_).\n\nThe most delicate parts of our ears are the small hairs or *cilia* in the cochlea. Intense noises can damage them, so the acoustic reflex stiffens the bones that connect the eardrum to the middle and inner ear. A stiffer connection dampens the energy going into the cochlea. It can reduce the energy by a huge margin, between 15 and 20 dB, which is up to *90%* attenuation.\n\nThe acoustic reflex is triggered by loud sounds or vocalization, so when you are in a loud environment, your threshold for pain and damage automatically adjusts to the ambient sound level.\n\nThe most damaging sounds are ones that have a very quick onset, like gunfire. The acoustic reflex takes about 15 ms to take effect, which is too late to protect you from an impulse-like sound. Steady sounds, like a loud subway car, might have comparable decibel levels, but your ears have physically adjusted to protect themselves.", "The headphones are literally right on top of your ears meaning the sounds will be much louder and more intense. Also the sounds of the noisy room will be blocking out a lot of the sound." ]

[ "the oscillatory pressure. Due to this defense mechanism, sounds do not seem as loud as they are, and ironically, listeners will want to increase the volume. As a result, the reflex mechanism is activated again, and the cycle continues on. This ultimately leads to fatigue.\nResearchers at Asius Technologies have designed a synthetic membrane to take the brunt of the pounding in earphones away from the ear drum by disrupting the pressure waves. This new membrane technology can be retrofitted and applied to existing headphones. A film of medical-grade polymer (ePTFE) is stretched over a hole, essentially acting as a membrane", "messaging in their devices. though such practices have received mixed response from some segments of the buying who favor the personal choice of setting their own volume levels.\nThe usual way of limiting sound volume on devices driving headphones is by limiting output power. This has the additional undesirable effect of being dependent of the efficiency of the headphones; a device producing the maximum allowed power may not produce adequate volume when paired with low-efficiency, high-impedance equipment, while the same amount of power can reach dangerous levels with very efficient earphones.\nSome studies have found that people are more likely to raise", "listen to music at high levels for many hours per day. Such listening habits may result in temporary or permanent hearing loss, tinnitus, and difficulties understanding speech in noisy environments.\nThe World Health Organization warns that increasing use of headphones and earphones puts 1.1 billion teenagers and young adults at risk of hearing loss due to unsafe use of personal audio devices. Many smartphones and personal media players are sold with earphones that do a poor job of blocking ambient noise, leading some users to turn up the volume to the maximum level to drown out street noise. People listening to their", "volume can be gradually increased to increase privacy. Manufacturers of sleeping aids and power-napping devices recommend that the volume level be set slightly louder than normal music listening level, but always in a comfortable listening range.\nSound and noise have their own measurement and color coding techniques, which allows specialized users to identify noise and sound according to their respective needs and utilization. These specialized needs are dependent on certain professions and needs, e.g. a psychiatrist who needs certain sounds for therapies and treatments on a mental level, and patients who have conditions such as insomnia, anxiety, and, tinnitus (these", "overload When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music. Physiology As with any type of hearing-related disorder, the related physiology is within the ear and central auditory system. With regards to listening fatigue, the relevant mechanical and biochemical mechanisms primarily deal with inner ear and cochlea. Associated anatomy The stereocilia (hair cells) of the", "unwanted noise from the environment without affecting the desired sound source, which is not picked up and reversed by the microphone. They require a power source, usually a battery, to drive their circuitry. Active noise cancelling headphones can attenuate ambient noise by 20 dB or more, but the active circuitry is mainly effective on constant sounds and at lower frequencies, rather than sharp sounds and voices. Some noise cancelling headphones are designed mainly to reduce low-frequency engine and travel noise in aircraft, trains, and automobiles, and are less effective in environments with other types of noise. Transducer technology Headphones use various", "used and not recommended with modern headphones. High output impedance can result in frequency response fluctuations, due to varying load impedance at different frequencies. In 2008 Stereophile Magazine published an article that showed that a 120-Ohm output impedance could cause a 5-dB error in frequency response with certain types of headphones. However, the author of the article also states: \"The ramifications for subjective assessment of headphones are more troublesome because it is usually unclear what assumptions the manufacturer has made regarding source impedance.\" \nMore importantly, low output impedance can reduce distortion by improving the control that the source", "reduction) or between the active speaker and the listener (headphones).\nProtection of a 3-dimension zone requires many microphones and speakers, making it more expensive. Noise reduction is more easily achieved with a single listener remaining stationary but if there are multiple listeners or if the single listener turns his head or moves throughout the space then the noise reduction challenge is made much more difficult. High frequency waves are difficult to reduce in three dimensions due to their relatively short audio wavelength in air. The wavelength in air of sinusoidal noise at approximately 800 Hz is double the distance of the average", "experience roughly equal pressures from each diaphragm it contacts, but those forces are actually parallel, rather than opposing, so the air is forced to move. Distortion Any non-linear behavior of the speakers affects sound pressure within the chamber, and could give rise to distortion components. For in-phase designs (\"cone to magnet\" and not \"magnet to magnet\" or \"cone-to-cone\" designs) this tends to occur because of front-to-back non-symmetrical behavior. These may also occur when the speaker driven to high levels for an extended period of time and the voice coils of the two drivers dissipate vibration and heat at different", "stations, aircraft, and large crowds. Extended periods of exposure to high sound pressure levels created by headphones at high volume settings may be damaging to hearing; Nearly 50% of teenagers and young adults (12 to 35 years old) in middle and high income countries listen to unsafe levels of sound on their personal audio devices and smartphones. however, one hearing expert found in 2012 (before the worldwide adoption of smartphones as the main personal listening devices) that \"fewer than 5% of users select volume levels and listen frequently enough to risk hearing loss.\" The International Telecommunication Union recently published \"Guidelines", "to be a main contributing factor in listener fatigue. When cut off from outside sound with the earphone, an oscillating pressure chamber is created in the eardrum. This effectively provides a boost in sound pressure levels. When this boost occurs, an acoustic reflex mechanism triggers and acts as a defense against these sounds. This mechanism seeks to reduce the sound energy in the ear by dampening its transfer from eardrum to cochlea. It has been seen that this process can reduce sound waves by up to 50 decibels. Although this mechanism can decrease the sound energy, it does not negate", "such as oversampling and noise shaping can further extend the dynamic range of sampled audio by moving quantization error out of the frequency band of interest.\nIf the signal's maximum level is lower than that allowed by the bit depth, the recording has headroom. Using higher bit depths during studio recording can make headroom available while maintaining the same dynamic range. This reduces the risk of clipping without increasing quantization errors at low volumes. Noise shaping Oversampling a signal results in equal quantization noise per unit of bandwidth at all frequencies and a dynamic range that improves with only the", "volumes to unsafe levels while performing strenuous exercise. A Finnish study recommended that exercisers should set their headphone volumes to half of their normal loudness and only use them for half an hour.\nOther than hearing risk, there is a general danger that listening to loud music in headphones can distract the listener and lead to injury and accidents. Occupational health and safety Hearing risk from headphones' use also applies to workers who must wear electronic or communication headsets as part of their daily job (i.e., pilots, call center and dispatch operators, sound engineers, firefighters, etc.) and hearing damage depends on", "lowered. This increases the channel separation achievable, to around 30 decibels between channels. By careful tuning of the response of the amplifiers, the total amount of signal energy remains constant and is unaffected by the operation of the channel steering. Additionally the response time of the system to changes in sound direction is important as too fast a response results in a twitchy feel, while too slow a response leaves sounds coming from an inappropriate direction.\nIn addition to 5db of noise processing, the surround channel is slightly delayed, so that any front channel sounds that leak into the surround channel", "around 2002, proposes that some listeners with sensorineural hearing loss may exhibit a normal rate of loudness growth, but instead have an elevated loudness at their threshold. That is, the softest sound that is audible to these listeners is louder than the softest sound audible to normal listeners. Compensation The \"loudness\" control associated with a loudness compensation feature on some consumer stereos alters the frequency response curve to correspond roughly with the equal loudness characteristic of the ear. Loudness compensation is intended to make the recorded music sound more natural when played at a lower levels by boosting low frequencies,", "undesirable effects on the listening experience. Some listeners dislike these effects more than the gap they attempt to remove. For example, crossfading is inappropriate for files that are already gapless, in which case the transition may feel artificially short and disturb the rhythm. Also, depending on the length of untrimmed silence and the particular crossfader, it may cause a large volume drop.\nThese methods defeat the purpose of intentional spacing between tracks. Not all albums are mix albums; perhaps more typically, there is an aesthetic pause between unrelated tracks. Also, the artist may intentionally leave in silences for dramatic effect, which", "distortion products are hidden by the masking effect of the human hearing system.\nAfter applying moderate amounts of negative feedback (10–15 dB), the low-order harmonics are reduced, but higher-order harmonics are introduced. Since these are not masked as well, the distortion becomes audibly worse, even though the overall THD may go down. This has led to a persistent myth that negative feedback is detrimental in audio amplifiers, leading audiophile manufacturers to market their amplifiers as \"zero feedback\" (even when they use local feedback to linearize each stage).\nHowever, as the amount of negative feedback is increased further, all harmonics are reduced,", "tired and consequently disinterested in what the speaker has to say. Temperature and seating arrangements can distract an audience by causing them discomfort, shifting their focus to their own annoyance. Being too far from a speaker can also cause the audience to lose focus because of a sort of \"Hawthorne effect. Physiological noise can also lead to distractions that take an audiences attention from the speaker. This noise may range from ailments and illness, all the way to emotions like arousal. Both sides of the spectrum can affect the audiences attention, for example, a speaker giving a speech while under", "an amplifier that presents a very high input impedance (ideally infinite) and presents a lower output impedance (ideally zero) and larger range of output voltages (ideally infinite). This allows headphones of a low sensitivity to be driven louder as a result of the extra voltage provided by the amplifier. There are potential fidelity gains if headphones are driven with lower distortion than using a headphone amplifier integrated into a general purpose audio product. In practice, this most often occurs when using low impedance headphones with consumer electronics with insufficiently low output impedance (see impedance discussion below). Volume", "to make them sound louder at the same volume level setting, as it was found that subjectively louder CDs get more airplay and sell better. To achieve this loudness without introducing strong distortion, points in the signal where the volume reaches a maximum are compressed (which means in this case: reduced in volume), then the whole signal is multiplied by a factor so that the maximum volume is reached again. After this, the music as a whole is louder than it was before, but the maximum volume points (mostly transients) are not as pronounced as they were before. Since this", "perceive. Because it is a logarithmic scale, even small incremental increases in decibels correlate to large increases in loudness, and an increase in the risk of hearing loss.\nSounds above 80 dB have the potential to cause permanent hearing loss. The intensity of sound is considered too great and hazardous if someone must yell in order to be heard. Ringing in the ears upon leaving work is also indicative of noise that is at a dangerous level. Farming, machinery work, and construction are some of the many occupations that put workers at risk of hearing loss.\nNIOSH establishes recommended exposure limits (RELs) to", "are wider in absolute terms than the low frequency bands, and therefore 'collect' proportionately more power from a noise source. However, when more than one critical band is stimulated, the outputs of the various bands are summed by the brain to produce an impression of loudness. For these reasons equal-loudness curves derived using noise bands show an upwards tilt above 1 kHz and a downward tilt below 1 kHz when compared to the curves derived using pure tones.\nThis enhanced sensitivity to noise in the region of 6 kHz became particularly apparent in the late 1960s with the introduction of compact cassette recorders and", "providing tighter peak level control, peak level sensing does not necessarily relate to human perception of loudness. Some compressors apply a power measurement function (commonly root mean square or RMS) on the input signal before comparing its level to the threshold. This produces a more relaxed compression that more closely relates to human perception of loudness. Stereo linking A compressor in stereo linking mode applies the same amount of gain reduction to both the left and right channels. This is done to prevent image shifting that can occur if each channel is compressed individually. This becomes particularly noticeable when a", "typical listening rooms by creating more diffuse reverberation, though in theory it could detract from stereo localization. For this reason dipole speakers are often used as surround channel speakers, where a diffuse sound is desired to create ambience.\nA dipole speaker works by creating air movement (as sound pressure waves) directly from the front and back surfaces of the driver, rather than by impedance matching one or both outputs to the air. As a result, diaphragm motion is constrained primarily by the driver's restoring force (e.g., diaphragm suspension) and not by acoustic loading from an enclosure. This implies that cone motion", "more noisy than an amplifier designed for a specific low-impedance source, but in general a relatively low-impedance source configuration will be more resistant to noise (particularly mains hum). Radio frequency power systems Signal reflections caused by an impedance mismatch at the end of a transmission line can result in distortion and potential damage to the driving circuitry.\nIn analog video circuits, impedance mismatch can cause \"ghosting\", where the time-delayed echo of the principal image appears as a weak and displaced image (typically to the right of the principal image). In high-speed digital systems, such as HD video, reflections result in interference", "it increases at the low frequency (bass) end, as the audio source is brought closer to the microphone. This is the proximity effect as it pertains to audio.", "Personal listening devices Although research is limited, it suggests that increased exposure to loud noise through personal listening devices is a risk factor for noise induced hearing loss. More than half of people are exposed to sound through music exposure on personal devices greater than recommended levels. Research suggests stronger correlations between extended duration or elevated usage of personal listening devices and hearing loss. Hearing conservation programs Workers in general industry who are exposed to noise levels above 85 dBA are required by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to be in a hearing conservation program (HCP), which includes", "using an electronic device, which randomly switches between low- and high-pass filtering for random durations between 1/4 and 2 seconds. The filtering device also varies the sound's intensity, creating a modulated effect. The volume is set as loud as possible without causing discomfort. If the listener has shown unusual sensitivities to certain frequencies, these may be filtered out additionally.\nThe original device for delivering this training, the Audiokinetron or Ears Education and Retraining System (EERS), was banned by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration from importation into the U.S. due to lack of evidence of medical benefit. Although no AIT device", "response of the speaker. Since the rear of the loudspeaker radiates sound out of phase from the front, there can be constructive and destructive interference for loudspeakers without enclosures, and below frequencies related to the baffle dimensions in open-baffled loudspeakers (described in Background section, below). This results in a loss of bass and comb filtering (i.e. response peaks and dips in power regardless of the signal meant to be reproduced).\nBefore the 1950s many manufacturers did not fully enclose their loudspeaker cabinets; the back of the cabinet was typically left open. This was done for several reasons, not least because electronics", "in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories, called loudness recruitment and softness imperception.\nLoudness recruitment posits that loudness grows more rapidly for certain listeners than normal listeners with changes in level. This theory has been accepted as the classical explanation.\nSoftness imperception, a term coined by Mary Florentine" ]

[ "Deflation is the opposite of inflation. And most economic recessions have very many causes and contributing factors. The economic recession of 2008 was partially the result of the the American housing bubble bursting." ]

[ "of the markets. Holding money became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating the drop in demand. Monetarists believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but the shrinking of the money supply greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression.\nEconomists and economic historians are almost evenly split as to whether the traditional monetary explanation that monetary forces were the primary cause of the Great Depression is right, or the traditional Keynesian explanation that a fall in autonomous spending, particularly investment, is the", "is a practice that threatens to put the United States into an inflationary depression where the US dollar, which is the reserve currency of the world, would suffer severe devaluation.\nA major theme throughout the work also revolves around the idea of inflation as a hidden tax making warfare much easier to wage. Because people will reject the notion of increasing direct taxes, inflation is then used to help service the overwhelming debts incurred through warfare. In turn the purchasing power of the masses is diminished, yet most people are unaware. Under Ron Paul's theory, this diminution has the biggest impact", "of the dollar as the global reserve currency, and because of the profitability of U.S. corporations and returns on Wall Street. However, when the U.S. economy and banking system faltered in 2008, the United States' ability to consume vast quantities of imports decreased, and investing in Wall Street became a much less inviting prospect, so the system seized up. This explains why the 2008 recession was felt so heavily around the world. The metaphor of the Minotaur is used as Varoufakis characterizes the flows back to the U.S. as a \"tribute\" to a great power. The Globalizing Wall In 2005", "economists was that loss of investor and consumer confidence following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 was a primary cause of the Great Depression.\nThe Monetary History was lauded as one of the most influential economics books of the twentieth century by the Cato Institute book forum in 2003. It was also cited with approval in a 2002 speech by then-Federal Reserve board member Ben Bernanke stating \"the direct and indirect influences of the Monetary History on contemporary monetary economics would be difficult to overstate\", and again in a 2004 speech as \"transform[ing] the debate about the Great Depression\".\nThe Depression-related chapter", "people believed they could avoid further losses by keeping clear of the markets. Holding money therefore became profitable as prices dropped lower and a given amount of money bought ever more goods, exacerbating the drop in demand.\nSecond, there are the monetarists, who believe that the Great Depression started as an ordinary recession, but that significant policy mistakes by monetary authorities (especially the Federal Reserve) caused a shrinking of the money supply which greatly exacerbated the economic situation, causing a recession to descend into the Great Depression. Related to this explanation are those who point to debt deflation causing those who", "Friedman, place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the end of the gold standard. They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs. The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.\nHigher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in", "cause inflation do not usually slow economic growth.\nBoth explanations are offered in analyses of the global stagflation of the 1970s. It began with a huge rise in oil prices, but then continued as central banks used excessively stimulative monetary policy to counteract the resulting recession, causing a price/wage spiral. Early Keynesianism and monetarism Up to the 1960s, many Keynesian economists ignored the possibility of stagflation, because historical experience suggested that high unemployment was typically associated with low inflation, and vice versa (this relationship is called the Phillips curve). The idea was that high demand for goods drives up prices, and", "the risk to the US economy fall into the weak dollar. Policy makers in the US are afraid there is no obvious solution to the risk of disappointing some policies were also aware of the fact that there can only lead to negative results. Also, look the United States who the US central bank is hardly a worldwide central bank had presided over the financial world of the dollar oriented, the sub-prime mortgage crisis has complete control of interest rate policy in the global financial system like anymore, while generating as globalization begins also it showed. But the more", "misnomer. We should stop using it. Recessions are mild dips in the business cycle that are either self-correcting or soon cured by modest fiscal or monetary stimulus. Because of the continuing deflationary trap, it would be more accurate to call this decade's stagnant economy The Lesser Depression or The Great Deflation.\" Trade imbalances and debt bubbles The Economist wrote in July 2012 that the inflow of investment dollars required to fund the U.S. trade deficit was a major cause of the housing bubble and financial crisis: \"The trade deficit, less than 1% of GDP in the early 1990s, hit 6%", "Keynesian explanation of the Great Depression was increasingly accepted by economists, historians, and politicians\". Monetarist In their 1963 book A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960, Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz laid out their case for a different explanation of the Great Depression. Essentially, the Great Depression, in their view, was caused by the fall of the money supply. Friedman and Schwartz write: \"From the cyclical peak in August 1929 to a cyclical trough in March 1933, the stock of money fell by over a third.\" The result was what Friedman and Schwartz called \"The Great Contraction\" — a", "Causes of the Great Depression The causes of the Great Depression in the early 20th century have been extensively discussed by economists and remain a matter of active debate. They are part of the larger debate about economic crises. The specific economic events that took place during the Great Depression are well established. There was an initial stock market crash that triggered a \"panic sell-off\" of assets. This was followed by a deflation in asset and commodity prices, dramatic drops in demand and credit, and disruption of trade, ultimately resulting in widespread unemployment (over 13 million people were unemployed by", "investment due to their previous records, this led to the economy falling into recession despite there being APR. Depression Depression can lead to a high increase of unemployment. It is more likely a balance sheet recession can cause depression. Due to falling asset prices and bank losses, this has a large impact on economic activity.\nRecession is common in many countries; it is all part of the business cycle. Depression means there is a fall in economic activity lasting for a number of years. Economists will not agree with depression as they believe it is plagued by declining economic activity However,", "of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) labelled the \"big bang\" of January 1991. Since then, consistent liberalization and astute economic management has led to the removal of 95% of all price controls, low unemployment, a positive balance of payments position, a stable exchange rate, a shift of exports from former communist economic bloc markets to Western Europe, and relatively low foreign debt. Inflation has been higher than in some other countries – mostly in the 10% range – and the government has run consistent modest budget deficits.\nTwo", "which was preceded in many countries by bank runs and stock market crashes. The subprime mortgage crisis and the bursting of other real estate bubbles around the world also led to recession in the U.S. and a number of other countries in late 2008 and 2009.\nSome economists argue that financial crises are caused by recessions instead of the other way around, and that even where a financial crisis is the initial shock that sets off a recession, other factors may be more important in prolonging the recession. In particular, Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz argued that the initial economic decline", "low GDP growth.[6] Underemployment during the Great Depression During the 1930s, Great Depression, U.S. unemployment rate reached 25% and GDP growth rate fell to −13%.[7] The U.S. economy at this period can be characterized by an underemployment equilibrium. On the one hand, many outside forces (including financial instability, hyper-inflation, lack of capital, etc.) created a negative shock to the demand of job market. On the other hand, the first two decades of the 20th century saw rapid advancement in production technologies, which effectively eliminated a large number of skilled jobs. Both of the above forces help create an insufficient", "2008, the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) declared that the United States entered a recession in December 2007, citing employment and production figures as well as the third quarter decline in GDP. The Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 679 points that same day. On January 4, 2009, Nobel Memorial Prize–winning economist Paul Krugman wrote, \"This looks an awful lot like the beginning of a second Great Depression.\" Rise in unemployment The Great Recession cost millions of jobs initially and high unemployment lingered for years after the official end of the recession in June 2009. One of the frightening aspects", "to the severity of the Financial crisis of 2007–2010. Late-2000s financial crisis The late-2000s financial crisis is considered by many economists to be the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. It was triggered by a liquidity shortfall in the United States banking system and has resulted in the collapse of large financial institutions, the bailout of banks by national governments, and downturns in stock markets around the world. In many areas, the housing market has also suffered, resulting in numerousevictions, foreclosures and prolonged vacancies. It contributed to the failure of key businesses, declines in consumer wealth", "was a major factor, argued by several economists, that contributed to the worsening and length of the depression. It was also said to be responsible \"for the initial decline in consumption that marks the\" beginning of the Great Depression by economists Paul R. Flacco and Randall E. Parker. Economist Ludwig Lachmann argues that it was pessimism that prevented the recovery and worsening of the depression President Hoover is said to have been blinded from what was right in front of him.\nEconomist James Deusenberry argues economic imbalance was not only a result of World War I, but also of the structural", "identifies March 2009 as the \"nadir of the crisis\" and noted in 2011 that \"Most stock markets around the world are at least 75 percent higher than they were then. Financial stocks, which led the markets down, have also led them up.\" Nevertheless, the lack of fundamental changes in banking and financial markets worries many market participants, including the International Monetary Fund.\nThe distribution of household incomes in the United States has become more unequal during the post-2008 economic recovery, a first for the US but in line with the trend over the last ten economic recoveries since 1949. Income inequality", "investment as a result of top-rate and corporate tax cuts, growth and investment suffered for now in the context of high interest rates. In October 1987, a sudden and alarming stock market crash took place, but the Federal Reserve responded by increasing the money supply and averted what could have been another Great Depression.\nPerhaps more alarmingly, Reagan-era deficits were keeping the U.S. dollar overvalued. With such a high demand for dollars (due in large measure to government borrowing), the dollar achieved an alarming strength against other major currencies. As the dollar soared in value, American exports became increasingly uncompetitive, with", "including Herbert Hoover, Henry A. Wallace, Paul Douglas, and Marriner Eccles. It held the economy produced more than it consumed, because the consumers did not have enough income. Thus the unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920s caused the Great Depression.\nAccording to this view, the root cause of the Great Depression was a global over-investment in heavy industry capacity compared to wages and earnings from independent businesses, such as farms. The proposed solution was for the government to pump money into the consumers' pockets. That is, it must redistribute purchasing power, maintaining the industrial base, and re-inflating prices and wages", "type Great Depression, in which U.S. GDP fell by 46%. He argued that monetary policy was ineffective because there was limited demand for funds while firms paid down their liabilities. In a balance sheet recession, GDP declines by the amount of debt repayment and un-borrowed individual savings, leaving government stimulus spending as the primary remedy.\nKrugman discussed the balance sheet recession concept during 2010, agreeing with Koo's situation assessment and view that sustained deficit spending when faced with a balance sheet recession would be appropriate. However, Krugman argued that monetary policy could also affect savings behavior, as inflation or credible", "Global financial crisis in December 2008 Reports of economic activity On December 1, the National Bureau of Economic Research officially declared that the U.S. economy had entered recession in December 2007, a full year earlier. (See late 2000s recession)\nThe Labor Department said that the US lost 533,000 jobs in November 2008, the biggest monthly loss since 1974. This raised the unemployment rate from 6.5% to 6.7%.\nOn December 9, the Bank of Canada lowered its key interest rate by 0.75% to 1.5%, the lowest it had been since 1958; at the same time the Bank officially announced that Canada's economy was", "Economy of North America Great Depression The Great Depression began in North America in October 1929. The start is often dated to the stock market collapse of Black Tuesday although this was not the cause of the Great Depression. Canada and the United States experienced especially large declines, with the gross domestic product falling 37% from 1929 to 1933 in the United States, and 43% in Canada over the same period. The economy reached its lowest point in 1933, however recovery was slow. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 created demand for war materials", "wealth and more importantly monetary contraction of 35%, which they called \"The Great Contraction\". This caused a price drop of 33% (deflation). By not lowering interest rates, by not increasing the monetary base and by not injecting liquidity into the banking system to prevent it from crumbling, the Federal Reserve passively watched the transformation of a normal recession into the Great Depression. Friedman and Schwartz argued that the downward turn in the economy, starting with the stock market crash, would merely have been an ordinary recession if the Federal Reserve had taken aggressive action. This view was endorsed by Federal", "back to the Great Depression, when some economists feared that the United States had permanently entered a period of low growth. The Economist explained in 2018 that many factors may contribute to secular stagnation, by either driving up savings or reducing investment. Households paying down debt (i.e., deleveraging) increase savings and are spending less; businesses react to the lack of demand by investing less. This was a major factor in the slow U.S. GDP growth during 2009-2012 following the Great Recession. Another possible cause is income inequality, which shifts more money to the wealthy, who tend to save it", "worse in 2010. Whether it's going to run out of control or it's going to take until 2011 or 2012, but I know we're going to have a major currency crisis coming soon. It's going to dwarf the financial crisis and it's going to send consumer prices absolutely ballistic, as well as interest rates and unemployment.\" Krugman noted that inflation had instead remained low and concluded that Schiff's type of economic \"model is all wrong\" since it predicts that a tripling of the monetary base, such as had just occurred, must lead to \"dire effects on the price level.\"\nIn January", "crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania's online business journal examines why economists failed to predict a major global financial crisis. Popular articles published in the mass media have led the general public to believe that the majority of economists have failed in their obligation to predict the financial crisis. For example, an article in the New York Times informs that economist Nouriel Roubini warned of such crisis as early as September 2006, and the article goes on to state that the profession of economics is bad at predicting recessions. According", "hypothesized that it was not primarily the actions of the Federal Reserve in response to the economic downturn of 1930 which turned a recession into the most far reaching slump in the modern economic period, but instead was an autonomous drop in demand. He would later revisit this thesis in his 1989 work Lessons from the Great Depression, as well as publish several papers building on his conclusions. He joined, in some way, the conclusions of Keynes and Friedman: the Great Depression started with troubles in the 'real economy' later expanded to the financial world via speculation and money", "stock market crash and the Great Depression formed the largest financial crisis of the 20th century. The panic of October 1929 has come to serve as a symbol of the economic contraction that gripped the world during the next decade. The falls in share prices on October 24 and 29, 1929 were practically instantaneous in all financial markets, except Japan.\nThe Wall Street Crash had a major impact on the U.S. and world economy, and it has been the source of intense academic historical, economic, and political debate from its aftermath until the present day. Some people believed that abuses by" ]

[ "A voltage is like a pressure in a water system, a current is how fast the water is flowing, ohms are a measure of how much an element resists current flow and watts are a measure of energy loss due to resistance." ]

[ "Volt-ampere A volt-ampere (VA) is the unit used for the apparent power in an electrical circuit. The apparent power equals the product of root-mean-square (RMS) voltage and RMS current. In direct current (DC) circuits, this product is equal to the real power (active power) in watts. Volt-amperes are useful only in the context of alternating current (AC) circuits (sinusoidal voltages and currents of the same frequency). The volt-ampere is dimensionally equivalent to the watt (in SI units, 1 VA = 1 N m A⁻¹ s ⁻¹ A = 1 N m s ⁻¹ = 1 J s ⁻¹ =", "reference level, often indicated via a suffix, to create an absolute unit of electric power. For example, it can be combined with \"m\" for \"milliwatt\" to produce the \"dBm\". A power level of 0 dBm corresponds to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW).\nIn professional audio specifications, a popular unit is the dBu. This is relative to the root mean square voltage which delivers 1 mW (0 dBm) into a 600-ohm resistor, or √1 mW×600 Ω ≈ 0.775 VRMS. When used in a 600-ohm circuit (historically, the standard reference impedance in telephone circuits), dBu and dBm are identical.", "Nominal power (photovoltaic) Watt-peak The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which maintains the SI-standard, states that the physical unit and its symbol should not be used to provide specific information about a given physical quantity and that neither should be the sole source of information on a quantity. Nonetheless, colloquial English sometimes conflates the quantity power and its unit by using the non-SI unit watt-peak and the non-SI symbol Wₚ prefixed as within the SI, e.g. kilowatt-peak (kWₚ), megawatt-peak (MWₚ), etc. As such a photovoltaic installation may for example be described as having \"one kilowatt-peak\" in the meaning \"one", "Power factor In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of −1 to 1. A power factor of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average product of the two. Real power is the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work. Apparent power is the average product of current and", "(IEC), approved the volt as the unit for electromotive force, the ampere as the unit for electric current, and the coulomb as the unit of electric charge. \nAt that time, the volt was defined as the potential difference [i.e., what is nowadays called the \"voltage (difference)\"] across a conductor when a current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power.\nThe coulomb (later \"absolute coulomb\" or \"abcoulomb\" for disambiguation) was part of the EMU system of units. The \"international coulomb\" based on laboratory specifications for its measurement was introduced by the IEC in 1908. The entire set of \"reproducible units\"", "Fractional-horsepower motor A fractional-horsepower motor (FHP) is an electric motor with a rated output power of 746.9 or 746 Watts or less. There is no defined minimum output, however, it is generally accepted that a motor with a frame size of less than 35mm square can be referred to as a 'micro-motor'.\nThe term 'fractional' indicates that the motor often has a power rating smaller than one horsepower.\nFractional-horsepower electric motors are exempt from the US Energy Policy Act of 2005 and the new EN 60034-30:2009 ruling of European directive 2005/32/EC concerning the efficiency classes of low-voltage three-phase asynchronous motors. History The", "using decibels (dB) for comparing the levels of such quantities. A change of one bel in the level corresponds to a 10× change in power, so when comparing power quantities x and y, the difference is defined to be 10×log₁₀(y/x) decibel. With root-power quantities, however the difference is defined as 20×log₁₀(y/x) dB. In linear systems, these definitions allow the distinction between root-power quantities and power quantities to be ignored when specifying changes as levels: an amplifier can be described as having \"3 dB\" of gain without needing to specify whether voltage or power are being compared; for a", "instead to the quantity symbol (i.e., Pₜₕₑᵣₘₐₗ = 270 W rather than P = 270 Wₜₕ) and so these units are non-SI. In compliance with SI the energy company DONG Energy uses the unit megawatt for produced electrical power and the equivalent unit megajoules for delivered heating power in a combined heat and power station such as Avedøre Power Station.\nWhen describing alternating current (AC) electricity, another distinction is made between the watt and the volt-ampere. While these units are equivalent for simple resistive circuits, they differ when loads exhibit electrical reactance. Radio transmission Radio stations usually report the power of their transmitters in units of watts,", "1 watt was now defined as the quantity of energy transferred in a unit of time, namely 1 J/s. In this new definition, 1 \"absolute\" watt = 1.00019 \"international\" watts. Texts written before 1948 are likely to be using the \"international\" watt, which implies caution when comparing numerical values from this period with the post-1948 watt. In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted the \"absolute\" watt into the International System of Units (SI) as the unit of power. Attowatt The attowatt (aW) is equal to 10⁻¹⁸ watt. The sound intensity in water corresponding to the international", "as a constant current source or as a constant voltage source, and a high precision multimeter.\nIt typically has four terminals, two for source and measurement and two more for kelvin, or remote sense, connection. Power is simultaneously sourced (positive) or sinked (negative) to a pair of terminals at the same time as measuring the current or voltage across those terminals is done. SMU vs. Power Supply The most important difference is that an SMU has four-quadrant operation (source and sink) compared to a power supply which has two-quadrant (source only) operation. This flexibility enables the SMU to be use", "Power (physics) Units The dimension of power is energy divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. Other units of power include ergs per second (erg/s), horsepower (hp), metric horsepower (Pferdestärke (PS) or cheval vapeur (CV)), and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the power required to lift 550 pounds by one foot in one second, and is equivalent to about 746 watts. Other units include dBm, a logarithmic measure relative to a reference of 1 milliwatt; food calories per hour", "source.\nIn photovoltaics, capacity is rated under Standard Test Conditions usually expressed as watt-peak (Wₚ). In addition, a PV system's nameplate capacity is sometimes denoted by a subindex, for example, MWDC or MWAC, to identify the raw DC power or converted AC power output. Generator capacity The term is connected with nameplates on electrical generators as these plates describing the model name and manufacturer usually also contain the rated output, but the rated output of a power station to the electrical grid is invariably less than the generator nameplate capacity, because the components connecting the actual generator to the \"grid\" also", "Field, power, and root-power quantities A power quantity is a power or a quantity directly proportional to power, e.g., energy density, acoustic intensity, and luminous intensity. Energy quantities may also be labelled as power quantities in this context.\nA root-power quantity is a quantity such as voltage, current, sound pressure, electric field strength, speed, or charge density, the square of which, in linear systems, is proportional to power. The term root-power quantity was introduced in the ISO 80000-1 § Annex C; it replaces and deprecates the term field quantity.\nIt is essential to know which category a measurement belongs to when", "of potential of a Volt.\"\nIn October 1908, at the International Conference on Electric Units and Standards in London, so-called \"international\" definitions were established for practical electrical units. Siemens' definition was adopted as the \"international\" watt. (Also used: 1 ampere² x 1 ohm.) The watt was defined as equal to 10⁷ units of power in the \"practical system\" of units. \nThe \"international units\" were dominant from 1909 until 1948.\nAfter the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1948, the \"international\" watt was redefined from practical units to absolute units (i.e., using only length, mass, and time). Concretely, this meant that", "harmonic, where passive power filters use combinations of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and does not require an external power source or active components such as transistors. This difference makes it possible for APFs to mitigate a wide range of harmonics.\nThe power conditioner will also have a \"joule\" rating. A joule is a measurement of energy or heat required to sustain one watt for one second, known as a watt second. Since electrical surges are momentary spikes, the joule rating indicates how much electrical energy the suppressor can absorb at once before becoming damaged itself. The higher the", "hour [kWh], which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of one hour, or 3,600,000 joules. Some electricity companies use the SI megajoule instead.\nDemand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a quarter- or half-hour.\nReactive power is measured in \"thousands of volt-ampere reactive-hours\", (kvarh). By convention, a \"lagging\" or inductive load, such as a motor, will have positive reactive power. A \"leading\", or capacitive load, will have negative reactive power.\nVolt-amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including reactive and actual. This is equal", "unit for electric potential, electric potential difference, and electromotive force. The volt is named in honour of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), who invented the voltaic pile, possibly the first chemical battery. Hydraulic analogy A simple analogy for an electric circuit is water flowing in a closed circuit of pipework, driven by a mechanical pump. This can be called a \"water circuit\". Potential difference between two points corresponds to the pressure difference between two points. If the pump creates a pressure difference between two points, then water flowing from one point to the other will be", "that it produces 500 watts RMS and 1000 watts \"peak power\". The RMS figure is much more important than the peak power wattage.\nThe power handling capabilities of a speaker cabinet (or an individual speaker) may be described in terms of its rated wattage-handling capabilities as \"RMS\", so a power handling capacity of 500 watts RMS means that the speaker can handle an average from a power amplifier of 500 watts, as well as occasional brief peaks or \"transient\" bursts of higher wattages. \nSome manufacturers also list \"peak power,\" \"maximum power\" (\"max power\"), or \"burst power\". Peak power is the", "Volt-ampere reactive In electric power transmission and distribution, volt-ampere reactive (var) is a unit of measurement of reactive power. Reactive power exists in an AC circuit when the current and voltage are not in phase. The term var was proposed by the Romanian electrical engineer Constantin Budeanu and introduced in 1930 by the IEC in Stockholm, which has adopted it as the unit for reactive power.\nSpecial instruments called varmeters are available to measure the reactive power in a circuit.\nThe unit \"var\" is allowed by the International System of Units (SI) even though the unit var is representative of a", "power factor, voltage and current. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will give a low reading on the wattmeter, even when both of its circuits are loaded to the maximum safety limit. Therefore, a wattmeter is rated not only in watts, but also in volts and amperes.\nA typical wattmeter in educational labs has two voltage coils (pressure coils) and a current coil. The two pressure coils can be connected in series or parallel to change the ranges of the wattmeter. The pressure coil can also be tapped to change the meter's range. If the pressure coil has range", "5% THD for systems connecting to a power grid.\nThere are two basic designs for producing household plug-in voltage from a lower-voltage DC source, the first of which uses a switching boost converter to produce a higher-voltage DC and then converts to AC. The second method converts DC to AC at battery level and uses a line-frequency transformer to create the output voltage. Square wave This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is best suited to low-sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. Square wave output can produce \"humming\" when connected to audio equipment and", "than a solid-state bass amp of the same wattage.\nThe output rating may state that a combo bass amp produces 600 watts at 4 ohms and 300 watts at 8 ohms. This amplifier will put out 600 watts if an \"extension speaker cabinet\" is plugged into the amp with a speaker cable; a second 8 ohm cabinet in parallel wiring with the combo amp's internal 8 ohm speaker lowers the amp's impedance (electrical resistance or \"load\") to 4 ohms. \nManufacturers may state wattage in Root Mean Squared (or \"RMS\") and in \"peak power\". For example, a bass amp ad may state", "and 4 ohms, although some equipment is rated down to 2 ohms or even more rarely to 1 ohm. For example, the Aguilar DB751 puts out 975 watts if plugged into a 2 ohms speaker cab, 750 watts at 4 ohms, or 400 watts at 8 ohms. Power supply The vast majority of modern bass amps are powered solely by AC mains power. Inexpensive practice amps may have the AC mains plug hardwired into the unit. Middle-priced to high-priced amplifiers typically have a removable cable and plug, allowing simplified replacement.\nMost amps are designed to work for a single voltage.", "Dependent source In the theory of electrical networks, a dependent source is a voltage source or a current source whose value depends on a voltage or current elsewhere in the network.\nDependent sources are useful, for example, in modelling the behavior of amplifiers. A bipolar junction transistor can be modelled as a dependent current source whose magnitude depends on the magnitude of the current fed into its controlling base terminal. An operational amplifier can be described as a voltage source dependent on the differential input voltage between its input terminals. Practical circuit elements have properties such as finite power capacity,", "generator or battery, will have negative power dissipation. This is the standard definition of power in electric circuits; it is used for example in computer circuit simulation programs such as SPICE.\nTo comply with the convention, the direction of the voltage and current variables used to calculate power and resistance in the component must have a certain relationship: the current variable must be defined so positive current enters the positive voltage terminal of the device. These directions may be different from the directions of the actual current flow and voltage. AC circuits Since the sign convention only", "Voltage multiplier A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts AC electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage, typically using a network of capacitors and diodes.\nVoltage multipliers can be used to generate a few volts for electronic appliances, to millions of volts for purposes such as high-energy physics experiments and lightning safety testing. The most common type of voltage multiplier is the half-wave series multiplier, also called the Villard cascade (but actually invented by Heinrich Greinacher). Voltage doubler and tripler A voltage doubler uses two stages to approximately double the DC voltage that would have", "W/V. Current can be measured by a multimeter, a device that can measure electrical voltage, current, and resistance. Realization The standard ampere is most accurately realized using a Kibble balance, but is in practice maintained via Ohm's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and the ohm, since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson junction and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.\nAt present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10⁷, and involve realizations of", "or MWₑ) refers by convention to the electric power produced by a generator, while megawatt thermal or thermal megawatt (MWt, MWₜ, or MWth, MWₜₕ) refers to thermal power produced by the plant. For example, the Embalse nuclear power plant in Argentina uses a fission reactor to generate 2109 MWₜ (i.e. heat), which creates steam to drive a turbine, which generates 648 MWₑ (i.e. electricity). Other SI prefixes are sometimes used, for example gigawatt electrical (GWₑ). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which maintains the SI-standard, states that further information about a quantity should not be attached to the unit symbol but", "all the way back in 1893 but it was long since forgotten. Real and apparent power The apparent power delivered by a generator as calculated by a simplistic multiplication of the voltage and the current is, in general, greater than the actual (real) power delivered as measured by the work done or heat produced. What is more the total apparent power consumed by two different circuits is not, in general, equal to their arithmetic sum. Boucherot developed a theorem relating real and apparent power with the introduction of a new concept, reactive power. Reactive power represents the", "solid state reliability for the power amp. Power in watts and volume The relationship between perceived volume (loudness) and power output in watts of an amplifier is not a linear relationship. The human ear perceives a 50-watt amplifier as only twice as loud as a five-watt amplifier, despite a tenfold increase in power in watts. Doubling the power of an amplifier results in a \"just noticeable\" increase in volume, so a 100-watt amplifier is only slightly louder than a 50-watt amplifier. In addition is the human ear's tendency to behave as a natural audio compressor at high volumes.\nIn a band," ]

[ "It is the same thing that happens when you shovel snow. Most of the snow goes into the shovel or in this case under the boat so this is the largest wave. But some of the snow is only moved by the shovel and not picked up in it. This accounts for the other two waves on the sides. They are weaker due to most of the water moving under the boat and not around it." ]

[ "defined peak with dominant frequencies within plus or minus 7% of the peak), the swell spectra are more and more narrow, sometimes as 2% or less, as waves disperse further and further away. The result is that wave groups (called sets by surfers) can have a large number of waves. From about seven waves per group in the storm, this rises to 20 and more in swells from very distant storms. Coastal impacts Just like for all water waves, the energy flux is proportional to the significant wave height squared times the group velocity. In deep water, this group", "distant, the most important of which are the frontal systems in the South Atlantic, which generate wind waves which then disperse away from their source and separate over time into zones of varying period. The long period waves are faster and have more energy, and move ahead of the shorter period components, so they tend to reach the coast first. This is known to surfers as a pulse, and is generally followed by gradually shortening period swell of less power.\nLocal winds will also produce waves which will combine their effects with the swell. Offshore winds as a general rule will", "another, outgoing wave, which can hit an incoming wave or surfer with enormous force. With the combined effect of the unpredictability of where the incoming waves will break, and the strength of the backwash, the resulting wave action can be highly unpredictable and therefore both exciting as well as very dangerous. The combination of danger, along with the chance to get pitted (enclosed in the tube, barrel, or \"pit\" of a wave), draws many to surf The Wedge.\nThe Wedge breaks largest when intense Southern Hemisphere storms or large tropical cyclones send their long period energy from the SSW", "have a long wavelength, but this varies due to the size, strength and duration of the weather system responsible for the swell and the size of the water body. Swell wavelength also varies from event to event. Occasionally, swells which are longer than 700 m occur as a result of the most severe storms. Swells have a narrower range of frequencies and directions than locally generated wind waves, because swell waves have dispersed from their generation area, have dissipated and therefore lost an amount of randomness, taking on a more defined shape and direction. Swell direction is the direction from", "a flat water surface (Beaufort Point,0) and abrupt cross wind flows on the surface of the water, then the generation of surface wind waves can be explained by following two mechanisms which are initiated by normal pressure fluctuations of turbulent winds and parallel wind shear flows. Dissipation The dissipation of swell energy is much stronger for short waves, which is why swells from distant storms are only long waves. The dissipation of waves with periods larger than 13 seconds is very weak but still significant at the scale of the Pacific Ocean. These long swells lose half of their energy", "the larger the swell. Wind waves If large enough, local wind-generated chop can be surfed, but usually only after it has amalgamated into genuine swell from a distance. Ship waves A large ship such as an oil tanker can sometimes create rideable waves at the shoreline. These are usually surfed only when the waves are otherwise very small, such as in a large inland lake.\nThere has been unconfirmed reports of an offshore boat being used to make waves during surf contests when the surf was otherwise very small. Tsunami waves Although rare, surfable tsunami waves from earthquakes has been recorded.\nOne", "at different speeds, and so they can \"pile up\" in certain circumstances – known as \"constructive interference\". (In deep ocean the speed of a gravity wave is proportional to the square root of its wavelength—the distance peak-to-peak between adjacent waves.) However other situations can also give rise to rogue waves, particularly situations where non-linear effects or instability effects can cause energy to move between waves and be concentrated in one or very few extremely large waves before returning to \"normal\" conditions.\nOnce considered mythical and lacking hard evidence for their existence, rogue waves are now proven to exist and known to", "long, barreling surfable waves at locations far from natural shorelines might prove to be a game-changer within surfing culture and history.\nWave pools are currently the subject of much research and development, and there are a number of planned and existing commercial operations. Types of surfable waves As opposed to permanent or semi permanent obstructions which cause waves to break, surfable waves are sometimes defined by the nature of their generation. Swell waves Ocean swells form from the longer term amalgamation of wind-generated waves on the surface. The stronger the wind and the longer the area over which it blows, generally", "The first wave to arrive on shore may not be the biggest or most destructive. Occasionally, a tsunami may transform into a bore, typically in a shallow bay or an estuary. Currents Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes friction at the interface between air and sea. Not only does this cause waves to form but it also makes the surface seawater move in the same direction as the wind. Although winds are variable, in any one place they predominantly blow from a single direction and thus a surface current can be formed. Westerly winds are most", "face on the water rushing down. Sometimes a particularly large wave will also be followed by a \"wave train\", a long series of waves. These standing waves can be smooth or, particularly the larger ones, can be breaking waves (also called \"whitecaps\" or \"haystacks\").\nBecause of the rough and random pattern of a riverbed, waves are often not perpendicular to the river's current. This makes them challenging for boaters since a strong sideways or diagonal (also called a \"lateral\") wave can throw the craft off if the craft hits sideways or at an angle. The safest move for a whitewater boater", "which the water depth is too great, causing the wave face to break more slowly and with less power. Other surf breaks may experience the opposite effect and have better wave shape during high tide. Bathymetry, coastal geography, and man-made coastal features such as seawalls, harbors, piers, and dredging all impact how a surf break will respond to tides. Gathering information The only way to tell how specific conditions will affect the surf in a specific spot is to spend time observing that spot. One of the attributes of surf is that no two waves are the same, let alone", "implemented. Most cases of the swell dissipations are due to this dissipation type. Ocean-surface wave breaking When wind waves approach to coast area from deep water, the waves change their heights and lengths. The wave height becomes higher and the wavelength becomes shorter as the wave velocity is slowed when ocean waves approach to the shore. If the water depth is sufficiently shallow, the wave crest become steeper and the trough gets broader and shallower; finally, the ocean waves break at the shore. The motions of wave breaking are different with along to the steepness of shores and waves,", "increase in storm power the waves will actually in turn become increased in size.\nThough storms are supposed to create larger swells and better surf, waves are actually decreasing in size globally. Rising sea levels decrease the potency of storms; hurricanes and winds have a smaller impact on surf breaks only when the tides are higher. Swells Globally, with an increase in storm frequency and power, swells will become stronger and happen more often. The quality of surf is not yet known to the future swells due to variables such as sea level, ocean currents, and location on the earth. Additionally,", "bigger than either alone due to constructive interference. This occurs very rapidly and forms waves in a very unpredictable and \"unstable\" pattern, so that no two waves are alike and the exact breaking point is difficult to predict even for an experienced surfer.\nAlthough this condition primarily occurs with large, south swells, it can also occur, with considerably lesser frequency, during \"normal\" conditions.\nIn addition, the beach at The Wedge is very steeply shaped sand, resulting in what is known as shore break and a very strong backwash which often drags people back into the surf. The backwash itself frequently creates", "of the world oceans and where brackish water overlies salt water at the outlet of large rivers. There is typically little surface expression of the waves, aside from slick bands that can form over the trough of the waves.\nInternal waves are the source of a curious phenomenon called dead water, first reported in 1893 by the Norwegian oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen, in which a boat may experience strong resistance to forward motion in apparently calm conditions. This occurs when the ship is sailing on a layer of relatively fresh water whose depth is comparable to the ship's draft. This causes a", "nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organised masses of water called swell roll across the ocean. If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions, interference between the two can", "to the surface.\nThere are constant currents at the sea surface directed from west to east. They are weak and thus can temporarily change direction due to the wind. The tides are semidiurnal (rising twice a day) with the amplitude between 5 and 25 cm. The tidal wave weakens toward the coast due to shallow waters. The sea level is maximal in summer, due to the river runoff, and in autumn due to the winds. It is the lowest in March–April, with the total annual fluctuations within about 70 cm. Winds bring storms with waves reaching 3–5 m in the western part whereas", "for a large wave to travel from the mouth of the bay to the opposite end, then reflect and travel back to the mouth of the bay coincides with the tidal rhythm producing the world's highest tides.\nAs the surface tide oscillates over topography, such as submerged seamounts or ridges, it generates internal waves at the tidal frequency, which are known as internal tides. Tsunamis A series of surface waves can be generated due to large-scale displacement of the ocean water. These can be caused by sub-marine landslides, seafloor deformations due to earthquakes, or the impact of a large meteorite.\nThe waves", "through summer and being washed away progressively by winter swells. The wave inspires a kind of fanaticism among surfers. Although there are only about 20 locals, crowds of surfers are drawn to the wave from Lima (700 kilometres south), and from around the world. With modern swell forecasts and the internet, it's easy to know when swell is on the way, and the surfers once there all pack into a single tight takeoff zone, despite other waves elsewhere in the area.\nA concrete pier was built for local fishermen a few years ago, replacing a wooden one which was between Cabo", "More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not significantly affected by the local wind at that time. They have been generated elsewhere or some time ago. Wind waves in the ocean are called ocean surface waves.\nWind waves have a certain amount of randomness: subsequent waves differ in height, duration, and shape with limited predictability. They can be described as a stochastic process, in combination with the physics governing their generation, growth, propagation, and decay—as well as governing the interdependence between flow quantities such as: the water surface movements, flow velocities and water pressure. The key statistics of", "not significantly larger than the normal waves. From a signal analysis point of view, swells can be thought of as a fairly regular (though not continual) wave signal existing in the midst of strong noise (i.e., normal waves and chop). Navigation Swells were used by Polynesian navigators to maintain course when no other clues were available, such as on foggy nights.", "amplify another incoming breaking wave's size due to constructive interference. When this process happens with an open ocean swell the resulting wave can also be significantly larger due to constructive interference from either deep water refraction or diffraction, or both. This type of effect is suggested to occur at two of the largest surf breaks in the world, at Nazaré in Portugal, and Jaws in Hawaii.\nBackwash and sidewash also sometimes form in conjunction with rips on beaches. Standing river waves These are formed from the action of fast flowing water over an uneven river or creek bed. The dynamics are", "Waves and shallow water When waves travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the ocean bottom. The free orbital motion of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position. As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape. After the wave breaks, it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.", "swells generated in the Indian Ocean have been recorded in California after more than half a round-the-world trip. This distance allows the waves comprising the swells to be better sorted and free of chop as they travel toward the coast. Waves generated by storm winds have the same speed and will group together and travel with each other, while others moving at even a fraction of a metre per second slower will lag behind, ultimately arriving many hours later due to the distance covered. The time of propagation from the source t is proportional to the distance X", "in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, and La Hague, France. It constitutes the northeastern limit of the Gulf of Saint-Malo. Sea conditions When the wind and the race current flow in opposite directions, the sea becomes particularly chaotic: wave heights can reach four metres and have wavelengths smaller than 50 metres. The waves break with violence, thus making shipping conditions particularly dangerous. On the contrary, when the wind and the stream flow in the same direction, the sea becomes calm, provided that the tidal coefficient is not too great.\nThe uneven seabed – both Alderney and La Hague lie in the", "Surf culture Big Wave culture A non-competitive adventure activity involving riding the biggest waves possible (known as \"rhino hunting\") is also popular with some surfers. A practice popularized in the 1990s has seen big wave surfing revolutionized, as surfers use personal watercraft to tow them out to a position where they can catch previously unrideable waves (see tow-in surfing). These waves were previously unrideable due to the speed at which they travel. Some waves reach speeds of over 60 km/h; personal watercraft enable surfers to catch up to the speed of the wave, thereby making them rideable. Personal watercraft also", "shore. As the ratio of wave amplitude to water depth becomes such that the wave “feels the bottom,” water at the base of the wave slows down due to friction with the sea floor. This causes the wave to become asymmetrical and the face of the wave to steepen, and finally the wave will break, propagating forward as an internal bore. Internal waves are often formed as tides pass over a shelf break. The largest of these waves are generated during springtides and those of sufficient magnitude break and progress across the shelf as bores. These bores are evidenced by", "swell the more it tends to wrap into a spot. This means that a swell might cause waves in a spot even if it is not directed at the spot. Significant underwater irregularities, such as underwater canyons and sea mounts, can also affect how the waves come into a surf spot. Irregularities like these may cause the surf to be much larger at one spot, while almost nonexistent at another nearby. This is the case at surf spots such as Black's Beach, El Porto, and Mavericks. Knowing your break Using swell data, which is readily available on the internet, you", "as long as the direction of the current is known. In rivers it tends to be fairly consistent and reliable, though localised eddies may occur. In the sea it may depend on weather conditions and local topography, as well as the state of the tide. In estuaries and harbours the currents will usually be predominantly tidal, so the state of the tide must be known, as the difference in direction between ebb and flow is usually about 180°.\nWave surge direction is essentially the same as wave direction, but may be felt at depths where the wave direction is no longer", "unnamed others. These waves generally only work on larger swells, but are surprisingly good alternatives when the main point is big. All of these waves can barrel in the right conditions, which generally require higher tides. There are also some right hand waves on the other side of the peninsula at G-Land, but they are fickle, requiring large swells, and no wind or off-season winds.\nAnother right hand wave is situated about 20 miles east of G-land, which has been featured in Indonesian surf magazines, and dubbed as \"Reverse G.\" It is apparently a quality, long, right hand wave (the 'reverse'" ]

[ "The problem is, how would you define a rule against it? A law (or constitutional amendment) that says \"bills can only legislate on one topic\" would be very vague and impossible to apply.", "Practically because each bill has a lot of overhead to it, especially if it's complicated or not an overwhelming priority. Hence you merge bills to pass laws, otherwise their simply wouldn't be enough time.\n\nMore generally I don't see it as necessarily a bad thing always; it's an extension of compromise (I give you X you give me Y) which is how things have to work on a national scale- though I agree it's bad to attach to regular refunding bills" ]

[ "of bills. Either the upper house National Council, the lower house National Assembly, or the Attorney General may author bills to be passed as acts, with the exception of money and financial bills, which are the sole purview of the National Assembly. Legislation must be presented bicamerally, at times in joint sittings of the National Council and National Assembly, however bills may pass by default without vote when none is conducted before the close of the present session. When a bill has been introduced and passed by one house, it must present the bill to the other house within thirty", "general principles of the proposed law are debated; though rejection is a possibility, such is not common for government bills.\nNext, the bill is sent by the house where it is being debated to one of several committees. The Standing Orders outline the general mandate for all committees, allowing them to review: bills as they pertain to relevant departments; the program and policy plans, as well as the projected expenditures, and the effectiveness of the implementation thereof, for the same departments; and the analysis of the performance of those departments. Most often, bills end up before a standing committee, which is", "bill is defeated in the Senate, it is lost. Once a bill is approved by the Senate on third reading, the bill is passed to the House of Representatives, unless an identical bill has also been passed by the lower house. When a counterpart bill in the lower house is different from the one passed by the Senate, either a bicameral conference committee is created consisting of members from both chambers of Congress to reconcile the differences, or either chamber may instead approve the other chamber's version.\nWhile money bills originate in the House of Representatives, the Senate may still propose", "money bills (those concerning finance) cannot be delayed, and under the Salisbury Convention, the Lords, by convention, cannot delay any bills set out in the governing party's manifesto. Constitutional procedure Proposed legislation (a bill) that is passed by both houses of Congress is presented to the President, in his capacity as head of the U.S. federal government. Likewise, legislation passed by both houses of a U.S. state legislature (or by Nebraska's unicameral legislature) are presented to the state governor.\nIf the President or governor approves of the bill, he signs it into law. According to Article 1. Section 7 of the", "joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Legislative proposals are introduced as bills or joint resolutions. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment. Concurrent resolutions passed by both houses and simple resolutions passed by only one house do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of the Legislature, or either house thereof, or to regulate procedure.\nBills and other proposals may be introduced by members of either house. The exception is \"bills for raising Revenue\" that must originate in the Oklahoma House of Representatives, per Article V, Section", "Bills was established with the responsibility for the enrollment of engrossed bills. The enacting resolution which created the committee stated:\nAfter a bill shall have passed both Houses, it shall be duly enrolled on Parchment by the Clerk of the House of Representatives or the Secretary of the Senate, as the bill may have originated in one or the other House, before it shall be presented to the President of the United States. . . . When bills are enrolled they shall be examined by a joint committee for that purpose, who shall carefully compare the enrollment with the engrossed bills", "House of Commons, but are allowed in the Senate. If it passes the third reading, the bill is sent to the other house of Parliament, where it passes through the same stages; amendments made by the second chamber require the assent of the original house in order to stand part of the final bill. If one house passes amendments that the other will not agree to, and the two houses cannot resolve their disagreements, the bill fails.\nOnce the bill is passed in identical form by both houses, it is presented for Royal Assent; in theory, the Governor General has three", "period beginning on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the next calendar year.\nSome of the reasons that Congress might not complete all the separate bills include partisan disagreement, disagreement amongst members of the same political party, and too much work on other bills. According to Walter J. Oleszek, a political science professor and \"senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service\", omnibus bills have become more popular since the 1980s because \"party and committee leaders can package or bury controversial provisions in one massive bill to be voted up or down.\"\nOmnibus bills can also be", "or overruled, but the practice is uncommon. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.\nOnce a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. In order for the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two", "of Representatives, in fact an amendment of law. Bills may be withdrawn by the proposer until passed (Article 86), but only by a majority of the House of Representatives if the bill has been presented by some members of the House of Representatives and has been passed by the House of Representatives. Bills become valid law once they have been passed by Parliament and have been affirmed by the King (Article 87). It is generally assumed that this also fulfills the demand of signature by Article 47. The affirmation needs sign and ministerial countersign but also the older Royal", "government may release a White paper containing particular proposals that will eventually be incorporated into a bill; this has been done for legislation such as the Universities and University Colleges Act.\nAlthough the process above assumes only the government can propose bills, there also exists a process for Private Member's Bills. However, as in most other legislatures following the Westminster System, few members of Parliament actually introduce bills. To present a Private Member's Bill, the member in question must seek the leave of the House in question to debate the bill before it is moved. Originally, it was allowed to debate", "are debated, and newspapers are rarely provided with copies of the bills before they are debated. In some cases, such as a 1968 amendment to the Constitution, an MP may be presented with a bill to be debated on the same day it is tabled, and all three readings may be carried out that day itself. In rare circumstances, the government may release a White paper containing particular proposals that will eventually be incorporated into a bill; this has been done for legislation such as the Universities and University Colleges Act.\nAlthough the process above assumes only the government can propose", "as passed in the two Houses, and, correcting any errors that may be discovered in the enrolled bills, make their report forthwith to their respective Houses.\nAn enrolled bill or resolution is the form of a measure finally agreed to by both chambers of Congress. This is different than an engrossed measure, which refers to the form a bill takes when it first passes its chamber of origin, including any amendments, before being referred to the second chamber for concurrence. Today, enrollment occurs in the chamber where the measure originated and is carried out by enrolling clerks under the supervision of", "the members of that House present and voting. This is known as special majority. There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses. The Bill, passed by the required majority, is then presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill. If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the provision to article 368, it must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one-half of the States. Although there is no prescribed time limit for ratification, it must be completed before", "but they are used in moral issues: the bills to decriminalise homosexuality and abortion were Private Members' Bills, for example. Governments can sometimes attempt to use Private Members' Bills to pass things it would rather not be associated with. \"Handout bills\" are bills which a government hands to MPs who win Private Members' Ballots.\nEach Bill goes through several stages in each House. The first stage, called the first reading, is a formality. At the second reading, the general principles of the bill are debated, and the House may vote to reject the bill, by not passing the motion \"That the", "United States House Committee on Rules Jurisdiction When a bill is reported out of one of the other committees, it does not go straight to the House floor (where a bill is talked about), because the House, unlike the United States Senate, does not have unlimited debate and discussion on a bill. Instead, what may be said and done to a bill is strictly limited. This limitation is performed by the Rules Committee.\nWhen a bill is reported out of another committee with legislative jurisdiction, it is placed on the appropriate House Calendar for debate. Common practice, though, is for bills", "22, 2017. Pre-conference vote The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican of Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party-line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly-party line vote of 227–205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. On the same day, companion legislation passed the Senate Finance Committee, again on a party-line vote, 14–12. On November 28, the legislation", "is required per Article 368. Bill in the other House After the Bill is passed by one House of the parliament, it is sent to the other House for concurrence with a message to that effect, and there also it goes through the stages described above, except the introduction stage. If a Bill passed by one House is amended by the other House, it is sent back to the originating House for approval. If the originating House does not agree with the amendments, it shall be that the two houses have disagreed. The other House may keep a money", "between them so that the identical bill can be passed by both houses.\nWhen a bill has passed both houses in identical form, it is enrolled. The \"enrolled\" copy is the official bill, which, after it becomes law, is kept by the Secretary of State for reference in the event of any dispute as to its exact language. The bill is then ready for transmittal to the Governor. Presentation to the governor Once a bill reaches the governor, he or she may sign it, which completes its enactment into law. From this point, the bill becomes an act, and remains", "by the presiding officer.\nA proposed petition, motion or bill can be introduced into either house, but in practice most are introduced into the Legislative Assembly. Any statute bill, with the exception of bills appropriating money for the ordinary annual services of government, must be passed by both Houses before being presented to the Governor, who will sign the Bill into law on behalf of the Queen. Ordinary appropriation bills need only be passed by the Legislative Assembly before being presented to the Governor for royal assent.\nThe parliamentary process extends beyond each chamber in turn. Proposed bills and motions will usually", "bill follows the same legislative process as a government bill, but the time allocated for its consideration is restricted. Private Members' Bills may be considered only during one of the daily Private Members' Hours. Under rules established in 1986, 20 items of private members' business are selected at random to receive priority in debate. Six of these items are chosen by a committee to be votable and must come to a vote in the House. Prior to the 1986 rules, private members' bills and motions could be \"talked out\", meaning that all the time allocated to private members' bills", "popular initiative, or through a motion supported by at least one-third of the members of the Federal Council. In practice, most bills are proposed by the cabinet and passed after mere token debate. Bills passed by the National Council are sent to the Federal Council for affirmation. If the Federal Council approves of the bill or simply does nothing for a period of eight weeks, the bill has succeeded. Bills passed by both houses (or passed by the National Council and ignored by the Federal Council) are ultimately signed into law by the federal president. The president does not have", "Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives. In practice, the Senate sometimes circumvents this requirement by substituting the text of a revenue bill previously passed by the House with a substitute text. Either House may amend any bill, including revenue and appropriation bills.\nThis clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed", "could be used up introducing or debating bills without them ever being voted on, as each bill must be voted on after the second hour of debate. (The ramifications of the 1986 rules were discussed in the Canadian Parliamentary Review, 1988, Vol 11, No. 3.) Even under the new rules, very few private member's bills become law. But passage is more likely in minority government situations. The vast majority of private members' bills that actually do become law are for the purpose of changing the name of the riding represented by the MP introducing the bill.\nWhen an election is called,", "in the Spring of 2019. Lawmakers used it to decide on their legislative priorities for the coming two years, selecting among 107 possible bills. Each member was given 100 virtual tokens that would allow them to put either 9 votes on one bill (as 81 virtual tokens represented 9 votes for one bill) and 3 votes on another bill or 5 votes each (25 virtual tokens) on 4 different bills. In the end, the winner was Senate Bill 85, the Equal Pay for Equal Work Act, with a total of 60 votes. Through the Quadratic Voting System, it was much", "of legislation Before any law is passed, it is first introduced in Parliament as a draft known as a bill. The majority of bills are promulgated by the government of the day. It is rare for government bills to be defeated (the first to be defeated in the 20th century was in 1998). It is also possible for individual MPs to promote their own bills, called member's bills; these are usually put forward by opposition parties, or by MPs who wish to deal with a matter that parties do not take positions on. All bills must go through three readings", "bill, having been passed by both houses in identical form, is ready for enrollment. Another possibility is that the house of origin may adopt a motion to non-concur in the amendment, at which point the bill dies. Finally, the house of origin may refuse to accept the amendment but request that a conference committee be appointed. The other house usually agrees to the request, and the presiding officer of each house appoints members to the conference committee. Conference committees A conference committee is empaneled to discusses the points of difference between the two houses' versions of the same bill, and", "member voted. The votes are electronically recorded in both houses.\nIf a majority of the members who are present and voting in each house vote against a bill, it fails passage. If the majority vote in favor of the bill, its approval is recorded as passing. If amendments are adopted, the bill is sent to the Enrolling and Engrossing Department of that house for engrossment. Engrossment is the process of incorporating amendments into the bill before transmittal to the second house. Transmission to second house A bill that is passed in one house is transmitted, along with a formal message,", "decide which bills they will introduce during the legislative session (or most of them) prior to its commencement, limiting the ability of members to introduce new bills at constituent request once the legislative session has begun.\nMost bills adopted by the General Assembly include a \"safety clause\" (i.e. a legislative declaration that the bill concerns an urgent matter) and take effect on July 1 following the legislative session unless otherwise provided. Some bills are enacted without a \"safety clause\" which makes it possible to petition to subject those bills to a referendum before they take effect, and have an effective date", "Session) put names into a ballot, and those who win are given time to propose a bill. The Ten Minute Rule is another method, where MPs are granted ten minutes to outline the case for a new piece of legislation. Standing Order 57 is the third method, which allows a bill to be introduced without debate if a day's notice is given to the Table Office. Filibustering is a danger, as an opponent of a bill can waste much of the limited time allotted to it. Private Members' Bills have no chance of success if the current government opposes them," ]

[ "Because it is easier to cut a round magnifier than a rectangular one, also, most cameras are not fixed lens, which means they have interchangeable lenses, it is easier to connect something using a thread than clasps, round objects take to threads easier than rectangular object. It has nothing to do with the final shape of the image why lenses are round. The reason why the image is rectangular is because the sensor and film cells is rectangular, if the focal pattern created by the lens is smaller than the sensor or film cell you get a grayish black circular outline, anything larger will expose the entire area thus no circular outline.", "The detector inside your camera - the actual device that detects and records the image - is rectangular.", "Lenses are round because:\n\n1. It's much easier to grind glass into a round lens than a square one, and\n2. The lens elements must slide relative to each other to focus and zoom. The easiest way to do this is with screw-style threads, which require the lenses to rotate. If we used square lenses, they'd need more complicated linear bearings and linear actuators to slide without rotating out of position.\n\nThe pictures come out rectangular because that's the shape of the film or sensor inside the camera. The shape is roughly similar to what the human eye can see, so pictures feel natural to us.", "I know this has been answered before, and it looks like there are plenty of answers below regarding the roundness of the lens, but seriously, printing round photos would be a huge pain in the ass. Paper comes in rectangles, printing machines feed rectangles, it is easily cut into smaller rectangles, less waste, etc...", "This question is asked weekly, see rule 1 of eli5!\n\nBut as others have said, quadrilateral sensor/film, and the glass is rounded because this allows for magnification, more balanced light (ie less vignetting), a wider viewing angle and a couple of other benefits to do with reflection and refraction." ]

[ "fact that the lens is separated from the camera body, there is little flare or fogging, and this can be avoided by placing a foam rubber 'donut' between the lens and camera body. Using a lens made for a medium-format camera will provide wider coverage, and therefore more scope for tilting the lens still further off-axis, with a capacity to focus closer and less likelihood of flare and light leaks, as the back of the lens will in most cases be larger than the lens mount.\nA commercial option is the Lensbaby, although it does not permit the same degree of", "at the top than the bottom: lines that are parallel in the object converge in the image.\nTo avoid this apparent distortion, a wide-angle lens gets more of the building in, but includes more of the foreground and alters the perspective. A camera with rising front lets a normal lens be raised to include the top of the building without tilting the camera.\nThis requires that the image circle of the lens be larger than is required to cover the film without use of movements. If the lens can produce a circular image just large enough to cover the film, it can't", "to expand the distance between objects.\nAnother result of using a wide angle lens is a greater apparent perspective distortion when the camera is not aligned perpendicularly to the subject: parallel lines converge at the same rate as with a normal lens, but converge more due to the wider total field. For example, buildings appear to be falling backwards much more severely when the camera is pointed upward from ground level than they would if photographed with a normal lens at the same distance from the subject, because more of the subject building is visible in the wide-angle shot.\nBecause different lenses", "the plane of sharp focus as well as parallel to the film. With forward tilt, the plane of sharp focus tilts even more and the near and far limits of acceptable focus form a wedge shape (viewed from the side). Thus, the lens still sees a cone shaped portion of whatever is in front of it while the wedge of acceptable focus is now more closely aligned with this cone. Therefore, depending on the shape of the subject, a wider aperture can be used, lessening concerns about camera stability due to slow shutter speed and diffraction due to too-small aperture.\nTilting", "axis front tilt, here are the trade offs in choosing between a small degree of tilt (say less than 3) and a larger tilt: A small tilt causes a wider or fatter wedge but one that is far off axis from the cone of light seen by the lens. Conversely, a large tilt (say 10 degrees) makes the wedge more aligned with the lens view, but with a narrower wedge. Thus, a modest tilt is often, or even usually, the best starting point.\nSmall and medium format cameras have fixed bodies that do not allow for misalignment of the film and", "by using a swing-lens camera with a standard focal length lens. The FT-2 has a 50 mm while most other 35 mm swing lens cameras use a wide-angle lens, often 28 mm]. Full rotation Rotating panoramic cameras, also called slit scan or scanning cameras are capable of 360° or greater degree of rotation. A clockwork or motorized mechanism rotates the camera continuously and pulls the film through the camera, so the motion of the film matches that of the image movement across the image plane. Exposure is made through a narrow slit. The central part of the image field produces a very sharp", "the nose appear too large with respect to the rest of the face, and distorting the facial expression. Framing the same subject identically while using a moderate telephoto or long focus lens (with a narrow angle of view) flattens the image to a more flattering perspective. It is for this reason that, for a 35 mm camera, lenses with focal lengths from about 85 through 135 mm are generally considered to be good portrait lenses. It does however make difference, whether the photograph is taken landscape or portrait. A 50 mm lens is suitable for photographing people when the orientation is landscape. Conversely,", "can be tilted between the front of the lens and the film plane of the camera, making the top and bottom, or both sides of the image drop focus. Usually the same lens has both tilt and shift capability but only tilting is needed for the miniature effect. \nWith tilting, the top and bottom of tall buildings/objects often appear incorrectly out of focus because the blurring of the image is not based on the distance from the lens to the subject, as true DOF does. To accurately recreate miniature DOF with full-scale cinematography, depending on the distance to, and the", "is usually very small.\nSome manufacturers (e.g. Linhof) have offered special focusing lens mounts, so-called 'wide-angle focusing devices' for their cameras that allow the lens to be focused precisely without moving the entire front standard.", "fully fitting in the perforation (the \"little pin\" is not fully fitting in width, but is fully fitting in height; this difference accommodates slight changes in the dimensions of the film media due to changes in relative humidity and possibly other factors such as media age).\nThis system is employed primarily in high-end \"professional\" cameras in the West. In the East (the former Soviet Union and its former Satellites), a single registration pin, corresponding to the \"big pin\", is employed along with side pressure.\nAdditionally, Western \"professional\" cameras always employ Bell and Howell (BH) pins whereas Eastern \"professional\" cameras generally employ Kodak", "rate as with a normal lens, but converge more due to the wider total field. For example, buildings appear to be falling backwards much more severely when the camera is pointed upward from ground level than they would if photographed with a normal lens at the same distance from the subject, because more of the subject building is visible in the wide-angle shot.\nBecause different lenses generally require a different camera–subject distance to preserve the size of a subject, changing the angle of view can indirectly distort perspective, changing the apparent relative size of the subject and foreground. Wide-angle lenses for", "panoramic image. When used with a non full frame digital SLR camera like the Nikon D90 or Canon digital Rebel and similar cameras, 4-shots are required with the camera in the portrait position. The resulting image will have the left and right sides cropped off each of the 4 images and each of the four corners, creating a rounded image. Hardware Cameras with one lens\nThese models are used with a fisheye lens. The lens bends the angle of the shot to take a larger radius of the selected subject. It is not possible to take a complete 360-degree picture", "they were taken such that the right camera is only offset horizontally compared to the left camera (not being moved towards the object or rotated), then each pixel's epipolar line is horizontal and at the same vertical position as that pixel. However, in general settings (the camera did move towards the object or rotate) the epipolar lines are slanted. Image rectification warps both images such that they appear as if they have been taken with only a horizontal displacement and as a consequence all epipolar lines are horizontal, which slightly simplifies the stereo matching process. Note however, that rectification does", "Photography triplet Ordering and time line Images are usually located from left to right with oldest (in terms of story) on left and newest on right side. For vertical triplet, older image is usually on the top and more recent on bottom. When photos are not related in time, then they are arranged to be most pleasant to viewer's eye (such as dark to bright) or using some logical arrangements.", "pictures taken in the dark with small bright spots, for example night cityscapes. Some cameras, such as the Olympus XA or lenses such as the MC Zenitar-ME1, however, use a two-bladed diaphragm with right-angle blades creating a square aperture.\nSimilarly, out-of-focus points of light (circles of confusion) appear as polygons with the same number of sides as the aperture has blades. If the blurred light is circular, then it can be inferred that the aperture is either round or the image was shot \"wide-open\" (with the blades recessed into the sides of the lens, allowing the interior edge of the", "lens used. However, since wide-angle lenses have a wider field of view, they are generally used from closer, while telephoto lenses have a narrower field of view and are generally used from farther away. For example, if standing at a distance so that a normal lens captures someone's face, a shot with a wide-angle lens or telephoto lens from the same distance will have exactly the same linear perspective geometry on the face, though the wide-angle lens may fit the entire body into the shot, while the telephoto lens captures only the nose. However, crops of these three images with", "of the bed to fold onto the back of the nested box. In addition to having increased portability, the camera had a faster lens, bringing exposure times down to 3 minutes, and a prism at the front of the lens, which allowed the image to be laterally correct. Another French design emerged in 1841, created by Marc Antoine Gaudin. The Nouvel Appareil Gaudin camera had a metal disc with three differently-sized holes mounted on the front of the lens. Rotating to a different hole effectively provided variable f-stops, allowing different amounts of light into the camera. Instead of using nested", "usually just covers the image frame, a lens that provides tilt or shift must allow for displacement of the lens axis from the center of the image frame, and consequently requires a larger image circle than a standard lens of the same focal length. Applying camera movements On a view camera, the tilt and shift movements are inherent in the camera, and many view cameras allow a considerable range of adjustment of both the lens and the camera back. Applying movements on a small- or medium-format camera usually requires a tilt–shift lens or perspective control lens. The former allows tilt,", "1/100th the distance to the screen, or less.\nAs the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, but the projected image becomes dimmer. With too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction.\nIn practice, camera obscuras use a lens rather than a pinhole (as in a pinhole camera) because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus.\nIf the image is caught on a semi-transparent screen, it can be viewed from the back so that it is no longer reversed (but still upside-down).\nUsing mirrors it is possible to project a right-side-up image. The projection can", "cameras used the square 6×6 cm format which did not require the camera to be rotated for photographs in portrait orientation, problematical with large and heavy cameras when tripod-mounted. Like the Linhof Technika the RB67 had a rotating back which enabled photographs to be taken in either landscape or portrait orientation without rotating the camera, at the expense of additional weight and bulk. The RB67 soon became widely used by professional studio photographers. The 6x7 frame had been introduced and patented by Linhof (56 x 72mm) and was described as being ideal, as the negatives required very little cropping to", "angle lenses (meaning lenses with focal length much shorter than the format diagonal and producing a wide field of view) need to be mounted close to the film. However, SLR cameras require that lenses be mounted far enough in front of the film to provide space for the movement of the mirror (the \"mirror box\"); about 40 mm for a 35mm SLR compared to less than 10 mm in non-SLR 35mm cameras. This prompted the development of wide field of view lenses with more complex retrofocus optical designs. These use very large negative front elements to force back-focus distances long enough to", "Box camera A box camera is a simple type of camera, the most common form being a cardboard or plastic box with a lens in one end and film at the other. They were sold in large numbers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The lenses are often single element designs meniscus fixed focus lens, or in better quality box cameras a doublet lens with minimal (if any) possible adjustments to the aperture or shutter speeds. Because of the inability to adjust focus, the small lens aperture and the low sensitivity of the sensitive materials available, these cameras", "building while keeping the sides of the building parallel. The lens can also be shifted in the opposite direction and the camera tilted up to accentuate the convergence for artistic effect.\nShifting a lens allows different portions of the image circle to be cast onto the image plane, similar to cropping an area along the edge of an image.\nAgain, view camera users usually distinguish between vertical movements (rise and fall) and lateral movements (shift or cross), while small- and medium-format users often refer to both types of movements as \"shift\". Lens image circle Whereas the image circle of a standard lens", "necessary for posed shots (and primes are lighter, cheaper, faster, and higher quality), and because zoom lenses can introduce highly unflattering geometric distortion (barrel distortion or pincushion distortion). However, zoom lenses may be used, particularly in candid shots or to encourage creative framing.\nPortrait lenses are often relatively inexpensive, because they can be built simply, and are close to the normal range. The cheapest portrait lenses are normal lenses (50mm), used on a cropped sensor. For example, the Canon EF 50mm f/1.8 II is the least expensive Canon lens, but when used on a 1.6× cropped sensor yields an 80mm equivalent", "Plate camera The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers used sensitised glass plates were plate cameras. Light entered a lens mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by an extendible bellows.There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color photography (Autochrome Lumière). Many of these cameras had controls to raise or lower the lens and to tilt it forwards or backwards to control perspective.\nFocusing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glass screen at the point of focus. Because lens design", "such ambitious specifications, these have quite complex constructions, using multiple aspheric elements and often anomalous-dispersion glass. In this example pincushion and barrel distortion can be corrected in the camera firmware as well. The ability to fit such a wide zoom range in one single small-diameter lens makes lens interchangeability for the purposes of focal length (as opposed to performance in low light or image quality) redundant for most photographers. Most bridge cameras allow the use of secondary lenses to improve wide-angle, telephoto or macro capabilities. These secondary lenses typically screw onto the front of the primary lens either directly", "in architectural photography. Generally, the lens is moved vertically—either up or down—along the lens plane to change the portion of the image captured on the film. In the 35 mm format, special shift lenses (sometimes called perspective control lenses) emulate the rise or fall of view cameras.\nThe main effect of rise is to eliminate converging parallels when photographing tall buildings. If a camera without movements is pointed at a tall building, the top is off. If the camera is tilted upwards to get it all in, the film plane is not parallel to the building, and the building seems narrower", "subjects. Some models, such as the Arca Swiss F-Line, are more compact and designed for field use, still retaining generous movements; however the F-Line cameras still weigh about 3 kg.\nMonorail cameras have capabilities that most other cameras do not. Both the lens and the film planes are separate and can be moved independently. By moving the front of the camera, the lens plane, independently of the rear which houses the film, the photographer can alter the depth-of-field (actually, the plane of sharp focus) without changing the perspective of the image. The converse is also true. The rear of the camera, which", "with rectilinear distortion – straight lines were imaged as curved. This distortion was a pressing problem as architecture was an important photography subject early on. In addition, photographs of exotic places (especially in stereoscope form) were a popular means to see the world from the comfort of one's home – the picture postcard is a mid-19th century invention. The distortion got progressively worse as the field of view increased, which meant the Achromat Landscape could not be used as a wide-angle lens.\nThe first successful wide-angle lens was the Harrison & Schnitzer Globe (USA) of 1862, although with a f/16 maximum", "operator the boundaries of the frame or the center reticle, or any other important information. Because the ground glass is positioned between the mirror shutter and the viewfinder, it does not interfere with the image reaching the film and is therefore not recorded over the final image, but rather serves as a reference for the camera operator.\nGround glasses commonly serve as a framing reference for a desired aspect ratio. Because most films shot with spherical lenses are shot full-frame and later masked during projection to a more widescreen aspect ratio, it is important not only for the operator to be" ]

[ "The majority of countries have signed and ratified [the Outer Space Treaty](_URL_0_) which states among other things:\n\n > Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States \nin the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including \nthe Moon and Other Celestial Bodies'\n\n...\n\n > Outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;\n\n > Outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;\n\n[This map](_URL_1_) shows those that have signed and ratified in green and signers only in yellow.\n\nRatification basically means that the government has agreed that the one signing it had the right to do it.", "> American planted a flag on it, does that count for anything?\n\nThe era is long gone when land could be claimed simply by sticking into it a pole with a piece of cloth on it. I'm not sure that era ever existed, actually.\n\nThe flag they planted on the moon was just a statement to say \"We were here.\" Regarding the first moon landing specifically, the importance of that flag had more to do with the fact that the US and the USSR had been racing to be the first nation to put a man on the moon. The USSR actually won most of the stages -- first artificial satellite in orbit, first man in space -- but it was the US that surged forward to cross the finish line first. I think they probably earned the right to leave a little reminder of their victory." ]

[ "Private island A private island is a disconnected body of land wholly owned by a single private citizen or corporation. Although this exclusivity gives the owner substantial control over the property, private islands remain under the jurisdiction of national and sometimes local governments. Ownership Virtually all islands in the world are claimed and governed by some national government. That nation's laws apply, and any attempt by the owner to claim sovereignty would generally be unrealistic. Nevertheless, some people still try to set up their own micronations on islands, like real-estate millionaire Michael Oliver's attempt at building a libertarian city-state called", "of individuals can own shares in corporations and other legal entities, but do not necessarily own the entities themselves. A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if it were an individual for certain purposes.\nSome duly incorporated entities may not be owned by individuals nor by other entities; they exist without being owned once they are created. Not being owned, they cannot be bought and sold. Mutual life insurance companies, credit unions, foundations and cooperatives, not for profit organizations, and public corporations are examples of this. No person", "or incorporeal, tangible or intangible, real or personal, and includes any interest that has an exchangeable value or that goes to make up wealth or estate. In 2015 the Supreme Court confirmed that the taking of personal property is subject to the same level of scrutiny as a taking of real property. Vested contract rights are property, whether the obligor be a private individual, a municipality, a state, or the United States. A number of states have even adopted state constitutional provisions clarifying that a taking occurs when property is not only taken directly, but where the property interest is", "direct ownership, even if it is not clear in their respective constitutions, include Germany, Switzerland, France, possibly Spain and in the future, Russia.\nIn the United States the Federal Government owns about one third of the land of the country. But it does so as a landowner on a legal par with any other landowner and without a superior right to any land other than that endorsed on deeds as the property of the Federal Government. As a government the Federal Authorities and other public bodies do possess the right, sometimes called 'eminent domain', to acquire privately owned land for public", "criminal law, and everything from marriage to divorce to murder is infinitely negotiable; the culture of the Moon's elite features polysexual and polyamorous relationships accented with cocktails, designer drugs, and 3D printed vintage couture. The Moon is controlled by five families, dubbed the Five Dragons: the Australian Mackenzies dominate mineral extraction, the Asamoahs of Ghana control a vast underground agricultural industry, the Russian Vorontsovs run the transportation systems, the Suns of China are masters of technology, and the upstart Brazilian Cortas mine helium-3 to power Earth's fusion reactors. These families, and all citizens of the Moon, operate under contracts granted", "equity markets. Apollo Management chose a slightly different path, by completing a private placement of shares in its management company in July 2007. By pursuing a private placement rather than a public offering, Apollo would be able to avoid much of the public scrutiny applied to Blackstone and KKR. In November 2007, Apollo was able to realize additional value from the sale of a 9% ownership interest in its management company to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA). Ultimately, in April 2008, Apollo would file with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to permit some holders of its privately", "Resorts, Walter Industries, Culligan and Samsonite.\nEarly on, Apollo made a name for itself by acquiring interests in companies that Drexel had helped finance by purchasing high-yield bonds from failed savings and loans and insurance companies. Apollo acquired several large portfolios of assets from the U.S. government's Resolution Trust Corporation. One of Apollo's earliest and most successful deals involved the acquisition of Executive Life Insurance Company's bond portfolio. Using this vehicle, Apollo would purchase the Executive Life portfolio, generating tremendous profits when the value of high yield bonds recovered, but also resulting in a variety of state regulatory", "title documents that show the ownership and transfer rights of that property after a person's death (for example, motor vehicles, boats, etc.) In many cases, however, tangible personal property will not be \"titled\" in an owner's name and is presumed to be whatever property he or she was in possession of at the time of his or her death. Other distinctions Accountants also distinguish personal property from real property because personal property can be depreciated faster than improvements (while land is not depreciable at all). It is an owner's right to get tax benefits for chattel, and there are businesses", "costs of private companies could make possible a lunar settlement that might be instantiated with an investment of \"single-digit billions\", perhaps US$2–3 billion. Founders include Steve Jurvetson, Will Marshall, Chelsea Robinson, Jessy Kate Schingler, Chris Hadfield, and Pete Worden. Initial funding for Open Lunar was US$5 million. Lunar water ice On September 24, 2009, Science magazine reported that the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M³) on the Indian Space Research Organization's (ISRO) Chandrayaan-1 had detected water on the Moon. M³ detected absorption features near 2.8–3.0 μm (0.00011–0.00012 in) on the surface of the Moon. For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed", "police officers, and parliamentarians), the guardian of foster children (Crown wards), as well as the owner of all state lands (Crown land), buildings and equipment (Crown held property), state owned companies (Crown corporations), and the copyright for government publications (Crown copyright). This is all in his or her position as sovereign, and not as an individual; all such property is held by the Crown in perpetuity and cannot be sold by the sovereign without the proper advice and consent of his or her relevant ministers.\nThe Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crown's", "property). In civil law systems, contract and tort fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is dealt with under statutory regimes or international conventions. International, constitutional and administrative law, criminal law, contract, tort, property law and trusts are regarded as the \"traditional core subjects\", although there are many further disciplines. Constitutional and administrative law Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have", "socially significant tasks. The activities of each corporation are described in a special federal law. Assets transferred to a state corporation are not state property from the legal point of view. Under the law \"On Noncommercial Organizations\", property transferred to as the investment in a partnership is the property of the partnership. The partnership itself is no one's property. It manages its assets as described in its charter. The rights of the founder are considerable in the partnership, but they are still not ownership rights. There is only one founder in a state corporation, and it is the Russian Federation.", "is not a judicial body; according to constitutional lawyer José Vicente Haro, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled in 2011, after Leopoldo López was barred from holding office, that an administrative body cannot disallow a public servant from running. Constitutional law expert Juan Manuel Raffalli stated that Article 65 of Venezuela's Constitution provides that such determinations may only be made by criminal courts, after judgment of criminal activity. The decision would also breach Guaidó's parliamentary immunity.\nOn 1 April 2019, TSJ supreme justice Maikel Moreno (a political ally of Maduro) asked that the Constituent National Assembly (ANC), \"controlled by Chavismo\"", "issues for Apollo and Credit Lyonnais over the purchase. More than a decade after the purchase, in 2002, California Attorney General Bill Lockyer accused Apollo, Leon Black, and an investor group led by French bank Credit Lyonnais of illegally acquiring the assets and bond portfolio of Executive Life Insurance Co. in 1991. According to the State of California, Lion allegedly violated a California law that prohibited foreign government-owned banks from owning California insurance companies.\nIn 1993, Apollo Real Estate Advisers was founded in collaboration with William Mack to seek opportunities in the U.S. property markets. Apollo Real Estate Investment", "se; that they have a common purpose which is not business; and that there must have been a moment in time when a number of persons came together to form the association. Nature of held rights There have been several theories proposed as to how rights, such as assets, are held by voluntary associations. Unlike legal persons, voluntary associations are incapable of holding rights themselves.\nThe first, and oldest, is that rights transferred to a voluntary association are held by the current members of the association as joint tenants or tenants in common. This has the result that the member can", "a house or a car in a private non-office related capacity.\nThe sovereign's status as a corporation sole ensures that all references to the Queen, the King, Her Majesty, His Majesty, and the Crown are all synonymous and refer to exactly the same legal personality over time. While natural persons who serve as sovereign may pass on, the sovereign never dies in law, thus it is the corporate nature of the office of sovereign that ensures that the authority of the state continues uninterrupted as successive persons occupy the office. Subsequently, the sovereign is made a corporation sole to prevent the", "a corporation, in which several parts share the authority of the whole, with the sovereign as the person at the centre of the constitutional construct, meaning all powers of state are constitutionally reposed in the monarch. The constitution requires most of the Queen's domestic duties to be performed by the governor-general, appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister of Barbados.\nAll institutions of government are said to act under the sovereign's authority; the vast powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the Royal Prerogative. Parliamentary approval is not required for the exercise of the", "government contracts are protected under U.S. copyright law. The holdership of the copyright depends on the terms of the contract and the type of work undertaken. Contract terms and conditions vary between agencies; contracts to NASA and the military may differ significantly from civilian agency contracts.\nCivilian agencies and NASA are guided by the Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR). There are a number of FAR provisions that can affect the ownership of the copyright. FAR Subpart 27.4—Rights in Data and Copyright provides copyright guidance for the civilian agencies and NASA. Additionally, some agencies may have their own FAR Supplements that they", "constituent documents. If a shareholder does not physically reside in this state, then it is likely that he simply will not find out about this fact. There can be a situation when the company wants to open an office in any country, and according to the legislation of this country it is necessary to confirm the fact of ownership of this company by the shareholder. A shareholder with certificates of bearer shares will not be able to confirm his rights, as his name is not indicated in the certificates.", "a distinction between the concepts of \"private property\" and \"personal possession\". Whereas \"private property\" grants an individual exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not, and regardless of its productive capacity, \"possession\" grants no rights to things that are not in use.\nIn addition to individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker's \"big four\" monopolies (land, money, tariffs, and patents), Kevin Carson argues that the state has also transferred wealth to the wealthy by subsidizing organizational centralization, in the form of transportation and communication subsidies. He believes that Tucker overlooked this issue due to Tucker's focus on individual market transactions,", "collected in The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein (1966), Expanded Universe (1980), and in a Baen edition of \"The Man Who Sold The Moon\" (1987). Reception One particular paragraph from \"Life-Line\" is often quoted in reference to (and criticism of) modern intellectual property rights:\nThere has grown in the minds of certain groups in this country the idea that just because a man or corporation has made a profit out of the public for a number of years, the government and the courts are charged with guaranteeing such a profit in the future, even in the face of changing circumstances and", "Celebrity bond A celebrity bond is commercial debt security issued by a holder of fame-based intellectual property rights to receive money upfront from investors on behalf of the bond issuer and their celebrity clients in exchange for assigning investors the right to collect future royalty monies to the works covered by the intellectual property rights listed in the bond. Typically backed by music properties, the investment vehicle was pioneered in 1997 by rock and roll investment banker David Pullman through his $55 million David Bowie bond deal. Background While a celebrity bond can cover any work of art whose future", "Senate Properties Legal status Senate Properties is an unincorporated, fully state-owned enterprise (Finnish: Liikelaitos). It is unincorporated in the sense that Senate Properties is not a legal person separate from the State, and compared to incorporated companies, the organization has limited jurisdiction over its activities. Finnish government organizations of this type are governed by the Unincorporated State Enterprise Act of 2002 (Laki Valtion Liikelaitoksista (in Finnish)). Finance At the end of 2008, the Finnish government held assets totaling 51.5 billion EUR. Of these assets, 3.8 billion were held in Senate Properties; consisting of 2.6 billion EUR as equity capital, and", "of jurisdiction. Specifically, the degree to which decisions made by a sovereign entity might be contradicted by another authority. Along these lines, the German sociologist Max Weber proposed that sovereignty is a community's monopoly on the legitimate use of force; and thus any group claiming the same right must either be brought under the yoke of the sovereign, proven illegitimate, or otherwise contested and defeated for sovereignty to be genuine. International law, competing branches of government, and authorities reserved for subordinate entities (such as federated states or republics) represent legal infringements on exclusivity. Social institutions such as religious bodies,", "of the United States,\" therefore, ultimately rests on whether the office held has been explicitly delegated part of the \"sovereign power of the United States\". Delegation of \"sovereign power\" means possession of the authority to commit the federal government of the United States to some legal obligation, such as by signing a contract, executing a treaty, interpreting a law, or issuing military orders. A federal judge, for instance, has been delegated part of the \"sovereign power\" of the United States to exercise; while a letter carrier for the United States Postal Service has not. Some very prominent title-holders, including the", "Public property Public property is property that is dedicated to public use and is a subset of state property. The term may be used either to describe the use to which the property is put, or to describe the character of its ownership (owned collectively by the population of a state). This is in contrast to private property, owned by an individual person or artificial entities that represent the financial interests of persons, such as corporations. State ownership, also called public ownership, government ownership or state property, are property interests that are vested in the state, rather than an individual", "rights, or property capable of being owned, bought, and sold, not a subject with rights. In most jurisdictions, there is also a legal distinction between a \"person\" and a \"human being.\" For instance, a corporation can be a legal \"person\" without being a \"human being.\"\nIn 2015, ALFADA pursued the release of Sandra from the Buenos Aires zoo and a legal decision to give her status as a \"person\" through an amparo application in court, which raised the issue of the legal status and rights of the orangutan under the Codigo Civil Argentino or Argentina Civil Code, under articles 30, 31,", "of the crown/sovereign and the individual person who holds it. The Crown can enter into contracts and possess property, and it is in this way that the Crown (state) legally acts as a person. Conceptually speaking, the person of the monarch (office holder) may hold properties privately, distinct from property he or she possesses corporately, and may act as monarch separate from their personal acts. For example, Elizabeth II as a natural person holds several separate offices, such as Queen of the United Kingdom, Queen of Canada, Queen of Australia, Supreme Governor of the Church of England, etc. which are", "That is why the state corporation is independent. It is a set of assets that are managed for purposes established in its charter by managers appointed by the founder. State corporations, as a rule, are subordinate not to the government, but to the Russian president, and act to accomplish some important goal. The state corporations can manage those assets as demanded by the sketchily described goals and tasks of the charters and as allowed by the supervisory council, on which there is no one the president does not trust. United States The U.S. Constitution is silent about the federal government's", "Forces, police officers, and parliamentarians), the guardian of foster children (Crown wards), as well as the owner of all state lands (Crown land), buildings and equipment (Crown held property), state owned companies (Crown corporations), and the copyright for all government publications (Crown copyright). This is all in his or her position as sovereign, and not as an individual; all such property is held by the Crown in perpetuity and cannot be sold by the sovereign without the proper advice and consent of his or her ministers.\nThe monarch is at the apex of the Canadian order of precedence and, as" ]

[ "Because that's not really the way language works. If you heard terror group 203, you'd be scratching your head trying to remember if that was the one in Sri Lanka or the one in Africa. \n\nAlso, its not really much of a satisfaction. A terrorist group is not really out there for the name recognition or to get in the list of who's who among terrorists.", "The same reason the crips dont call the bloods \"gang number 43\"\n\nNumbers are hard to understand and giving them random names doesnt really help as people will give them a name anyway. There is no much use in spiting a terrorist group by *not saying their name*, it only hinders communication.\n\nTerrorist groups are not primary school kids who get upset when you ignore them, they murder innocent civilians, rape and torture, they have millions of dollars in funding and an extensive media branch. They dont care if government officials dont say their name, they will make sure people know their name.", "It's pretty damn difficult to globally decide to call someone something. Who would even decide how to do that? It's not like we have some International Society of How Things are Called. \n\nTrust me, calling them by their name is a lot easier, and honestly doesn't do any harm.", "I understand your question which is asking why we legitimise these groups by giving them names they want.\n\nThis happens with ISIS/ISIL and there are several organisations which call them Daesh which sort of translates to 'shit'. Best I could find on it in short time: _URL_0_", "I'm on board with this idea 100 percent, actually. We should form a committee and get the State Department on board. We could charge people to vote on names, and raise money for victims of terror attacks. \n\nFor ISIS, I'd like to suggest ANIS (Atrocity-Naturalizing Indefensible Shitheads)." ]

[ "because one is frustrated,does not make them a potential terrorist.\nTo avoid detection, a terrorist will look, dress, and behave normally until executing the assigned mission. Some claim that attempts to profile terrorists based on personality, physical, or sociological traits are not useful. The physical and behavioral description of the terrorist could describe almost any normal person. the majority of terrorist attacks are carried out by military age men, aged 16–40. Non-state groups Groups not part of the state apparatus of in opposition to the state are most commonly referred to as a \"terrorist\" in the media.\nAccording to the Global Terrorism", "a means to pursue political, religious or ideological aims. This definition is ambiguous, and many groups that refer to themselves as \"freedom fighters\", \"revolutionaries\", \"rebels\" or \"liberators\" are referred to as \"terrorists\" by dissenting parties. Labeling groups as terrorist draws associations with other groups labeled as such even when no direct connection might be present. In 2003, the Philippine government's intention to label the Moro Islamic Liberation Front as a terrorist organization was indicated by the organization to be an escalation of hostilities. It was their belief that by calling their organization a terrorist organization they were being directly compared", "opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. (...) Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization 'terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism.\" For this and for political reasons, many news sources (such as", "violent non-state actor.\nAccording to Ali Khan, the distinction lies ultimately in a political judgment. Pejorative use Having the moral charge in our vocabulary of 'something morally wrong', the term 'terrorism' is often used to abuse or denounce opposite parties, either governments or non-state-groups.\nThose labeled \"terrorists\" by their opponents rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other terms or terms specific to their situation, such as separatist, freedom fighter, liberator, revolutionary, vigilante, militant, paramilitary, guerrilla, rebel, patriot, or any similar-meaning word in other languages and cultures. Jihadi, mujaheddin, and fedayeen are similar Arabic words that have entered the English lexicon.", "Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University, defines \"terrorist acts\" as unlawful attacks for political or other ideological goals, and said:\nThere is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly misleading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless.\nSome groups, when involved in a \"liberation\" struggle, have been called \"terrorists\" by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called", "whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, 'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization terrorist becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is", "described \"terrorists\" as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, and, most commonly, evil. Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights.\nBoth the term and the policies it denotes have been a source of ongoing controversy, as critics argue it has been used to justify unilateral preventive war, human rights abuses and other violations of international law. Precursor to the 11 September attacks The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced back to the Soviet–Afghan War (December 1979 – February 1989). The United States, the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia,", "Some state clearly the kinds of group (\"sub-national\", \"non-state\") or cause (political, ideological, religious) to which they refer. Others merely rely on the instinct of most people when confronted with innocent civilians being killed or maimed by men armed with explosives, firearms or other weapons. None is satisfactory, and grave problems with the use of the term persist. Terrorism is after all, a tactic. The term \"war on terrorism\" is thus effectively nonsensical. As there is no space here to explore this involved and difficult debate, my preference is, on the whole, for the less loaded term \"Militancy\". This is", "existence of any social phenomena by the function they perform. Therefore, terrorism is functional because it joins individuals together in opposition, and brings a sense of belonging to the group opposing it. This feeling of group solidarity would help prevent anomie, which is the stage where people do not need to follow any norms of society in order to survive in society.\nTerrorists, like other criminals, become what is known as a reference point; individuals use a reference point as a standard for evaluation. The norms and rules of society become clearer, and are seen as necessary, in comparison to terrorism.", "terrorists can be recruited without these direct incentives. Probably the most effective call to martyrdom is the opportunity to join a happy band of brothers. Terrorist cells often begin as gangs of underemployed single young men who come together in cafes, dorms, soccer clubs, barbershops, or Internet chat rooms and suddenly find meaning in their lives by a commitment to the new platoon.... Commitment to the group is intensified by religion, not just the literal promise of paradise but the feeling of spiritual awe that comes from submerging oneself in a crusade, a calling, a vision quest, or a jihad.", "the groups, predominantly by Abu Sayyaf and the Rajah Solaiman Movement, two groups that had claimed responsibility for most of the attacks.\nFor brevity, the definition of terrorism used is drawn from the United Nations General Assembly condemnation:\n\"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.\"", "group who endorses acts of terrorism from entering the U.S. This restriction also included the family of such aliens. The definition of \"terrorist activity\" was strengthened to include actions involving the use of any dangerous device (and not just explosives and firearms). To \"engage in terrorist activity\" is defined as committing, inciting to commit or planning and preparing to undertake an act of terrorism. Included in this definition is the gathering of intelligence information on potential terrorist targets, the solicitation of funds for a terrorist organization or the solicitation of others to undertake acts of terrorism. Those who provide knowing", "that terrorists can be anyone who chooses to blindly follow fanatical, charismatic leaders. [...] Our fight is not against certain religions [...but] 'powers of darkness' which are prejudice, hate, ignorance, and fear perpetuated by leaders who history will surely judge by their deeds.\" Schutter claims that she was inspired by God to write the story. \"I got this crazy idea to write a story about a pioneer woman going in a wagon train to the California gold rush, and the train gets attacked by Mormons dressed as Indians [...] The idea wouldn't leave me. I believe it was from God.\"", "terrorist without attribution to qualify specific individuals, groups or events.\" By contrast, the Associated Press does use the term \"terrorist\" in reference to non-governmental organizations who carry out attacks on civilian populations.\nFollowing the September 11 attacks, Reuters global head of news Stephen Jukes reiterated the policy in an internal memo and later explained to media columnist Howard Kurtz (who criticized the policy): \"We all know that one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter, and that Reuters upholds the principle that we do not use the word terrorist... We're trying to treat everyone on a level playing field, however tragic", "without exception now regularly select names for themselves that consciously eschew the word 'terrorism' in any of its forms.\" He cites the JDO as an example of an organisation that has chosen such a name. Positions The JDO is right-wing in its stance on Israeli defense and foreign policy issues. Its positions on issues of Jewish concern in the US are more nuanced, and it has criticized both right-wing and left-wing manifestations of what it sees as anti-Semitism and racism with equal rhetorical fervor. It has worked with both left-wing and right-wing Jews on problems involving bigotry. The", "the United States or other Western countries.\nIt is important to understand when and how the label of terrorism is applied because of its psychological impact as suggested above. The causes, goals, methodology, and strategy of the terrorist mindset is well suited for psychological inquiry and the development of the strategy and tactics used to confront it. Terrorism is an ideology that uses behavioral, emotional, and group dynamics, along with social and psychological principles to influence populations for political purposes. It is a form of psychological warfare. The terrorists are experts in the use of fear, violence, threats of violence and", "\"statesmen\" by similar organizations. Two examples of this phenomenon are the Nobel Peace Prize laureates Menachem Begin and Nelson Mandela. WikiLeaks editor Julian Assange has been called a \"terrorist\" by Sarah Palin and Joe Biden.\nSometimes, states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether or not members of a certain organization are terrorists. For instance, for many years, some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) as terrorists while the IRA was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (the", "current difficulties to define terrorism as follows:\nThere is no general consensus on the definition of terrorism. The difficulty of defining terrorism lies in the risk it entails of taking positions. The political value of the term currently prevails over its legal one. Left to its political meaning, terrorism easily falls prey to change that suits the interests of particular states at particular times. The Taliban and Osama bin Laden were once called freedom fighters (mujahideen) and backed by the CIA when they were resisting the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Now they are on top of the international terrorist lists. Today,", "'the use or threat of serious violence' to advance some kind of 'cause'. Some state clearly the kinds of group ('sub-national', 'non-state') or cause (political, ideological, religious) to which they refer. Others merely rely on the instinct of most people when confronted with an act that involves innocent civilians being killed or maimed by men armed with explosives, firearms or other weapons. None is satisfactory and grave problems with the use of the term persist.\nTerrorism is after all, a tactic. The term 'war on terrorism' is thus effectively nonsensical. As there is no space here to explore this involved and", "but not very often publicized or well articulated, rigid ideology that provides the foundation for their strategy and tactics. Psychologically disturbed terrorists increase the risk of damage to the terror organization's strategic outcomes. As in any organization, mentally disturbed terrorists are a liability and the leaders of terrorist groups are well aware of the risks that these types of persons present. As any good organizational leader, the effective terrorist will try to recruit the best person for the job. It is doubtful that modern terrorist groups would adopt the affirmative action and other hiring practices dictated under employment laws in", "is designed to induce terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols). Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach short- and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states.\nTerrorists attack national symbols, which may negatively affect a government, while increasing the prestige of the given terrorist group or its ideology. Political violence", "Terrorism in Malaysia Definition of terrorism in Malaysia The international community has not been able to come to a universally-accepted definition of terrorism. The difficulty in defining terrorism stem from the fact that it is politically and emotionally charged. The history of terrorism incidence in Northern Ireland, Middle East and South East Asia indicate that terrorism is perpetrated by a group of aggrieved people that see violence as the only means of achieving their political goals. The loose definition of terrorism resulted in the execution of State-sanctioned terrorism as well as acts of terror carried out by militant groups, each", "understandings of terrorism.\nFear of chaos and social disorder is a powerful factor in mobilizing political will to combat potential threats. In the modern context, any group or force with the potential to challenge the existing social order or the political security of the rulers may be considered a form of terrorism, \"to be condemned unrelentingly and suppressed at all costs,\" according to Wong.\nThere is currently no clearly established definition for terrorism either nationally or internationally, though the National People's Congress is in the process of drafting legislation that would clarify the use of the term in Chinese law. The draft", "Specially Designated Terrorist A Specially Designated Terrorist (SDT) is any person who is determined by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury to be a specially designated terrorist under notices or regulations issued by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC).\nThe US government began to use economic sanctions against international terrorists in 1995. The lead agency in the effort has been OFAC, under the U.S. Treasury Department.\nExecutive Order 12947, issued by President Bill Clinton on January 23, 1995, prohibits financial transactions with any SDT. Twelve organizations and 18 people were identified in the Order as threatening disruption of the", "event is unworthy of the Times, and offensive to all people who are committed to humanitarian principles of justice. Related terms Terrorist chic (also known as \"terror chic\" or \"militant chic\") is a more recent and specific variation of the term. It refers to the appropriation of symbols, objects, and aesthetics related to radical militants, usually in the context of pop culture or fashion. When such imagery is deployed subversively, the process exemplifies aestheticization of propaganda. Regardless, because terrorist chic derives its iconography from groups and individuals often associated with violent conflict or terrorism, the term carries a greater pejorative", "carried out by a close clique, composed of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient telecommunications to succeed where others had failed.\nOver the years, much research has been conducted to distill a terrorist profile to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and socio-economic circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists. Some security organizations designate these groups as violent non-state actors. A 2007 study by economist Alan B. Krueger found that terrorists were less likely to come", "describing a group that believes in \"confrontational demonstrations\" and \"nonviolent tactics\" to get across their message of preserving the environment. Another usage example includes 'a militant political activist', drawing attention to behaviours typical of those engaged in intensive political activism. The political protests headed by the Reverend Al Sharpton have been described as militant in nature in The Washington Post.\nThe word \"militant\" is sometimes used to describe groups that do not name or describe themselves as militants, but that advocate extreme violence. In the early 21st Century, members of groups involved in Islamic terrorism such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS", "advance their extremist religious agendas. Such extremist groups can be Christian, Muslims, Jewish, or of any other religious affiliation. Mass media usage Newspapers, magazines, and other information sources may deem militant a neutral term, whereas terrorist or guerrilla conventionally indicates disapproval of the behavior of the individual or organization so labeled, regardless of the motivations for such behavior. Militant, at other times, can refer to anyone not a member of formal armed forces engaging in warfare or serving as a combatant.\nThe mass media sometimes uses the term \"militant\" in the context of terrorism. Journalists sometimes apply the term militant to", "Their leaders are self-appointed. They hate our freedoms--our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote and assemble and disagree with each other.\"\nIn the aftermath of 9/11, public discussion of the causes of terrorism was largely curtailed, which some commentators claimed was an effort to excuse and justify the killing of innocent civilians. Catchphrases – that terrorists were motivated by a hatred of freedom or by a fanaticism inherent to Islam – were prevalent. Arun Kundnani describes the atmosphere as one where \"terrorism became an 'evil ideology' that did not require further analysis.\" By 2004 however, the", "membership is one of the major determinations if individual interpretations of reality, which enables symbolic interactionism to explain crime, and thus terrorism.\nDeviance, which terrorism falls under, can be explained by labeling theory. Labeling theory is “the belief that individuals subconsciously notice how others see or label them, and their reactions to those labels, over time, form the basis of their self-identity.\" Social groups create rules about what is acceptable behavior for people in society. When a rule is broken, society determines if the act was deviant. A person can only become deviant after a social reaction to an act committed" ]

[ "There's very little between your mucus membranes and your blood. In fact, it's the second best of of administering certain drugs (by snorting them, or dissolving them under your tongue).\n\nIt's just some of the chemical \"bleeding\" back through the mucus membranes that makes you taste it.", "I've never gotten a really good answer for this, but I can vouch for it. There's a not small number of people who can taste things through an IV, particularly a PICC line. I've mostly had people mention it with the saline flushes, but that might just be because you use way more of those than the medications.", "The blood is also inside your tongue and you'll taste it once the blood in your tongue carries the new chemical there." ]

[ "Oral administration Facilitating methods Concomitant ingestion of water facilitates in swallowing tablets and capsules. If the substance has disagreeable taste, addition of a flavor may facilitate ingestion. Substances that are harmful to the teeth are preferably given through a straw.", "Sublingual administration Principle When a chemical comes in contact with the mucous membrane beneath the tongue, it is absorbed. Because the connective tissue beneath the epithelium contains a profusion of capillaries, the substance then diffuses into them and enters the venous circulation. In contrast, substances absorbed in the intestines are subject to first-pass metabolism in the liver before entering the general circulation.\nSublingual administration has certain advantages over oral administration. Being more direct, it is often faster, and it ensures that the substance will risk degradation only by salivary enzymes before entering the bloodstream, whereas orally administered drugs", "from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as aspartame (artificial sweetener). Acquired taste An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. Clinical significance Patients with Addison's disease, pituitary insufficiency, or cystic fibrosis sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the five primary tastes.", "“is an important cofactor for alkaline phosphatase, the most abundant enzyme in taste bud membranes; it is also a component of a parotid salivary protein important to the development and maintenance of normal taste buds.” Drugs There are also a wide variety of drugs that can trigger dysgeusia, including zopiclone, H₁-antihistamines, such as azelastine and emedastine. Approximately 250 drugs affect taste. The sodium channels linked to taste receptors can be inhibited by amiloride, and the creation of new taste buds and saliva can be impeded by antiproliferative drugs. Saliva can have traces of the drug, giving rise to a metallic", "for mathematical treatment that will deliver results. Artificial taste The electronic tongue uses taste sensors to receive information from chemicals on the tongue and send it to a pattern recognition system. The result is the detection of the tastes that compose the human palate. The types of taste that is generated is divided into five categories sourness, saltiness, bitterness, sweetness, and umami (savoriness). Sourness, which includes hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and citric acid, is created by hydrogen ions. Saltiness is registered as sodium chloride, sweetness by sugars, bitterness, which includes chemicals such as quinine and caffeine is detected through magnesium", "by the target cells. Factors such as poor compound solubility, gastric emptying time, intestinal transit time, chemical instability in the stomach, and inability to permeate the intestinal wall can all reduce the extent to which a drug is absorbed after oral administration. Absorption critically determines the compound's bioavailability. Drugs that absorb poorly when taken orally must be administered in some less desirable way, like intravenously or by inhalation (e.g. zanamivir). Routes of administration are an important consideration. Distribution The compound needs to be carried to its effector site, most often via the bloodstream. From there, the compound may distribute", "developed taste testing in which the patient responds to different chemical concentrations. This may involve a simple “sip, spit, and rinse” test, or chemicals may be applied directly to specific areas of the tongue.", "drugs helps clear infection and provides immunity to reinfection. Furthermore, a cocktail of H. polygyrus excretory-secretory antigens can be collected, and administered to mice in the presence of alum to induce sterilizing immunity before infection.", "patients are intolerant to the liquid. Adverse effects Many patients are unable to tolerate the taste, even if the diet is flavored, and choose to receive it through intragastric administration. Possible nausea and diarrhea can result from the high sugar content which can also complicate hyperglycaemia in patients with pre-existing diabetes. As a result of suppression of healthy bacteria, via a loss of bacterial food source, prolonged use of an elemental diet elevates the risk of developing clostridium difficile infection/colonisation.", "does not occur in humans. Humans do not synthesize folate, and must acquire it through diet. Pharmacokinetics Absorption\nSulfamethoxazole is well-absorbed when administered topically. It is rapidly absorbed when it is orally administered.\nDistribution\nSulfamethoxazole distributes into most body tissues as well as into sputum, vaginal fluid, and middle ear fluid. It also crosses the placenta. About 70% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins. Its Tmax (or time to reach maximum drug concentration in plasma) occurs 1 to 4 hours after oral administration. The mean serum half-life of sulfamethoxazole is 10 hours. However, the half-life of the drug noticeably increases in", "Ingestion Ingestion is the consumption of a substance by an organism. In animals, it normally accomplished by taking in the substance through the mouth into the gastrointestinal tract, such as through eating or drinking. In single-celled organisms, ingestion can take place through taking the substance through the cell membrane.\nBesides nutritional items, other substances which may be ingested include medication (where ingestion is termed oral administration), recreational drugs, and substances considered inedible such as foreign bodies or excrement. Ingestion is a common route taken by pathogenic organisms and poisons entering the body.\nIngestion can also refer to a mechanism picking", "of a drug substance in humans and directly on the measurement of rates of mass transfer across human intestinal membrane. Alternatively non-human systems capable of predicting drug absorption in humans can be used (such as in-vitro culture methods). A drug substance is considered highly permeable when the extent of absorption in humans is determined to be 90% or more of the administered dose based on a mass-balance determination or in comparison to an intravenous dose.\nFor dissolution class boundaries, an immediate release product is considered rapidly dissolving when no less than 85% of the labeled amount of the drug substance", "adding flavors to a medication or otherwise altering taste or texture. \nCompounding is most routine in the case of intravenous/parenteral medication, typically by hospital pharmacists, but is also offered by privately owned compounding pharmacies and certain retail pharmacies for various forms of medication. Whether routine or rare, intravenous or oral, etc., when a given drug product is made or modified to have characteristics that are specifically prescribed for an individual patient, it is known as \"traditional\" compounding.\nDue to the rising cost of compounding and the shortage of drugs, many hospitals have shown a tendency to rely more upon", "Distinct types of taste receptor cells respectively detect substances that are sweet, bitter, salty, sour, spicy, or taste of umami. Umami receptor cells are the least understood and accordingly are the type most intensively under research. Mastication The tongue is an important accessory organ in the digestive system. The tongue is used for crushing food against the hard palate, during mastication and manipulation of food for softening prior to swallowing. The epithelium on the tongue’s upper, or dorsal surface is keratinised. Consequently, the tongue can grind against the hard palate without being itself damaged or irritated. Speech The intrinsic muscles", "potential route of exposure. Ingestion by hand to mouth is a route of exposure that is less likely compared to others because of the enforced hygienic standard in the health institutions. However, it is still a potential route, especially in the workplace, outside of a health institute. One can also be exposed to these hazardous drugs through injection by needle sticks. Research conducted in this area has established that occupational exposure occurs by examining evidence in multiple urine samples from health care workers. Hazards Hazardous drugs expose health care workers to serious health risks. Many studies show that antineoplastic drugs", "taste, gustatory testing may be performed. Gustatory testing is performed either as a whole-mouth procedure or as a regional test. In both techniques, natural or electrical stimuli can be used. In regional testing, 20 to 50 µL of liquid stimulus is presented to the anterior and posterior tongue using a pipette, soaked filter-paper disks, or cotton swabs. In whole mouth testing, small quantities (2-10 mL) of solution are administered, and the patient is asked to swish the solution around in the mouth.\nThreshold tests for sucrose (sweet), citric acid (sour), sodium chloride (salty), and quinine or caffeine (bitter) are frequently performed", "not remove the bitter taste of the hand sanitizer. In the 24 years Purell has been in business, the accidental or intentional ingestion of its products has been rare. The Chicago Tribune reported that children have become inebriated by ingesting Purell. One child's ingestion of the hand sanitizer caused her blood alcohol level to reach 0.218%; Purell contains 70% ethyl alcohol, while other hand sanitizers contain isopropanol which would likely have been fatal in the same dose. The product packaging recommends that the product be \"kept out of the reach of children\".\nThe product is flammable, which is mentioned in", "deactivated by the liver when they are carried there from the gastrointestinal tract by the hepatic portal vein (the \"first pass effect\"), making them unsuitable for oral use. Drugs which can be taken sublingually are absorbed through the oral mucosa, so that they bypass the liver and are less susceptible to the first pass effect. The oral bioavailability of some drugs may be low due to poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. Such drugs may need to be given in very high doses or by injection. For drugs that need to have rapid onset, or that have severe side effects,", "substances called aglycones (molecules with other sugars are polysaccharides). Preliminary experiments deduce that the tongue's taste receptors react to the glycosides and transduce the sweet taste sensation and the lingering bitter aftertaste by direct activation of sweet and bitter receptors.\nAccording to basic research, steviol glycosides and steviol interact with a protein channel called TRPM5, potentiating the signal from the sweet or bitter receptors, amplifying the taste of other sweet, bitter and umami tastants. The synergetic effect of the glycosides on the sweet receptor and TRPM5 explains the sweetness sensation. Some steviol glycosides (rebaudioside A) are perceived sweeter than others (stevioside).\nSteviol", "Buccal administration Buccal administration is a topical route of administration by which drugs held or applied in the buccal (/ˈbʌkəl/) area (in the cheek) diffuse through the oral mucosa (tissues which line the mouth) and enter directly into the bloodstream. Buccal administration may provide better bioavailability of some drugs and a more rapid onset of action compared to oral administration because the medication does not pass through the digestive system and thereby avoids first pass metabolism.\nAs of May 2014, the psychiatric drug asenapine; the opioid drugs buprenorphine, naloxone, and fentanyl; the cardiovascular drug nitroglycerin; the nausea medication Prochlorperazine; the", "for odor molecules, flows constantly, and is replaced approximately every ten minutes. Taste Taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste.\nThe tongue is covered with thousands", "performed either through inserting a needle or catheter down the mouth and throat, or through surgically exposing the trachea and penetrating it with a needle. Generally, short-acting inhaled anesthetic drugs such as halothane, metaphane, or enflurane are used during the instillation procedure. Saline solution is usually used as a delivery vehicle in a typical volume of 1–2 mL/kg body weight. A wide range of substances can be tested, including both soluble materials and insoluble particles or fibers, including nanomaterials.", "saliva. In addition, patients who undergo radiation therapy also lose salivary tissues. Saliva is an important component of the taste mechanism. Saliva both interacts with and protects the taste receptors in the mouth. Saliva mediates sour and sweet tastes through bicarbonate ions and glutamate, respectively. The salt taste is induced when sodium chloride levels surpass the concentration in the saliva. It has been reported that 50% of chemotherapy patients have suffered from either dysgeusia or another form of taste impairment. Examples of chemotherapy treatments that can lead to dysgeusia are cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, and etoposide. The exact mechanism of chemotherapy-induced dysgeusia", "or a decrease in saliva flow, can be a side effect of many drugs, which, in turn, can lead to the development of taste disturbances such as dysgeusia. Patients can lessen the effects of xerostomia with breath mints, sugarless gum, or lozenges, or physicians can increase saliva flow with artificial saliva or oral pilocarpine. Artificial saliva mimics the characteristics of natural saliva by lubricating and protecting the mouth but does not provide any digestive or enzymatic benefits. Pilocarpine is a cholinergic drug meaning it has the same effects as the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine has the function of stimulating the salivary", "chewable tablets that are taken orally. It is also available in different flavors such as peppermint and fruit flavors such as berries, orange, and cherry.", "can be mixed with certain other drinks in order to dilute any unpleasant taste, being careful that the mixture will not destroy the active substances.\nDepending on the quality of the extraction, the remaining solid matter may have some residual active substances. It can be consumed (being fully hydrated), used in another batch, or discarded.", "with natural stimuli. One of the most frequently used techniques is the \"three-drop test.\" In this test, three drops of liquid are presented to the subject. One of the drops is of the taste stimulus, and the other two drops are pure water. Threshold is defined as the concentration at which the patient identifies the taste correctly three times in a row.\nSuprathreshold tests, which provide intensities of taste stimuli above threshold levels, are used to assess the patient's ability to differentiate between different intensities of taste and to estimate the magnitude of suprathreshold loss of taste. From these tests, ratings", "Drug injection Procedure The drug—usually (but not always) in a powder or crystal form—is dissolved in water, normally in a spoon, tin, bottle cap, the bottom of a soda can, or another metal container. Cylindrical metal containers—sometimes called \"cookers\"—are provided by needle exchange programs. Users draw the required amount of water into a syringe and squirt this over the drugs. The solution is then mixed and heated from below if necessary. Heating is used mainly with heroin (though not always, depending on the type of heroin), but is also often used with other drugs, especially crushed tablets. Cocaine HCl (powdered", "pills, tablets, or capsules. The drug may contain a single or multiple active ingredients.\nThere are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous (into the blood through a vein) and oral administration (through the mouth).\nThey can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously. Frequencies are often abbreviated from Latin, such as every 8 hours reading Q8H from Quaque VIII Hora. Drug discovery In the fields of medicine, biotechnology and pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which new drugs are discovered.\nHistorically, drugs were discovered through identifying the active ingredient from traditional remedies or", "well vascularised. Therefore, a drug molecule can be transferred quickly across the single epithelial cell layer directly to the systemic blood circulation without first-pass hepatic and intestinal metabolism. The effect is often reached within 5 min for smaller drug molecules. Nasal administration can therefore be used as an alternative to oral administration, by crushing or grinding tablets or capsules and snorting or sniffing the resulting powder, providing a rapid onset of effects. If a fast effect is desired or if the drug is extensively degraded in the gut or liver,drugs which are poorly absorbed orally can also be given" ]

[ "Theoretically, yes. Would you want to? No. The clock rate of anything you build is limited to the rate that redstone circuits can change, so whatever game you make is going to run very, very slowly.", "No, minecraft does not load the entire world at the same time any redstone that exists outside this loaded area will not function, a computer capable of making minecraft would be too large to fit within minecrafts loadable area.", "Yes and no. Let's start with 'no'\n\nModern computers capable of generating 3D graphics are too complex to be constructed by hand. It would take too much time. You would need some mods that automate the construction.\n\nI'm not sure what Minecraft's limits are, but there certainly is a limit coded into the game on how many blocks can interact with each other at a given time. I'm fairly sure, it would take more blocks to make a proper computer than that limit. You would need a mod that takes these limitations off. It may not be easy.\n\nEven if you manage the above, there's still a matter of computing power. Making a 'physical' computer inside a computer has been done, but through programs dedicated for it. There exist a bunch of console emulators, from NES to PS3 which do essentially that. However even PS2 emulators require a very, very powerful PC to run smoothly. Running computer emulator through minecraft is even more computing intensive. \n\n----\n\nThat said, it has been done. On a much smaller scale. [Link](_URL_0_)", "In theory? I guess it is possible, people have also built small functioning computers. \n\nIt would require humongous resources and be beyond slow, so it's nowhere near practical, but still possible.\n\nedit: not as advanced as minecraft, but here's someone with a minecraft built paint program. _URL_1_", "Sure, once you have something complex enough to build a [Turing Machine](_URL_2_), it's only a small jump to a Universial Turing Machine. Once you have a UTM, you can perform any calculation that could be performed by any computer.\n\n...but it'll be slow as fuck and far too complicated to actually build by hand.", "There is a name for this. It's called \"Turing complete\" which, generally speaking, means it can do anything a general purpose computer can do. Minecraft with redstone is Turing complete, so can do anything your computer can do, including running Minecraft.", "It's been done.\n\nI'm on a phone, so remind me in a few hours to get the video.\n\nRemind me!", "The speed would be limited by the game's ticks, chunk loading would break it if you don't have both chunk loader mods and an absurdly powerful computer, but yes.", "_URL_3_\nthis is a great short story about a similar kind of thing" ]

[ "the industry.\nWith the introduction of redstone blocks to represent electrical circuits, users have been able to build functional virtual computers within Minecraft. Such virtual creations include a working hard drive, an 8-bit virtual computer, and emulators for the Atari 2600 (including one by YouTube personality SethBling) and Game Boy Advance. In at least one instance, a mod has been created to use this feature to teach younger players how to program within a language set by the virtual computer within a Minecraft world.\nMicrosoft and non-profit Code.org had teamed up to offer Minecraft-based games, puzzles, and tutorials aimed to help teach", "Minecraft allow players to optionally create their own world without other players, and then combine skills from the game to work together with other players and create bigger and more intricate environments. These environments can then be accessed by other players, if the server is available to other players then they may be able to modify parts of it, such as the structure of the environment.\nAt one level, a more or less realistic rendered 3D space like the game world of Halo 3 or Grand Theft Auto V is just as much a big database as Microsoft's Encarta encyclopedia. Use", "Related areas Open world games that feature the ability for players to construct environments from an array of building blocks have often been used by more advanced players to construct logic circuits and more advanced programs from the fundamental blocks. Minecraft is one such example, as while the game provides a limited set of blocks that mimic switches and electric circuits, users have been able to create basic functional computers within the virtual world, and at least one modification is aimed to teach children how to program on the virtual computer in a simplistic language.\nSeveral sites, such as Codecademy, help", "on multiple operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux. Apart from Minecraft: Java Edition and Minecraft for Windows 10, there are other versions of Minecraft for PC, including Minecraft Classic, Minecraft 4K, and Minecraft: Education Edition.\nMinecraft Classic is an older version of Minecraft that was first available online and can be played through the game's launcher.\nUnlike newer versions of Minecraft, the Classic version is free to play, though it is no longer updated. It functions much the same as creative mode, allowing players to build and destroy any and all parts of the world either alone or in a", "can be comparable to legacy computers even on machines with modern parts if the flash drive transfers such speeds. One way to solve this is to use a USB hard drive, as they generally give better performance than flash drives regardless of the connector. Windows Although many live USBs rely on booting an open-source operating system such as Linux, it is possible to create live USBs for Windows by using Diskpart or WinToUSB.", "ability to create objects and areas in a MOO, whereas programmers can also program on the MOO.", "drives can have their contents encrypted using third-party disk encryption software, which can often be run directly from the USB drive without installation (for example, FreeOTFE), although some, such as BitLocker, require the user to have administrative rights on every computer it is run on.\nArchiving software can achieve a similar result by creating encrypted ZIP or RAR files.\nSome manufacturers have produced USB flash drives which use hardware-based encryption as part of the design, removing the need for third-party encryption software. In limited circumstances these drives have been shown to have security problems, and are typically more expensive than software-based systems,", "is inevitable.\nThe core of the game is spent in resource management and researching new technologies for space ships and base improvements. At first it is possible only to mine asteroids before a suitable planetary colony can be discovered and established. A typical game involves manufacturing probes, maintain defenses to fend off the Martian attacks, managing each colony's solar power energy generation, mining for resources on various planets and their moons and control the traffic to and from the Moon. Out of fifteen ingame resources, only silver, uranium, and chromium cannot be obtained by mining the Moon or Asteroid Belt.\nThe only", "possible to construct a computer program so that it does not stay at a fixed address in memory, even as it executes. The Apple Worm is a dynamic self-relocator.", "processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by specific physical barriers: the light barrier, the quantum barrier, and the thermodynamical barrier. These limitations imply, for example, that no computer, however constructed, will ever be able to examine the entire tree of possible move sequences of the game of chess.\" Nonetheless, Bremermann did not foreclose the possibility that a computer would someday be able to solve chess. He wrote, \"In order to have a computer play a perfect or nearly perfect game, it will be necessary either to analyze the game completely ... or to analyze the game", "over general purpose computers. As of 2011, available commercial products claim the ability to test up to 2,800,000,000 passwords a second on a standard desktop computer using a high-end graphics processor. Such a device can crack a 10 letter single-case password in one day. The work can be distributed over many computers for an additional speedup proportional to the number of available computers with comparable GPUs.\nThe emergence of hardware acceleration over the past decade GPU resources to be used to increase the efficiency and speed of a brute force attack. In 2012, Stricture Consulting Group unveiled a 25-GPU cluster", "drivers.\nUnlike One Laptop per Child, the prepared computers do not contain specialized software. Each computer is loaded with educational materials which allows users to learn materials without internet connection.", "Cyberun Gameplay The player controls a spaceship trapped on a planet inhabited by hostile aliens. The goal is to upgrade the spaceship with parts scattered around the planet and mine a valuable element called \"Cybernite\". The atmosphere above ground is populated by flying aliens and clouds that drip acid, damaging the ship's shields. The ship requires fuel to fly, and once exhausted will bounce along the ground of the planet unable to climb. A similar enemy ship is also on the planet attempting to mine the Cybernite before the player. Fuel can be replenished by", "for example. This software can be very simple, such as lighting controls running on an 8-bit microcontroller with a few kilobytes of memory with the suitable level of processing complexity determined with a Probably Approximately Correct Computation framework (a methodology based on randomized algorithms), or can become very sophisticated in applications such as airplanes, missiles, and process control systems. Operating systems Unlike standard computers that generally use an operating systems such as OS X, Windows or GNU/Linux, embedded software may use no operating system, or when they do use, a wide variety of operating systems can be chosen from, typically", "This approach made it easier to build by less skilled hobbyists.\nThe minimal configuration of the computer includes power supply, CPU, 1 KiB of ROM and 1 KiB of RAM, 6 seven-segment displays, 17-key keyboard and a tape interface. This computer can be used as a scientific calculator.\nFull configuration adds a display module with a TV interface and a full keyboard, and a 64 KiB dynamic RAM module.", "PlayStation 4 in 2020. Applications The possible applications of Minecraft have been discussed extensively, especially in the fields of computer-aided design and education. In a panel at MineCon 2011, a Swedish developer discussed the possibility of using the game to redesign public buildings and parks, stating that rendering using Minecraft was much more user-friendly for the community, making it easier to envision the functionality of new buildings and parks. In 2012, a member of the Human Dynamics group at the MIT Media Lab, Cody Sumter, said: \"Notch hasn't just built a game. He's tricked 40 million people into learning to", "file systems allow multiple machines to use a single hard disk safely by coordinating simultaneous access to individual files. These filesystems can be used to allow multiple machines access to the same AoE target without an intermediate server or filesystem (and at higher performance).", "Souls, the control center for the computer.\nThe Well World computer also maintains a \"tech level\" for each of the hexes, making equipment of a higher level simply fail to work. High-tech hexes work as in the \"real\" universe, allowing any device to work. Semi-tech hexes allow simple machines to work, up to about the level of the steam engine, and any device using electricity will not work. Low-tech hexes allow no machines to work, and all effort has to be created by muscles. Even then, there are exceptions; Gedamondas is low-tech, but the Gedamondans can use naturally occurring steam from", "can move freely around the world. Players can \"mine\" blocks and then place them elsewhere, enabling them to build things.\nThe game world is virtually infinite and procedurally generated as players explore it, using a map seed that is obtained from the system clock at the time of world creation (or manually specified by the player). There are limits on vertical movement, but Minecraft allows an infinitely large game world to be generated on the horizontal plane. Due to technical problems when extremely distant locations are reached, however, there is a barrier preventing players from traversing to locations beyond 30,000,000 blocks", "computers. Because of the serial interface to the disk drive, access could be slow if multiple users tried to save at the same time. But it was a cheap stepping-stone on the way to the 380Z server and an entry level network. Application software Many standard CP/M applications were available, such as WordStar. Research Machines also produced their own assembler (ZASM), text editor (TXED) and BASIC interpreter.\nPrograms for the earlier Research Machines 380Z written in high-level languages, such as BASIC, or using only basic CP/M and standard firmware functions, could be run directly on the 480Z. Programs that wrote directly", "it would be possible to use vector outlines to create a similar effect using much less computer storage. After first attempting to write the graphical routines in C, he turned to assembly language. He wrote a polygon routine for the Motorola 68000 on an Atari ST to test his theory, with much success. Later, he found that he could run the code on the Amiga platform and achieve a frame rate of about 20 frames per second, later recognizing this as \"a major turning point in the creation of the game\" and the point where he knew the polygon approach", "example:\nECHO This achieves nothing > NUL\nIt is still possible to create files or directories using these reserved device names, such as through direct editing of directory data structures in disk sectors. Such naming, such as starting a file name with a space, has sometimes been used by viruses or hacking programs to obscure files from users who do not know how to access these locations. Memory management DOS was originally designed for the Intel 8086/8088 processor and therefore could only directly access a maximum of 1 MB of RAM. Due to PC architecture only a maximum of 640 KB (known", "Minecraft Gameplay Minecraft is a 3D sandbox game that has no specific goals to accomplish, allowing players a large amount of freedom in choosing how to play the game. However, there is an achievement system. Gameplay is in the first-person perspective by default, but players have the option for third-person perspective. The game world is composed of rough 3D objects—mainly cubes and fluids, and commonly called \"blocks\"—representing various materials, such as dirt, stone, ores, tree trunks, water, and lava. The core gameplay revolves around picking up and placing these objects. These blocks are arranged in a 3D grid, while players", "the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into small pocket devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as \"computers\". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.\nThe ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum", "architecture computer (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC. High-level languages Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually \"compiled\" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine", "away. This \"sliding block memory\" can be used to simulate a counter, which would be modified by firing gliders at it. It is possible to construct logic gates such as AND, OR and NOT using gliders. One may also build a pattern that acts like a finite state machine connected to two counters. This has the same computational power as a universal Turing machine, so, using the glider, the Game of Life is theoretically as powerful as any computer with unlimited memory and no time constraints: it is Turing complete. Hacker emblem Eric S. Raymond has proposed the glider as", "can be overcome, however, by using a library of pre-compiled subroutines and functions, that one can link to his or her own code written in Fortran, the C programming language or C++. In this way, it is possible to develop fully two-dimensional or three-dimensional CFD or computational fluid dynamics codes that are able to capture fairly realistic geometries.\nThe development of codes like COSILAB is motivated by a worldwide attempt to keep the environment clean and to save—or at least make best use of—the continuously diminishing fossil fuel resources.", "then interpreted by the PowerBuilder run time. Although it can be compiled to machine code (called c-code), a typical business application does not run a lot faster. However, applications which do an unusually large number of CPU-intensive computations are likely to benefit up to 4,000x faster from compiling to machine code. The main reason why compiling to machine code was not used is an enormous number of errors in PowerBuilder especially in machine code generation. Criticism Extensibility of the language was rather limited for older versions of PowerBuilder. The technologies provided to overcome this (ex. PowerBuilder Native Interface, or PBNI)", "thought would be powerful enough to run four games of Spacewar at once; the computer turned out to not actually be powerful enough for the project. While investigating the concept of replacing some of the computer with purpose-built hardware, however, the pair discovered that making a system explicitly for running such a game, rather than general programs, would be much less expensive: as low as $100. By 1971 when Bushnell met with Pitts and Tuck, a prototype version had been successfully displayed for a short time in August 1971 in a local bar, the design was nearly finished, and the", "tiny program loaded at startup from a hard drive's boot sector. Some hard drive manufacturers, such as Western Digital, started including these override utilities with new large hard drives to help overcome these problems. However, if the computer was booted in some other manner without loading the special utility, the invalid BIOS settings would be used and the drive could either be inaccessible or appear to the operating system to be damaged.\nLater, an extension to the x86 BIOS disk services called the \"Enhanced Disk Drive\" (EDD) was made available, which makes it possible to address drives as large as 2⁶⁴" ]

[ "Usually they have an identical binary image on the ground used in a \"hot-bench.\" This is usually a combination of real engineering model hardware, software, and simulation. They make code changes on the ground, test it using the hot-bench, and once it works as expected, they diff the original binary image with the changed image. Each byte difference has a value and an address. The software/hardware supports commands you can send to the vehicle in which you can poke the new values into the known addresses. This is called patching. Of course there is more detail to it than that, but that's the basic gist. \n\nThe \"push of a button\" is misleading. This button causes the ground software to perform well scripted (and heavily reviewed) sequence of events to perform the patch. The sequence includes such things as sending the commands, receiving telemetry to verify the commands executed as expected, and monitoring other sensors and instruments to make sure everything is still nominal during the whole process." ]

[ "that software that is made up of technical and scientific knowledge will be lost without preservation. The project came about because software code is seen as being even more vulnerable to corruption and obsolescence than typical archival holdings like books and other media like video and film.\nThe interface is built using open source code, with an initial focus on search, where end-users search by SHA-1 hashes. The Software Heritage initiative is open to scientific researchers, with the idea that it would be a Library of Alexandria type resource for software. Additionally, Software Heritage will be an infrastructure resource upon which", "source code. All artifacts required to build the project should be placed in the repository. In this practice and in the revision control community, the convention is that the system should be buildable from a fresh checkout and not require additional dependencies. Extreme Programming advocate Martin Fowler also mentions that where branching is supported by tools, its use should be minimised. Instead, it is preferred for changes to be integrated rather than for multiple versions of the software to be maintained simultaneously. The mainline (or trunk) should be the place for the working version of the software. Automate the build", "based on disassembled code must be written by someone other than the person having disassembled and examined the original code, whereas other countries allow both tasks to be performed by the same individual. Consequently, ReactOS clarified that its Intellectual Property Policy Statement requirements on clean room reverse engineering conform to United States law. An internal source code audit was conducted to ensure that only clean room reverse engineering was used, and all developers were made to sign an agreement committing them to comply with the project's policies on reverse engineering. Contributors to its development were not affected by these events,", "possible Source Lines of Code (SLOC) definitions, physical and/or logical. The Differencing functionality can be used to compare two baselines of software systems and determine change metrics: SLOC addition, deletion, modification, and non-modification counts.\nThe UCC toolset is copyright USC Center for Software Engineering but is made available with a Limited Public License which allows anyone to make modifications on the code. However, if they distribute that modified code to others, the person or agency has to return a copy to USC so the toolset can be improved for the benefit of all. Software design The Unified CodeCount (UCC) produces", "by the old versions.\nIn August 2012, version 6 was released as the first version managing MySQL.\nIn May 2017, BOUML is again free of use and the version 7 was released as the first of the new free versions, it is still backward compatible in that version 7 can read project files saved by the old versions. Code generation and reverse engineering BOUML can automatically generate code from the UML class diagrams and rebuild them from existing source code using the following languages: C++, Java, PHP, and MYSQL. It can also generate code for Python and IDL, but not extract the", "code is developed on a public GitHub repository. This allows those with the required expertise and tools to build the most up-to-date version of the code and contribute enhancements in the form of pull requests. Historical version numbers 0.32, and 0.38 through 0.52 inclusively, do not exist; the former was skipped due of similar naming of the MAME32 variant (which itself has since been renamed MAMEUI due to the move to 64-bit builds), while the latter numbers were skipped due to the numerous releases in the 0.37 beta cycle (these version numbers have since been marked next to their equivalent", "This upset the authors enough that the source code was subsequently stored in an encrypted form, the only program on the system to receive this protection. This is interesting in light of the fact that this laboratory housed many of the most important programming developments of the time, including the first graphical user interfaces. 1986, Digital Equipment Corporation In 1982, Jim Guyton showed Christopher (Kent) Kantarjiev Mazewar at RAND.\nKent later interned at Digital Equipment Corporation's Western Research Lab (DEC WRL) in Palo Alto during his Ph.D. studies. Several former PARC employees worked at WRL, and one of them, Gene McDaniel,", "Id Tech 4 History id Tech 4 began as an enhancement to id Tech 3. During development, it was initially just a complete rewrite of the engine's renderer, while still retaining other subsystems, such as file access, and memory management. The decision to switch from C to the C++ programming language necessitated a restructuring and rewrite of the rest of the engine; today, while id Tech 4 contains code from id Tech 3, much of it has been rewritten.\nAt the QuakeCon 2007, John Carmack, the lead graphics engine developer at id, said to LinuxGames:\n\"I mean, I won't commit to a", "objects that have survived into the present offer insight into the language’s vocabulary and structure. The project’s database and dictionary will digitally represent original spellings using the logo-syllabic Maya hieroglyphs, as well as their transcription and transliteration in the Roman alphabet. The data will be additionally annotated with various epigraphic analyses, translations, and further object-specific information. Project Partners TWKM will employ digital technologies in order to compile and make available the data and metadata, as well as to publish the project’s research results. The project thereby methodologically positions itself in the field of the digital humanities. The project will be", "the studios responsible for producing Source Code,\nRipley first came up with the idea for Source Code, in which government operative Colter Stevens repeatedly relives the eight minutes leading up to a terrorist train bombing in hopes of finding the bomber, he had no intention of writing it on spec. Having established himself in Hollywood largely doing \"studio rewrites on horror movies,\" he felt a solid pitch would do the trick. Unfortunately, it didn't. \"I sat down with a few producers, and the first couple just looked at me like I was nuts,\" confesses Ripley. \"Ultimately, I had to put it", "source text and the copies. In this case, if changes are needed, time is wasted hunting for all the duplicate locations. (This can be partially mitigated if the original code and/or the copy are properly commented; however, even then the problem remains of making the same edits multiple times. Also, because code maintenance often omits updating the comments, comments describing where to find remote pieces of code are notorious for going out-of-date.)\nAdherents of object oriented methodologies further object to the \"code library\" use of copy and paste. Instead of making multiple mutated copies of a generic algorithm, an object oriented", "model data, and then an automated tool derives from the models parts or all of the source code for the software system. In some tools, the user can provide a skeleton of the program source code, in the form of a source code template where predefined tokens are then replaced with program source code parts during the code generation process.\nAn often cited criticism is that the UML diagrams just lack the detail which is needed to contain the same information as is covered with the program source. Some developers even claim that \"the Code is the design\".", "used - an exact used version must be correctly identified. Further difficulties may arise if the library owner removes the obsolete versions (that were under different license) from the public sources.\nSome licenses (like LGPL) have very different conditions for the simple linking and creating of the derivative works. In such case the proper audit must take into consideration if the library has been linked or the derivative work (custom branch) has been created.\nFinally, some software packages may internally contain fragments of the source code (such as source code of the Oracle Java) that may be provided only for reference or", "Model component developers may make code available, however, they must make binaries available for reuse.", "each time specifications are changed.\nMany integrated development environments (IDEs) support some form of automatic source code generation, often using algorithms in common with compiler code generators, although commonly less complicated. (See also: Program transformation, Data transformation.) Reflection In general, a syntax and semantic analyzer tries to retrieve the structure of the program from the source code, while a code generator uses this structural information (e.g., data types) to produce code. In other words, the former adds information while the latter loses some of the information. One consequence of this information loss is that reflection becomes difficult or even impossible. To", "it was initially just a complete rewrite of the engine's renderer, while still retaining other subsystems, such as file access, and memory management. The decision to switch from C to the C++ programming language necessitated a restructuring and rewrite of the rest of the engine; today, while id Tech 4 contains code from id Tech 3, much of it has been rewritten.\nOther games using this engine were Raven Software's Quake 4 (2005) and Wolfenstein (2009), Human Head Studios' Prey (2006), Splash Damage's Enemy Territory: Quake Wars (2007) and Brink (2011). id Tech 5 Used for id Software's Rage, the", "is to allow any individual or party that has stake or interest in an inner source project to participate in the communication. As open communication discussions are archived, a detailed documentation of the software is passively gathered that allows one to go back and revisit historic discussions and decisions. Quality assurance through separation of contribution from integration A dedicated code review and the separation of contributors and committers (integrators, developers with write access) assures the quality of an open source project, and, therefore, also for an inner source project. Key factors for adopting inner source Inner source can be a", "RemObjects Software History RemObjects Software was founded in the summer of 2002. Its first product was RemObjects SDK 1.0 for Delphi, the company’s remoting solution which is now in its 6th version. In late 2003 RemObjects expanded its product portfolio to add Data Abstract for Delphi, a multi-tier database framework built on top of the SDK.\nIn 2004, Carlo Kok, who would eventually become Chief Compiler Architect for Oxygene, joined the company, adding the open source Pascal Script library for Delphi to the company's portfolio. Initial development began on Oxygene (which was then named Chrome) based on Carlo’s experience from writing", "final complete version, 17.4, was released March 22, 1992.\nSince version 17.4 at least four other code paths have developed. Some work has been done to unify the code paths and to develop version 18.0. Dan Drinnons CDOR Mods and Mapleleaf versions were further enhanced by Beta testers Mike Moore and Bob Manapeli using Ken Goosens LineBled program to manipulate the source code to endless variations of the program.", "This might require changing source code in many different locations throughout a very large volume of source code. Or worse, if the change is in an object library used by hundreds of customers, each of those customers would have to find and change all the places the attribute was used in their own code and recompile their programs.\nGoing the reverse way (from method to simple attribute) really was not a problem, as one can always just keep the function and have it simply return the attribute value.\nMeyer recognized the need for software developers to write code in such a way", "a central repository that is considered as the official repository, which is managed by the project maintainers. Developers clone this repository to create identical local copies of the code base. Source code changes in the central repository are periodically synchronized with the local repository.\nThe developer creates a new branch in his local repository and modifies source code on that branch. Once the development is done, the change needs to be integrated into the central repository. Pull requests Contributions to a source code repository that uses a distributed version control system are commonly made by means of a pull request, also", "no more releases of the source code were going to happen. However, in April 2013, Zilmar released both Project64 2.0 and an official repository of its source code that was made available on the Project64 website making the software fully open-source and accessible to everyone. It was mentioned that a major part of the code was rewritten in this version. Then about a month later, Project64 2.1 was released. In April 2015, Project64 2.2 was released along with its source code in a GitHub repository. In May 2015, Project64 2.2 could now play 64DD disk roms. In August 1,", "as the SeaMonkey community project. Rewriting from scratch Ultimately, the Mozilla core developers concluded that the old code could not be salvaged. As stated on the October 26, 1998 development roadmap, it was decided to scrap the whole code base and rewrite it from the ground up. The resulting plan included, among other things, the creation of a whole new cross-platform user interface library and a new layout engine.\nFew observers foresaw the result. On December 7, 1998, Netscape released a special \"preview\" based on the Gecko layout engine. Gecko had already been in development for some time at Netscape under", "took advantage of memory paging.\nIn the same way the hardware is open source, the software is provided in source form as well allowing users to both learn how software was written in the early days of microprocessors, but also to write new software using provided tools and documentation available both in the distribution, on the subversion server, and downloadable from a variety of public archives worldwide.\nThe current owners of the Digital Research, Inc operating systems and language software have licensed it for non-commercial use and the most comprehensive archives can be found at http://www.cpm.z80.de as well as other popular locations", "ability to preserve and accurately reproduce executable content across time periods of many decades (and eventually centuries). This problem also has analogs in industry. For example, a NASA space probe to the edge of the solar system may take 30 years to reach its destination; software maintenance over such an extended period requires precise re-creation of the probe's onboard software environment. By encapsulating the entire software environment in a VM (including, optionally, a software emulator for now-obsolete hardware), Olive preserves and dynamically reproduces the precise execution behavior of software. The Olive prototype demonstrated reliable archiving of software dating back to", "to standard descriptive metadata. The preservation of born-digital content may include format transformations to facilitate long-term preservation or to provide better access.\nNo one institution can afford to develop all of the software tools needed to ensure the accessibility of digital materials over the long term. Thus the problem arises of maintaining a repository of shared tools. The Library of Congress has been doing that for years, until that role was assumed by the Community Owned Digital Preservation Tool Registry. Codecs and containers Moving images require a codec for the decoding process; therefore, determining a codec is essential to", "Accolade, the Ninth Circuit held that making copies in the course of reverse engineering is a fair use, when it is the only way to get access to the \"ideas and functional elements\" in the copyrighted code, and when \"there is a legitimate reason for seeking such access.\"", "Remastersys History It was initially created to be able to easily back up or create a distributable copy of an Ubuntu or derivative installation. Inspiration for this tool came from the mklivecd script that Mandriva uses and the remasterme script that is in PCLinuxOS. Since those scripts were not very easy to port to Ubuntu, it was written from scratch. Uses remastersys is intended to serve as an easy way to create a customized Live CD/DVD version of Ubuntu. The resulting iso can also be installed on a USB pendrive, creating a Live USB distro, using either a command-line", "Source-code editor Features Source-code editors have features specifically designed to simplify and speed up typing of source code, such as syntax highlighting, indentation, autocomplete and brace matching functionality. These editors also provide a convenient way to run a compiler, interpreter, debugger, or other program relevant for the software-development process. So, while many text editors like Notepad can be used to edit source code, if they don't enhance, automate or ease the editing of code, they are not source-code editors.\nStructure editors are a different form of source-code editor, where instead of editing raw text, one manipulates the code's structure, generally the", "CodeMirror History The first version of the editor was written early 2007, for the console in the Eloquent JavaScript website. The code was first packaged up and released under the name CodeMirror in May 2007. This version was based on the contentEditable feature of browsers.\nIn late 2010, the Ace project, another JavaScript-based code editor, pioneered new implementation techniques and demonstrated that it is possible, even in JavaScript, to handle documents with many thousands of lines without degraded performance. This prompted a rewrite of CodeMirror along the same principles. The result was version 2, which no longer relied on contentEditable" ]

[ "Well, if Hawaiians are anything like like Californians, it might be a \"locals only\" type situation and you may want to make some friends before taking a wave.", "If you have to ask, it means the answer to you is, stay the hell out of everyone's way. Don't drop in on anyone." ]

[ "describes it being offered after his ascent of Mokuaweoweo in 1841 on the United States Exploring Expedition. For Robert Louis Stevenson it was \"disagreeable\", but English adventurer Isabella Bird found it delightful. Not only did non-Hawaiians receive lomilomi, they also gave it. According to William Brigham the first Director of the Bishop Museum, writing in 1908, one of the most skilled practitioners was Sanford Dole, one of the leaders of the overthrow of the Kingdom.\nAlthough the Legislature of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi banned curing through \"superstitious methods\" in 1886, massage was not subject to legislation until 1945. In 1947, the", "reinforce the popularity of Beach's and Bergeron's tropical escape restaurant motifs during this time.\nAn increasing emphasis on idealized \"wahine\" (island women) saw their depiction grow from menu cover placement to their use on tiki barware. The Fog Cutter mug and the Kava Bowl were two of the earliest ceramic tiki drinking vessels bearing the images of such women to be used in Trader Vic's restaurants. The Pago Pago Lounge also created a Sarong cocktail.\nFor men, the \"Hawaiian Shirt\" would become an enduring symbol of leisure and were increasingly worn in public. US President Harry Truman was famously pictured wearing", "Hawaiian Tropic Bikini contests The company sponsored bikini competitions to seek women to serve as spokesmodels for their products. Many winners appeared later in advertising campaigns, swimwear, erotic magazines, and lingerie catalogs.\nIn late 2006, a company opened a theme restaurant called Hawaiian Tropic Zone in New York City near Times Square, advertised as the \"Hottest Place on Earth\" and using the Hawaiian Tropic Zone name under license. The restaurant featured waitresses in bikinis designed by Nicole Miller and a menu by chef David Burke. Later that year, four former employees sued the restaurant, alleging chronic groping by managers and a", "from 2008 to 2010. Less than 50 of these functional replica surfboards were made, making them particularly sought after by collectors. Nearly half of this collection was shipped to Japan in 2009, and many of the others were built for team riders. \nHawaiian Pro Designs currently has dealers and offices in California, Texas, Hawaii, Europe, Taiwan, Australia and Canada. Surfing cinema According to Matt Warshaw, author of, The Encyclopedia of Surfing, writes that Takayama was, \"...cited as the sport’s original, and perhaps greatest, child phenomenon.” Warshaw estimates that Takayama was in about a dozen surf movies, some surviving", "Son, and The Jeffersons often featured special \"Hawaiian episodes\". Tiki carvings sometimes appeared on the shows, including on Fantasy Island but in increasingly less prominent ways.\nThe long running Hawaii Five-O series hailed back to Hawaiian Eye, and was one of a few exception to the sitcoms during this time. The crashing of its iconic wave during opening credits ended with its cancellation in 1980, coinciding with the general end of tiki culture's first wave as well. Tiki's decline Towards the latter part of the 1970s \"Tiki restaurants\" were well past the apex of their popularity and many started to close.", "Hawaiian the following week – and followed a loose structure. While the housemates sat at a table eating food and drink provided by Big Brother, they discussed topics aimed more towards adult viewing – including religion, sexuality and politics – and then proceeded to play party games and were then given music to dance to.\nUnlike other adult-orientated shows that had previously aired on Ten – UpLate, Uncut and Adults Only – the show was not hosted, nor did Mike Goldman provide any narration – instead footage of housemates in the diary room on the Saturday, discussing the previous night's events,", "surf art as a subject matter can fall within other art styles such as Impressionism, surrealism, abstract, realism, et al.\nAmong coastal communities around the world, surf art in any form is growing in popularity and price. Recently in 2011 Contemporary Artist Raymond Pettibon sold 'No Title (But the sand)' at Christies for $820,000 USD.\nSurf art has been created as cave drawings by old native Hawaiians along with painters, surrealists, graphic designers, sculptures and installation artists. Many are surfers themselves. Surf art has spread from coastal areas to urban cities, such as New York, where surf culture and art exhibitions can", "of a wave.\nBrown was one of Hawaii's first big wave surfers and board designers. He was nicknamed \"Spider\" because, as he put it, \"I surf with my arms all out, half squatting down, and with my long legs I look like a big spider riding a board.\" He was captured in a 1953 photograph by Thomas Tsuzuki which helped turn Hawaii into a mecca for surfers worldwide. It showed three men riding a 20-foot wave, the kind rarely if ever photographed close-up in those days. Brown was the only one who \"made\" the wave.\nGeorge Downing, who along with Buzzy", "pants and pitching the new way of booking a hotel. He states that surfing is his life now and \"we'll see where the waves take me. Sayonara!\" and goes charging into the waves.\nPriceline has been parodied on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and in multiple Saturday Night Live skits. In a September 2008 SNL skit, during the opening monologue by Olympian Michael Phelps, Shatner rose from the audience to give Phelps tips on product endorsements. Theresa Caputo In June 2012, Theresa Caputo, star of the television show Long Island Medium, appeared in a commercial for Priceline.com, in which she", "waves toward a broad and sandy beach. The logo itself echoes a tribal tattoo, adding to the local vibe.\" In the late 2010s, the company produced television commercials through its \"Bruddahs\" campaign with actors Dave Bell and Brutus La Benz, who play friends making observations about \"mainlanders\" while discussing Kona beers. Sustainability and community support Kona Brewing Company supports numerous community events throughout the year, including surf and surf-inspired events and causes that celebrate Hawaiian people, land and water. These include sponsoring professional surfers Jeff Silva and CJ Kanuha. Kona supports Sierra Club's Blue Water Campaign and a number", "English Dictionary, David Martin, contacted Warshaw about providing additional source citations for the earliest published usage of a large corpus of surfing terms, including \"barrel,\" \"reef rash,\" \"board sock,\" \"grom,\" \"close out,\" \"dawn patrol,\" \"doggy door,\" \"green room,\" \"shaper,\" and \"swallowtail.\" As a formal consultant to the OED, Warshaw continues to round out the authority's surf lexicon with quotation evidence for numerous surf-specific terms.\nReferencing the deep academic pedigree in his family, Warshaw claims that his consultancy for the OED \"is the accomplishment of his that has most impressed his parents.\" Additional information In 2012, Warshaw was inducted into the Hall", "Hawaiian culture to a national public whose image of Native Hawaiians may have been shaped by stereotypes. Waikiki – In the Wake of Dreams contains an original production of the Hawaiian classic \"Waikiki\", performed and arranged by Grammy winners Take 6. Warner Bros. Records released a companion soundtrack CD to the film Paniolo O Hawaii, produced by former Warner Bros. Records President Jim Ed Norman with Hawaiian kumu and performer, Nani Lim, and a Public Radio International one-hour program incorporated excerpts and music from the film.\nWaikiki premiered at the National Geographic Society and received the 2002 New York International Independent", "Cruise Line offers a version of the company's shows, which according to USA today is \"nothing like anything currently found at sea.\" The show features aerialists flying overhead, acrobats, contortionists, muscle men, jokesters and musicians all performing while the guests eat dinner. The show's artistic director claims if rough seas take place they will just become part of the show. Cirque Dreams Coobrila Exclusively at Six Flags theme parks, this show is billed as \"a maze of connecting stages and technical apparatus comes to life in an imaginary land created on the other side of the moon.\" Cirque Dreams World", "cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and tapa elsewhere in the Pacific) and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth. Production of this art continued after Cook’s arrival. A few craftsmen still produce traditional Hawaiian arts, either to sell to tourists or to preserve native culture. Art produced by visitors Some of the first westerners to visit Hawaii were artists—both professional and amateur. Many of the explorers’ ships had professional artists to record their discoveries. These artists sketched and painted Hawaii’s people and landscapes using imported materials and concepts. Artists in this category include Alfred Thomas Agate (American 1812-1849),", "realism that I wanted to communicate in my paintings,\" says Nelson. Inspired by this \"overwhelming experience\", he came up with the idea of painting above- and below-water scenes on the same canvas. It was there that he began painting Hawaiian landscapes and seascapes. When he was twenty-two years old, he moved from Oahu to Maui. He spent a great deal of time surfing, kayaking and scuba diving in Maui, while continuing to paint and study the landscape of the Hawaiian Islands.\nNelson grew a business around his art, Robert Lyn Nelson Studios, which was worth $5 million by the mid-1990s. He", "surfing contest. Facilitated by Peter Cuming and Elizabeth Bragg, it was attended by over 70 people including surf elders, surfing industry representatives, surfboard designers, shapers, academics and government agencies, surf psychologists and educators, Surf Coast Shire representatives and regional surfers. Workshop proceedings were prepared from the forum which focused on the need to develop a more sustainable surfing industry, including codes of practice and sourcing of materials; educating travelling surfers about impacts on local cultures; encouraging surfers to play a greater role in protecting and regenerating coastal areas, dealing with anger/anger management in the water, and modern surfers developing more", "of Hawaiian Marriott Vacation Clubs, Edgar Gum, stated that \"the attention to detail and relaxing views will make for many memorable vacation experiences for our owners and guests.\"", "it, and one guy wrote me saying he even drinks the stuff,\" Takayama said. Most people use it with fish, poultry and meat dishes either as a sauce or marinade. The Surfer's Choice label featured a graphic of Takayama nose riding a wave.\nIn the 1990s, longboards made a re-emergence. Now under Takayama's Hawaiian Pro Designs label, and located in North County, San Diego, Takayama along with eight time World Longboard champion, Joel Tudor produced functional and also collectible surfboards. \nAmong collectable boards was a series of wood alaias designed by Takayama and built by Floridian Brandon Russell in Oceanside, California", "now be found.\nNotable surf artists include Rick Griffin, Raymond Pettibon, Leroy Grannis, John Van Hamersveld, Kevin A Short, Drew Brophy, Ithaka Darin Pappas, Zak Noyle, Jay Alders, and Aaron Chang. Surf Graphics The term “Surf Graphics” is used to describe the style of artwork associated with the subculture of surfing when applied to posters, flyers, T-shirts and logos. It is heavily influenced by skate art, Kustom Kulture and tiki culture. Brazilian Surf Art In Brazil, an artist and curator named Fernando Bari, who created in 2004 a unique website gathering surf artists around the world, have been searching for Brazilian", "show. A Hawaiian Eye tiki mug was made as well.\nHawaiian politician turned actor Tiki Santos (born Abraham De Los Santos) was a recurring minor role character on Hawaiian Eye and went on to make appearances in other shows such as the sitcom McHale's Navy (1962-1966). He played the role of Chief Watara in episodes such as \"The Dart Gun Wedding\", sitting in a large wicker \"throne\" behind a large Tiki mask.\nAs the first tiki wave started to crest towards the end of the 1960s, the original air of mystery and exoticism associated with the tiki motif by Americans began to", "Surfwise Surfwise is a 2007 American documentary film about the 11-member Doc Paskowitz family, which was directed by Doug Pray. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 11 September 2007 and had its U.S. premiere on 9 May 2008. Paskowitz went to Stanford University Medical School, became an M.D., and espoused a philosophy of holistic health and diet, while raising his large family of eight boys and one girl in a camper, and founding a school of surfing. Critical reception The film appeared on some critics' top ten lists of the best films of 2008. Noel Murray", "the event.\nKalakaua Avenue, the main street in Waikiki, is closed to car traffic during the event, and various entertainment stages are set up on the street. Between the stages, several of Honolulu's finest restaurants will be serving up Spam in many different ways. Several merchandise tents sell Spam-themed items including T-shirts, shorts, sport balls, and slippers. A variety of Hawaiian craft booths will also be set up on the street.\nIntroduced in 1937 by Hormel Foods, more Spam is consumed per person in Hawaii than in any other state in the United States. Almost seven million cans of Spam are eaten", "degree that it has been called the \"Hawaiian craze\" which was ignited by several events. One such event was a 1912 Broadway musical show called Bird of Paradise, which featured Hawaiian music and elaborate costumes. The show became a hit and, to ride this wave of success, it was subsequently taken on the road in the U.S. and Europe, eventually spawning a motion picture of the same name. Joseph Kekuku was a member of the show's original cast and toured Europe with the Bird of Paradise show for eight years. The Washington Herald in 1918 stated, \"So great is", "Greenpeace, he and Kin Lui opened Shizen Vegan Sushi Bar and Izakaya in San Francisco in 2015. In 2016, Trenor and Kin Lui launched Limu & Shoyu in San Francisco that featured Hawaiian poke.\nIn 2016, Trenor partnered with pop surrealist painter and environmental activist Caia Koopman to create Umijoo, a children's book about ocean conservation and responsible food systems. The vast majority of Umijoo is hand-painted, which is a highly uncommon technique within children's literature. Written as an extended poem in three parts, Umijoo spans 72 pages and features two dozen original paintings, as well as a series of pencil", "the style of shōjo manga and make Beach City appear simultaneously magical, kitschy, and familiar. Broadcast and reception The episode had its television premiere on Cartoon Network on January 15, 2015. Its initial American broadcast was viewed by approximately 1.67 million viewers.\nSeveral commentators have lauded the episode's portrayal of the importance of consent. For example, Greta Christina, writing for AlterNet, praises how the narrative portrays Steven and Connie checking in on each other's willingness to continue the fusion. Carli Velocci, at Polygon, notes that the episode demonstrates that a narrative about the importance of consent need not include sexual content,", "paintings are especially important because they illustrate the colors of the Creole culture. Some of her works depict the people of the Creole culture as working class.\nThe subjects of her artwork include landscapes, buildings, furniture, clothing, jewelry, hairstyles, horse-drawn carriages, and people engaged in typical everyday activities. She filled multiple sketchbooks with her work, which were later rediscovered by her descendants in 1953 and donated to the Missouri Historical Society. A short biography by Cathy Johnson was published in 2001.", "a spokesperson or authority on Pacific Island art, a position he was uneasy with. He was concerned that the exhibition could lead to artists being pigeon-holed or 'ghettoised' or that stereotypes of the 'exotic' Pacific could be reinforced. In one interview Vivieaere said that the ‘only reason we are here is that we are Polynesian – not on our merits but because we’re the \"other\"…. We don’t need Polynesian shows. I would like to see it as the last.’ Display Bottled Ocean launched at City Gallery Wellington in 1994 and toured to Auckland Art Gallery, Waikato Art Gallery (now Waikato", "Hawaiʻi, dating from the last decades of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, by expedition artists such as England's John Webber and Robert Dampier, France's Auguste Borget and Stanislaus Darondeau, and Russia's Louis Choris, present images of the Western world's first contact with Hawaiʻi. Nineteenth-century images by European artists such as George Burgess, Paul Emmert, Nicholas Chevalier, and James Gay Sawkins, who passed through Hawaiʻi, show the growth of Western-style communities and an appreciation for the land and sea.\nThe Holt Gallery also features painting, watercolors, drawings, prints and photographs by artists such as Enoch Wood Perry,", "Holyoke (Taste of South Holyoke) a festival featuring local Puerto Rican cuisine, live music, and other events, including honoring local organizations for their contributions to the community.\nEvery November, the International Volleyball Hall of Fame presents awards to its next class of inductees, as the best players of that year are named. The Hall presents three additional awards annually: the Court of Honor Award for contributions of teams or organizations to volleyball, the William G. Morgan Award for outstanding support or promotion of the sport, and Mintonette Medallion of Merit Award in recognition of significant individual achievement, including coaches, referees, scorekeepers", "helped kawaii to reach numerous target audiences and span every culture, class, and gender group. The palatable characteristics of kawaii have made it a global hit, resulting in Japan's global image shifting from being known for austere rock gardens to being known for \"cute-worship\".\nIn 2014 the Collins English Dictionary in the United Kingdom entered \"kawaii\" into their then latest edition, defining as a \"Japanese artistic and cultural style that emphasizes the quality of cuteness, using bright colours and characters with a childlike appearance.\"" ]

[ "I never allow the smoke to settle or waft onto me, and don't smoke indoors ever. I am up wind of the smoke from the cigarette and when I exhale. That and using Binaca, mints, and I keep a small bottle of Febreze in my car, just in case. Wipes for nose and mouth. Fan in garage, even with door up and open. Bathe daily, never wear clothes more than once; twice if I haven't left the house. \nSeems like a lot of trouble, but it's not, and it's so worth the effort to not smell offensive. So many people at work have said they never guessed that I smoke. I use nicotine lozenges the whole time I'm at work or any place where it would be a pain in the ass/not kosher to go outside and smoke.", "It depends on their habits. If they're hygienic about it you won't notice it as much.\n\nWe have a girl at work that you would never guess smokes and it's because she's very clean about it, she only smokes outdoors and immediately rinses her mouth with mouthwash and washes her hands. She also doesn't smoke heavily.\n\nMy mother, however, absolutely reeks of smoke and that's because she smokes in her home so the smell sticks to her and everything she owns, doesn't rinse her mouth afterwards, and doesn't wash her hands after smoking. She also smokes heavily and often.", "I was taught to not be a \"stinky smoker\".\n\nI wash my hands or put deodorant on my fingers (if I can't wash them). Dry shampoo in my hair. Smoking jackets sometimes. Mints. Etc." ]

[ "Smoker's face \"Smoker's face\" describes the characteristic changes that happen to the faces of many people who smoke.\nThe general appearance is of accelerated ageing of the face, with a characteristic pattern of facial wrinkling and sallow coloration.\nA summary of a study published by the National Institutes of Health found that certain facial features appeared in about 46% of continuing smokers and 8% of former smokers who had smoked a full decade while those same features were absent in a control group of non-smokers.", "designed to increase the positive affect associated with smoking and decrease the perceptions of risk. Therefore, seeing this advertisement could lead people astray to start smoking because of its induced appeal. In a study by Slovic et al. (2005), he released a survey to smokers in which he asked “If you had it to do all over again, would you start smoking?” and more than 85% of adult smokers and about 80% of young smokers (between the ages of 14-22) answered “No.” He found that most smokers, especially those that start at a younger age, do not take the time", "After smelling smoke again, Frazer looks over the fence and spots Stonie smoking. After a mishap where Charlie Hoyland accidentally discovers the dope, Stonie then comes clean to Toadie and Charlie's mother, Steph and explains he is depressed because he and Chantelle were trying for a baby and they are not having much luck. Chantelle comes to Ramsay Street to sort her husband out. Stonie announces he is giving up marijuana. However, just as he is about to throw the rest in the bin, he holds onto it. Chantelle gives him an ultimatum: her or the marijuana. Stonie chooses", "the gambling floor, American croupiers are exposed to secondhand smoke. A health hazard evaluation of several Las Vegas casinos showed that nonsmoker croupiers suffered from more respiratory ailments than their administrative counterparts at the casinos and had cotinine and NNAL (both components of secondhand smoke) in their urine samples. Britain banned smoking in all public places, including casinos, in 2007.", "are attractive because they allow smokers to both experience access to nicotine and mimic cigarette smoking behavior.", "a smoke monster that kills its victims by enveloping them and leaving behind an exact life-like looking corpse only the body is made of ash which crumbles horribly when touched. The smoke creature moved rapidly as opposed to gently drifting so I had some movement to play off of in creating a sound for him. I came up with some stuttering, fluttery whooshes that kind of vibrated which made him more dangerous than if he sounded like a puff of steam moving along the hall. The smoke monster requires a host body to live in when he's not vibrating around", "is considered to have bad morals. “But smoking is for everyone, man or woman.” Rayhana herself fled Algeria in 2000, following terrorist attacks in which many of her friends were killed. Filming Due to the nude scenes in the film, the production could not use a hamam in Algeria or Turkey. Instead, they chose to film in a hamam in Thessaloniki, Greece. Reception The film received universal accolades, and has been screened at international film festivals around the world. It has a 100% audience rating on Rotten Tomatoes. According to the Hollywood Reporter's Jordan Mintzer, Smoke is a \"fairly gripping", "over smoke until the individual returns to normal, as is done to a pig that has gone wild. Gururumba see this as a way of stress relief; however, Westerns would call this psychosis. Attention should be drawn to the attitude of the community toward the wild man. \"A feeling of expectant excitement is observable in the community; the actions of the wild man take on the character of a public spectical.\" When news of its occurrence spreads, people drop what they are doing to simply watch the \"wild man.\" The onlookers enjoy the instances when the wild man suddenly turns", "avoided because of its attendant health and relational issues, and not smoking enhances one's overall stress coping capacity (SCC).\nAt the 1963 convention of the Cigar Institute of America, Weybrew noted: \"When a smoker is forbidden to smoke he just doesn't like it. The smokers in the test got irritable, ate too much, had trouble sleeping, and personal relationships began to deteriorate.\"\nOn Easter Sunday, 17 April, Triton sighted the Cape of Good Hope and subsequently re-entered the South Atlantic Ocean, returning to the command authority of Rear Admiral Lawrence R. Daspit (COMSUBLANT). Return to the St. Peter and St. Paul", "a strong anti-smoking message, because it doesn't need to: Everyone knows that smoking is bad for you, including people who continue to do it.\"\nThere is no point during the film at which any of the characters smoke. Dargis of The New York Times unwittingly states, \"Thank You for Smoking is rated R (Under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian). It includes mild violence, discreet sex and, of course, countless cigarettes.\" In the film, even Robert Duvall's filtered cigarette maverick \"The Captain\" is shown repeatedly drinking mint juleps rather than smoking cigarettes. Some critics argue that Reitman's reluctance to show", "a customer walks in smoking and asks him for a room, Anil tells him that smoking is strongly prohibited. When the customer displays indifference, Anil proceeds to shoot the man with a gun. The story ends with Anil and the owner sitting together, smiling and watching a commercial about the effects of smoking.\nAfter this story, a second friend in the group around the bonfire goes to the car looking for a blanket. When she leaves, the body of the first girl who left the bonfire is shown. The second girl is chased around the forest, caught and stabbed by an", "said the \"Smokin'\" referred to smoking haddock, or to truck drivers' tyres when they're 'burnin' the roads'. It became their most successful single up to this point, hitting No. 12 in the charts and leading to a memorable appearance on \"Top of the Pops\".\nIn November 1998, the album Out Spaced was released. This was a collection of songs from the 1995 Ankst releases (including \"Dim Brys: Dim Chwys\"), the band's favourite B-sides, plus \"The Man Don't Give a Fuck\" and \"Smokin'\". A limited edition appeared in a comedy rubber sleeve, shaped like a nipple. 1999–2000: Guerrilla and Mwng In 1999, NME", "yourself clean.”\nA reporter for Reuters described its effect in the following words:\nImagine taking a chunk of rotting corpse from a stagnant sewer, placing it in a blender and spraying the filthy liquid in your face. Your gag reflex goes off the charts and you can't escape, because the nauseating stench persists for days.\nHowever, when tested in India, the product failed miserably:\nWe used it on a captive crowd consisting of CRPF personnel and general public. But they managed to tolerate the smell without much difficulty. [...] Those who can ignore [the] smell can drink the liquid also. \nIn December 2017, Haaretz", "Smirting Smirting is the practice of smoking and flirting outside public places such as pubs, bars, cafés, restaurants, and office buildings where smoking is prohibited. History Smirting was first identified in New York in 2003,\nand spread to the Republic of Ireland in 2004 when an aggressive smoking ban in public places was enacted.\nSmirting has been so successful that non-smokers try to mingle with the smirters. The non-smokers may then start to smoke too and so this is a health risk.\nSociologist and sexologist Pepper Schwartz states that the smirters are \"defiant and angry, they don't buy the second-hand smoke argument,", "Smells (Bottom) Synopsis Richie and Eddie are finding it impossible to attract women and they attempt to pick up women using sex spray supposedly loaded with pheromones. Plot One Friday night Richie and Eddie return home from a disappointing night on the pull - Richie's bird lies to him, claiming to be a lesbian and Eddie's been kicked in the testicles. In a desperate attempt to get a girlfriend, the two write a \"lonely hearts\" advert for Richie to put in the local paper. After trying several ideas including \"Ugly Virgin Desperately Seeks Sex Of Any Description\", \"Hot Young Buck\",", "Butt Out Plot An overly upbeat anti-smoking music group called Butt Out, which incorporates elements of dance and hip-hop into its routine, performs at South Park Elementary. The boys are put off by the annoying unoriginality and condescendingly sentimental nature of the performance, in which the performers proclaim that if everyone refuses to smoke, they can grow up to be \"just like us\". The boys take this literally and go behind the school to start binge smoking, which they do despite it causing them to cough furiously. When their school counselor Mr. Mackey approaches, the boys discard their still-lit cigarettes", "a drug thing; when you're smoking a joint you get totally paranoid about people, you can't relate to people. There's that crossover between the paranoia you get when you're smoking dope and the depression afterwards.\" In 2015 Butler elaborated further to Dave Everly of Classic Rock: \"I used to be a cutter. I'd cut my arms, stick pins through my fingers, that kind of thing. I used to get really depressed and it was the only thing that could bring me out of it. If Sabbath hadn't made it, I'd have been long dead. I'd have killed myself.\" According to", "majority of them answered, \"irritation\". This was because in previous advertising campaigns, Philip Morris stressed their brand was \"entirely free of a source of irritation found in the manufacture of all other leading cigarettes\"- and people remembered that even when they abandoned that claim after 1953. It was decided they would project a more \"positive\" approach- and a different pack replaced the brown one that had been used for at least 40 years.\nThey also \"retired\" Johnny Roventini, their famous \"Call for Philip Morris!\" bellhop [who'd been a part of their radio, print, and TV ad campaigns since 1933]. By the", "is because the number of smokers had declined over the years and smuggling, production costs and ancillary wage costs had increased.\nVarious advertising posters were made to promote Memphis cigarettes throughout the 20th, as well as the 21st century. Markets Memphis is mainly sold in Austria, but also is or was sold in Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Hungary, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Greece, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Russia, China and Paraguay.", "smoke that can hurt the player.", "many cultures, blowing one's nose in public is considered impolite, and in reaction, people can make a habit of sniffling.\n\"The sniffles\" can also refer by metonymy to the common cold, though colds often do not result in sniffles and sniffles often are not caused by colds.", "commissioned by The Daily Telegraph - appear to rubbish claims that fake cigarettes are significantly different or more dangerous than the real product. \"The fake Winfield Blues come up higher.\" Sharp and Howells laboratory manager John Franceschini said. \"The genuine Winfield Blues and the fake Intershop ones were quite similar.\" \nA spokesman for British American Tobacco Australia, the maker of Winfield, said the tests were not exhaustive enough to determine true quality, although he acknowledged there was no such thing as a safe cigarette. \"At the end of the day, smoking is harmful regardless of whether it's legal or illegal.\"", "woman snorts Ajax after mistaking it for cocaine (it had been inadvertently spilled onto a mirror by the character played by Tommy Chong), suffering prolonged agonies as a result.\nIt is featured in Carrie Underwood's song, \"Dirty Laundry\".", "individual's unconscious (Freud) and the collective unconscious of the entire human race (Jung).\nRapaille Associates worked on Philip Morris's Archetype Project, an effort to study the emotional reasons why people smoke, presumably so the company could better leverage these emotions in advertising and promotions. Rapaille noted that typically peoples' first experience with smoking involved seeing an admired adult do it, and having a feeling that they were excluded from the activity and strongly wanting to be included. Rapaille ultimately linked smoking with adult initiation rituals, risk taking, bonding with peers and the need for kids to feel like they belong to", "Monaghan says that he feels Charlie's black hoodie is a sort of \"security blanket\" that he hides underneath and uses it when he feels \"lost.\" The \"heroin\" that Charlie is supposedly snorting is actually brown sugar. Monaghan revealed this in an interview with Stuff magazine in October 2005, saying, \"[The heroin is] brown sugar. You get some really sweet boogers. You have to be careful not to snort too much of it, but it's happened a few times. You just find dessert up your nose couple of hours later.\"\nAccording to Monaghan, Drive Shaft is similar to Oasis, in that \"[Charlie's]", "as if they had black eyes, by implication from a fight with smokers of other cigarettes (campaign by a subsidiary of American Tobacco Company, now owned by British American Tobacco). Mood changes Nicotine is also advertised as good for \"nerves\", irritability, and stress. Again, ads have moved from explicit claims (\"Never gets on your nerves\") to implicit claims (\"Slow down. Pleasure up\"). Although nicotine products temporarily relieve nicotine withdrawal symptoms, an addiction causes worse stress and mood, due to mild withdrawal symptoms between hits. Nicotine addicts need the nicotine to temporarily feel normal. Nicotine addiction seems to worsen mental health", "up smelling as bad as the one targeted. After only two weeks it was concluded that Who Me was a dismal failure.", "self-importance of the referent relative to the speaker; though His shit does not stink may come across as being more emphatic due to the mixed diction between its grammatical correctness and the vulgarity of shit. This phrase conveys the haughtiness of the referent and that he considers himself beyond reproach. For example: \"Those pompous assholes in Finance are the ones who ruined the company – their shit don't even stink!\" A variation on this theme might be: \"Everything he shits smells just like roses!\"\nThe expression shitkicker can be used as a pejorative for a menial worker or other low class", "Blowin' Smoke Content The song is about a waitress who is \"down on her luck\" and aspires to do better, but is \"just blowin' smoke\". The title is a double meaning, referencing the fact that the waitress is smoking a cigarette while also playing on the term \"blowing smoke\", which Musgraves refers to as meaning \"talking shit\".\nThe song opens and closes with the ambient noise of a Waffle House restaurant, recorded by co-writer and co-producer Luke Laird. Critical reception Billy Dukes at Taste of Country said \"every element of 'Blowin' Smoke' works together to fill in gaps in a listener’s", "Smoke (Lisa Lois album) Background Lois' website states that the singer's predilection for pop, soul and blues finds its way into the record in the form of \"catchy horns\" and a \"warm, international sound\". It also claims that Lois provided all her background vocals herself.\nThe album contains \"powerful ballads\" such as I Know Who I Am, as well as pop-influenced songs as No Good For Me. Lois decided to name the album after \"one of her favorite tracks [on the album]\", the song Smoke. \nShe supports this decision saying: \"I love Smoke, because it doesn't quite fit in. It's the" ]

[ "Memory may not be *completely* understood but the basic understanding of it is there. Essentially, memory is just associations between neurons firing at the same time. \n\nThe saying in neurology is \"Neurons that fire together, wire together.\" What this means is let's say you smell smoke and hear someone says \"I smell the campfire\" and your eyes take in the imagine of a campfire. **The following neurons are firing:**\n\n* The neurons in your olfactory part of your brain that register the smoke smell\n\n* Optical neurons recognizing the visual pattern of a roaring fire\n\n* Neurons in the temporal lobes that heard the vocal words \"*I smell campfire\"*\n\nThose three sets of neurons all fired at the same time and now have a faint connection with each other. Now if just one of them fires (e.g. You smell smoke) it will trigger the other two sets of neurons and you'll think the word *campfire* and get the mental image of it.\n\nRepeated exposures help build stronger and stronger connections and make the \"memory\" more concrete. If someone always says \"*Hello, my name is Bob!\"* every time you see their face, you're going to very quickly associate their name with their face. Everything you know as memory is just associations between neurons that wired together because they fired together.", "The simple answer is that we do not know. The study of the human brain and how it actually works is in its infancy, we honestly do not know very much about it.\n\nThat is why we cannot even definitively say why we need to sleep. We know the brain needs it. We have theories that sleep has to do with storing and processing memories, but on a physical level we cannot even tell you why you need to sleep. \n\nThe answer to what memories are, and how they work is something we are not going to have an answer to for awhile.", "Neurons, the cells that make up your brain, have an input and an output. The input is the output from other neurons. They're all interconnected, and that creates a huge network! Inputs and outputs are electrical signals: there either *is* a signal, or there *isn't*. If a neuron receives an input of 1, meaning the connected neuron *fired*, then this neuron might also fire. But that depends on the chemical composition of the neuron. This is really complex. If the chemical composition inside a neuron requires a lot of connected neurons to fire before it fires, it has a high threshold. When it only requires one or a few neurons to fire, it has a low threshold. This chemical composition can change, thus altering the neuron's threshold. This is how memories are made! When a memory is created, some neurons will have their thresholds lower, and some will have their thresholds higher. Let's say you see the color blue. Photo (light) receptors in your retina fire when they come into contact with blue light. At the same time, neurons in your ear hear the word \"blue.\" An association can form over time between the color perceived and the word heard by altering the chemical compositions of neurons!\n\nThis is obviously an extreme simplification of how the brain works (it is extremely complicated, and I don't know nearly enough to do this question justice), and the other comments are right: how memories are made and stored is still an active area of research, but we know this is how it works on a chemical level.", "Simply put, memory is made up of connections between different parts of the brain.\n\nI don't remember the specific term, but there's a phenomenon in psychology that, when a memory is recalled, the \"strength\" of the connections that make it up increases. This is the basis for learning things, the more you think about it, the stronger the memory becomes.", "If you're really interested in the formation and forgetting of memories you should check out season 3 episode 4 of radiolab titled \"memory and forgetting\". It will really change the way you think about thinking.", "As far as we know right now, memories tend to be best described as either bonds between single neurons, or groups (like a big net) of neurons that respond in a particular pattern." ]

[ "a number of assumptions, including information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory),these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways, the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance, and information processing in humans resembles that in computers.\nThe information processing theory using \"chunking\" to put the information into short term memory. Miller said it was known that the human brain can only chunk into the brain with 7 parts, plus or minus two. Seven in the big number to remember.", "brain is part of the body, both being abstractions of a kind known as persistent physical objects, neither being actual entities. Though not recognized by Aristotle, there is biological evidence, written about by Galen, that the human brain is an essential seat of human experience in the mode of presentational immediacy. We may say that the brain has a material and a mental aspect, all three being abstractions from their indefinitely many constitutive occasions of experience, which are actual entities. Time, causality, and process Inherent in each actual entity is its respective dimension of time. Potentially, each Whiteheadean occasion of", "have suggested that the short-term memory of adult humans can hold only a limited number of items; grouping items into larger chunks such as in a mnemonic might be part of what permits the retention of a larger total amount of information in short-term memory, which in turn can aid in the creation of long-term memories.", "we tap into when we recall an event that happened when we were younger. Humans as Information Processing Systems Consider a computer, and how one types words onto a document or into a search engine. The action of typing data into a computer can be described as “input”. There are “similarities to how humans receive information and computers receive data input” (Miller, 2016, p. 323). Furthermore, “we can correlate thinking with a computer program; the mind’s information storage capacity with the amount of gigabytes available on a laptop; forgetting information with the delete key on a keyboard; recalling old information", "that the idea that \"memories were stored in our brains\" was \"only a theory\" and \"despite decades of research, the phenomenon of memory remains mysterious.\" This provoked a response by Steven Rose, a neuroscientist from the Open University, who criticised Sheldrake for being \"a researcher trained in another discipline\" (botany) for not \"respect[ing] the data collected by neuroscientists before begin[ning] to offer us alternative explanations,\" and accused Sheldrake of \"ignoring or denying\" \"massive evidence,\" and arguing that \"neuroscience over the past two decades has shown that memories are stored in specific changes in brain cells.\" Giving an example of experiments", "their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories of areas and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is distinct from object memory and involves different parts of the brain. Spatial memory involves the dorsal parts of the brain and more specifically the hippocampus. However many times both types of memory are used together, such as when trying to remember where you put a lost object. A classic test of spatial memory is the Corsi block-tapping task, where an instructor taps a series of blocks in a random order and the participant attempts to imitate", "consciousness as a process in which at each moment, content that was previously implicate is presently explicate, and content which was previously explicate has become implicate.\nOne may indeed say that our memory is a special case of the process described above, for all that is recorded is held enfolded within the brain cells and these are part of matter in general. The recurrence and stability of our own memory as a relatively independent sub-totality is thus brought about as part of the very same process that sustains the recurrence and stability in the manifest order of matter in general.", "memory Recently, interest has developed in the area of 'embodied memory'. According to Paul Connerton the body can also be seen as a container, or carrier of memory, of two different types of social practice; inscribing and incorporating. The former includes all activities which are helpful for storing and retrieving information: photographing, writing, taping, etc. The latter implies skilled performances which are sent by means of physical activity, like a spoken word or a handshake. These performances are accomplished by the individual in an unconscious manner, and one might suggest that this memory carried in gestures and habits, is more", "to the brain and then processed in a series of stages, which extract multiple types of information from the raw input. In the visual system, for example, sensory signals from the eyes are transmitted to the thalamus and then to the primary visual cortex; inside the cerebral cortex they are sent to areas that extract features such as three-dimensional structure, shape, color, and motion. Memory comes into play in at least two ways. First, it allows sensory information to be evaluated in the context of previous experience. Second, and even more importantly, working memory allows information to be integrated over", "determine how best to achieve its goals. Like any computer, Living Brain can process and collate large amounts of information. Living Brain can find any weaknesses in a being or structure as well as determining the best situation to overcome this obstacle. Living Brain has dense metal exo-skeleton and possesses super-strength and speed. It can also fly and has clawed hands. The joints of Living Brain's limbs can rotate nearly 360 degrees. Originally, Living Brain had external controls on its thorax, with which it can be deactivated, yet Living Brain has always countered any attempts to reach it. Living Brain", "no mental content, and that organization and function of the brain comes solely from life experiences. The standard social science model views the brain simply as a large domain-general structure, whose functions have evolved gradually through cultural input. Today, many scientists continue to view the brain as a black box, where only its inputs and outputs can be measured, but their internal mechanisms will never be known.\nOne of the first discoveries relevant to this hypothesis came from a French neurologist, Joseph Jules Dejerine. He discovered that a stroke affecting a small area of the brain's left visual system left patients", "transmit messages.\nDigital computation and communication operates, then, independently of the physical properties of the computing machine. As scientists and philosophers during the 1950s digested the implications, they exploited the insight to explain why 'mind' apparently operates on so different a level from 'matter'. Descartes's celebrated distinction between immortal 'soul' and mortal 'body' was conceptualised, following Turing, as no more than the distinction between (digitally encoded) information on the one hand, and, on the other, the particular physical medium—light, sound, electricity or whatever—chosen to transmit the corresponding signals. Note that the Cartesian assumption of mind's independence of matter implied—in the human", "entire memory. Time ordering of memories can also be encoded. The behavior of the system is modeled with vectors which can change values, representing different states of the system. This early model was a major step toward a dynamical systems view of human cognition, though many details had yet to be added and more phenomena accounted for. Language acquisition By taking into account the evolutionary development of the human nervous system and the similarity of the brain to other organs, Elman proposed that language and cognition should be treated as a dynamical system rather than a digital symbol processor. ", "Spatial memory Short-term spatial memory Short-term memory (STM) can be described as a system allowing one to temporarily store and manage information that is necessary to complete complex cognitive tasks. Tasks which employ short-term memory include learning, reasoning, and comprehension. Spatial memory is a cognitive process that enables a person to remember different locations as well as spatial relations between objects. This allows one to remember where an object is in relation to another object; for instance, allowing someone to navigate through a familiar city. Spatial memories are said to form after a person has already gathered and processed sensory", "attributing much of our temporal processing to our method of memory storage. New York Times Sunday Book Reviewer Christopher F. Chabris claimed although the idea of the brain having some major flaws was not necessarily a new finding, \"Buonomano’s focus on the mechanisms of memory, especially its 'associative architecture' as the main causes of the brain’s bugs\" is a new concept. Dean Buonomano illuminates the causes and consequences of these \"bugs\" in terms of the brain's innermost workings and their evolutionary purposes and ultimately both praises and criticizes the functions of the human brain arguing, \"The human brain is the", "memory cannot be described without being conscious and vice versa, then the two concepts are identical. Types Episodic memory consists of the storage and recollection of observational information attached to specific life-events. These can be memories that happened to the subject directly or just memories of events that happened around them. Episodic memory allows for mental time travel – recalling various contextual and situational details of one's previous experiences.\nSome examples of episodic memory include the memory of entering a specific classroom for the first time, the memory of storing your carry-on baggage while boarding a plane headed to a specific", "have constructed collective memories in the form of commemorations which should bring and keep together minority groups and individuals with conflicting agendas. What becomes clear is that the obsession with memory coincides with the fear of forgetting and the aim for authenticity.\nHowever, more recently questions have arisen whether there ever was a time in which \"pure\", non-representational memory existed – as Nora in particular put forward. Scholars like Tony Bennett rightly point out that representation is a crucial precondition for human perception in general: pure, organic and objective memories can never be witnessed as such. Space It is", "of information in working memory, coordinated by the frontal lobes.\nThe frontal lobes help a person select out memories that are most relevant on a given occasion. It can coordinate various types of information into a coherent memory trace. For example, the knowledge of the information itself, as well as knowing where information came from must be put together into a single memory representation; this is called source monitoring. Sometimes we experience situations where information becomes separated, such as when we recall something, but cannot remember where we remember it from; this is referred to as a source monitoring", "over a day you use 100 percent of the brain\".\nAlthough parts of the brain have broadly understood functions, many mysteries remain about how brain cells (i.e., neurons and glia) work together to produce complex behaviors and disorders. Perhaps the broadest, most mysterious question is how diverse regions of the brain collaborate to form conscious experiences. So far, there is no evidence that there is one site for consciousness, which leads experts to believe that it is truly a collective neural effort. Therefore, as with James's idea that humans have untapped cognitive potential, it may be that a large number of", "in time mentally is unique to humans and this is made possible by the autonoetic consciousness and is the essence of episodic memory. Encoding specificity principle Tulving's theory of \"encoding specificity\" emphasizes the importance of retrieval cues in accessing episodic memories. The theory states that effective retrieval cues must overlap with the to-be-retrieved memory trace. Because the contents of the memory trace are primarily established during the initial encoding of the experience, retrieval cues will be maximally effective if they are similar to this encoded information. Tulving has dubbed the process through which a retrieval cue activates a stored memory", "of the medial temporal lobe, a brain structure that includes the hippocampus and other para-hippocampal cortical areas. The organization of these brain areas is largely conserved across mammalian species as are the major pathways that information travels between the medial temporal lobe and the neocortex. Because of this strong parallel between animal brain structures and the structures involved in human episodic memory, there is reason to believe that not only do some animals possess the ability to form what-where-when memories, but that this episodic-like system may be more comparable to human episodic memory than once thought.\nAccording to Eichenbaum (2000), information", "it is damaged. It is only when there exist no parts big enough to contain the whole that the memory is lost. This can also explain why some children retain normal intelligence when large portions of their brain—in some cases, half—are removed. It can also explain why memory is not lost when the brain is sliced in different cross-sections.\nPribram proposed that neural holograms were formed by the diffraction patterns of oscillating electric waves within the cortex. It is important to note the difference between the idea of a holonomic brain and a holographic one. Pribram does not suggest that the", "among a variety of neural systems, yet certain types of knowledge may be processed and contained in specific regions of the brain. Overall, the mechanisms of memory are poorly understood. Such brain parts as the cerebellum, striatum, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala are thought to play an important role in memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial and declarative learning, as well as consolidating short-term into long-term memory.\nIn Lashley's experiments (1929, 1950), rats were trained to run a maze. Tissue was removed from their cerebral cortices before re-introducing them to the maze, to see", "Memory space (social science) Memory space (French: lieu de mémoire) is a concept related to collective memory, stating that certain places, objects or events can have special significance related to group's remembrance. The concept has been coined by French historian Pierre Nora who defines them as “complex things. At once natural and artificial, simple and ambiguous, concrete and abstract, they are lieux—places, sites, causes—in three senses—material, symbolic and functional”", "at opposite corners of a slim body. Other characters dispense with legs altogether for life in space. Personality recording Using a fictional chemical called ferrophotonucleic acid, or FPNA, the state of a person's brain can be preserved in long molecular chains, and replayed into a new brain. This is used for two purposes.\nFirst, people can record their personalities and all their memories into storage, along with a sample of their tissue. If they die, a copy can be cloned and returned to life with the memories they had up to the time of recording. This is", "various parts of this memory have to perform functions which differ somewhat in their nature and considerably in their purpose, it is nevertheless tempting to treat the entire memory as one organ, and to have its parts even as interchangeable as possible for the various functions enumerated above.\" (Sec. 2.5)\n\"The orders which are received by CC come from M, i.e. from the same place where the numerical material is stored.\" (Sec. 14.0)\nVon Neumann estimates the amount of memory required based on several classes of mathematical problems, including ordinary and partial differential equations, sorting and probability experiments. Of these, partial differential", "information, freedom, creativity, and at the same time it fundamentally changes the process of our memorisation. Permanently immersed in millions of informations that machines 'memorize for us’, Anderson responds to the idea that our memories live exclusively ‘online’ and questions the ‘how’ and ‘what’ to remember.\nTo do so she has developed a process of movements around the objects and expressed strong interests between Art and Science, Colliding Worlds: Hans Ulrich Obrist and Martin Rees.\nThe digital evolution is a fascinating process that is going to turn out as decisive for the mechanisms of human memory as the invention of writing was.", "information or other material arrived at through the topics of invention can be called for in a given occasion in order to redistribute information that is already known or given. The canon of Memory also suggests that scholars consider the psychological aspects of preparing to communicate and the performance of communicating itself, especially in an oral or impromptu setting. Typically Memory has to do only with the orator, but invites consideration of how the audience will retain things in mind.\" Mind sharing Mind sharing is a way to get collective intelligence—crowd wisdom that is comparable to expert wisdom. The methodology", "being able to forget the rest.\"\nSignificant debate also exists over the limits of memory capacity. Some are of the view that the brain contains so many potential synaptic connections that, in theory at least, no practical limit exists to the number of long-term memories that the brain can store. In 1961, Wilder Penfield reported that specific stimulation of the temporal lobes resulted in vivid recollection of memories. He concluded that our brains were making \"continuous, effortless, video-like recordings\" of our experiences, but that these records are not consciously accessible to us. However, a study published in the Proceedings of the", "the individuals with the unusual ability to recall long lists of information including names, numbers, etc.\nA mnemonic device is said to be a memory aid that is used to help an individual remember and recall information. Mnemonic devices are usually verbal, such as a special phrase, word or a short poem that individuals are familiar with.\nEach individual has two types of memory, one is \"natural memory\" and the other one is \"artificial memory\". Mnemonic strategy is said to help develop artificial memory through learning and practicing memory techniques.\nCommon mnemonics for memorizing lists of words is through the use of acronym," ]

[ "Ultimately, the audience is to blame for rewarding the producers of \"bad\" movies (I liked Anchorman 2).\n\nA lot of people pay to see Adam Sandler and Will Ferrell. Even if some of the jokes aren't that good to you, they are to other people.\n\nAs far as who in the production is to blame... the writers for not writing funnier jokes, the actors for not being funny, the director and editor for making the film too long or poorly paced.", "Comedy is subjective. It could even be your fault for not thinking it is funny.", "Id have to say the people watching, for example a haunted house was a black comedy movie, A lot of black people saw it and found it funny, I watched it and it was horrible. I'm a white guy.", "It comes down to the fact that Adam Sandler movies still somehow make a ton of money.", "Generally the problem is that a decent script is written, but the producers dont think it will play well with all the major demographic groups they are targeting, so it goes through several partial rewrites by people other than the original writer. Writing by a committee who will never meet and has totally different goals (make something funny vs make something the suits will like) is destined to make a shit product.", "The editors have to understand comedy in order to make a scene work. Timing for effect is probably talked about in textbooks but not something that can be taught in schools.", "I've heard people who have written unfunny movies blame the studio financing the film for meddling too much and not allowing the filmmakers to do what they want to do." ]

[ "but be sporadically funny thanks to Leslie Nielsen's dependably solid work, but it's still a steep comedown from the original.\"\nPeter Rainer of the Los Angeles Times praised the opening sequence, which parodied The Untouchables, and the climax at the Academy Awards, but felt the middle was uninspired, and that the film overall had too little plotting and relied too much on comedy without the romantic or action elements of the previous films. Others felt that the humor was weak and too similar to that of the previous films. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out", "been very funny no matter what, because the pieces for comedy are not in place... A comedy that hasn't assigned sympathy to some characters and made others hateful cannot expect to get many laughs, because the audience doesn't know who to laugh at, or with.\"\nRegarding the digital special effects, Ebert deemed the film \"an excellent example of the way modern advances in special effects can sabotage a picture (Titanic is an example of effects being used wisely). Because it is possible to make a movie in which the mouse can do all sorts of clever things, the filmmakers have assumed", "to an audience weaned on the myriad films it references\", and that the film's humor \"wisely varies\" from sight gags and bizarre non sequiturs to plays on words, in-jokes, and unashamed bawdiness, with its dialogue \"played with straight faces\", and the film dialogue being \"often funny precisely because it's only very slightly askew\". He concluded by writing that the film \"would probably play a lot better cut even tighter, say trimmed of another 15 minutes or so,\" as \"The style of humor tends to tax the viewer after an hour, and the climax drags on much longer than it", "it—has been polluted for the sake of gags that are rarely even funny in themselves.\" The Chicago Tribune's Gene Siskel gave the film two stars out of four and noted it was indebted to the comedy of Mel Brooks and Blazing Saddles in particular, but only had one really funny scene (in which Segal and Hawn converse in a mixture of different languages). Arthur D. Murphy of Variety wrote, \"While the 104-minute film is more than simply an acceptable effort, it lacks the punch, dash and excitement which makes a film comedy really great.\" Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles", "\"a blast of laughing gas in a genre that tends to take itself way too seriously\". Tasha Robinson at The Verge felt there was too much juvenile humor. She noted the film was did not make homophobic, racist, or sexist jokes, and that its overall tone remained joyous despite the material. David Edelstein of Vulture said the film's jokes save it from a lack of subtext and strong villains and noted the \"gratifyingly twisty\" structure. Manohla Dargis at The New York Times was not impressed with the listing of the film's genre cliches in the opening credits before they were", "critic from Times of India noting \"much of the humour is silly and we do experience a twinge of embarrassment for having laughed at the uninspired jokes — but that happens only after the film is over\". The critic also likened the film's plot to Massu Engira Masilamani (2015) and Om Shanthi Om (2015), stating that in \"less than a year, we have had three Tamil films which have been inspired from the Korean comedy, Hello Ghost (2010)\".", "commenting: \"This was one of those TV movies that couldn't decide whether to be funny or serious. Mixing killings and beatings up with almost slapstick comic capers is difficult. And A Good Thief lurched uncertainly from comedy to drama, leaving the poor viewer uncertain if to laugh or cry. Or just switch off.\"", "interesting and exciting enough to keep one watching until the end credits. The film's humour is often highly praised, lightening up what would otherwise be a superficial and generic action film. The film has received some criticism, largely that it is ludicrous and \"stupid\", or that its plot does not sustain its length. However, others argue that this is not only irrelevant—The film is intended to be ludicrous and stupid—it is actually one of the strengths of the film.", "New York Post said it \"may be the least amusing comedy ever made.\" Lawrence Van Gelder of The New York Times offered a scathing review, describing the movie as \"a series of sketches built around subjects like masturbation, defecation, alienation, urination, necrophilia, voyeurism, casual brutality, and mockery of the unfortunate.\" Van Gelder added that tasteless or offensive material can be funny in the right hands, but that Offer \"makes the common mistake of equating the recognition of comic potential for comedy itself. For the successful, talent bridges the gap, but, here, [talent] is absent.\" Lawsuits The film was the subject", "sick joke of a film that some will find funny, others simply appalling.\" Holden concluded his review by stating that the film \"gets carried away with its own cleverness. It makes the audience the butt of a nasty practical joke.\"", "Carl Reiner, with a maniac zeal, has pulled off one of the most outrageous and funniest comedies this year.\" Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times called the film \"irreverent, foul-mouthed, vulgar, tasteless, indecent and—for reasons I'm not sure I fully understand—riotously funny.\" Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote that George Segal was \"in really brilliant form\" but the film's mix of \"self-consciously outrageous\" scenes and charming scenes \"don't blend, and often the tendency of one style warps or undermines the tendency of another.\" Tom Milne of The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, \"Flawlessly scripted, acted and directed, and hovering", "of gratuitous jokes. Nearly every premise they have employed (spoofs of westerns, horror films, costume melodramas) has been done to better effect by other comedians. And yet, in spite of the overwhelming artistic odds against them, they were responsible for some of the finest comedies ever made. Their humor was the most undistilled form of low comedy; they were not great innovators, but as quick laugh practitioners, they place second to none. If public taste is any criterion, the Stooges have been the reigning kings of comedy for over fifty years.\nBeginning in the 1980s, the Stooges finally began to receive", "funny too much of the time. On those occasions when it is funny, the humor less often prompts laughter than mute appreciation of the talents of the principal performers - Michael Keaton, Christopher Lloyd and Peter Boyle.\" Michael Wilmington noted that \"[the film] is so clearly derived from the movie \"One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest\" that you might begin to wonder when Jack Nicholson will show up. [...which] may suggest that \"Dream Team\" is a weak, derivative, somehow disreputable movie, which is somewhat true. If you compare it to its obvious source, it has a coy, flip attitude toward", "gags that are goofy, unapologetically crass, and ultimately hilarious.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three-and-a-half stars (of four), and said: \"The movie is as funny, let it be said, as any comedy released this year ... You laugh, and then you laugh at yourself for laughing.\"\nIt was voted the 14th best comedy of all time in a Channel 4 poll. The film was selected by The New York Times as one of The Best 1,000 Movies Ever", "\"The sheer density of the jokes guarantees a few laughs for every taste ... and the loose, improvisational energy of the performers keeps things lively.\" Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, writing, \"The movie cleverly spoofs the 24-hour TV news cycle, as well as sexism and racism in the workplace. Not every scene is equally funny, of course, but most of the comic antics generate laughs.\" Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a negative review, writing, \"While I'm glad Anchorman is back – we need a little levity in", "overused teen-comedy genre\" and said that the film \"may not make you laugh out loud — it's too sly and subtle for that — but it will have you smiling every minute, and often grinning widely at its weirded-out charm.\"\nMichael Atkinson of The Village Voice praised the film as \"an epic, magisterially observed pastiche on all-American geekhood, flooring the competition with a petulant shove.\" In a mixed review, The New York Times praised Heder's performance and the \"film's most interesting quality, which is its stubborn, confident, altogether weird individuality\", while criticizing the film's resolution that comes \"too easily.\" Film critic", "film is more of a drama with comedy, for the personal problems as well as the environmental challenges aren't really funny, and even some of the humor is forced and strident ... maybe there have been too many films on the trials of urban existence to make yet another parade of big city woes laughable.\" Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four and stated that \"knocking the problems of living in New York City is no longer funny. It's become an old joke.\" Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that \"in", "from the serious tone of the original to an emphasis on humor to be entertaining. Puig said the film was \"corny, barbaric and sometimes visually murky. But humor and self-deprecating macho charm make this male pattern badness crowd-pleasing fun.\" The New York Times' Neil Genzlinger judged the film \"pleasantly-dumb fun if you watch with the right mindset\", but considered its dialog \"embarrassing\" (if intended seriously) and the plot formulaic. Rolling Stone's Peter Travers gave the film two (out of four) stars, saying that the film was not even \"big, dumb fun\" and criticizing the script; it did not \"so much", "humor ... but we find ourselves much more enchanted by the film's kooky peripheral characters than by its plodding storyline.\" Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post panned the film as \"stupid and crude.\" Sid Smith of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 1.5 stars out of 4, writing that \"the laughs are strained, and many of the effects are ludicrous. The filmmakers couldn't come up with enough good plot and dialogue to fill in the gaps between their little satirical stabs.\" A review by Mark Finch in The Monthly Film Bulletin was generally positive, finding that although the concept of", "of Horton, Ralston, La Plante, and Miller. Picture Play Magazine was a bit more reserved in their review of the film. While they called it \"... the most consistently broad comedy of any film since \"The Cock-eyed World\",\" they also stated that it was \"supposedly hilarious\". Other positive reviews came from: Billboard, \"... destined to be one of the laugh highlights of the screen year\"; Motion Picture Herald, \"Highly sophisticated comedy, goes over with a great laugh\"; Los Angeles Express, \"Fast, furious, frothy farce. Lonely Wives is a laugh riot\"; and Motion Picture Daily, \"Laughs keep rolling out in", "comedy mostly works a charm under the combined talents of the three leads, who play nicely against type – although forced plot elements and sentimentality at times dampen the fun.\" The film critic Roger Ebert, despite noting several aspects he saw as flaws, praised the film, remarking, \"Because of Selleck and his co-stars... the movie becomes a heartwarming entertainment\". He gave it 3 (out of four) stars. Box office The film opened in theaters on November 25, 1987 (a Wednesday). It ended up grossing $170 million. It was notable for the Walt Disney Studios since it was the first", "comic situations failing or going slack, but invariably an inspired bit of business or fresh, witty situation will revive one's interest and snap the movie back into shape.\" Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times described it as \"a thoroughly infectious, delightfully wacky comedy\" that \"asks nothing of the viewer but to sit back and enjoy himself.\" Pauline Kael of The New Yorker called it \"a suspense comedy that keeps promising to be a knockout entertainment; it never delivers, and it finally fizzles out, because the story idea isn't as good as the curlicues. But it has a pleasant slapstick", "to see it or not.\". Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said \"Tomcats is laced with such rampant misogyny that the laughs stick in your throat.\" The New York Times said, \"The film is enthusiastically vulgar but not particularly funny, perhaps because it too often loses the distinction between gross-out humor and the merely gross.\"", "out of four, saying that \"its awfulness [comes] in so many forms that it's hard to single out just one appalling example\". Variety felt that it provided \"unintentional laughs by the barrel\", and predicted that the film would be a box office bomb. NPR said that although the film deals with some serious topics, the random nature of characters and controversies made it hard to appreciate them, describing it as \"too earnest to be a hoot, and too amateurish to be anything else\".", "and explained that the comedy is successful because it \"develops the quirks and peculiarities of its characters, so that they're funny because of who they are.\" He further commented on the cast by favorably commenting on acting as \"engaging\", stating that \"Murphy and Aykroyd are perfect foils for each other\", that they're both capable of being \"specifically eccentric\", that \"they both play characters with a lot of native intelligence\" and concluding that \"It's fun to watch them thinking.\" Commenting on Bellamy and Ameche in the roles of the Duke brothers, Ebert called their involvement in the film \"a masterstroke of", "to be a little weird—and most welcome.\" Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three stars out of four and called the opening scene \"one of the funniest bits of film,\" though he thought the romance \"gets in the way\" and \"could have been omitted easily.\" Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that \"Allen seems to have been unable to figure a suitable finish for the plot, which does not so much peak as stop. Still the best jokes have a glorious insanity about them. Given the diminishing ability to laugh like blazing idiots these days,", "hard to make you laugh at jokes that are simply too flimsy for film. It’s exhausting more than entertaining. See it if you must.\" Nikhat Kazmi of The Times Of India gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5, and said, \"Neither fruity nor nutty, this film ends up as a total squish. After an unfruitful watch, you feel completely let down.\" Kaveri Bamzai of India Today Group gave the film 1 star out of 5, and said, \"Unfortunately, the writers seem to have exhausted themselves thinking of the funny names and the interesting premise. There is nothing beyond it,", "fail to be humorous because it depicts a violation that does not simultaneously seem benign, or because it depicts a benign situation that has no violation. For example, play fighting and tickling cease to elicit laughter either when the attack stops (strictly benign) or becomes too aggressive (malign violation). Jokes similarly fail to be funny when either they are too tame or too risqué. The Humor Code In 2010, McGraw met journalist Joel Warner, who was fascinated by McGraw's humor research and unified theory of humor. Starting in 2011, the two created \"The Humor Code Project,\" a two-year, 91,000-mile global", "same joke: that they aren’t getting paid. These vignettes sum up the problem with the movie as a whole. For one thing, much of the movie seems to have been designed around these cameo appearance. And secondly, the movie has a tendency to repeat its humor. These problems are compounded by an odd production that can’t seem to decide what the name of one of the characters is.\" Rating It was graded \"PG-13\" by the Cinema Evaluation Board of the Philippines.", "a good, wholesome comedy. Not uproariously funny, but it tells a story, and leaves one in good humor.\" The New York Dramatic Mirror praised the film as having been well-produced and having consistently good acting. Another review in The Moving Picture World was favorable and found the production to be original and pleasing. The New York Clipper found the comedy to be a relief from the \"pie-smashing, dough-throwing, acrobatic affairs that a long suffering public has come to regard at the only sort of film comedy to be seen.\" The Motion Picture News called it an amusing farce that was" ]

[ "Well the companies downsize their servers; potentially down to one actual server. The cost to keep that one server running is probably a lot less than a few hundred subscriptions / micro transactions a month. There's no point in taking it down if the company continues to exist, because you're making money off it by essentially doing nothing, it's already up and running.", "It depends on the company. If the developers and publishers have other games that generate revenue, they may be able to afford to keep a couple servers running on an old game. For instance, Guild Wars would not be able to run if Guild Wars 2 wasn't doing as well as it is. I bet blizzard would be able to afford to keep a WoW server up for a while if it lost its player base. With no developers and very few servers running, it is more affordable" ]

[ "that sometimes it's enough to just be told a story instead of living it. Rab concludes that Cava is no longer safe, and leads the remaining survivors away to start anew elsewhere. Crossed: Dead or Alive The first series was originally optioned for an independently-funded film, with Ennis writing the screenplay. It was going to be financed by Trigger Street Productions and produced by Michael De Luca, Jason Netter, and Kevin Spacey. In the end of 2012, however, Ennis announced that he and Avatar Press had recovered the rights to the franchise. They made plans to launch a series of", "characters struggle to find their place in this strange new world and collectively uncover a sinister plot by a multinational corporation looking to plunge the world into another zombie-human war, regardless of the cost. Conclusion The series concluded in November 2004. The co-creators of Dead End Days have gone on to create the breakfast-based online sitcom Cerealized.com, as well as several music video and short film projects. On the Rocket Ace Moving Pictures fan message boards they have confirmed they are also working on several secret short and feature film projects. Related products Dead End Days was released as a", "series began in January 1989 and concluded in March 1996. In the eighth issue of The Sandman, Gaiman and artist Mike Dringenberg introduced Death, the older sister of Dream, who would become as popular as the series' title character. The limited series Death: The High Cost of Living launched DC's Vertigo line in 1993. The 75 issues of the regular series, along with an illustrated prose text and a special containing seven short stories, have been collected into 12 volumes that remain in print, 14 if the Death: The High Cost of Living and Death: The Time of Your Life", "announced at the 2009 E3 conference and was released November 17, 2009. Addressing concerns voiced by fans, Gabe Newell responded to an email from Kotaku explaining that despite the upcoming sequel, Left 4 Dead would continue to be supported and more content is planned in the coming months.\nOn August 4, 2009, Valve announced the second DLC pack. It contains a new campaign called Crash Course, set shortly after the events of the No Mercy campaign, where the Survivors try to get to a Truck Depot after the helicopter they were in crashed. It is available for co-op, versus and", "£1,505 from 44 backers including former Gamesmaster host Dominik Diamond. Closure On 14 October 2015, Quick Off The Mark Productions announced that director Mark D. Ferguson was moving to Canada and that the company would be disbanded in the new year. Filming responsibilities for Autumn Never Dies were handed over to Pentagram Productions UK and Suited Caribou Media. After 6 years, 4 months and 10 days, the company ceased trading on 19 February 2016 and was formally dissolved by Companies House on 7 June 2016. The company's logo was changed on the final day to the running man relaxing in", "Dead Last Plot The premise of the series was that the three members of the fictional band The Problem find, and are unable to rid themselves of, a magical amulet that allows them to see and communicate with ghosts. Each episode featured the trio reluctantly completing the unfinished business of the ghosts that they encounter in order to allow the ghosts move on to the next world. Much of the humor of the series came from The Problem wanting to develop their career instead of helping ghosts, and that the trio almost invariably are viewed as, at best, mentally unbalanced", "Media's Derek Dwilson called season 1's finale \"impressive\" and said \"Extinct deserves to be renewed.\" Paste Magazine says the first season is \"worth paying attention to,\" despite spurning BYUtv's claims that the show is family friendly. Abby White says \"the show features mass grave sites, killer viruses and highly aggressive bad guys who want the heroes dead. It’s not necessarily for the faint of heart, and yet the way it’s shot, edited and written makes it quite arguably a lot tamer than most sci-fi TV.\"\nDeseret News received the pilot positively writing \"this pilot...making for uneven pacing at times, but intriguing", "G.R.A.V.E. Grrrls Publication history G.R.A.V.E. Grrrls: Destroyers of the Dead was published as a monthly three-issue comic book limited series by Midnight Show in 2005.\nIt was re-released by The Scream Factory in a digital edition for a brief time only on WOWIO in April 2008 Plot synopsis A new nano-technology developed to cure Alzheimer’s disease (the Project: Born Again chip) is somehow bringing the dead back to life with an insatiable hunger for human flesh, and it’s going to take three “enhanced” female government ops known as the G.R.A.V.E. (Genetically Refined And Virally Enhanced) Grrrls to solve the mystery and", "history suggests that its approach isn't going to change. Eventually, the audience's willingness to put up with the sluggish pace will catch up with this series. Given the declining ratings, it's possible that it's already started to happen. The Walking Dead has pulled off some amazing feats over the last seven seasons, but even this show can't last forever.\"\nStuart Jeffries of The Guardian called it \"a satisfyingly gaudy ending, with mobile caskets, shots to the gut and the return of Shiva the almighty CGI tiger.\"\nKevin Yeoman of Screen Rant felt the episode was \"a drag\" but assessed that Sasha's death", "Dead like Me: Life After Death Plot A crew of \"reapers\", whose job is to extract the souls of people who are about to die, find themselves confronted by change as their habitual meeting place (Der Waffle Haus) burns down the same day their boss and head reaper (Rube) disappears (having \"gotten his lights\"). They soon meet their new boss, Cameron Kane (Henry Ian Cusick), a slick businessman who died falling from the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. He outfits them with color-coordinated smartphones and treats them to luxurious accommodations – teaching them, as Roxy (Jasmine Guy) puts", "Dead Set on Life— an expansion of Matty Matheson's food-oriented web series Keep It Canada.\nA month after Viceland's initial launch, the network announced a second slate of shows, including Traveling the Stars: Action Bronson and Friends Watch ‘Ancient Aliens’—a series in which Action Bronson watches episodes of Ancient Aliens with guests whilst smoking marijuana, Black Market— a series in which Michael K. Williams explores underground economies around the world, the U.S. premieres of Cyberwar and Dead Set on Life, Party Legends— a show about re-enactments of entertaining party stories, WOMAN— a series in which Gloria Steinam features the lives of", "any time slot. In 2006, when asked about his character, Jack Deveraux, \"coming back from the dead\"—for the third time—actor Matthew Ashford responded, \"It is hard to play that because at a certain point it becomes too unreal...actors look at that and think, 'What is this — the Cartoon Network'?\" (Ironically, Jack – with Ashford in the role – would be killed off for a fourth time in an explosion-related elevator failure in August 2012, only to be brought from the dead once more in December 2018.)\nIn addition to receiving critical acclaim in print journalism, the series has won a", "December 2015 interview with director Steven Soderbergh, he confirmed that Dr. Thackery dies in the season two finale, and that it was all planned from the beginning, and Clive Owen only had a two-year contract for the series. Soderbergh also said, \"I told them [Cinemax] that I'm going to do the first two years and then we are going to break out the story for seasons 3 and 4 and try to find a filmmaker or filmmakers to do this the way that I did. This is how we want to do this so that every two years, whoever comes", "Left 4 Dead 2, \"The Passing\". Though initially planned to be released sometime in March 2010, \"The Passing\" was released on April 22, 2010. The content costs 560 Microsoft Points ($6.99) for the Xbox 360 and is free for PC and Mac users. The campaign, taking place between the \"Dead Center\" and \"Dark Carnival\" campaigns, features the cast of Left 4 Dead 2 meeting with three of the survivors from the original Left 4 Dead. The new group learns that the fourth original survivor, Bill, sacrificed himself to allow his comrades to continue on safely. The title \"The Passing\"", "retirement unit, and a stand-alone technology-focused unit called Blackboard Insurance, led by Seraina Macia. Business In Australia and China, AIG is identified as a large financial institution and provider of financial services including credit security mechanisms. \nIn the United States, AIG is the largest underwriter of commercial and industrial insurance.\nAIG offers property casualty insurance, life insurance, retirement products, mortgage insurance and other financial services. In the third quarter of 2012, the global property-and-casualty insurance business, Chartis, was renamed AIG Property Casualty. SunAmerica, life-insurance and retirement-services division, was renamed AIG Life and Retirement, other existing brands continue to be used", "Dead or Alive 4 Characters Returning characters in the game are Ayane, Bass Armstrong, Bayman, Brad Wong, Christie, Hayate, Hitomi, Jann Lee, Kasumi, Leifang, Ryu Hayabusa, Tina Armstrong, and Zack.\nDOA4 features three new playable characters: Kokoro, a young geisha in training; Eliot, a 16-year-old boy from England and protégé to Gen Fu; and La Mariposa, a female Lucha Libre wrestler. In addition, DOA4 features a playable unlockable character from the Halo series, a female Spartan supersoldier going by the name \"Spartan-458\" (with a Halo-themed stage Nassau Station in the game); it would later be revealed that her real name would", "who had been serving as GM's President and chief operating officer.\nAfter 32 years at GM, Wagoner retired with an exit package of over $10 million: $1.65 million in benefits per year for his first five years of retirement, $74,030 per year pension for the rest of his life, and a $2.6 million life insurance policy that can be cashed out at any time.", "Telltale should prioritize finding ways to pay the let-go developers over finishing off the game. Two anonymous sources speaking to Ethan Gach of Kotaku clarified that Telltale was trying to convince potential development partners to hire the staff Telltale had laid off so the staff could remotely finish the two remaining episodes of The Walking Dead: The Final Season. During the 2018 New York Comic Con, Robert Kirkman, the creator of The Walking Dead comic, stated that his production company Skybound Entertainment completed negotiations with Telltale to finish off the last two episodes of The Final Season through their Skybound", "and adds over ten hours of developers and voice actor commentary. Additional improvements have been made in character models movement and lip synching. Sales According to Telltale, the combined games in the series have sold over 50 million episodes worldwide by July 2017. Season 1 and 400 Days The Walking Dead has received critical acclaim, with reviewers giving praise for the harsh emotional tone, the characters, story and the resemblance to the original comic book, although criticizing the graphical glitches. The game received over 80 Game of the Year awards and many other awards.\n\"Episode 1 – A New Day\" received", "back—not that we haven't brought characters back from the dead. We want to earn stuff.\" Writing In May 2015, Bell said that writing for the third season would begin the following month, with the story set six months after the events that concluded the second season. Bell stated that S.H.I.E.L.D. would be depicted as it was in the second season, underground with small \"pockets\" of S.H.I.E.L.D. around the world, as following the release of Captain America: The Winter Soldier \"we found we like our team ... as underdogs, as opposed to a giant, powerful, NSA organization that can do pretty", "The Last Millionaire Format The Last Millionaire takes 12 of Britain's most successful young entrepreneurs and drops them into six of the world's most exciting and demanding cities. Here they face the ultimate business challenge; to make money from scratch in just five days.\nUsed to running successful businesses, these award-winning entrepreneurs have proved themselves at home, but can they do it abroad? This time they'll be stripped of their legions of staff, company contacts, personal cash/credit cards and all their business lifelines. All they have left is a small amount of start up capital plus their raw money making talent.\nTo", "the Living Dead\" - Season 1, Episode 6 KARR 2.0 (Peter Cullen) is mentioned in the new Knight Rider series episode \"Knight of the Living Dead\", and is said to be a prototype of KITT (Knight Industries Three Thousand). The new KARR acronym was changed to \"Knight Auto-cybernetic Roving Robotic-exoskeleton\". Instead of an automobile, a schematic display shows a heavily armed humanoid-looking robot with wheeled legs that converts into an ambiguous off-road vehicle. \nIn the episode, a spy infiltrates the SSC and activates a self-destruct program within KITT, placed there secretly by Dr. Graiman. In order to save KITT's operating", "Dead End Days Dead End Days (DED) is a zombie comedy internet webserial released by Rocket Ace Moving Pictures between 2003 and 2004. Launched in October 2003, \"DED\" was one of the first independent webserials (serialized live action video series developed for broadcast exclusively on the Internet), and a predecessor to modern vlogs or podcasts.\nReleased weekly at DeadEndDays.com, the series combined elements of farcical comedy, classic serial adventure, social commentary, and modern zombie horror genres. The year-long story followed the adventures of a number of individuals in a world wherein a human-zombie war has been narrowly averted and corporate marketing", "Last Man Standing: Killbook of a Bounty Hunter Graphic novel release The first volume in the series was published on 29 September 2010 in both hardcover and softcover variants. And again in 2013 through Dark Horse Comics. It introduces the main character and his allies and enemies, and his overall plan of revenge against those who set him up. Plot Last Man Standing: Killbook of a Bounty Hunter tells the story of Gabriel, a genetically engineered soldier. He is a warrior of supernatural strength, anointed as the guardian of Amerika and its people. Admired and celebrated by most, Gabriel’s world", "Blade Runner Black Out 2022 Plot Set three years after the events of Blade Runner, the Tyrell Corporation has developed the new Nexus-8 line of replicants, who now possess natural, open-ended lifespans equivalent to that of a regular human. This causes a massive backlash among the human populace, who begin hunting down and killing replicants, seeing them as a, now very credible, threat to humanity. One of these replicants, Trixie, is attacked by a group of thugs but is rescued by Iggy, who effortlessly disarms and kills the thugs. Iggy reveals to her that he used to be a soldier", "company reported that 19% of its revenue comes from Titanic and 67% from Bodies with the rest among its other exhibitions.\nThe Body exhibits have generated considerable controversy over their appropriateness and questioning the practice of selling cadavers for public display without family permission.\nThe company changed its ticker symbol again to PRXI when it was listed on NASDAQ. New ticker symbol is PRXIQ 2009 In 2009 its other exhibits include \"Dialog in the Dark\" in which visitors pass through an exhibit totally without light. and Star Trek: The Exhibition. 2016 After facing legal challenges and the early closure of its", "Million Dead History The band was founded in 2000 by Cameron Dean and Julia Ruzicka, after both came to London from Australia. They were joined by Ben Dawson, who had worked with Dean in a record shop in the city. The band's lineup was completed with the addition of vocalist Frank Turner, an old bandmate of Dawson's. The name was chosen from a lyric in the song \"The Apollo Programme Was a Hoax\", by Swedish hardcore punk band Refused. The first Million Dead demo was recorded in September 2001.\nThe band's touring career began with support sets for Cave In, The", "the deceased are former military servicemen killed in wars. They visit the Lincoln Memorial, and at the heavily guarded spaceship Klaatu asks Bobby who the greatest living person is; Bobby suggests Professor Barnhardt (Sam Jaffe). Bobby takes Klaatu to Barnhardt's home, but the professor is not home. Klaatu enters the professor's locked study from outside and adds a mathematical equation on a blackboard to assist Barnhardt in solving a celestial mechanics problem; he leaves his contact information with the suspicious housekeeper.\nDuring the evening, a government agent accompanies Klaatu to Barnhardt. Klaatu explains that the people of other planets are concerned", "Dead Corps Plot synopsis The year is 2101 and thirty three years have passed since the first successful brain tissue remodulation and body reanimation of a human being. Vitals, ordinary living human beings, share their lives with Expireds, an underclass of once dead people who have been restored to life to perform a variety of specialist but unwanted tasks. Apart from the pallor of their skin and the putrid chemical unction which they are forced to consume as a food-substitute, the dead are otherwise indistinguishable from ordinary functioning human beings.\nDetective Sergeant CJ Rataan is the senior officer in", "the Death and what it takes to survive. The third series juxtaposes the personal story arc of the search for Greg with a wider narrative of society appearing to re-establish itself, with federated communities, market bartering and rudimentary railway travel, based on using the steam locomotives preserved on heritage railways. This culminates in the tentative return of law and order, and the quest to restore power through hydroelectricity." ]

[ "Launch technology is costly not only in an immediate economic sense but it can also have longer term environmental impact. Launches are not clean. Even if enough launch capacity could be paid for in money, every pound launched equates to a certain amount of pollution, and you're talking about trillions of pounds of waste. Getting rid of our trash that way would be a tradeoff putting massive greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants like acid rain constituents into the atmosphere.\n\nA revolutionary new launch technology would be required to bring both the economic and environmental costs down to near-zero before launching garbage would start to make sense and then there is still the risk of launch failures and the waste burning up in atmosphere or impacting the surface. A space elevator is probably the safest.", "It's true that one answer is that it would be prohibitively expensive, but it may be hard to immediately see why that means \"we can't\" rather than just \"we don't want to\".\n\nVirtually anything humans do creates waste as a side-effect. As a rough rule of thumb, the more something costs, the more waste it creates.\n\nSo here's why we can't: the very act of creating a rocket results in more waste than the rocket can lift.", "Simple answer is that there is a lot of garbage and sending stuff into space is crazy expensive. Currently spaceX most optimistic estimate for sending things into space is 9 thousands dollars per pound. This year humans are estimated to create close to 2.6 trillion pounds of waste, however most will be organic and degrade leaving us with out 1.4 trillion pounds that wont. This means that if we wanted to laucn just the non degradable stuff into space it would cost us a yearly budget of 12600 trillion dollars." ]

[ "the geo graveyard belt.\nThe geo graveyard belt orbital regime is valuable as a storage and disposal location for derelict satellite space debris after their useful economic life is completed as geosynchronous communication satellites. Artificial satellites are left in space because the economic cost of removing the debris would be high, and current public policy does not require nor incentivize rapid removal by the party that first inserted the debris in outer space and thus created a negative externality for others—a placing of the cost onto them.\nOne public policy proposal to deal with growing space debris is a \"one-up/one-down\" launch", "made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.\nIn addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use. Spacefaring nations To be spacefaring is to be capable of and active in space travel or space transport, the operation of spacecraft or spaceplanes. It involves a knowledge of a variety of topics and development of specialised", "problem of space debris has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth orbit and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both satellite and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space debris and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these items, ranging in size from nuts and bolts to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may", "materials from asteroids, comets and other space objects, including near-Earth objects. Minerals and volatiles could be mined then used in space for in-situ utilization (e.g. construction materials and rocket propellant) or taken back to Earth. These include gold, iridium, silver, osmium, palladium, platinum, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium and tungsten for transport back to Earth; iron, cobalt, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, aluminium, and titanium for construction; water and oxygen to sustain astronauts; as well as hydrogen, ammonia, and oxygen for use as rocket propellant.\nThere are several commercial enterprises working in this field, including Planetary Resources and Deep Space Industries. Regulation Beyond the many", "and operational purpose, and divided into four main subsets: inactive payloads, operational debris, fragmentation debris and microparticulate matter. Inactive payloads refer to any launched space objects that have lost the capability to reconnect to its corresponding space operator; thus, preventing a return to Earth. In contrast, operational debris describes the matter associated with the propulsion of a larger entity into space, which may include upper rocket stages and ejected nose cones. Fragmentation debris refers to any object in space that has become dissociated from a larger entity by means of explosion, collision or deterioration. Microparticulate matter describes space matter that", "the creation of debris which continues to pose a potential hazard to other spacecraft. Finally, U.S. officials again affirmed that the mission's intent was to preserve human life.", "mechanical arm for new planetary discoveries. One of these discoveries came from sending a rover to another planet and collecting samples from this planet. With a rover, NASA can just keep the rover on its designated planet and explore all they want. Mechanical arms are also attached to the ships that are acting as satellite stations in Earth's atmosphere because they help grab degrees that might cause damage to other satellites. Not only that, but they also keep astronauts safe when they have to go make a repair to the ship or satellite. Now, space isn't where all the rover's", "interact with anthropogenic pollution, marine aerosols can affect biogeochemical cycles through the depletion of acids such as nitric acid and halogens. Space debris Space debris describes particulates in the vacuum of outer space, specifically particles originating from human activity that remain in geocentric orbit around the Earth. The International Association of Astronauts define space debris as \"any man-made Earth orbiting object which is non-functional with no reasonable expectation of assuming or resuming its intended function or any other function for which it is or can be expected to be authorized, including fragments and parts thereof\".\nSpace debris is classified by size", "planets. It may also prove possible to extract hydrogen in the form of water ice or hydrated minerals from cold traps on the poles of the Moon.\nAnother potential source of raw materials, at least in the short term, is recycled orbiting satellites and other man-made objects in space. Some consideration was given to the use of the Space Shuttle external fuel tanks for this purpose, but NASA determined that the potential benefits were outweighed by the increased risk to crew and vehicle.\nUnless the materials processing and the manufacturing sites are co-located with the resource extraction facilities, the raw materials will", "of its systems could well fail at any time\". Therefore, it was decided to deorbit it whilst it was still functioning, rather than risk it falling back to Earth out of control, like Skylab in 1979 and Salyut 7 in 1991, potentially dropping debris over a populated area. At the time, Mir was the largest spacecraft ever to reenter the Earth's atmosphere, and there were concerns that sizeable pieces of debris, particularly from the docking assemblies, gyrodynes and external structure, could survive reentry.\nProgress M1-5, which had originally been built to resupply and refuel either Mir or the International Space Station,", "they travel on, and dispose of waste via supercritical water oxidation. But things take a dark turn as funding and support for resupply and Earth-return retrieval are cut by Maclachlan's administration (proposed and carried out by the very same men that tried to shoot the shuttle down), leaving the team with no hope for survival beyond what they may find on Titan. Once they reach Saturn and prepare to land on Titan's surface, another crew member is lost during the landing procedure with another effectively crippled. Titan is discovered to be a bleak, freezing dwarf-planet containing liquid ethane oceans, a", "pressurised modules. Orbital debris threats The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris. Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the", "the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Usually the orbit will be raised saving fuel, as the station's orbit must be boosted periodically to counter the effects of atmospheric drag. If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their Shenzhou spacecraft, so that they would be able to evacuate in the event it was damaged by the debris. Micrometeorite shielding is incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness", "retains ownership of all satellites with their original operators, even debris or spacecraft which are defunct or threaten active missions.\nAs of 2006 the cost of any of these solutions is about the same as launching a spacecraft and, according to NASA's Nicholas Johnson, not cost-effective. Since then Space Sweeper with Sling-Sat (4S), a grappling satellite which captures and ejects debris, has been studied. Remotely controlled vehicles A well-studied solution uses a remotely controlled vehicle to rendezvous with, capture and return debris to a central station.\nOne such system is Space Infrastructure Servicing, a commercially developed refueling depot and service spacecraft for", "then a special crawler-transporter moved the entire vehicle stack to the launch pad in an upright position. \nIn contrast, vehicles such as the Russian Soyuz rocket and the SpaceX Falcon 9 are assembled horizontally in a processing hangar, transported horizontally, and then brought upright at the pad. Passivation and space debris Spent upper stages of launch vehicles are a significant source of space debris remaining in orbit in a non-operational state for many years after use, and occasionally, large debris fields created from the breakup of a single upper stage while in orbit.\nAfter the 1990s, spent upper stages are generally", "which JAXA scientists experiment to pull junk out of orbit using a tether. The system failed to extend a 700-meter tether from a space station resupply vehicle that was returning to Earth. On 6 February the mission was declared a failure and leading researcher Koichi Inoue told reporters that they \"believe the tether did not get released\".\nSince 2012, the European Space Agency has designed a mission to remove large space debris from orbit. The mission, e.Deorbit, is scheduled for launch during 2023 with an objective to remove debris heavier than 4,000 kilograms (8,800 lb) from LEO. Several capture techniques are being", "probability of parts reaching the Earth surface was \"highly unlikely\", and that the spacecraft, including the LIFE module and the Yinghuo-1 orbiter, would be destroyed during re-entry.\nRussian military sources claimed that Fobos-Grunt was somewhere over the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and South America when it re-entered the atmosphere at about 17:45 UTC. Although it was initially feared its remains would reach land as close as 145 km west of Santa Fe, Argentina, the Russian military Air and Space Defense Forces reported that it ultimately fell into the Pacific Ocean, 775 miles (1,247 km) west of Wellington Island, Chile. The Defence Ministry", "apogee higher than ISS orbit. According to initial assessment by DRDO some of the debris (depending on size and trajectory) should re-enter in 45 days. A spokesperson from NASA disagreed, saying the debris could last for years because the solar minimum had contracted the atmosphere that would otherwise cause the debris to be destroyed. Another research from a leading space trajectory and environment simulation company AGI has also came to same conclusion that certain debris will take more than a year to come down and other debris still might pose a risk to other satellites and ISS and these results", "stage with a sail-like attachment and a large, thin, inflatable balloon envelope. External removal A consensus of speakers at a meeting in Brussels on 30 October 2012 organized by the Secure World Foundation (a U.S. think tank) and the French International Relations Institute reported that removal of the largest debris would be required to prevent the risk to spacecraft becoming unacceptable in the foreseeable future (without any addition to the inventory of dead spacecraft in LEO). Removal costs and legal questions about ownership and the authority to remove defunct satellites have stymied national or international action. Current space law", "have returned to Earth from deep space, far beyond the protection of Earth's magnetic field; sending biological samples through deep space is therefore a much better test of interplanetary survivability than sending the samples on a typical Earth-orbiting flight.\nThe project was being done in collaboration with the Russian Space Research Institute, the Institute for Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Moscow State University, the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), and the Institute for Aerospace Medicine in Germany. Capsule design The mass of the Bio-Module on board the Fobos-Grunt spacecraft was 100 grams or less. The design is", " These propellants could be stored on orbit at a propellant depot, or carried to orbit in a propellant tanker to be directly transferred to the interplanetary spacecraft. For returning mass to Earth, a related option is to mine raw materials from a solar system celestial object, refine, process, and store the reaction products (propellant) on the Solar System body until such time as a vehicle needs to be loaded for launch. On-orbit tanker transfers SpaceX is currently developing a system in which a reusable first stage vehicle would transport a crewed interplanetary spacecraft to earth orbit, detach, return", "its ships allow humanity to travel into deep space. Although they were unable to reverse engineer the Heechee technology, they can use the ships' stored destinations and the station becomes humanity's \"Gateway\" to outer space, hence the name. This almost leads to war among the superpowers of Earth over ownership, until a compromise is finally worked out. A co-operative called the Gateway Corporation is formed, with the superpowers each holding one quarter of company stock.\nThe alien ships that are found still function, but their built-in destinations are a mystery. Navigation is accomplished by using 5 digit codes with the ships'", "and robotic hammers were also used to break the concrete blocks for removal. NASA As part of planning the Orion programme for the journey beyond low Earth orbit to destinations such as Mars, NASA needed to demolish the existing concrete silos (built to assemble the Space Shuttle booster rockets) at their Michoud Assembly Facility. This was necessary in order to replace the silos with larger Space Launch System (SLS) core stage assembly towers. The task of removing the existing concrete silos was estimated to take three months. Bluegrass was called in to regain schedule for the overall project, eventually completing", "resources, and introduction of cheap, fast space travel have forced the people of Earth to leave and seek new planets, full of resources and landmasses to squander and overpopulate.\nFortunately, thanks to the unlimited possibilities offered by space, relevance dawns anew, along with incomprehensible mass destruction.\nDue to a clerical error, a war has broken our on the small water covered planet of [[REDACTED]]. Mass orbital bombardment was considered too expensive; instead, the allied powers have decided on the equally costly tactic of lifting in prefabricated naval units. You've been selected to ensure victory via any means possible. Winners The winner for", "stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km/h). A piece of space debris falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a meteor.\nA debris disk is a circumstellar disk of dust and debris in orbit around a star. Surgical In medicine, debris usually refers to biological matter that has accumulated or lodged in surgical instruments and is referred to as surgical debris. The presence of surgical debris can result in cross-infections or nosocomial infections if not removed and the affected surgical instruments", "living space; a reentry module (返回舱) in the middle, which removes all unnecessary equipment making the simplest and thereby safest return to earth; and an aft service module (推进舱), which contains engines, propellants, guidance and orientation control, and cooling. Anything placed in the orbital or service modules does not require heat shielding, and this increases the space available in the spacecraft without increasing weight as much as it would if those modules were also able to withstand reentry. Thus both Soyuz and Shenzhou have more living area with less weight than the Apollo CSM. The mass of the ship is", "reentered from space and been recovered dry, without ever contacting the saltwater.\nIn August 2019, SpaceX chartered the sister ship to Ms. Tree, the Ms. Chief (a play on the word mischief), as the second fairing catcher vessel so that it could be possible to retrieve both halves of the same payload fairing on a Falcon 9 launch. Fairing reuse As a part of the SES-10 mission in March 2017, SpaceX successfully performed a controlled landing of the payload fairing into the ocean for the first time. SpaceX was able to recover the fairing half from the water after it landed,", "the Earth's thermosphere. At this altitude there is a variety of space debris, consisting of many different objects including entire spent rocket stages, dead satellites, explosion fragments—including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests (2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites and some clumps remaining from the 750,000,000 small needles from the American military Project West Ford. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Large objects could destroy the station, but are less of a threat as their orbits can be predicted. Objects too small to", "Block 5. Fairing reuse Payload fairings have traditionally been expendable, where they have either burned up in the atmosphere or were destroyed upon impacting the ocean. As early as mid-2015, Musk hinted that SpaceX might be working on fairing reusability, following the discovery of wreckage of an unidentified Falcon 9 launch vehicle section off the coast of The Bahamas, and was subsequently confirmed by SpaceX to be a component of a payload fairing that had washed ashore. \nBy April 2016, SpaceX had publicly announced Falcon 9 fairing recovery as an objective. The cost of the fairing is about $6", "further examination. These so-called \"antimatter-containers\" could be used for industrial purpose as well in the future. Implications for space travel Spacecraft travelling beyond low Earth orbit enter the zone of radiation of the Van Allen belts. Beyond the belts, they face additional hazards from cosmic rays and solar particle events. A region between the inner and outer Van Allen belts lies at two to four Earth radii and is sometimes referred to as the \"safe zone\".\nSolar cells, integrated circuits, and sensors can be damaged by radiation. Geomagnetic storms occasionally damage electronic components on spacecraft. Miniaturization and digitization of electronics and" ]

[ "Hemp is a non-psychoactive relative of marijuana, both of which are members of the cannabis plant family." ]

[ "as having a reduced or non-psychoactive side-effect profile.\nVarious strains of \"medical marijuana\" are found to have a significant variation in the ratios of CBD-to-THC, and are known to contain other non-psychotropic cannabinoids. Any psychoactive marijuana, regardless of its CBD content, is derived from the flower (or bud) of the genus Cannabis. As defined by U.S. federal law, non-psychoactive hemp (also commonly-termed industrial hemp), regardless of its CBD content, is any part of the cannabis plant, whether growing or not, containing a ∆-9 tetrahydrocannabinol concentration of no more than 0.3% on a dry-weight basis. Certain standards are required for legal growing,", "and the risk of children taking it by accident. Industrial use (hemp) The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis plant stem (stalk). Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound (THC) concentrations in products labeled as hemp.\nCannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre ranging from", "cannabis containing no more than 0.3% THC by dry weight. This classification was established in the 2018 Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp. Non-psychoactivity CBD does not appear to have any psychotropic (\"high\") effects such as those caused by ∆9-THC in marijuana, but may have anti-anxiety and anti-psychotic effects. As the legal landscape and understanding about the differences in medical cannabinoids unfolds, experts are working to distinguish \"medical marijuana\" (with varying degrees of psychotropic effects and deficits in executive function) – from \"medical CBD therapies” which would commonly present", "Medical cannabis Classification Many different cannabis strains are collectively called medical cannabis. Since many varieties of the cannabis plant and plant derivatives all share the same name, the term medical cannabis is ambiguous and can be misunderstood. A Cannabis plant includes more than 400 different chemicals, of which about 70 are cannabinoids. In comparison, typical government-approved medications contain only one or two chemicals. The number of active chemicals in cannabis is one reason why treatment with cannabis is difficult to classify and study.\nA 2014 review stated that the variations in ratio of CBD-to-THC in botanical and pharmaceutical preparations determines", "metabolism, which breaks down Δ9THC and contributes further to the variability of plasma concentrations\".\nThe US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease, as it deems that evidence is lacking concerning safety and efficacy. The FDA issued a 2006 advisory against smoked medical cannabis stating: \"marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision.\" Ancient Cannabis, called má 麻 (meaning \"hemp; cannabis; numbness\") or dàmá 大麻 (with \"big; great\") in Chinese,", "Health, mostly sourced from the seizures of illegal cannabis by the police. Legality Cannabis is criminalized under the Poisons, Opium and Dangerous Drugs Ordinance of 1935 but it has been amended several times to allow the medical and scientific use of what is calls 'hemp' for 'galenical' purposes, the latter term translating roughly to the use of herbs to create medicines. It is notable that these 'galenical medicines' include products that can induce euphoria and heightening sexual satisfaction.\nIts consumption and sale has further been legalized under the Ayurveda Act, which allows traditional medicine practitioners and herbal shops to legally sell", "Tax Act] and effectively made all cannabis cultivation illegal\". The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) refused to issue permits for legal hemp cultivation and held that, since industrial hemp is from the same species plant as prohibited cannabis (despite its being of lower THC yield), both were prohibited under the Controlled Substances Act. In the words of a 2015 PBS NewsHour segment on hemp, \"[t]o the federal government, hemp is just as illegal as marijuana\", and according to Newsweek, \"all cannabis sativa—whether grown to ease chronic pain, get stoned or make rope—is a schedule I controlled substance\". 21st century legalization Agricultural", "According to some studies, the more often cannabis is used the more likely a person is to develop a psychotic illness, with frequent use being correlated with twice the risk of psychosis and schizophrenia. While cannabis use is accepted as a contributory cause of schizophrenia by some, it remains controversial, with pre-existing vulnerability to psychosis emerging as the key factor that influences the link between cannabis use and psychosis. Some studies indicate that the effects of two active compounds in cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), have opposite effects with respect to psychosis. While THC can induce psychotic symptoms in", "survey of American teens. Arguments that cannabis is a gateway drug The US Drug Enforcement Agency's \"2008 Marijuana Sourcebook\" argues that recent research supports the gateway hypothesis that certain drugs (such as cannabis) act as gateways to use of 'harder' drugs such as heroin, either because of social contact or because of an increasing search for a better high. Proponents cite studies such as that of 311 same sex twins, where only one twin smoked cannabis before age 17, and where such early cannabis smokers were five times more likely than their twin to move on to harder drugs. Arguments", "Cannabis (drug) Medical Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana, can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms; however, there is no single agreed-upon definition. The rigorous scientific study of cannabis as a medicine has been hampered by production restrictions and by the fact it's classified as an illegal drug by the many governments. There is limited evidence suggesting cannabis can be used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, or to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms. Its use for other medical applications is insufficient for", "practical regulation measures. Medical use Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, to treat disease or improve symptoms. Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms. Cannabinoids are under preliminary research for their potential to affect stroke.\nShort-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects. Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations. Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. Concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people,", "abolished the taxation approach [of the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act] and effectively made all cannabis cultivation illegal\". The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) refused to issue permits for legal hemp cultivation and held that, since industrial hemp is from the same species plant as prohibited cannabis (despite its being of lower THC yield), both were prohibited under the Controlled Substances Act. In the words of a 2015 PBS NewsHour segment on hemp, \"[t]o the federal government, hemp is just as illegal as marijuana\", and according to Newsweek, \"all cannabis sativa—whether grown to ease chronic pain, get stoned or make rope—is a", "in the midst of a pitched battle waged by those who are accepting not only of the drug user but who also strongly promote an acceptance of drug use itself. Prohibition of hemp industry Opposition to the legalization of hemp, which uses plants of the cannabis genus for commercial purposes, centres on the fact that those wanting to legalize the use of cannabis for recreational and medical purposes themselves present it as their Trojan horse for that very purpose:\nAlex Shum, importers of hemp fabric, \"feel that the way to legalize marijuana is to sell marijuana legally. When you can buy", "the term \"marijuana\" as a label for hemp and cannabis plants and products in the US and around the world. Prior to 1937, \"marijuana\" was slang; it was not included in any official dictionaries. The word marijuana is probably of Mexican origin. Mexico itself had passed prohibition for export to the US in 1925, following the International Opium Convention. In the years leading up to the tax act, it was in common use in the United States, \"smoked like tobacco\", and called \"ganjah\", or \"ganja\". After the enactment, illegal immigrants and US citizens could be arrested for possession", "hemp, which was approved by 57% of voters. Nelson again proposed holding a referendum on medical cannabis in 2014, and this time it was approved by a vote of 12–2. Unlike the term length question, the cannabis one was non-binding.", "1975 with no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church, consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of Cognizance. Rastafarians tend to be among the biggest consumers of modern Cannabis use.\nCannabis is frequently used among Sufis – the mystical interpretation of Islam that", "leave that issue to those in law enforcement who are advising us on it. If there's a difficulty in distinguishing between hemp and marijuana then we shouldn't have hemp farming in Kentucky, because it's more of a law enforcement issue about making certain we don't let a gateway drug get into the marketplace.\nConway indicated in a 2002 Project Vote Smart survey that he does not support decriminalizing the use of marijuana for medical purposes.", "two species of medical cannabis containing 1% THC and 17% CBD (cannabidiol).", "FDA has thus not approved CBD for any other medical use; however, the 2018 farm bill legalized CBD extracted from hemp (less than 0.3% THC) at the federal level. The legality of CBD products also varies by state, and in some jurisdictions prohibition is not strictly enforced. Effects of legalizing medical cannabis A 2016 study found significant drops in violent crime in states that have legalized medical cannabis. A 2017 study similarly found that introduction of medical cannabis laws caused a reduction in violent crime in American states that border Mexico.\nA 2018 study found that legalizing medical cannabis", "In Israel, Hanuš and American molecular pharmacologist William Anthony Devane in 1992 first described the structure of Anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid neurotransmitter.\nHanuš continues his research in Jerusalem on cannabinoids, endocannabinoids and its derivatives. Views on cannabis Hanuš marks cannabis as \"one of the safest known medications\".\nAccording to Hanuš, alcohol and tobacco should be \"black listed\" rather than cannabis, as there is a possibility of both physical and psychological addiction to the first two, while there is no possibility of physical and only limited possibility of psychological addiction to marijuana. Moreover, people under influence of marijuana are not dangerous to others.", "of the drink do not contain the psychoactive cannabinoid known as THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) and, instead, contain the non-psychoactive cannabinoids cannabidiol (CBD) or cannabinol (CBN)—both of which tend to go undetected in cannabis use/intoxication drug tests. As such, the legal status of cannabis tea is largely dependent on its composition and preparation. United States Cannabis tea is scheduled at the federal level in the United States by nature of being a derivative of Cannabis sativa, and it is therefore illegal to possess, buy, and sell. Due to variances in statewide laws, and the reluctance of the federal government to overrule the", "Medical cannabis in the United States In the United States, the use of cannabis for medical purposes is legal in 33 states, four (out of five) permanently inhabited U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia, as of January 2019. Fourteen other states have more restrictive laws limiting THC content, for the purpose of allowing access to products that are rich in cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive component of cannabis. There is considerable variation in medical cannabis laws from state to state, including how it is produced and distributed, how it can be consumed, and what medical conditions it can", "and conditions. The dose of cannabis depends on the individual, the condition being treated, and the ratio of cannabidiol (CBD) to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in the cannabis. CBD is a chemical component of cannabis that is not intoxicating and used to treat conditions like epilepsy and other neuropsychiatric disorders. THC is a chemical component of cannabis that is psychoactive. It has been used to treat nausea and discomfort in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy treatment. For anxiety, depression, and other mental health ailments, a CBD to THC ratio of 10 to 1 is recommended. For cancer and neurological conditions, a CBD to", "at least 113 cannabinoids; however, most of these \"minor\" cannabinoids are only produced in trace amounts. Besides THC, another cannabinoid produced in high concentrations by some plants is cannabidiol (CBD), which is not psychoactive but has recently been shown to block the effect of THC in the nervous system. Differences in the chemical composition of Cannabis varieties may produce different effects in humans. Synthetic THC, called dronabinol, does not contain cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), or other cannabinoids, which is one reason why its pharmacological effects may differ significantly from those of natural Cannabis preparations. Difference between C. sativa and C.", "is encouraged to share your cannabis with others. Cultures Cannabis — the plant that produces hemp and hashish — has been one of the most used psychoactive drugs in the world since the late 20th century, following only tobacco and alcohol in popularity. According to Vera Rubin, the use of cannabis has been encompassed by two major cultural complexes over time: a continuous, traditional folk stream, and a more circumscribed, contemporary configuration. The former involves both sacred and secular use, and is usually based on small-scale cultivation: the use of the plant for cordage, clothing, medicine, food, and a \"general", "be 40% of the cannabinoids in a plant and is an antagonist to THC, and it flowers independently of the photoperiod and according to age. However, commercial cross-bred hybrids containing both ruderalis, indica and/or sativa genes exist (usually called autoflowering). Cultivation requirements Cannabis needs certain conditions to flourish. Warmth The optimal day temperature range for cannabis is 24 to 30 °C (75 to 86 °F). Temperatures above 31 °C (88F) and below 15.5 °C (60F) seem to decrease THC potency and slow growth. At 13 °C (55F) the plant undergoes a mild shock, though some strains withstand frost temporarily. Light Light can be natural (outdoor", "display a higher tendency towards mental health problems and other physical and development disorders, although a causal link is not established. These risks appear to be most acute in adolescent users.\nCannabis can contain over 100 different cannabinoid compounds, many of which have displayed psychoactive effects. The most distinguished cannabinoids are ∆9 – THC (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), with THC being the primary agent responsible for the psychoactivity of cannabis. The effects of THC and CBD are salient regarding psychosis and anxiety. Acute psychosis As of 2017 there is clear evidence that long term use of cannabis increases the risk of", "Effects of cannabis Chemical compounds in the Cannabis plant, including 400 different cannabinoids such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), allow its drug to have various psychological and physiological effects on the human body. Different plants of the genus Cannabis contain different and often unpredictable concentrations of THC and other cannabinoids and hundreds of other molecules that have a pharmacological effect, so that the final net effect cannot reliably be foreseen.\nAcute effects while under the influence can include euphoria and anxiety. Although some assert that Cannabidiol (CBD), another cannabinoid found in cannabis in varying amounts, may alleviate the adverse effects of THC that", "cannabis is legalized for medical uses in half of the United States, no products have been approved for federal commerce by the Food and Drug Administration, a status that limits cultivation, manufacture, distribution, clinical research, and therapeutic applications.\nIn April 2014, the American Academy of Neurology found evidence supporting the effectiveness of the cannabis extracts in treating certain symptoms of multiple sclerosis and pain, but there was insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness for treating several other neurological diseases. A 2015 review confirmed that medical marijuana was effective for treating spasticity and chronic pain, but caused numerous short-lasting adverse events, such as", "treatment completion for those who use cannabis while other studies find the opposite. A recent review of 39 studies which examined the relation between cannabis use and alcohol use found that 16 studies support the idea that cannabis and alcohol are substitutes for each other, 10 studies found that they are complements, 12 found that they are neither complementary nor substitutes, and one found that they are both.\nA study involving self-reported data from a sample of 27,461 people examined the relationship of cannabis use and AUD. These respondents had no prior diagnosis of AUD. Of the 27,461 people, 160 had" ]

[ "Those small ones are sterilised, like sterilised milk that you can find in a carton that does not require refrigeration until it's opened. \n\nNot sure all creamer requires refrigeration, but it's probably down to it's contents, some might break down once opened as it's exposed to oxygen.", "Short answer: \nThe big bottles say “keep refrigerated” while the small ones do not. \n\nLong answer:\nProducts that are shelf-stable (able to be held at room temperature) require labeling that indicates the products are shelf-stable. If they aren’t, and they are potentially-hazardous foods, they must state “keep refrigerated”.\n\nThe shelf-stable, little, disposable bottles of creamer have been processed and scientifically tested to assure safety at room temperature. The primary methods of doing this are adding a preservative, making it acidic, or lowering the water content of the product or a combination of these. \n\nThen they must treat the product using time, pressure, and/or heat to a minimum of a 5 log reduction of bacteria. This is how we prevent C. botulinum from forming in low-acid, hermetically sealed containers. \n\nThe refrigerated ones don’t require as much of this. \n\nFull disclosure: I have never worked where they manufacture these products, but I have read the Code of Federal Regulations regarding what I assume to be similar products. However, I may be way off because of the dairy the product contains. I have absolutely no experience with dairy.", "The small ones have a (non-refrigerated) shelf life of well over 100 days, i forget how much. I remember asking a similar question about the tiny MILK cups.\n\nI was told the milk cups were sealed, and any that we pulled out of refrigeration would easily last a day - any that were not used by the end of the day were tossed out just in case...lawsuits weren't worth the risk.\n\nThe little sealed non-dairy creamers would *probably* be safe (if kept at room temperature, and out of sunlight) for over a year, even if not refrigerated...like Twinkies in zombie-land.\n\nAs for larger containers - after they are opened (seals broken) it is safer to refrigerate them just in case any bacteria gets into the bottle. Bacteria is everywhere all the time - best not to give it wet and WARM calorie rich environment to breed in for several days until it is used up.\n\nKeep it cool just in case." ]

[ "relief valve. Each type of package has its own advantages. The airtight containers allow maximum freshness of the bean and prolong its shelf life, whilst the valve allows excess carbon dioxide, and other gases to escape. The carbon dioxide, as much as 10 L/kg of coffee for dark-roasted coffee, is not released because it is harmful to the flavour—quite the contrary, it protects the beans against oxidation, but excess pressure could damage the container. Reported experience is that a few days of carbon dioxide release is needed between roasting and brewing for best results. There", "fresh coffee grounds were measured out in scoopfuls and placed into the metal percolator basket. This process enabled small amounts of coffee grounds to leak into the fresh coffee. Additionally, the process left wet grounds in the percolator basket, which were very tedious to clean. The benefit of the Max Pax coffee filter rings was two-fold: First, because the amount of coffee contained in the rings was pre-measured, it negated the need to measure each scoop and then place it in the metal percolator basket. Second, the filter paper was strong enough to hold all the coffee grounds within the", "vacuum-packed must be allowed to de-gas for several days before it is sealed. To allow more immediate packaging, pressurized canisters or foil-lined bags with pressure-relief valves can be used. Refrigeration and freezing retards the staling process. Roasted whole beans can be considered fresh for up to one month if kept cool. Once coffee is ground it is best used immediately. Emissions and control Particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOC), organic acids, and combustion products are the principal emissions from coffee processing. Several operations are sources of PM emissions, including the cleaning and destoning equipment, roaster, cooler, and instant coffee", " The best material choices for the container are ceramic, or opaque glass. Plastic and metal may alter the flavor of the coffee bean. In addition, for the first week of storage, containers should be opened or vented by a relief valve to release the carbon dioxide gas that will be produced by the roasted beans to prevent the gas from changing the quality of the coffee. Whole bean roasted coffee stored in this manner will last for about two weeks. The advisability of freezing roasted beans is controversial. Those advocating freezing believe that the", "in a self-contained packet, enveloped by a filter. This allows a conventional drip coffee maker to be used, but without the mess of cleaning out the old grounds and without the requirement to measure out the right amount of coffee. The user only needs remove the old pack and to place the new pack into their coffee machine. \nThe downside of such a service is quality of the coffee. Unless canned, coffee needs to be brewed within the first week of roasting and within four hours of grinding for the best quality. Since local roasters will generally not have a", "in a device such as a French press (also known as a cafetière, coffee press or coffee plunger). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a cylindrical vessel and left to brew for a few minutes. A circular filter which fits tightly in the cylinder fixed to a plunger is then pushed down from the top to force the grounds to the bottom. The filter retains the grounds at the bottom as the coffee is poured from the container. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the liquid, making", "is stored away from moisture, heat, and light. The ability of coffee to absorb strong smells from food means that it should be kept away from such smells. Storage of coffee in refrigerators is not recommended due to the presence of moisture which can cause deterioration. Exterior walls of buildings which face the sun may heat the interior of a home, and this heat may damage coffee stored near such a wall. Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.\nIn 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted coffee was packed and", "largest fuel storage domes in North America. Pet coke and coal travel from the ship to the domes in about twenty minutes, entirely inside a sealed system to prevent dust particles from escaping into the surrounding environment. Water use Water is delivered by an elevated intake flume from the back channel of the St. Johns River to cool the station's condensers, after which the water is returned to the back channel. This cooling water does not mix with other liquid process streams while in contact with the condensers. Because Unit 2 has been out of service since 1983, the actual", "sealed paper. After use, the coffee filter ring could be easily removed from the basket and discarded. This saved the consumer from the tedious task of cleaning out the remaining wet coffee grounds from the percolator basket.\nWith the introduction of the electric drip coffee maker for the home in the early 1970s, the popularity of percolators plummeted, and so did the market for the self-contained ground coffee filters. In 1976, General Foods discontinued the manufacture of Max Pax, and by the end of the decade, even generic ground coffee filter rings were no longer available on U.S. supermarket shelves. Moka", "types of liquids require different alterations to the dispense system. Wine and cold brewed coffee use a CO₂/Nitrogen blend to pressurize the kegs. These types of drinks also require all stainless steel contact with the dispense system fittings because the higher acid content can corrode the chrome plated brass normally found in dispense systems. You may also need to change out the beer line for silicone wine line, which is less likely to impart flavors. In many larger cities, coffee houses and wineries are offering their products in commercial kegs for use in a kegerator. ", "with espresso).\nBrewed coffee, if kept hot, will deteriorate rapidly in flavor, and reheating such coffee tends to give it a \"muddy\" flavour, as some compounds that impart flavor to coffee are destroyed if this is done. Even at room temperature, deterioration will occur; however, if kept in an oxygen-free environment it can last almost indefinitely at room temperature, and sealed containers of brewed coffee are sometimes commercially available in food stores in America or Europe, with refrigerated bottled coffee drinks being commonly available at convenience stores and grocery stores in the United States. Canned coffee is particularly popular in", "placed in the cylindrical filter, which is then placed inside the pot, and very hot to boiling water is then poured into it. After waiting a few minutes, the coffee can then be poured out, with the grounds staying inside the metal filter.\nCoffee bags are less often used than tea bags. They are simply disposable bags containing coffee; the grounds do not exit the bag as it mixes with the water, so no extra filtering is required.\nMalaysian and some Caribbean and South American styles of coffee are often brewed using a \"sock,\" which is actually a simple muslin bag, shaped", "pressed into service as a coffee roaster, but such a light-duty appliance is not designed to withstand the longer heat cycle required by coffee beans. As a result, the hot-air popper used for coffee may fail from heat damage. This method of roasting produces somewhat less smoke than oven or stove-top but it still requires good ventilation. It also blows chaff off of the roasting beans, so cleaning up the scattered chaff is a consideration. If used indoors, the room may retain a smoky smell long afterward. Roasting outdoors is an option.\nAfter using any of the above methods, the roasted", "the pot makes) stops, and the coffee is ready for drinking. In a manual percolator it is important to remove or reduce the heat at this point. Brewed coffee left on high heat for too long will acquire a bitter taste.\nSome coffee percolators have an integral electric heating element and are not used on a stove. Most of these automatically reduce the heat at the end of the brewing phase, keeping the coffee at drinking temperature but not boiling. Inventor The first modern percolator incorporating the rising of boiling water through a tube to form a continuous cycle and capable", "been removed from the pressure chamber, the atmosphere within cools, lowering the pressure and drawing the coffee through a filter and back into the pressure chamber. Distinctions from percolator brewing include the fact that the water is not boiled in order to reach the grounds, that the majority of the extraction takes place during the infusion phase, and that the water is not recycled through the grounds.\nFilter drip brewing (invented 1908, Melitta Bentz) uses a bed of coffee grounds placed in a holder with a filter to prevent passage of the grounds into the filtrate and hot water is passed", "amount of coffee grounds that were sealed in a self-contained paper filter. The sealed rings resembled the shape of a doughnut, and the small hole in the middle of the ring enabled the coffee filter ring to be placed in the metal percolator basket around the protruding convection (percolator) tube.\nPrior to the introduction of pre-measured self-contained ground coffee filter rings, fresh coffee grounds were measured out in scoopsful and placed into the metal percolator basket. This process enabled small amounts of coffee grounds to leak into the fresh coffee. Additionally, the process left wet grounds in the percolator basket. The", "also recalled 4 million T-Discs over reports that they can burst while brewing.\nCustomers who participate in the coffee maker recall are shipped a replacement component which will help prevent the contents of a defective T-Disc from spraying if the T-Disc bursts. The component is shipped free of charge, including instructions to allow customers to insert the new component themselves.", "undisturbed container, as when a forgotten coffee cup is re-heated without being removed from a microwave oven. This is due to heating cycles releasing dissolved gases such as oxygen and nitrogen from the solvent. There are ways to prevent superheating in a microwave oven, such as putting a ice popstick in the glass or using a scratched container. Applications Superheating of hydrogen liquid is used in bubble chambers. Myth There is a common belief that superheating can occur only in pure substances. This is untrue, as superheating has been observed in coffee and other impure liquids. Impurities do prevent superheating", "is also informed opinion that storage of freshly roasted beans in a can pressurized with nitrogen gas, with excess pressure buildup vented via a relief valve, provides optimal storage for extended periods, while promoting a beneficial aging effect related to distribution of natural oils by the pressure. Home storage Once bought, the method of storage used depends on the type coffee purchased. Green beans store the best in cooled airtight containers, and can easily last in this state for a year without losing flavor. Roasted whole beans are best stored in airtight containers out of the light.", "condenses on the bottom of the lid and returns as liquid, into which some water-soluble vitamins are leached.\nThe liquid transfers heat from the pot walls to its contents, and also distributes flavors. The slow cooker's lid is essential to prevent the warm vapor from escaping, taking heat with it and cooling the contents.\nBasic cookers, which have only high, medium, low, or keep warm settings, must be turned on and off manually. More advanced cookers have computerized timing devices that let a cook program the cooker to perform multiple operations (e.g., two hours high, followed by two hours low, followed by", "the high pressure inside. The change in pressure causes some of the dissolved gas to return to bubbles, effectively fluffing up the cream. Nitrous oxide is bacteriostatic (it inhibits bacteria growth), so a charged cream dispenser can be kept in the refrigerator for up to two weeks. Recreational drug Because of their availability, chargers are usually the method of choice for users seeking to use nitrous oxide recreationally. Tanks of medical grade nitrous are difficult to obtain, and auto-grade nitrous contains substances such as sulfur dioxide to prevent human consumption. Chargers are cheaply available in many stores and online.\nTo inhale", "benefit of the pre-packed coffee filter rings was two-fold: First, because the amount of coffee contained in the rings was pre-measured, it negated the need to measure each scoop and then place it in the metal percolator basket. Second, the filter paper was strong enough to hold all the coffee grounds within the sealed paper. After use, the coffee filter ring could be easily removed from the basket and discarded. This relieved the consumer from the task of cleaning out the remaining wet coffee grounds from the percolator basket. Decline With better brands of instant coffee and the introduction of", "sisal bags that help the beans retain moisture for a longer period of time. The storage time cannot exceed one year for the beans to be considered a current crop. If the green coffee remains in storage for longer than a year, it is considered old crop, and is less valuable because of its drier state. Roast coffee Once a coffee bean is roasted, it is either packaged immediately for sale, or ground and then packaged for sale. Packages used are typically either an airtight plastic container or vacuum-sealed wrapping, or a folded-over bag with a pressure", "still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking the green seeds in hot water (often called the \"Swiss water process\") or steaming them, then using a solvent to dissolve caffeine-containing oils. Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry. Storage Coffee is best stored in an airtight container made of ceramic, glass or non-reactive metal. Higher quality prepackaged coffee usually has a one-way valve which prevents air from entering while allowing the coffee to release gases. Coffee freshness and flavor is preserved when it", "process produces a very strong concentrate which can be stored in a refrigerated, airtight container for up to eight weeks. The coffee can then be prepared for drinking by adding hot water to the concentrate at a water-to-concentrate ratio of approximately 3:1, but can be adjusted to the drinker's preference. The coffee prepared by this method is very low in acidity with a smooth taste, and is often preferred by those with sensitive stomachs. Others, however, feel this method strips coffee of its bold flavor and character. Thus, this method is not common, and there are few appliances designed for", "4–7 minutes) and then the plunger is gently pushed down, leaving the filter immediately above the grounds, allowing the coffee to be poured out while the filter retains the grounds. Depending on the type of filter, it is important to pay attention to the grind of the coffee beans, though a rather coarse grind is almost always called for. A plain glass cylinder may be used, or a vacuum flask arrangement to keep the coffee hot; this is not to be confused with a vacuum brewer—see below.\nA recent variation of the French press is the SoftBrew method. The grounds are", "rinsed with hot water to remove any paper taste. After dumping the water, ground coffee is added to the rinsed paper filter. The course grind will resemble kosher salt for the best flavor. Hot water (93-96 °C/195-205 °F) is then poured through the coffee and filter, depositing brewed coffee into the flask. There is a spout located on the top half of the brewer. This allows for easily pouring out coffee post brew and ensures airflow while brewing. Cleaning The Chemex coffeemaker can be cleaned after every use by swirling with hot, soapy water and rinsing. It is also dishwasher safe after", "the Hotbox until it is fully cooked. Improved Choola It saves one third of fuel (wood). It also keeps 90 percent of the smoke out of the kitchen by expelling it through a pipe. Decoupage Beautifully painted clay and terracotta vessels used as flower pots etc. Portable Biogas Plant IRTC, the research wing of KSSP has launched yet another product , the Portable biogas plant. This helps with the proper disposal of waste and conserves energy. The new equipment has many advantages and added features that other portable gas plants now available on the market do not have. Soap, washing", "a black colour so as to attract solar heat to accelerate decomposition. The placement of the outlet pipe is important as it is necessary to maintain 1/3 liquids : 2/3 gas.\nDue to the sealed nature of the bag all this waste begins to decompose anaerobically releasing methane gas, water and sludge waste whilst also killing harmful pathogens such as E-Coli. The methane gas is released and captured using the valve at the top of the outlet end of the bag, this gas can be used for cooking, lighting and heating (although CART currently intend to use the gas solely for cooking.)", "like a filter, into which coffee is loaded, then steeped in hot water. This method is especially suitable for use with local-brew coffees in Malaysia, primarily of the varieties Robusta and Liberica which are often strong-flavored, allowing the ground coffee in the sock to be reused.\nA vacuum brewer consists of two chambers: a pot below, atop which is set a bowl or funnel with its siphon descending nearly to the bottom of the pot. The bottom of the bowl is blocked by a filter of glass, cloth or plastic, and the bowl and pot are joined by a gasket that" ]

[ "The fetus and the amniotic sac are delivered. If the pregnancy is very early, it comes out as a small amount of tissue. The more difficult the passage of tissue. Sometimes if tissue is retained, it can cause serious health risks to the mother and a procedure has to be performed to remove the tissue.", "Almost the same idea as what happens with a period. It gets absorbed into a tampon or pad to get thrown out, or if it's say medically induced you might need to sit on a toilet when it's coming out.\n\nIt's literally just a clump of cells (in the very early stages) that will come out like a blood clot would." ]

[ "cervix has already dilated, but the fetus has yet to be expelled. This usually will progress to a complete miscarriage. The fetus may or may not have cardiac activity.\n A complete miscarriage is when all products of conception have been expelled; these may include the trophoblast, chorionic villi, gestational sac, yolk sac, and fetal pole (embryo); or later in pregnancy the fetus, umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic fluid, and amniotic membrane. The presence of a pregnancy test that is still positive as well as an empty uterus upon transvaginal ultrasonography does, however, fulfill the definition of pregnancy of unknown location. Therefore,", "that has yet to be assessed. At investigation it may be found that the fetus remains viable and the pregnancy continues without further problems.\nAn anembryonic pregnancy (also called an \"empty sac\" or \"blighted ovum\") is a condition where the gestational sac develops normally, while the embryonic part of the pregnancy is either absent or stops growing very early. This accounts for approximately half of miscarriages. All other miscarriages are classified as embryonic miscarriages, meaning that there is an embryo present in the gestational sac. Half of embryonic miscarriages have aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosomes).\nAn inevitable miscarriage occurs when the", "the fetus as a viral infection, resulting in both the mother and child's death. Juliet states that in her research, no one made it to their third trimester. Animals such as the wild boars do not die during pregnancy. Women who went through their second trimester off the island are able to give birth without incident (Rousseau, Claire). The Others have enlisted the help of Juliet, a fertility researcher, to help find out why this happens, but she never finds an answer. Several women among the Others volunteer to get pregnant for Juliet's research, all with uniformly fatal results.\nIn the", "miscarriages are detailed in the same report. Medical harm The lack of contraceptive information and the ban on abortion put women's lives at risk, particularly when they are young. One-third of the women giving birth are 19 or younger, and a handful are 10 – 14 years old. Case of \"Beatriz\" In 2013, a case arose of a pregnant 22-year-old woman, identified as \"Beatriz,\" who, due to lupus aggravated by loss of kidney function, was told by doctors that she would likely die if she gave birth and that the child, due to its anencephaly, would likely have only a", "miscarriage is when the embryo or fetus has died, but a miscarriage has not yet occurred. It is also referred to as delayed miscarriage, silent miscarriage, or missed abortion.\nA septic miscarriage occurs when the tissue from a missed or incomplete miscarriage becomes infected, which carries the risk of spreading infection (septicaemia) and can be fatal.\nRecurrent miscarriage (\"recurrent pregnancy loss\" (RPL) or \"habitual abortion\") is the occurrence of multiple consecutive miscarriages; the exact number used to diagnose recurrent miscarriage varies. If the proportion of pregnancies ending in miscarriage is 15% and assuming that miscarriages are independent events, then the probability of", "problem. Such cervical incompetence leads to premature pregnancy loss resulting in miscarriages or preterm deliveries. Translocations A balanced translocation or Robertsonian translocation in one of the partners leads to unviable fetuses that are miscarried. This explains why a karyogram is often performed in both partners if a woman has experienced repeated miscarriages.\nAbout 3% of the time a chromosomal problem of one or both partners can lead to recurrent pregnancy loss. Although patients with such a chromosomal problem are more likely to miscarry, they may also deliver normal or abnormal babies. Aneuploidy Aneuploidy may be a cause of a random spontaneous", "delivery, it is usually termed \"stillborn\". Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.\nOnly 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past the first trimester. The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is aware of the conception, and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo. Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester.\nThe most common", "radiation a miscarriage will result. It is also clear that fetal malformations are a greater risk if a woman is exposed to high doses of nuclear-related radiation in early pregnancy, when organs are being formed.\nIf acute radiation exposure occurs in the first ten days following conception, when few cells have formed, it is likely that the embryo will fail to develop and spontaneous abortion will occur. \nFetal malformations are most likely to occur if a pregnant woman receives a radiation dose >500 mSv between the 10th and 40th day of pregnancy, the period of organogenesis during which the organs are", "around the head or umbilical cord it can be life-threatening for the fetus.\nThe number of cases of miscarriage that can be attributed to ABS is unknown, although it has been reported that it may be the cause of 178 in 10,000 miscarriages. Up to 50% of cases have other congenital anomalies including cleft lip, cleft palate, and clubfoot deformity. Hand and finger anomalies occur in up to 80%. Epidemiology The reported incidence of constriction ring syndrome varies from 1/1200 and 1/15000 live births. The prevalence is equally in male and female.\nFetomaternal factors like prematurity, maternal illness, low birth weight and", "at one time in the pregnancy may result in organ damage and at another time in the pregnancy could cause death of the fetus and miscarriage. There are a number of chemicals, biological agents (such as bacteria and viruses), and physical agents (such as radiation) used in a variety of workplaces that are known to cause developmental disorders. Developmental disorders can include a wide range of physical abnormalities, such as bone or organ deformities, or behavioral and learning problems, such as a mental retardation. Exposures to some chemicals during pregnancy can lead to the development of cancer later in the", "integrity of her fetus (see genetic counseling, prenatal diagnosis), and decides to undergo an abortion after being told that the fetus is deformed or disabled. Here, too, it is eventually realized that the information was wrong. Wrongful pregnancy/conception \"Wrongful abortion\" is comparable to other types of birth-related malpractice. One category of birth-related malpractice consists of cases in which negligence by the defendant resulted in the birth of a healthy yet unwanted child. The negligence may manifest itself in the manufacture, provision, or installation of contraceptives; in the performance of vasectomy or tubal ligation; or in the carrying", "many miscarriages. In The Psychology of Women, Helene discussed the concept of spontaneous abortion and miscarriage as a result of psychological factors, with a critical factor involving the 'pregnant woman's unconscious rejection of an identification with her own mother.' Under the pseudonym of a patient named Mrs. Smith, Helene tells the story of a woman who has trouble bringing a baby to full term. Helene wrote that Mrs. Smith was the youngest child of a large family, where her mother's disappointment that she was not a boy was evident. Mrs. Smith, however, took solace in the deep love of her", "in the households not knowing their wife or daughter was pregnant until complications arrived.\nComplications through the misdiagnosis and silence of pregnancies often involved medically induced abortions, according to Furth's book, Dr.Cheng (her case study) \"was unapologetic about endangering a fetus when pregnancy risked a mother's well being\". The method of abortion was used through the ingestion of certain herbs and medicinal foods. Dr.Cheng gave his wife \"peach kemel and Tibetan crocus (to break up blood and abort [the lump in her stomach]\". The practice of abortion was contrasted with the families disappointment and disapproval of the loss of the fetus", "Uterine septum Signs and symptoms The condition may not be known to the affected individual and not result in any reproductive problems; thus normal pregnancies may occur.In more serious cases have reported high infertility rates. However, it is associated with a higher risk for miscarriage, premature birth, and malpresentation. According to the classical study by Buttram there is a 60% risk of a spontaneous abortion, this being more common in the second than in the first trimester. However, there is no agreement on this number and other studies show a lower risk. Woelfer found that the miscarriage risk is more", "cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide. Medical Medical abortions are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals.", "liver distention. Recurrent miscarriages Skewed X chromosome inactivation has been implicated in miscarriages in the past. Recurrent pregnancy loss can be defined as either two or three consecutive lost pregnancies within five months. In most cases the loss of pregnancy can be attributed to cytogenic, hormonal, anatomical, and immunological problems. However, there are still about 50% of cases without a known cause. A study hypothesized that skewed X inactivation may play a role in these miscarriages. However, recent research has criticized this correlation due to the lack of controlling for age related skewing. There is a lack of significant", "pregnancy. An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons. Confusion sometimes arises over the term \"elective\" because \"elective surgery\" generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not. Spontaneous Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week of gestation. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is a \"premature birth\" or a \"preterm birth\". When a fetus dies in utero after viability, or during", "stillborn or to die shortly following birth) or in cases where a pregnancy would \"present serious health risk\" to the woman. The law also allows abortions to be performed \"upon confirmation from a psychiatrist\" that a pregnant woman diagnosed with a \"serious mental illness\" might otherwise take an action that would lead to her own death or to the death of the fetus. The law does not ban procedures to end ectopic pregnancies or procedures in which a dead fetus is removed from the uterus. It does not include an exception in cases of rape or incest.\nThe Human Life Protection", "This includes a pregnant mother being murdered, leading to the murderer being tried for both deaths; or if the father dies while the mother is pregnant, the estate will not be divided until the birth of the child, because the fetus has rights to the estate and the father's inheritances. However, in cases of rape, abortion is not permitted because one crime cannot be solved with another crime, and having an abortion for reasons other than the health of the mother and the baby is considered a crime. If a fetus is predicted to die right after birth, the mother", "of incomplete miscarriage have not shown that any adaptation from normal practice is beneficial. Induced miscarriage An induced abortion may be performed by a qualified healthcare provider for women who cannot continue the pregnancy. Self-induced abortion performed by a woman or non-medical personnel can be dangerous and is still a cause of maternal mortality in some countries. In some locales it is illegal or carries heavy social stigma.However, in the United States, many choose to self-induce or self-manage their abortion and have done so safely. Sex Some organizations recommend delaying sex after a miscarriage until the bleeding has stopped to", "Abortion in Ghana Terminology The definition of abortion is quite wide. According to Act 29, section 58, article 3, of the Criminal code of 1960, “Abortion or miscarriage means premature expulsion or removal of conception from the uterus or womb before the period of gestation is completed.” Thus, both words, abortion and miscarriage, can be used interchangeably to refer to the same phenomenon. The law would seem to cover induced abortions, where the pregnant woman willfully expels a viable fetus, and also spontaneous abortions, or miscarriages, which may be encouraged by the pregnant woman through various means. Medically, there have", "child destruction is rare. There were ten cases in the ten years to 1987. When a woman who had a backstreet abortion while 7½ months pregnant was given a suspended sentence of 12 months in 2007, the Crown Prosecution Service was unaware of any similar conviction. In 2000, a man stamped on his girlfriend's abdomen and thereby caused her to go into premature labour. Since he had intended to kill the foetus in the womb, whereas in fact the baby died shortly after birth, he was convicted of manslaughter and attempted child destruction.\nIn South Wales, in February 2011, Carl Whant", "question\".\nIn Family Planning Association of Northern Ireland v Minister for Health, Social Services and Public Safety (October 2004), Lord Justice Nicholson stated that \"it is unlawful to procure a miscarriage where the foetus is abnormal but viable, unless there is a risk that the mother may die or is likely to suffer long-term harm, which is serious, to her physical or mental health.\" In the same case, Lord Justice Sheil stated that \"termination of a pregnancy based solely on abnormality of the foetus is unlawful and cannot lawfully be carried out in this jurisdiction.\"\nIn November 2015, Lord Justice Horner made", "to avoid infection in incomplete abortion. Others recommend delaying attempts at pregnancy until one period has occurred to make it easier to determine the dates of a subsequent pregnancy.There is no evidence that getting pregnancy in that first cycle however affects outcomes and an early subsequent pregnancy may actually improve outcomes. Psychological and emotional effects Every woman's personal experience of miscarriage is different, and women who have more than one miscarriage may react differently to each event.\nIn Western cultures since the 1980s, medical providers assume that experiencing a miscarriage \"is a major loss for all pregnant women\". A miscarriage can", "abortion. However, data on embryotoxicity in humans are very limited, and it is not clear what the risk for an abortion or for teratogenicity (birth defects) is. Of the 29 women studied who became pregnant despite taking ulipristal acetate, 16 had induced abortions, six had spontaneous abortions, six continued the pregnancies, and one was lost to follow-up. Lactation It is not recommended to breast feed within 36 hours of taking the drug since it is not known whether ulipristal acetate or its metabolites are excreted into the breast milk. Side effects Common side effects include nausea, abdominal pain, emesis, dysmenorrhea,", "Miscarriage Signs and symptoms Signs of a miscarriage include vaginal spotting, abdominal pain, cramping, and fluid, blood clots, and tissue passing from the vagina. Bleeding can be a symptom of miscarriage, but many women also have bleeding in early pregnancy and don't miscarry. Bleeding during pregnancy may be referred to as a threatened miscarriage. Of those who seek treatment for bleeding during pregnancy, about half will miscarry. Miscarriage may be detected during an ultrasound exam, or through serial human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) testing. Risk factors Miscarriage may occur for many reasons, not all of which can be identified. Risk factors", "pregnancy loss after a suicide attempt while pregnant. The feticide statute under which she was also prosecuted was intended, when enacted in 1979, to cover acts by violent third parties such as abusive boyfriends and drunk drivers. Women's groups in the U.S. warned that Shuai's prosecution could set a precedent for criminalizing a pregnant woman's actions, such as smoking or drinking, or having a miscarriage. \nAt least 38 U.S. states have similar \"fetal homicide\" laws, which are increasingly used to prosecute the pregnant women themselves. Recent similar cases in other states include that of Rennie Gibbs (charged with", "or mental health of the pregnant woman (supposedly therapeutic), rape (supposedly criminology), and malformations or defects, physical or mental, in the fetus (supposedly eugenics).\nAccording to this law, the mother could terminate the pregnancy in public or private health centres in the first 12 weeks for reasons related to criminology, in the first 22 weeks in eugenics, and at any time during pregnancy for therapeutic reasons.\nIn the second and third cases, a medical report was required to certify compliance with the conditions laid down by law, in cases of rape, it was necessary to take the relevant prior police report. In", "to be born will suffer from a physical or mental defect so as to be irreparably seriously handicapped, when the foetus is alleged to have been conceived in consequence of unlawful carnal intercourse (rape or incest); or when the foetus has been conceived in consequence of illegitimate carnal intercourse and the woman is, owing to a permanent mental handicap or defect, unable to comprehend the implications of or bear the parental responsibility for the “fruit of coitus”.\"\nIn addition to the woman’s doctor, two other doctors are required to certify the existence of grounds for an abortion, and the operation must", "after a molar pregnancy is very low. The risk of another miscarriage is highest after the third miscarriage. Pre-conception care is available in some locales. Later cardiovascular disease There is a significant association between miscarriage and later development of coronary artery disease, but not of cerebrovascular disease. Epidemiology Among women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is roughly 10% to 20%, while rates among all fertilized zygotes are around 30% to 50%. A 2012 review found the risk of miscarriage between 5 and 20 weeks from 11% to 22%. Up to the 13th week of pregnancy, the risk" ]

[ "The American government at the Federal level is divided into three branches: Judicial (the courts, especially the Supreme Court), which decides whether laws which have been passed (and challenged) are constitutional: Executive (the President), which is basically responsible for enforcing the laws and otherwise carrying them out: and Legislative (Congress), divided into the House of Representatives (in which each state gets a number of seats proportional to how many people live in said state) and the Senate (in which every state gets 2 seats), this branch passes laws. The three branches are designed with a system of checks and balances; that is, no one branch can control everything.\n\nAs for the elections, each member of the House goes up for reelection by their district within their state every 2 years. The members of the Senate go up for similar reelections every 6 years. As far as I know, they are elected popularly (more on that in a second).\n\nAs far as presidential elections (which I gather is the main point of your question), there are 2 kinds of vote tallies: Popular and Electoral. On the national level, the Popular vote (i.e, exactly how many people voted for each candidate) actually does not matter, the Electoral vote does. The Electoral vote is decided at the state level: each state has a certain number of seats in the Electoral College, proportional to their population. These members of the Electoral College are technically the ones who decide the President, but that is largely a formality. For the most part, if you win the Popular vote within a state, you get all of their Electoral votes (though some states do it proportionally: i.e, if you get 3/5 of the popular vote in that state, you get 3/5 of the Electoral votes for that state). The candidate with the most Electoral votes becomes President.\n\nAt this point, the Electoral College is largely a formality, a holdover from the days when one could not count on the average voter to be informed (that's still true for different reasons...). However, there have been some instances (I believe one was as recent as 2000) in which a candidate won the Popular Vote but lost the Electoral Vote.\n\nI hope I answered your question :)" ]

[ "Sixth Party System The Sixth Party System is the era in United States politics following the Fifth Party System. Opinions differ on when the Sixth Party System may have begun, with suggested dates ranging from the 1960s to the 1990s. Scholarly perspectives In Parties and Elections in America: The Electoral Process (2011), authors L. Sandy Maisel and Mark D. Brewer argue that the consensus among experts is that the Sixth System is underway based on American electoral politics since the 1960s:\nAlthough most in the field now believe we are in a sixth party system, there is a fair amount of", "the Electoral College determines the Presidential election, a more precise measure of how the country actually voted may be better represented by either a county-by-county or a district-by-district map. By breaking the map down into smaller units (including many \"blue counties\" lying next to \"red counties\"), these maps tend to display many states with a purplish hue, thus demonstrating that an ostensibly \"blue\" or \"red\" state may, in fact, be closely divided. Note that election maps of all kinds are subject to errors of interpretation. Socioeconomics In the 2008 elections, both parties received at least 40% from all sizable socioeconomic", "in America: The Electoral Process (2011), authors L. Sandy Maisel and Mark D. Brewer argue that the consensus among experts is that the Sixth System is underway based on American electoral politics since the 1960s:\nAlthough most in the field now believe we are in a sixth party system, there is a fair amount of disagreement about how exactly we arrived at this new system and about its particular contours. Scholars do, however, agree that there has been significant change in American electoral politics since the 1960s.\nOpinions on when the Fifth Party System ended include the following: The elections of", "United States presidential election History Article Two of the United States Constitution originally established the method of presidential elections, including the Electoral College. This was a result of a compromise between those constitutional framers who wanted the Congress to choose the president, and those who preferred a national popular vote.\nEach state is allocated a number of electors that is equal to the size of its delegation in both houses of Congress combined. With the ratification of the 23rd Amendment to the Constitution in 1961, the District of Columbia is also granted a number of electors, equal to the number of", "Unified primary Comparison to other primary systems In the US, most primary elections are party-specific: voters select a political party, either as part of the voter registration process or at the ballot box, and may vote only for candidates sharing that same party affiliation. These primary systems use plurality voting, where each voter may express a preference for one candidate per office. The candidate in each party receiving the most votes advances to the general election. Voters not affiliated with a major political party may or may not be able to participate in these primary elections, depending on jurisdictional rules,", "this model include Denmark, Singapore, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunisia. In the United States, elections for federal, state, and local offices are run by the executive branch of each state government - see, for example, the Division of Elections of the Florida Department of State. Judicial model In the judicial model the election commission is closely supervised by and ultimately responsible to a special \"electoral court\". Countries with such a model include Argentina, Brazil and Mexico.", "more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be made next to the name of a single candidate (or more than one, in some cases); however a structured ballot can also include space for a write-in candidate. General elections in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom, like the United States and Canada, uses single-member districts as the base for national elections. Each electoral district (constituency) chooses one member of parliament, i.e. the candidate who gets the most votes, whether or not they get 50% or more of the votes cast (\"first past the post\"). In", "each House of the Arizona Legislature tends to have members with identical political philosophies, which is illustrated by the fact that the Republican party has two-thirds of the seats in each House. This produces, in effect, a \"two-house unicameral\" legislature.\nArizona's electoral districts are different from the majority of U.S. states, where larger state senate districts and smaller assembly districts have different boundaries encompassing different communities. The crossing of upper and lower house districts into a single voting constituency is found in only six other U.S. state legislatures: the Idaho Legislature, Maryland General Assembly, New Jersey Legislature, North Dakota Legislative Assembly,", "United States presidential primary The presidential primary elections and caucuses held in the various states, the District of Columbia, and territories of the United States form part of the nominating process of candidates for United States presidential elections. The United States Constitution has never specified the process; political parties have developed their own procedures over time. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered, generally beginning sometime in January or February, and ending about mid-June before the general election in November. State and local governments", "elected vary from county-to-county or city-to-city. Some examples of local elected positions include sheriffs at the county level and mayors and school board members at the city level. Like state elections, an election for a specific local office may be held at the same time as either the presidential, midterm, or off-year elections. Multiple levels of regulation In the US elections are actually conducted by local authorities, working under local, state, and federal law and regulation, as well as the US Constitution. It is a highly decentralized system.\nIn around half of US states, the secretary of state is the", "Title 52 of the United States Code Title 52 of the United States Code (52 U.S.C.), entitled \"Voting and Elections\", is a codification of the \"general and permanent\" voting and election laws of the United States federal government. It was adopted as a result of \"editorial reclassification\" efforts of the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the United States House of Representatives and was not enacted as positive law.", "each conduct their own popular elections on Election Day to help determine their respective slate of electors. Thus, the presidential election is really an amalgamation of separate and simultaneous state elections instead of a single national election run by the federal government.\nLike any other election in the United States, the eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the Constitution and regulated at state level. The Constitution states that suffrage cannot be denied on grounds of race or color, sex or age for citizens eighteen years or older. Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of state", "main form of majoritarian system is the two-round system, which is the most common system used for presidential elections around the world, being used in 88 countries. It is also used in 20 countries for electing the legislature. If no candidate achieves a majority of votes in the first round of voting, a second round is held to determine the winner. In most cases the second round is limited to the top two candidates from the first round, although in some elections more than two candidates may choose to contest the second round; in these cases the second round is", "Elections in New York (state) Electoral procedure Primary elections are elections at which enrolled members of a party nominate party candidates for the general election and elect party officers. New York uses closed primaries and only an enrolled member of a party can vote in its primaries. The election district is the basic electoral administrative division, containing a maximum of 950 registered voters (although it may be as large as 1150 registered voters between redistricting) with boundaries determined by the local board of elections.\nThe person for party nomination for public office who receives a plurality of the vote is nominated", "There were others in the 19th century.\nHowever, the United States has had a two-party system for over a century. The winner take all system for presidential elections and the single-seat plurality voting system for Congressional elections have over time created the two-party system (see Duverger's law).\nThird party candidates sometimes win elections. For example, such a candidate has won a U.S. Senate election twice (0.6%) since 1990. Sometimes a national officeholder not affiliated with and endorsed by one of the two major parties is elected. Previously, Senator Lisa Murkowski won re-election in 2010 as a write-in candidate and not as the", "the previous election (with new parties being placed lowest in random order). Such a system makes high ballot position both a cause and an effect of high electoral support. United States Donkey voting shows up in US state elections that use the \"long ballot\" for numerous offices, or in multi-seat elections where there are several candidates from the same party. In his book The Rise of Guardian Democracy: The Supreme Court's Role in Voting Rights, 1845-1969 (Massachusetts: Harvard UP, 1974), Ward E.Y. Elliott notes:\n\"One long-time Democrat precinct captain in Denver noted that, besides having party or lobby support, a candidate", "official in charge of elections; in other states it is someone appointed for the job, or a commission. It is this person or commission who is responsible for certifying, tabulating, and reporting votes for the state. Party systems Americans vote for a specific candidate instead of directly selecting a particular political party. The United States Constitution has never formally addressed the issue of political parties. The Founding Fathers such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison did not support domestic political factions at the time the Constitution was written. In addition, the first president of the United States, George Washington,", "Slate (elections) United States electoral college The United States presidential elections use an electoral college to determine the winner and the electors are chosen by popular vote in each state. In most states, voters choose a slate of electors who support one of the candidates, although this may not be obvious to the voter at the time. United States legislative elections In states whose state legislatures are elected from multi-member districts, it is common for groups of candidates to form slates in primary and general elections. Elections to the Maryland General Assembly are a prime example, with most districts electing", "that reason most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States, elections for public offices are typically held between every two and six years in most states and at the federal level, with exceptions for elected judicial positions that may have longer terms of office. There is a variety of schedules, for example presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years, the President of Russia and the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years, President of the United States every four years.\nPre-decided or fixed election", "for U.S. House districts are based on that census (with the Congress based on those districts starting its term on the following Jan. 3).\nIn most states, major party candidates for each district are nominated in partisan primary elections, typically held in spring to late summer. In some states, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their respective candidates for each district in their political conventions in spring or early summer, which often use unanimous voice votes to reflect either confidence in the incumbent or the result of bargaining in earlier private discussions. Exceptions can result in so-called floor fight—convention votes by", "are nominated by a political party or seek public office as an independent. Each state has significant discretion in deciding how candidates are nominated, and thus eligible to appear on the election ballot. Typically, major party candidates are formally chosen in a party primary or convention, whereas minor party and Independents are required to complete a petitioning process. Political parties The modern political party system in the United States is a two-party system dominated by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. These two parties have won every United States presidential election since 1852 and have controlled the United", "which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.\nCongress sets a national Election Day. Currently, electors are chosen on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November (the first Tuesday after November 1), in the year before the president's term is to expire. The electors cast their votes on the Monday following the second Wednesday in December (the first Monday after December 12) of that year. Thereafter, the votes are opened and counted by the vice president, as president of the Senate, in a joint session of Congress. Clause 6: Vacancy and disability In Case of the", "voting\" and \"ranked choice voting\"—in future city elections, which is expected to be a boon for third parties. The drive for IRV began in the 1990s as part of the Green Party's platform, although all political parties except the Republicans supported it in the Minneapolis referendum. Law and government As in the national government of the United States, power is divided among three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Executive The executive branch is headed by Governor Tim Walz, whose term began on January 7, 2019. The lieutenant governor is Peggy Flanagan. The offices of governor and lieutenant governor have four-year", "Ranked-choice voting in the United States Ranked-choice voting (RCV), also known as instant-runoff voting (IRV), is used for state primary, congressional, and presidential (beginning in 2020) elections in Maine and for local elections in 11 cities. Those cities include San Francisco, California; Oakland, California; Berkeley, California; San Leandro, California; Takoma Park, Maryland; Basalt, Colorado; Telluride, Colorado; St. Paul, Minnesota; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Portland, Maine. It is pending implementation in several additional cities, including in 2019 in Las Cruces, New Mexico and St. Louis Park, Minnesota. RCV is commonly used for student government and other non-governmental elections.", "voting power in the Electoral College system, every state, with the exceptions of Maine and Nebraska, has adopted a winner-take-all system, where the candidate who wins the most popular votes in a state wins all of that state's electoral votes. The expectation was that the candidates would look after the interests of the states with the most electoral votes. However, in practice, most voters tend not to change party allegiance from one election to the next, leading presidential candidates to concentrate their limited time and resources campaigning in those states that they believe they can swing towards them or stop", "public office, and the nomination of a person for a party office, at a primary election is by designating petition.\nGeneral elections are held in November in even-numbered years for state offices, in November in odd-numbered years for city and town offices, and in March or June in odd-numbered years for villages offices (unless the village board selects a different date).\nNew York is near unique among the states in that it allows electoral fusion (cross-endorsement), allowing two or more parties to nominate the same person for office. Absentee ballots are allowed for voters who are away from their residence on election", "Two-party system Commonwealth countries In countries such as Britain, two major parties emerge which have strong influence and tend to elect most of the candidates, but a multitude of lesser parties exist with varying degrees of influence, and sometimes these lesser parties are able to elect officials who participate in the legislature. In political systems based on the Westminster system, which is a particular style of parliamentary democracy based on the British model and found in many commonwealth countries, a majority party will form the government and the minority party will form the opposition, and coalitions of lesser parties are", "Interregional Primary Plan The Interregional Primary Plan is a proposed reform to the United States primary calendar supported by Representative Sandy Levin and Senator Bill Nelson, both Democrats. The plan would break the country into six regions. From those regions, one subregion - either a single state or a group of smaller states - would vote on each primary date (e.g., all A states,) with the entire country having held its primaries after the sixth set of primaries votes. Each state would vote first once every twenty-four years, with the first set of primaries determined by lottery and cycled thereafter.\nHistorically,", "Primary election Primaries in the United States The United States is one of the few countries to select candidates through popular vote in a primary election system; most countries rely on party leaders to vote candidates, as was previously the case in the U.S. In modern politics, primary elections have been described as a significant vehicle for taking decision-making from political insiders to the voters, though this is disputed by select political science research. The selection of candidates for federal, state, and local general elections takes place in primary elections organized by the public administration for the general voting", "the United States Constitution, and thus evolved over time by the political parties to clear the field of candidates.\nThe primary elections are run by state and local governments, while the caucuses are organized directly by the political parties. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered generally between January and June before the federal election, with Iowa and New Hampshire traditionally holding the first presidential state caucus and primary, respectively.\nLike the general election, presidential caucuses or primaries are indirect elections. The major political parties officially" ]

[ "Ignore everything you've read here.\n\n\n--\n\nHere are the usual(i.e most commonly used) definitions of Atheism/agnosticism:\n\n* Theism: Belief in God\n\n* Atheism: The conscious and explicit rejection of belief in God\n\n* Agnosticism: Consciously refraining from either belief in God or the rejection of belief in God due to either indecision or on principle(the latter closely the original use of the word by T.H. Huxley)\n\nThe definition that the other people here are giving you is no less valid, but the claim that their definitions are more correct, or more commonly used is absolutely not true.", "One interpretation is that an atheist is confident of a lack of a higher power: \"a-theist\" being like \"a-symmetrical\", the opposite of the second word.\n\nLikewise, \"gnostic\" is to do with \"knowledge\", hence \"agnostic\" is being without knowledge: they do not purport to have the knowledge to determine whether or not a higher power exists.\n\nThough not the most technically correct, these are often how the terms are bandied about." ]

[ "atheism (also called \"weak atheism\" and \"soft atheism\") is any type of atheism other than positive, wherein a person does not believe in the existence of any deities, but does not explicitly assert there to be none. Agnosticism Agnosticism is the view that the truth value of certain claims—especially claims about the existence of any deity, but also other religious and metaphysical claims—is unknown or unknowable. Agnosticism does not define one's belief or disbelief in gods; agnostics may still identify themselves as theists or atheists. Strong agnosticism Strong agnosticism is the belief that it is impossible for humans to know", "Agnosticism Defining agnosticism Agnosticism is of the essence of science, whether ancient or modern. It simply means that a man shall not say he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe.\nConsequently, agnosticism puts aside not only the greater part of popular theology, but also the greater part of anti-theology. On the whole, the \"bosh\" of heterodoxy is more offensive to me than that of orthodoxy, because heterodoxy professes to be guided by reason and science, and orthodoxy does not.\n— Thomas Henry Huxley\nThat which Agnostics deny and repudiate, as immoral, is the contrary", "supreme being, to become man's servant. Atheistic According to Richard Dawkins, a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given god-like entity. About himself, Dawkins continues, \"I am agnostic only to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden.\" Dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics; \"Temporary Agnostics in Practice\" (TAPs), and \"Permanent Agnostics in Principle\" (PAPs). He states that \"agnosticism about the existence of God belongs firmly in the temporary or TAP category. Either", "literature and in Catholic apologetics.\nUnder this demarcation of atheism, most agnostics qualify as negative atheists.\nWhile Martin, for example, asserts that agnosticism entails negative atheism, many agnostics see their view as distinct from atheism,\nwhich they may consider no more justified than theism or requiring an equal conviction.\nThe assertion of unattainability of knowledge for or against the existence of gods is sometimes seen as an indication that atheism requires a leap of faith.\nCommon atheist responses to this argument include that unproven religious propositions deserve as much disbelief as all other unproven propositions,\nand that the unprovability of a god's existence does not imply", "Agnostic atheism History One of the earliest definitions of agnostic atheism is that of theologian and philosopher Robert Flint, in his Croall Lecture of 1887–1888 (published in 1903 under the title Agnosticism).\nThe atheist may however be, and not unfrequently is, an agnostic. There is an agnostic atheism or atheistic agnosticism, and the combination of atheism with agnosticism which may be so named is not an uncommon one.\nIf a man has failed to find any good reason for believing that there is a God, it is perfectly natural and rational that he should not believe that there is a God; and", "The Atheist is an Agnostic. The Agnostic says, ‘I do not know, but I do not believe there is any God.’ The Atheist says the same. Demographics Demographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of non-religious respondents, so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other non-religious people.\nA 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non-religious people or the agnostics made up about 9.6% of the world's population.\nA November–December 2006 poll published in the Financial Times gives rates for the United States and five European countries. The rates of agnosticism in", "reality to materialism. Some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism; this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label. Theistic Theistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice, since a person can live only either as if God did not exist (etsi deus non-daretur), or as if God did exist (etsi deus daretur).\nReligious scholars such as Laurence B. Brown criticize the misuse of the word agnosticism, claiming that it has become one of the most misapplied terms in metaphysics. Brown raises the question, \"You claim", "known as \"The Great Agnostic\", explained his comparative view of agnosticism and atheism as follows:\nThe Agnostic is an Atheist. The Atheist is an Agnostic. The Agnostic says, ‘I do not know, but I do not believe there is any God.’ The Atheist says the same. Epistemological arguments Epistemological, or agnostic, atheism argues that people cannot know a God or determine the existence of a God. The foundation of epistemological atheism is agnosticism, which takes a variety of forms. In the philosophy of immanence, divinity is inseparable from the world itself, including a person's mind, and each person's consciousness is locked", "Spectrum of theistic probability Atheism, theism, and agnosticism J. J. C. Smart argues that the distinction between atheism and agnosticism is unclear, and many people who have passionately described themselves as agnostics were in fact atheists. He writes that this mischaracterization is based on an unreasonable philosophical skepticism that would not allow us to make any claims to knowledge about the world. He proposes instead the following analysis:\nLet us consider the appropriateness or otherwise of someone (call him 'Philo') describing himself as a theist, atheist or agnostic. I would suggest that if Philo estimates the various plausibilities to be such", "views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular; Huxley used the term in a broader, more abstract sense.\nHuxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical, evidence-based inquiry.\nIn recent years, scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean \"not knowable\".\nIn technical and marketing literature, \"agnostic\" can also mean independence from some parameters—for example, \"platform agnostic\"\nor \"hardware agnostic\". Qualifying agnosticism Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt. He asserted that the fallibility of human beings means", "the basis of agnosticism — the belief that one cannot determine the existence or non-existence of god(s). It may also form other brands of skepticism, such as Pyrrhonism, which do not take a positive stance in regard to the existence of god(s), but remain negative. Alternatively, doubt over the existence of god(s) may lead to acceptance of a particular religion: compare Pascal's Wager. Doubt of a specific theology, scriptural or deistic, may bring into question the truth of that theology's set of beliefs. On the other hand, doubt as to some doctrines but acceptance of others may lead to the", "followers, such as atheistic or humanistic Judaism\nand Christian atheists.\nThe strictest sense of positive atheism does not entail any specific beliefs outside of disbelief in any deity; as such, atheists can hold any number of spiritual beliefs. For the same reason, atheists can hold a wide variety of ethical beliefs, ranging from the moral universalism of humanism, which holds that a moral code should be applied consistently to all humans, to moral nihilism, which holds that morality is meaningless. Atheism is accepted as a valid philosophical position within some varieties of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism.\nPhilosophers such as Slavoj Žižek, Alain de", "others have considered it to be distinct. An ignostic maintains that he cannot even say whether he is a theist or an atheist until a sufficient definition of theism is put forth.\nThe term \"ignosticism\" was coined in the 1960s by Sherwin Wine, a rabbi and a founding figure of Humanistic Judaism. The term \"igtheism\" was coined by the secular humanist Paul Kurtz in his 1992 book The New Skepticism. The problem of the supernatural One problem posed by the question of the existence of God is that traditional beliefs usually ascribe to God various supernatural powers. Supernatural beings may be", "deity does or does not exist) and agnostic theism (the view of those who do not claim to know of the existence of any deity, but still believe in such an existence). Etymology Agnostic (from Ancient Greek ἀ- (a-), meaning 'without', and γνῶσις (gnōsis), meaning 'knowledge') was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy, which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge.\nEarly Christian church leaders used the Greek word gnosis (knowledge) to describe \"spiritual knowledge\". Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious", "Among \"implicit\" atheists are thus included the following: children and adults who have never heard of deities; people who have heard of deities but have never given the idea any considerable thought; and those agnostics who suspend belief about deities, but do not reject such belief. All implicit atheists are included in the negative/weak categorization.\nUnder the negative atheism classification, agnostics are atheists. The validity of this categorization is disputed, however, and a few prominent atheists such as Richard Dawkins avoid it. In The God Delusion, Dawkins describes people for whom the probability of the existence of God is between \"very", "equal probability of either possibility.\nAustralian philosopher J.J.C. Smart even argues that \"sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalized philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic.\"\nConsequently, some atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins prefer distinguishing theist, agnostic and atheist positions along a spectrum of theistic probability—the likelihood that each assigns to the statement \"God exists\". Definition as impossible or impermanent Before the 18th century, the existence of God was so accepted in the", "either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist.\nGeorge H. Smith, while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word, and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word, promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic. Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism (the view of those who do not believe in the existence of any deity, but do not claim to know if a", "sometimes called presuppositional apologetics, but should not be confused with the Van Tillian variety. Atheism The atheistic conclusion is that the arguments and evidence both indicate there is insufficient reason to believe that any gods exist, and that personal subjective religious experiences say something about the human experience rather than the nature of reality itself; therefore, one has no reason to believe that a god exists. Positive atheism Positive atheism (also called \"strong atheism\" and \"hard atheism\") is a form of atheism that asserts that no deities exist. The strong atheist explicitly asserts the non-existence of gods. Negative atheism Negative", "whether or not any deities exist. Weak agnosticism Weak agnosticism is the belief that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown but not necessarily unknowable. Agnostic theism Agnostic theism is the philosophical view that encompasses both theism and agnosticism. An agnostic theist believes in the existence of a god or God, but regards the basis of this proposition as unknown or inherently unknowable. Agnostic theists may also insist on ignorance regarding the properties of the gods they believe in. Agnostic atheism Agnostic atheism is a philosophical position that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism. Agnostic atheists are atheistic because they", "Christian agnosticism Roman Catholic According to Pope Benedict XVI, strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth. He blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters.\n\"Agnosticism\", said Ratzinger, \"is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man ... The knowledge of God has always existed\". He asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort, pride, dominion, and utility over truth, and is opposed by the following attitudes: the keenest self-criticism, humble listening to", "two distinct kinds of value systems or action guides.\" Others share this view. Singer states that morality \"is not something intelligible only in the context of religion\". Atheistic philosopher Julian Baggini stated that \"there is nothing to stop atheists believing in morality, a meaning for life, or human goodness. Atheism is only intrinsically negative when it comes to belief about God. It is as capable of a positive view of other aspects of life as any other belief.\" He also states that \"Morality is more than possible without God, it is entirely independent of him. That means atheists are not", "Persian religion of Zoroastrianism around the mid-fifth century BC. Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient dualistic ideas inspired by Judaism popular in the first and second century AD. These ideas later seem to have been incorporated into Galen's \"tripartite soul\" that led into both the Christian sentiments expressed in the later Augustinian theodicy and Avicenna’s Platonism in Islamic Philosophy. Thomas Aquinas Like Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) believed that the mind and the body are one, like the seal and the wax are one, and it is therefore pointless to ask whether", "god. The plurality of wildly different conceptions of God and deities leads to differing ideas regarding atheism's applicability. The ancient Romans accused Christians of being atheists for not worshiping the pagan deities. Gradually, this view fell into disfavor as theism came to be understood as encompassing belief in any divinity.\nWith respect to the range of phenomena being rejected, atheism may counter anything from the existence of a deity, to the existence of any spiritual, supernatural, or transcendental concepts, such as those of Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Taoism. Implicit vs. explicit Definitions of atheism also vary in the degree of consideration", "rejected as \"sophistry and illusion\". The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed; it can also be regarded as an independent, basic worldview.\nOther arguments for atheism that can be classified as epistemological or ontological, including logical positivism and ignosticism, assert the meaninglessness or unintelligibility of basic terms such as \"God\" and statements such as \"God is all-powerful.\" Theological noncognitivism holds that the statement \"God exists\" does not express a proposition, but is nonsensical or cognitively meaningless. It has been argued both ways as to whether such individuals can be classified into some form of atheism or agnosticism. Philosophers A. J.", "Criticism of atheism Definitions and concepts Atheism is the absence of belief that any gods exist, the position that there are no gods, or the rejection of belief in the existence of gods.\nDeism is a form of theism in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but does not intervene in human affairs through special revelation. Deism is a natural religion where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. Christian deism refers to a deist who believes in the moral teachings", "are all divine and one within the \"fullness,\" they placed a strong emphasis on equality. Gnostics saw themselves in opposition to spiritual entities called \"archons,\" a word which means \"ruler\"; the word \"anarchy\" comes from, \"anarkhos,\" meaning, \"without rulers,\" and so in many ways the goal of Gnosticism is literally anarchy. Islam The Bedouin nomads of the Khawarij were Islam's first sect. They challenged the new centralization of power in the Islamic state as an impediment to their tribe's freedom. At least one sect of Kharajites, the Najdiyya, believed that if no suitable imam was present in the community, then", "similarities to Gnosticism. (It is a blend of ancient shamanistic-animism on the one hand and Hindu-Buddhistic mysticism and Islamic Sufism on the other, and is divided into many mystical denominations and groups, just like Gnosticism was.), and the secularistic-materialistic strand of the modern world.", "denote an atheist since the Veda presents a godless system with no singular almighty being or multiple almighty beings. It is applied only to those who do not believe in the Vedas. The Sāṃkhyas and Mīmāṃsakas do not believe in God, but they believe in the Vedas and hence they are not Nāstikas. The Buddhists, Jains, and Cārvākas do not believe in the Vedas; hence they are Nāstikas.\n— Bhattacharyya 1999, pp. 174\nĀstika is also a name, such as that of a Vedic scholar born to the goddess Mānasā (\"Mind\") and the sage Jaratkaru. Classification of schools The terms Āstika and", "that studies concluding that analytical thinking leads to lower religious belief \"do not imply that that atheists are more conscious or reflective of their own beliefs, or that atheism is the outcome of a conscious refutation of previously held religious beliefs\" since they too have variant beliefs such as in conspiracy theories of the naturalistic variety. In terms of apostasy, a greater proportion of people who leave religion, do so for motivational rather than rational reasons and the majority of deconversions occur in adolescence and young adulthood when one is emotionally volatile. Furthermore, Farias notes that atheists are indistinguishable from", "Marcellina and her sect with the Carpocratians, not with the \"Gnostic school of thought\". Also, Hippolytus of Rome, who relied on Irenaeus as a source, references that the another sect known as the Naassenes \"call themselves 'gnostics' in their own way, as if they alone have drunk from the amazing acquaintance of the Perfect and Good.\" In the late fourth century, the ascetic monk Evagrius Ponticus described the most advanced stage of Christian asceticism as \"the Gnostic\", indicating that, despite the association of the word \"Gnostic\" with Gnosticism, it still retained its original positive meaning in the sense with which" ]

[ "The quick answer is the \"equation of time.\"\n\nIt's because the earth orbits the sun in an ellipse, not a circle. When the earth is closest to the sun (in January) it's moving faster so the sun appears to move more quickly across the sky (relative to the stars) than at other times. \n\nThe length of day varies through the year according to sundial or \"apparent\" time. With modern clocks this is a problem so we invented \"mean\" time (as in Greenwich Mean Time) where every day is equally long. The difference between mean time and apparent time is called the equation of time and it can exceed 16 minutes. Since your sunrise and sunset forecasts are based on mean time they are not symmetrical.\n\nA related effect is that the earliest sunrise, longest day and latest sunset are all on different days, typically a week or two apart, depending on your latitude.", "I guessing your question is why is it uneven between morning and evening time loss (as you approach winter solstice).\n\nI think this is because our method of measuring time doesn't coincide symmetrically with the loss of daylight, and even if it did so for your city, it would probably not be symmetrical in another city." ]

[ "phase is sometimes shown by a rotating globe or black hemisphere, or a window that reveals part of a wavy black shape beneath. Hour lines Unequal hours were the result of dividing up the period of daylight into 12 equal hours, and night time into another 12. In Europe, there is more daylight in the summer, and less night, so each of the 12 daylight hours is longer than a night hour. Similarly in winter, daylight hours are shorter, and night hours are longer. These unequal hours are shown by the curved lines radiating from the center. The longer daylight", "Daylight saving time Daylight saving time (DST), also daylight savings time or daylight time (United States) and summer time (United Kingdom, European Union, and others), is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn. In effect, DST causes a lost hour of sleep in the spring and an extra hour of sleep in the autumn.\nGeorge Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895.", "length of day and night changes more extremely throughout the seasons (in comparison to other latitudes), and thus sunrise and sunset times are significantly out of phase with standard working hours regardless of manipulations of the clock. DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. The effect also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone, with locations farther east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations farther west in the", "Relative hour Jewish tradition In old times, the hour was detected by observation of the position of the sun, or when the first three stars appeared in the night sky. During the first six hours of the day, the sun is seen in the eastern sky. At the sixth hour, the sun is always at its zenith in the sky, meaning, it is either directly overhead, or parallel (depending on the hemisphere). Those persons living in the Northern Hemisphere, the sun at noon time will appear overhead slightly towards the south, whereas for those living in the Southern Hemisphere, the", "Generally, time zone boundaries have tended to shift westward. Places on the eastern edge of a time zone can effectively move sunset an hour later (by the clock) by shifting to the time zone immediately to their east.\nIf they do so, the boundary of that zone is locally shifted to the west; the accumulation of such changes results in the long-term westward trend. The process is not inexorable, however, since the late sunrises experienced by such places during the winter may be regarded as too undesirable. Furthermore, under the law, the principal standard for deciding on a time zone change", "same time zone. History Ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does, often dividing daylight into 12 hours regardless of daytime, so that each daylight hour became progressively longer during spring and shorter during autumn. For example, the Romans kept time with water clocks that had different scales for different months of the year; at Rome's latitude, the third hour from sunrise (hora tertia) started at 09:02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice, but at the summer solstice it started at 06:58 and lasted 75 minutes. From the 14th century onwards,", "too much light. High-intensity light First, over illumination occurs when the intensity of lighting is too high for a given activity. For example, an office building might have many sets of fluorescent lights to keep the area illuminated after sundown. During the daytime, however, large windows might allow for abundant amounts of natural sunlight to enter the office. Therefore, keeping all of the fluorescent lights illuminated during the daytime might cause unnecessary costs and energy consumption. Leaving lights turned on Likewise, not switching off the lights when exiting a room will also cause higher energy consumption. ", "and two-hour shifts have been used in the past. In all countries that use daylight saving, the clock is advanced in spring and set back in autumn; the spring change reduces the length of that day and the autumn change increases it. For a midnight shift in spring, a digital display of local time would appear to jump from 23:59:59.9 to 01:00:00.0.\nIn most countries that use daylight saving time, the time applied in the winter is considered as \"standard\" time and the shift is considered to be a positive offset. The opposite is also possible, with Ireland, for example, defining", "sun at noon time will appear overhead slightly towards the north. From the 6th and a half hour to the 12th hour, the sun inclines towards the west, until it sets. The conclusion of a day at the end of twilight may slightly vary in minutes from place to place, depending on the elevation and the terrain. Typically, nightfall ushers in more quickly in the low-lying valleys, than it does on a high mountaintop.\nThe conventional Jewish way of calibrating the time of day is to reckon the \"first hour\" of the day with the rise of dawn (Hebrew: עמוד השחר),", "time zone and observes daylight saving time as well. Some local residents refer to this phenomenon as \"double daylight time\". In Fairbanks, the same circumstances cause sunset to occur at 12:47 a.m. the next calendar day and the solar sunset is at 10:47 p.m. Even without daylight saving time, another anomaly is that on the winter solstice in Nome, the sunrise is after \"noon\" clock time, at 12:02 p.m., about 4 hours before sunset at 3:56 p.m.\nThe territory of the state of Alaska spans almost as much longitude as the contiguous United States (57.5° vs. 57.6°) so the use of two time zones", "beginning at sunrise. In fact, they divided the day into 12 parts (called kaspu or \"double hours\") or into 60 equal parts. Unequal hours Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were", "for two hours decreased nocturnal activity and severity of evening agitation.\nDaylight is an ideal light source because it provides high circadian stimulation during the day. Daylight also has the correct intensity and spectrum needed to stimulate the circadian systems. Architectural designs should consider adding sun rooms, skylights, patios, and courtyards into the design of facilities for the elderly. Architects can also select lighting fixtures that emit an array of blue light LEDS (λmax=470 nm) which deliver at least 30 lux at the corner. Lighting schemes that have timers are also helpful in providing the right type of light", "Blue hour The blue hour (from French l'heure bleue; [lœʁ blø]) is the period of twilight (in the morning or evening, around the nautical stage) when the Sun is at a significant depth below the horizon and residual, indirect sunlight takes on a predominantly blue shade, which differs from the one visible during most of a clear day, which is caused by Rayleigh scattering.\nThe blue hour occurs when the Sun is far enough below the horizon so that the sunlight's blue wavelengths dominate due to the Chappuis absorption caused by ozone. Since the term is colloquial, it lacks an official", "sunset. During twilight (these may be conflicting, since the time of sunset (and twilight) vary a lot depending on season and latitude, as well as the choice of time zone).\nBefore a period of transition from the 12th to 14th centuries, \"noon\" instead referred to what we now call 3 pm. Possible explanations include shifting times for prayers and midday meals, along which one concept of \"noon\" was defined—and so afternoon would have referred to a narrower timeframe.\nThe word \"afternoon\", which derives from \"after\" and \"noon\", has been attested from about the year 1300; Middle English contained both \"afternoon\" and the", "enjoy one less hour of light at night, compensated by an extra hour of light in the morning. But since most people rise after sunrise but sleep long after sunset, those on the West side enjoy an hour less sunlight daily. Consistent with the hypothesis that sunlight by itself reduces suicide rates, Quercioli (2012) finds that suicide rates in counties on the West side of each of the three time-zone lines in the USA had an 8% higher suicide rate in the years 1979 to 2007. Psychology Psychological disorders can be affected by seasonal changes and result in", "and dividing it into 12 equal hours. The nighttime hours are similarly divided into 12 equal portions, albeit a different amount of time than the \"hours\" of the daytime. The earliest and latest times for Jewish services, the latest time to eat chametz on the day before Passover and many other rules are based on Sha'oth Zemaniyoth. For convenience, the modern day using Sha'oth Zemaniyoth is often discussed as if sunset were at 6:00 pm, sunrise at 6:00 am and each hour were equal to a fixed hour. For example, halachic noon may be after 1:00 pm in some areas during daylight saving", "is the equivalent to GMT. Time zones and time offsets A time zone is a geographical region in which residents observe the same standard time.\nA time offset is an amount of time subtracted from or added to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) time to get the current civil time, whether it is standard time or daylight saving time (DST).\nIn any particular time zone, residents either observe standard time all year round (as in Russia or South Africa), or observe standard time during winter and daylight time during summer (as in most of the United States and Europe). Daylight saving time Several", "daylight. DST is commonly not observed during most of winter, because the days are shorter then; workers may have no sunlit leisure time, and students may need to leave for school in the dark. Since DST is applied to many varying communities, its effects may be very different depending on their culture, light levels, geography, and climate. Because of this variation, it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the effects of the practice. The costs and benefits may differ between places. Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with other areas rather", "Daylight saving time in the Americas Daylight saving time in the Americas is the arrangement in the Americas by which clocks are advanced by one hour in spring and moved back in autumn, to make the most of seasonal daylight. The practice is widespread in North America, with most of Canada, Mexico, and the United States participating, but much less so in South America. Canada, Mexico, and the United States Canada, Mexico, and the United States use daylight saving time on a wide scale, with only a few states/provinces and parts thereof opting out of the practice or adopting it", "the sun is lowest and daylight is shortest, and back to June. When the sun shines through the window, embedded prisms split the sunlight into its component colors and cast small rainbow-like patterns called spectra inside the building. These spectral colors are repeated in the colors of the windows. As the rotation of the earth makes the sun appear to travel in its daily arc, the patterns of colors cast by the window and the prisms slowly changes position with the changing position of the sun. “Cosmic Blink” “Cosmic Blink”, the mural gracing the lobby of the William M. Staerkel", "regular sockets.\nA lamp with night light is often configured so that one of the two sockets is a medium-base socket, considered to be the Main Lamp (under the lamp shade), and the other socket is a candelabra-base socket that is the night light or decorative accent light. The night light is usually placed somewhere on or inside the body of the lamp. In a typical set-up, the main lamp would have a 150 W medium-base bulb, and the night light would have 7 W candelabra bulb. The operation of the switch is still the same, such that the night", "the day. This suggests the height at which reflection happens must slowly change as the sun sets. Appleton found in fact that it increased as the sun set and then decreased as the sun rose until the reflected wave was too weak to record. This variation is compatible with the theory that ionisation is due to the sun’s influence. At sunset, the intensity of the sun’s radiation will be much less at the surface of the earth than it is high up in the atmosphere. This means ionic recombination will progress slowly from lower altitudes to higher ones and therefore", "Time in Germany History Daylight saving time was first introduced during World War I by the German Empire in the years 1916 to 1918. After the end of the war and the proclamation of the Weimar Republic in November 1918, daylight saving time ceased to be observed. It was used again 1940–1949 (from 1945 differently in the West and East) and introduced again from 1980. West and East Germany had the same time and DST from 1950 until unification. In 1996, daylight saving time was harmonised throughout the European Union by Directive 2000/84/EC, which moved the end of DST to", "Late night television Late night television is one of the dayparts in television broadcast programming. It follows prime time and precedes the overnight television programming graveyard slot. The slot generally runs from about 11:30 PM to 2:00 AM local time, with variations according to the time zone and broadcaster.\nIn the United States and Canada, the term is synonymous with the late-night talk show, a type of comedic talk and variety show. Thus, the late night programming block is considered more important in North America. On most major-network stations, a late local newscast airs at the beginning of the block.", "precise time of sunrise, and (b) the precise time of sunset. Since the actual day begins approximately 72 minutes before sunrise, and ends 13½ minutes after the sun has already set and can no longer be seen over the horizon (according to Maran), or 18 minutes (according to Maimonides), by collecting the total number of minutes in any given day and dividing the total number of minutes by 12, the dividend that one is left with is the number of minutes to each hour. In summer months, when the days are long, the length of each hour during daytime can", "breakfast television/morning show (between 2:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m.). During this time slot, most people who are at home are asleep, and most of the few of those who are awake are either at work, away from the television, trying to fall asleep, or just returning home from a bar and too intoxicated to pay attention, leaving only insomniacs, intentionally nocturnal people, and irregular shift workers as potential audiences. Because of the small number of people in those categories, the overnight shift was historically ignored as a revenue opportunity, although increases in irregular shifts have made overnight programming more viable than it", "them. The standard time set in each time zone has come to be defined in terms of offsets from Universal Time. In regions where daylight saving time is used, that time is defined by another offset, from the standard time in its applicable time zones.\nThe adoption of standard time, because of the inseparable correspondence between time and longitude, solidified the concepts of halving the globe into an eastern and western hemisphere, with one prime meridian (as well its opposite International Date Line) replacing the various prime meridians that had previously been used. History of standard time During the 19th century,", "was no significant variance due to sunlight.\nA 2009 study showed that when students were not exposed to daylight in the early part of the day, sleep times were pushed later into the evening/night. Measuring light Typical measurements of light have used a dosimeter. Dosimeters measure an individual's or an object's exposure to something in the environment, such as light dosimeters and ultraviolet dosimeters. Application and effect Ongoing research in the light and health field will have implications on school architecture and design because studies show that it is necessary to expose students to short-wavelength light during the early part of", "zones instituting de facto permanent summer time). In 1976, summer time was reimplemented because of the oil crisis.\nSince UTC+00:00 is France's \"natural\" time zone (extreme points correspond to UTC-0:20 to UTC+0:38), its use of UTC+01:00 in winter could be seen as a form of daylight saving time, while its use of Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) in summer can be seen as a form of \"double summer time\". Germany Summer time was first introduced during World War I by the German Empire from 1916 to 1918. After the end of the war and the proclamation of the Weimar Republic in", "to blindness. However, the initial study is still inconclusive.\nThe optimal sleeping light condition is said by some to be total darkness. If a nightlight is used within a sleeping area, it is recommended to choose a dim reddish light to minimize disruptive effects on sleep cycles. In addition, nightlights may be useful in locations other than sleeping areas, such as hallways, bathrooms, or kitchens, to allow late night trips to be made without turning on the full light, while preserving a dark sleeping environment." ]

[ "The first major difference is the interest rate. Government debt is an incredibly safe investment so the government can borrow money at really low interest rates. In fact many governments are able to borrow at rates that are lower than inflation. This means that their debt decreases over time in terms of its real value rather than increasing like household debt.\n\nAt the same time governments generally owe money in a currency that they control. They have the option of doing things like manipulating interest rates or printing money to deal with the debt. Printing money to pay the debt sounds like a terrible idea and it is if you do it to fast, see Weimar Germany. In the course of normal economic growth, however, the money supply must expand and if the government accomplishes this by printing money and buying back debt the debt can be slowly paid down without running a surplus or causing hyperinflation.\n\nAnother difference is the way the income of the government changes. This matter because how burdensome debt is depends upon its relationship to the income available to the debtor. This is why government debt is often stated in terms of percent of GDP. Government income tends to grow at about the rate that GDP grows. Household income tends to grow much slower than this in the long term. This means that overtime the ratio of government debt to income will shrink and a previously large debt eventually becomes irrelevant compared to GDP." ]

[ "Household debt Overview Household debt can be defined in several ways, based on what types of debt are included. Common debt types include home mortgages, home equity loans, auto loans, student loans, and credit cards. Household debt can also be measured across an economy, to measure how indebted households are relative to various measures of income (e.g., pre-tax and disposable income) or relative to the size of the economy (GDP).\nThe burden of debt can also be measured in terms of the amount of interest it generates relative to the income of the borrower. For example, the U.S. Federal Reserve", "(or credit) owed by any level of government; either central or federal government, municipal government, or local government. Some local governments issue bonds based on their taxing authority, such as tax increment bonds or revenue bonds.\nAs the government represents the people, government debt can be seen as an indirect debt of the taxpayers. Government debt can be categorized as internal debt, owed to lenders within the country, and external debt, owed to foreign lenders. Governments usually borrow by issuing securities such as government bonds and bills. Less creditworthy countries sometimes borrow directly from commercial banks or international institutions such as", "debt to equity, is considered important in determining the riskiness of an investment; the more debt per equity, the riskier. Governments Governments issue debt to pay for ongoing expenses as well as major capital projects. Government debt may be issued by sovereign states as well as by local governments, sometimes known as municipalities.\nDebt issued by the government of the United States, called Treasuries, serves as a reference point for all other debt. There are deep, transparent, liquid, and open capital markets for Treasuries. Furthermore, Treasuries are issued in a wide variety of maturities, from one day to thirty", "Debt-to-GDP ratio In economics, the debt-to-GDP ratio is the ratio between a country's government debt (measured in units of currency) and its gross domestic product (GDP) (measured in units of currency per year). A low debt-to-GDP ratio indicates an economy that produces and sells goods and services sufficient to pay back debts without incurring further debt. Geopolitical and economic considerations – including interest rates, war, recessions, and other variables – influence the borrowing practices of a nation and the choice to incur further debt. Global Statistics At the end of the 2nd quarter of 2017, United States public debt-to-GDP ratio", "the classification of the debt (it will always be the difference between the basis of the burdened property and the amount of the debt), there are potentially huge tax differences.\nWhen property burdened by nonrecourse debt is foreclosed upon, there is no cancellation of indebtedness even if the amount of the loan exceeds the fair market value of the property. The case of Commissioner v. Tufts holds that in such a situation, the amount realized is the amount of the debt, and the fair market value of the property is irrelevant. That this difference between the adjusted basis of the property", "Consumer debt debt-to-GDP ratio, consumer leverage ratio A country's private debt can be measured as a 'debt-to-GDP ratio', which is the total outstanding private debt of its residents divided by that nation's annual GDP. A variant is the consumer leverage ratio, which is the ratio of debt to personal income.", "of 2014. Figures have generally been fluctuating (in terms of public and private external debt). Governments basically aim for low debt-to-GDP ratios because such is an indicator that the economy is producing high enough output to pay off its borrowings. Debt-to-revenue ratio The debt-to-revenue, according to the National Tax Research Center (NTRC), is an important calculation in evaluating the government's ability to manage its debt. It measures the percentage of total revenue that is allocated to debt principal and interest payments. With the constant increase in the debt to revenue ratio, it becomes more difficult for the government to handle", "Security (finance) Debt and equity Securities are traditionally divided into debt securities and equities (see also derivatives). Debt Debt securities may be called debentures, bonds, deposits, notes or commercial paper depending on their maturity, collateral and other characteristics. The holder of a debt security is typically entitled to the payment of principal and interest, together with other contractual rights under the terms of the issue, such as the right to receive certain information. Debt securities are generally issued for a fixed term and redeemable by the issuer at the end of that term. Debt securities may be protected by collateral", "informal debts is that many people, in particular those who are poor, have no access to affordable credit. Such debts can cause problems when they are not paid back according to expectations of the lending household. In 2011, 8 percent of people in the European Union reported their households has been in arrears, that is, unable to pay as scheduled \"payments related to informal loans from friends or relatives not living in your household\". Businesses A company may use various kinds of debt to finance its operations as a part of its overall corporate finance strategy.\nA term loan is the", "spending is spent by state and local government. Federal government spending in the United States can be broken down into three general categories: mandatory/entitlement spending, discretionary spending, and interest on government debt. Interest on government debt Oftentimes, federal governments spend more money than they collect in tax revenue in a given year. When the government spends more than it brings in, it runs a Budget Deficit that year. In order to pay for the extra spending, governments issue debt. Government debt is the amount of money borrowed from individuals, firms, or foreign entities. Debt accrues over time. Most public debt", "is defined as a debt created or acquired in connection with a trade or business of the taxpayer. Whereas, a non-business debt is defined as a debt that is not created or acquired in connection with a trade or business of the taxpayer. The classification is quite significant in terms of the deductibility. A non-business bad debt must be completely worthless in order to be deducted. However, a business bad debt is deductible whether it is partially or completely worthless. Mortgage bad debt Mortgages which may noncollectable can be written off as a bad debt as well. However, they", "\"debt held by the public\" and \"intra-governmental debt.\" The debt held by the public refers to U.S. government securities or other obligations held by investors (e.g., bonds, bills and notes), while Social Security and other federal trust funds are part of the intra-governmental debt. As of September 30, 2012 the total debt was $16.1 trillion, with debt held by the public of $11.3 trillion and intragovernmental debt of $4.8 trillion. Debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP rose from 34.7% in 2000 to 40.3% in 2008 and 70.0% in 2012. U.S. GDP was approximately $15 trillion during", "little debt often means foregoing the tax, monitoring, and other advantages of debt, a less expensive form of capital compared to equity. However, too much debt can expose a company to a higher than acceptable risk of default or not being able to pay its creditors (who can then sue to bankrupt the company). Trade-offs like these become more complicated when companies have operations and debt in many countries. Aggarwal has been writing about this topic for many years, and has demonstrated that average levels of debt used by companies differ in various countries in Asia, Europe, and Latin America.", "the debt Distinct from both the national debt and the PSNCR is the interest that the government must pay to service the existing national debt. In 2012, the annual cost of servicing the public debt amounted to around £43bn, or roughly 3% of GDP.\nIn 2012, the British population numbered around 64 million, and the debt therefore amounted to a little over £15,000 for each individual Briton, or around £33,000 per person in employment. Each household in Britain pays an average of around £2,000 per year in taxes to finance the interest.\nBy international standards, Britain enjoys very low borrowing costs. Credit", "debt to income rose by an average of 39 percentage points, to 138 percent. In Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway, debt peaked at more than 200 percent of household income. A surge in household debt to historic highs also occurred in emerging economies such as Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, and Lithuania. The concurrent boom in both house prices and the stock market meant that household debt relative to assets held broadly stable, which masked households' growing exposure to a sharp fall in asset prices. When house prices declined, ushering in the global financial crisis, many households saw their wealth", "Tax benefits of debt In the context of corporate finance, the tax benefits of debt or tax advantage of debt refers to the fact that from a tax perspective it is cheaper for firms and investors to finance with debt than with equity. Under a majority of taxation systems around the world, and until recently under the United States tax system, firms are taxed on their profits and individuals are taxed on their personal income. \nFor example, a firm that earns $100 in profits in the United States would have to pay around $30 in taxes. If it then distributes", "Debt capital Debt capital is the capital that a business raises by taking out a loan. It is a loan made to a company, typically as growth capital, and is normally repaid at some future date. Debt capital differs from equity or share capital because subscribers to debt capital do not become part owners of the business, but are merely creditors, and the suppliers of debt capital usually receive a contractually fixed annual percentage return on their loan, and this is known as the coupon rate. However, sometimes the loan is paid back based on a percentage of the", "According to Modern Monetary Theory, public debt is seen as private wealth and interest payments on the debt as private income. The outstanding public debt is an expression of the accumulated previous budget deficits which have added financial assets to the private sector, providing demand for goods and services. Adherents of this school of economic thought argue that the scale of the problem is much less severe than is popularly supposed.\nWolfgang Stützel showed with his Saldenmechanik (Balances Mechanics) how a comprehensive debt redemption would compulsorily force a corresponding indebtedness of the private sector, due to a negative Keynes-multiplier leading", "Debt service ratio In economics and government finance, a country’s debt service ratio is the ratio of its debt service payments (principal + interest) to its export earnings. A country's international finances are healthier when this ratio is low. For most countries the ratio is between 0 and 20%.\nIn contrast to the debt service coverage ratio, which is calculated as income divided by debt, this ratio is inverse and calculated as debt service divided by country's income from international trade, i.e., exports.", "Debt overhang Debt overhang is the condition of an organization (for example, a business, government, or family) that has existing debt so great that it cannot easily borrow more money, even when that new borrowing is actually a good investment that would more than pay for itself.\nThis problem emerges, for example, if a company has a new investment project with positive net present value (NPV), but cannot capture the investment opportunity due to an existing debt position, i.e., the face value of the existing debt is bigger than the expected payoff. Hence, the equity holders will be reluctant to invest", "if any). The higher the debt service coverage ratio, the more income is available to pay debt service, and the easier and lower-cost it will be for a borrower to obtain financing.\nDifferent debt markets have somewhat different conventions in terminology and calculations for income-related metrics. For example, in mortgage lending in the United States, a debt-to-income ratio typically includes the cost of mortgage payments as well as insurance and property tax, divided by a consumer's monthly income. A \"front-end ratio\" of 28% or below, together with a \"back-end ratio\" (including required payments on non-housing debt as well)", "Household debt advisory services\". It stipulates, for example, that lenders should list the interest rates they change in a homogenized way (yearly rates) and that paper contracts should be signed for debts above a certain amounts, thus inhibiting for example impulsive borrowing through SMS-loans. Alleviative measures include debt advisory services, which aim to help households getting their finances back on track, mainly by means of information provision, budget planning and balancing, help with legal arrangements, negotiation with creditors, providing psychological support by having someone to talk to, and even by effectively, voluntarily taking over the managing of a household's finances.", "Unsecured debt Types of unsecured debt include 1. Corporate Unsecured Debt - Since this type of debt assumes a greater amount of risk, corporations that have lower bond ratings (such as BBB) are classified as unsecured debt due to their higher default risk. \n2. Personal Loan - A Personal Loan is a loan which you can take to meet unspecified financial needs. It can be taken for various purpose such as a wedding, traveling, paying education fee, medical emergencies or any undefined reason etc.. Today Personal loan segment has diverted into many specialised loans.\n3. Consumer Durable Loan -", "the present value of taxes minus the present value of government spending must be at least equal to the initial sovereign debt. Ricardian equivalence The representative household's budget constraint is that the present value of its consumption cannot exceed its initial wealth plus the present value of its after-tax income.\nAssuming that the present value of taxes equals the present value of government spending, then this last equation may be rewritten as:\nThis equation shows that the household budget constraint may be defined in terms of government purchases, without regards to debt or taxes. Moreover, this is the famous result known as", "Senior debt In finance, senior debt, frequently issued in the form of senior notes or referred to as senior loans, is debt that takes priority over other unsecured or otherwise more \"junior\" debt owed by the issuer. Senior debt has greater seniority in the issuer's capital structure than subordinated debt. In the event the issuer goes bankrupt, senior debt theoretically must be repaid before other creditors receive any payment.\nSenior debt is often secured by collateral on which the lender has put in place a first lien. Usually this covers all the assets of a corporation and is often used for", "Debt-to-capital ratio Definition and Details A measurement of a company's financial leverage, calculated as the company's debt divided by its total capital. Debt includes all short-term and long-term obligations. Total capital includes the company's debt and shareholders' equity, which includes common stock, preferred stock, minority interest and net debt.\nCalculated as:\nDebt-To-Capital Ratio = Debt / (Shareholder's Equity + Debt)\nCompanies can finance their operations through either debt or equity. The debt-to-capital ratio gives users an idea of a company's financial structure, or how it is financing its operations, along with some insight into its financial strength. The higher the debt-to-capital ratio, the", "is held in the form of treasury bills and bonds, and the government has to pay down debt over time. In order to provide an incentive for individuals, businesses and other entities to lend money, the government must also pay these parties interest on the debt. The interest expense for fiscal year 2019 is $363 billion, or 7.9% of the total budget. According to estimates from the Office of Management and Budget, interest on government debt is expected to more than double by 2028 and account for a larger percentage of total expenditures. State and local government spending At the", "Hybrid debt capital instruments They consist of instruments which combine certain characteristics of equity as well as debt. They can be included in supplementary capital if they are able to support losses on an ongoing basis without triggering liquidation.\nSometimes, it includes instruments which are initially issued with interest obligation (e.g. debentures) but the same can later be converted into capital. Subordinated-term debt Subordinated debt is classed as Lower Tier 2 debt, usually has a maturity of a minimum of 10 years and ranks senior to Tier 1 capital, but subordinate to senior debt in terms of claims on liquidation proceeds.", "United Kingdom national debt Definition The UK national debt is the total quantity of money borrowed by the Government of the United Kingdom at any time through the issue of securities by the British Treasury and other government agencies. Debt versus deficit The UK national debt is often confused (even by politicians) with the government budget deficit (officially known as the Public Sector Net Cash Requirement (PSNCR)), see next paragraph. The then Prime Minister David Cameron was reprimanded in February 2013 by the UK Statistics Authority for creating confusion between the two, by stating in a political broadcast that his", "mortgages and credit cards. Default provisions Debtors of every type default on their debt from time to time, with various consequences depending on the terms of the debt and the law governing default in the relevant jurisdiction. \nIf the debt was secured by specific collateral, such as a car or home, the creditor may seek to repossess the collateral. In more serious circumstances, individuals and companies may go into bankruptcy. Individuals Common types of debt owed by individuals and households include mortgage loans, car loans, credit card debt, and income taxes. For individuals, debt is a means of" ]

[ "It's a stock crash. To understand why markets undergo dramatic shifts is you need to know two things.\n\n1. The \"value\" of a stock is what it's imagined worth will be 10 years into the future.\n\n2. Most of the stock traders use the 50 day, 100 day, 6 month, 1 year patterns to model the future. So if something was rising for 2 years, they assume it will continue to rise. \n\nThe crash happens when the VERY capable investors who understand how to determine value noticeable abandon the path of the common investor. The common, but professional investors don't understand why, but their professional contacts pass along the news of the capable investors and they follow. When enough people see the new pattern they all jump on as well.\n\nThe stock market is half science and half popularity contest." ]

[ "5-10%. Much of this downturn can be attributed to lower demand as a response to the Chinese stock market crash. In response, in 2016 China announced its plans to downsize its steel and coal industries and layoff 15% of the respective industries workforce. Part of this larger trend can be attributed to China's movement away from heavy industry, and movement into light industry such as producing consumer goods for the world market. China has also seen growth in other sectors such as construction, technology, finance, and energy which can also be attributed to the decline and reliance on industry as", "\"a financial and economic meltdown\" \"is not well supported by the facts\". \"[S]ervices, not industry, are driving China’s growth.\" Lardy explained the rout in August as an overdue correction in China's equity market. January 2016 global meltdown On both 4 January and 7 January 2016 the Chinese stock market experienced a sharp sell-off of about 8% that quickly sent stocks tumbling globally. From 4 January to 15 January, China’s stock market fell 18% and the Dow Jones Industrial Average was down 8.2%.\nDuring the first fifteen minutes of the first day of trading in the Chinese stock exchange, the \"stock market", "recession in the US economy would have on the Chinese economy. Citigroup estimates due to the number of exports from China to America a one percent drop in US economic growth would lead to a 1.3 percent drop in China's growth rate.\nThere were several large Monday declines in stock markets worldwide during 2008, including one in January, one in August, one in September, and another in early October. As of October 2008, stocks in North America, Europe, and the Asia-Pacific region had all fallen by about 30% since the beginning of the year. The Dow Jones Industrial Average had", "China had a \"record trade surplus of $595 billion in 2015\". However, in the \"last six months of 2015 capital left China at an annualised rate of about $1 trillion\".\nAccording to an article in the Wall Street Journal,\nChina is the wild card. It borrowed huge amounts to stimulate its economy, leading to serious overcapacity in everything from factories to luxury apartments. The unwinding of this binge is one of the causes of the current market turmoil.\n— Justin Lahart Wall Street Journal 15 January 2016\nNeil Atkinson of the International Energy Agency (IEA), was cited in The Economist in January 2016 arguing that", "economic decline and reduced its productive capabilities. Internal strife, political turmoil and foreign exploitation of China resulted the share of the country's GDP to fall to 5 percent in the 1950s to accounting for one-sixth of the global economy as of 2016 with the Chinese renminbi playing a major role in establishing the modern Chinese economy on a domestic and global scale. \nFrom 1820 to 1950, China experienced a precipitous economic decline that it would not recover until its meteoric rise in 1978 with its per capita GDP income of US$154 in 1978 rising to US$6060 in 2012 while averaging", "in the aftermath of the disaster.\nThe Economy of Japan suffered its worst post-World War II economic stagnation set in the early 1990s (which coincided with the end of Cold War), which was triggered by the latter event of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. It, however, rebounded strongly in the early 2000s due to strong growth in exports, although unable to counteract China in 2005 after China gradually surpassed it as the largest economy in Asia. 2008–present The financial crisis of 2007–2008, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority", "the primary, or extractive, sector.\"\nThe relationship between industrial growth and GDP growth [in China] has completely broken down...The change is profound, but 'grossly underappreciated.'\n— Nicholas Lardy Peterson Institute for International Economics\nAs China experienced a period of stock market turbulence in the summer of 2015 worsened by \"economic weakness, financial panic, and the policy response to these problems\", Anatole Kaletsky disagreed with those who claimed that China was the \"global economy’s weakest link\". He claimed that \"weak economic data leads to financial turmoil, which induces policy blunders that in turn fuel more financial panic, economic weakness, and policy mistakes.\"\nAccording to The Economist,", "2015–16 stock market selloff The 2015–16 stock market selloff, also known as The Great Fall of China, was the period of decline in the value of stock prices globally that occurred between June 2015 to June 2016. It included the 2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence, in which the SSE Composite Index fell 43% in just over 2 months between June 2015 and August 2015, which culminated in the devaluation of the yuan. Investors sold shares globally as a result of slowing growth in the GDP of China, a fall in petroleum prices, the Greek debt default in June 2015, the", "Chinese Economy in a Global Context: A Model-Based Approach (2010) Baillui and colleage Patrick Blagrave analyze the factors behind shocks in the Chinese economy and how these shocks effect the G-3 countries, United States, the euro area and Japan Firstly, Baillui et. al (2010) find that foreign demand shocks are larger in China than other industrialized countries. This is namely due to the fact that China has a very open economy and one of the world's largest manufacturers. Henceforth, demand shocks from the international market will greatly impact the Chinese economy. In addition, their research also suggests that real equilibrium", "as the world reacted to the 9% meltdown in the Chinese stock market. The Chinese Correction triggered drops and major unease in nearly all financial markets around the world.\nAfter the Chinese market drop, the Dow Jones Industrial Average in the United States dropped 416 points, or 3.29% from 12,632 to 12,216 amid fears for growth prospects, then the biggest one-day slide since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The S&P 500 saw a larger 3.45% slide. Sell orders were made so fast that an additional analysis computer had to be used, causing an instantaneous 200 point drop at one", "a “China-led slowdown” narrative, but the reality is that the US is a relatively insulated economy. Yes – Chinese equities have fallen sharply in recent months, yet the Shanghai Composite Index of leading stocks remains 40pc up on its level just 18 months ago. This is a home-grown US slowdown, much as it pains America to admit it.\" Commentator response Some mass media outlets had alarmist headlines in August 2015, with The Guardian comparing the pattern of losses during China's Black Monday to the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and an article in The Mirror about Damian McBride, a former", "as global oil prices, the European debt crisis, and China's economic slowdown\" which has made the global economy \"fragile\".\nThe Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada.\nThe Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%. Since September 2010, the key interest", "since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $3,800 per capita (PPP), China became the second largest economy in the world after the US. According to several sources, China did not become the second largest economy until 2010. However, according to Gallup polls many Americans rate China's economy as first. Considering GDP per capita, this is far from accurate. The United States remains the largest economy in the world. However, the trend of China Rising is clear.\nThe Asian financial crisis affected China at the margin, mainly through decreased foreign direct", "Chinese Banking Liquidity Crisis of 2013 The Chinese Banking Liquidity Crisis of 2013 was a sudden credit crunch affecting China's commercial banks evidenced by a rapid rise on 20 June 2013 in the Shanghai interbank overnight lending rates to a high of 30 percent from its usual rate of less than 3%. The ensuing panic affected gold markets and stock. China's regulation of the foreign exchange market had caused a decline in inflow of cash. On 19 June 2013, instead of injecting additional funds and easing its monetary policy, China's central bank People's Bank of China (PBOC) told commercial banks", "on certain types of seafood. Also included are reports on the poor crash safety of Chinese automobiles, slated to enter the American and European markets in 2008. This created adverse consequences for the confidence in the safety and quality of mainland Chinese manufactured goods in the global economy. The age of turbulence The decade was marked by two financial and economic crises. In 2000, the Dot-com bubble burst, causing turmoil in financial markets and a decline in economic activity in the developed economies, in particular in the United States. However, the impact of the crisis on the activity was limited", "decline up until the late twentieth century until the Deng Xiaoping economic reforms, China's GDP grew 10 percent per year from 1978 until 2000 and tripled between 2000 to 2010. China's rise in the global economy catapulted the Middle Kingdom into East Asia's largest economy, overtaking Japan as the world's second largest economy in August 2010. Until 2015, China was the world's fastest-growing major economy, with growth rates averaging 10% over 30 years. Its rapid and sustained economic expansion has lifted hundred of millions of people out of poverty and has made the nation a major engine of economic growth", "country spent two months with declining GDP, it was not until the Wall Street Crash in October 1929 that the effects of a declining economy were felt, and a major worldwide economic downturn ensued.\nAlthough its causes are still uncertain and controversial, the net effect was a sudden and general loss of confidence in the economic future. The market crash marked the beginning of a decade of high unemployment, poverty, low profits, deflation, plunging farm incomes, and lost opportunities for economic growth and personal advancement. .", "in China caused by excess surplus liquidity, the central government can consider imposing an 80% capital gains tax on property flipping, decreasing 10% each year afterwards.\nXie comments that Japan's low birth rate (1.4%) is partially due to the real estate bubble in the 1980s where China currently is following in the same track. Chinese land policy and short term government behaviors provide the perfect ground for a semi-permanent property bubble. An economic crisis similar to the Great Depression might happen in China within 20 years when Chinese baby boomers (born between 1950 and 1978) start to retire. Important calls In", "crisis or, more likely he argues in China’s case, a sharp deceleration in growth. Commodities and Oil Sharma has been a sharp critic of those who argued, in the last decade, that increasing demand from China would lead to a commodity supercycle—a rise in prices for commodities such as oil, lasting indefinitely. He contends that the inevitable slowdown of China, as its economy matures, would restore the normal global commodity cycle, in which prices rise for a decade and fall for two decades.\nHe applauds this likely turn, arguing that rising prices for commodities, particularly oil, led to the rise of", "2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence Background Following a period of closure during the early history of the People's Republic of China, the modern stock market in China reemerged in the early 1990s with the re-opening of the Shanghai Stock Exchange, and founding of the Shenzhen Security Exchange. By 2000, the Chinese stock market had over 1,000 listed companies, worth a market capitalization of nearly a third of China’s overall gross domestic product (GDP), and by the end of 1998, investors had opened nearly 40 million investment accounts. As more companies went public, investors rushed to the Shanghai and Shenzhen exchanges.", "The Chinese stock market and economy grew quickly, and by 2012, the number of listed companies between the Shanghai and Shenzhen Securities Exchanges had risen to over 2,400, worth a market capitalization of nearly 50% of China’s real GDP, and included over 200 million active stock and mutual fund accounts.\nChina's economic growth, however, was stunted by the 2008 global recession and its aftershocks. The Chinese government responded to 2008 recession with a stimulus package that would draw resources from both the public and private sectors in order to fund an unprecedented infrastructure build. Growth following the stimulus package was rapid", "fears for China's overall economy. and markets around the world responded.\nOn Friday, 1 January 2016 The Guardian reported that China's factory activity continued to decline, overseas demand for goods fell and export orders for Chinese manufacturers fell. Stock markets which had already responded by mid-December with \"metals [experiencing] a broad-based drop on the weakness of manufacturing activity in China, According to the Institute for Supply Management (ISM), a group of purchasing managers which conducts PMIs, the US also had a PMI of 48.2 in December down from 48.6 in November. The October PMI was 50.1 in October. Whereas China", "the early 1990s to the early 2010s, the Chinese economy has slowed down. Projects such as new neighbourhoods (such as the Chenggong District), shopping malls, and even theme parks are empty and/or incomplete because of the economic slowdown. This situation has been compared to Ireland and Spain.", "Part of the survival was owed to the state's overall control of the economy. Against the backdrop of the Asian financial crisis and the catastrophic 1998 Yangtze River Floods, mainland China's GDP still grew by 7.9% in the first nine months of 2002, beating the government's 7% target despite a global economic slowdown. Active state intervention to stimulate demand through wage increases in the public sector and other measures showed certain strengths in the Chinese economic system in times of hardship.\nWhile foreign direct investment (FDI) worldwide halved in 2000, the flow of capital into mainland China rose 10%. As global", "an end\". Even before the Chinese economy started to turn down, there were concerns that it was facing a middle income trap, widely identified by economists as showing the danger of a Lewis Turning Point, a phenomenon observed in history of Japan, which showed that rapid urbanization led to a growth in manufacturing. However, eventually, the phenomenon comes to an end as wages rise and the country's competitive edge disappears. The number of migrant workers in China has been increasing at a slower pace since 2005. Although there are 320 million laborers still in agriculture, only 20 million have the", "to social unrest in China, bankruptcy for export dependent companies and \"disaster for the world\".\nIn October, China posted a record surge in its foreign exchange reserves, which was seen as a \"target around the neck of China’s exchange rate regime\" in the effort to get the country to allow its currency to appreciate.\nIn reaction, Geithner suggested China’s attempts at limiting gains were the reason for capital controls and currency-market interventions in other emerging economies. \"What’s happening is, as China holds its currency down, their currencies are moving up and they’re having to work very hard to make sure they’re", "decline. As of 2018, China had the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totaling approximately US$13.5 trillion (90 trillion Yuan). In terms of purchasing power parity (PPP GDP), China's economy has been the largest in the world since 2014, according to the World Bank. Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has been the world's #1", "damage No official statistics have ever been produced by the Communist party in terms of reporting the actual cost of damage. By 1978, many stories of death and destruction caused by the Cultural Revolution had leaked out of China and became known worldwide. Restoration Starting in the 1990s and continuing into the 21st century, there has been a massive rebuilding effort under way to restore and rebuild cultural sites that were destroyed or damaged during the Cultural Revolution. This has coincided with a resurgence in interest in, and demand for, Chinese cultural artifacts. Some have exploited this increased demand,", "broad-based drop on the weakness of manufacturing activity in China while agriculture prices were also generally down. Precious metals showed their largest drop since 2013 on firmer expectations of interest rate hikes in the US.\n— \"OECD December 2015 January 2016 global rout The sell-off on the Chinese stock market \"set off a global rout, with stocks in Europe and the United States getting hit\", with many stocks down 2% to 3%. The German stock index, the DAX its blue-chip shares index slumped to 9979 points on 7 January \"falling below the psychologically important 10,000-point threshold\" which represents 2.29 percent fall from", "adviser to British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, calling on people to stock up on canned food because the coming crash would be twenty times worse than the financial crisis of 2007–08. Others such as The Economist questioned its severity. George Osborne, Chancellor of the Exchequer of the United Kingdom, said that the Chinese stock market turbulence will not have a big impact on European economies.\nThe Globe and Mail journalist Nathan Vanderklippe argued that \"To understand the devaluation of the yuan and the changes in the Chinese economy today, look to the growth in its services sector rather than heavy industry.\"" ]

[ "The house has probably gone up in value in the years since they bought it. Let's say they bought it for $200K five years ago. They may have made a downpayment of $10K and borrowed $190K. Today the house is worth, say $230K. They refinance 95% of the value of the house, which is $218K. They pay off the first mortgage, which is maybe $175K, taking the remaining $43K in cash which they spend on hookers and blow. It's commonly called a \"cash-out refi\" and it's a reason why some people never get out of debt.", "A cash out refi to finance a vacation is a spectacularly poor decision. \nI certainly hope that she is exaggerating.", "OK, first of all we're talking about a *refinance*, at least in America. I've never heard the term \"remortgage\" though it's quite accurate.\n\nLet's say I buy a house, in 2011, five years ago. The value of the house is, say, $200K, and I put down $40K in down payment. That means that my mortgage is $160K, the difference between my down payment and the total value of the house. I now own a $200K house, and I owe $160K to the bank. My **net worth** is still just +$40K, just like before I bought the house.\n\nNow let's say it's 2016, five years later. In the course of paying off the mortgage over the past five years, I now only owe, say, $140K to the bank. And good news! My house has gone up in value to, say, $240K! That means my net worth is now $100K.\n\nBut let's **also** say I've had two kids over the past 5 years. Kids are fucking *expensive*. Not only do they eat you out of house & home, and their after-school activities are expensive, and their daycare is expensive, but after all that guess what? They still need to go to college. Each kid you spit out means you're now racing. Racing against their 18th birthday. If you've got a $300K saved up for their college educations by then, you win. If you don't, your kid loses. Have fun.\n\nSo all those expenses add up, and now that monthy payment you're making, of, say, $1100 a month to pay your mortgage? It's getting harder and harder to make that number work, given all your other expenses. So what do you do? Well the daycare ain't going to charge you less just 'cuz you ask. And Harvard isn't going to discount it's tuition because you ask nicely. But you *can*, if you want, lower your monthly nut on your house.\n\nYou go to the bank, and you **refinance** your house. That means you reset your mortgage, back to a 30-year mortgage. So now instead of owing $140K with 25 years left to pay it all off, now you owe $140K with **30** years to pay it off, so your monthly payment goes from $1100 a month to $950 a month. All it cost you was an additional 5 years of payments, and now you have an extra $150 a month for little Sterling's lacrosse practices!\n\nAnd maybe, if you're lucky, you refinance at a time when interest rates are lower than when you originally financed the house. So now you can pay 3.00% instead of 3.50% on your mortgage. That'll save you a few bucks as well. And because you have more *equity* in the house than when you got your original loan, the bank can consider you a safer investment and you can pay 2.95% instead of 3.00%." ]

[ "another. Homeowners may choose to remortgage for various reasons, usually to reduce the overall monthly mortgage payment amounts. However, other reasons may include to reduce the size of repayments, to pay off a mortgage earlier, to raise capital, or to consolidate other more expensive short term debts.\nHomeowners often misuse the expression remortgage when they are simply switching from one product to another with the same lender; this is not a remortgage which involves the removal of one legal charge over a property and its substitution with another in favour of a new lender.\nThe ability to remortgage is very much based", "American Homeowner Preservation American Homeowner Preservation (also known as AHP) is an online real estate crowdfunding platform which purchases pools of nonperforming loans from banks and other lenders and then offers borrowers who want to stay in their homes debt restructuring options with reduced payments and discounted principal balances. If homes are vacant or families want to move, AHP offers deficiency waivers and incentive payments to cooperate with short sales in order to put the homes back into service.\nFounded in 2008 as a 501c nonprofit in Cincinnati, Ohio, AHP pioneered the short sale leaseback as a foreclosure prevention operation to", "was originally based in Toronto, but in 2014, Love It or List It began its filming in North Carolina. Hilary Farr co-founded Rules of Renovation to give investors unique strategies on how to successfully renovate homes and then sell them. Investors looking to succeed in the field were invited to register for a free event to see how Rules of Renovation could help their business. Concept While renovating houses and then selling them has become a way for people to make a living, it did not mean that the process is without risk. An investor without the correct tools and", "opportunity to make more in rent than the other option, but at a higher renovation cost.\nOnce the homeowners decide on which option they prefer, the Income Property team goes to work to demolish and rebuild. The homeowners are usually involved in the renovation but then are kept out of the space during the final stages of completion to provide some element of surprise.\nOnce the renovation is complete, McGillivray obtains an opinion of value from a real estate appraiser or real estate agent, both for the amount of rent that can be charged, as well as to the overall increase in", "always be undertaken with appropriate advice from a suitably qualified professional. The timing of remortgaging is important particularly at a time of an imminent increase in base rates in the UK which will undoubtedly have the knock-on effect of increasing monthly repayments on homeowner mortgages.", "local Conservatives changed the policy away from rebuilding. After what they called \"a long decision\", local Conservatives decided, in order to save money, that instead of re-building it they would refurbish the facility at a reduced cost of £4 million. Croydon Council wrote that the refurbishment would give the pool an extra 30 years of life and defended the decision, insisting the £6 million saving can be used for modernising facilities elsewhere. However, this decision angered many local residents in the surrounding area.\nOn 25 July 2006, the Council upheld its controversial decision to refurbish rather than rebuild the Leisure Centre. Protesters were", "the Housing Authority decided not to redevelop the estate in the short term. Instead, repair works will be carried out in the buildings to sustain the estate for the next 15 years.", "6, 2008, the Auditor General reported that the house was in poor condition and needed about $10 million in repairs and upgrades, which would require at least 12 to 15 months of \"full access\" to complete. In October 2015, Bryan Baeumler estimated $15 million might be necessary to properly renovate the residence. The NCC is devising a plan for major renovations, asserting such a project will require approximately 18 months.\nThere have been occasional calls to demolish the entire structure and rebuild. Maureen McTeer, wife of former Prime Minister Joe Clark, said the building is \"completely lacking\" in architectural value and", "Vacants to Value Vacants to Value is a Baltimore initiative enacted in 2010 by former Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake to incentivize purchases of abandoned homes in the city. The program offers financial incentives to purchase derelict properties and renovate them.", "construct.\nOnce a building is complete, the player can market the rooms in one of two ways: selling or leasing. Through selling, a complete payment is achieved instantly. In leasing, payments are received on a monthly basis.\nWhen short on budget, the player can borrow money from any of four banks. Loans are paid back automatically after an assigned number of months (the money the player has in hand will have some deduction for this matter). Therefore, sufficient amounts of profit have to be earned after borrowing.\nA building's quality deteriorates over time. When reusing them for commercial purpose, it is best to", "or rehabbing properties but who want to invest in rental property for consistent cash flow. Some investors add an additional R that stands for Repeat as a way of building a real estate portfolio.\nA real estate investor purchases an investment property with a depressed value because it needs repairs and/or cosmetic updates. The investor then updates the property, including needed structural repairs to bring a house up to the current code. It often includes cosmetic updates such as new paint, flooring, tile, counter tops, and kitchen appliances. The investor then finds a tenant and becomes a landlord receiving rent,", "not want to overinvest in improving homes they're not planning to live in permanently. In Home to Stay, he designs spaces for people who have purchased their first permanent home. In Home to Flip, he purchases an outdated and undervalued home, and presents the process of upgrading the home for eventual resale. In his most recent series, Home to Keep, he redesigns living spaces for established homeowners who have been considering moving because one or more spaces in their current home are no longer meeting their needs.\nFallico's design and hosting style incorporates do-it-yourself tips to reduce design and renovation costs.", "will market to you aggressively to help you get a loan modification. These scammers target the homes of older seniors with equity which are the types that servicers usually won't modify. They may help you get a modification for a rental property first in order to win your trust. When they get to the property with equity they will trick you into missing payments, convince you to ignore the notice of default and notice of trustee's sale, and trick you into missing your sale date - all while telling you they are getting you a modification. Meanwhile, they will feed", "noise and waste during the refurbishment.\nThe importance of sustainable refurbishment is that the majority of buildings in use are not new and thus were constructed when energy standards were low or non-existent, and are otherwise incompatible with current standards or the expectations of users. Much of the existing building stock is likely to be in use for many years to come since demolition and replacement is often unacceptable owing to cost, social disruption or because the building is of architectural and/or historical interest. The solution is to refurbish or renovate such buildings to make them appropriate for current and future", "Short sale (real estate) Home Affordable Foreclosure Alternative Program (HAFA) The HAFA program expired December 31, 2016.\nIn 2009 the government implemented the Making Home Affordable Program (MHA) to address the real estate recession and the need to help homeowners deal with their real estate loans. Its primary components are loan modification (Home Affordable Modification Program known as HAMP) and foreclosure alternatives (Home Affordable Foreclosure Alternatives known as HAFA). HAFA® provides homeowners the opportunity to exit their homes and be relieved of the remaining mortgage debt through a short sale. It also provides homeowners or their tenants with up", "dismantling. Financing building relocation Although smaller projects are usually paid for in cash, larger projects such as the relocation of a house to a new site are typically financed by banks. Finance is often a major problem faced by project managers as the house needs to be paid for prior to leaving its current site, but the lender for the project cannot take security over the house until it is complete and on the new site. This creates a short-term cashflow problem that unhinges many projects.", "public opinion and uptake. Upon launching the scheme to prospective tenants, all properties were taken within the first weekend, with expected residents moving in around September 2017. The renovations involve remodelling some floorplans and knocking through to adjacent homes to create larger houses, whilst retaining some of the original houses in order to cater for various residential requirements.\nFollowing the success of the pilot scheme, refurbishment of other Welsh Streets was approved, meaning that 300 homes would be refurbished or constructed, with the council hoping that around 75% of existing housing stock could be retained. The proposals involved knocking some houses", "repeatedly argued that residents favour redevelopment; citing a recent poll amongst residents in which 56 percent voted in favour of redevelopment. Conservationists have argued this result was inevitable as residents felt there was very little prospect of the council spending any money on their homes, leaving them in outdated accommodation. Of the estate Lewisham Council stated \"We have a responsibility under the national Decent Homes programme to bring all its housing up to a recognised standard. It simply is not financially viable to refurbish the estate.\" Of the listing, Steve Bullock said. \"The listing by", "Rebuildingsociety.com Operation The rebuildingsociety.com website operates as a lending platform by allowing approved businesses to publish a loan application. Investors can subscribe to parts of the loan after assessing the business's information, committing an amount of their choice, with an interest rate of their choice.\nrebuildingsociety.com was one of the early P2P lending platforms to have launched in the UK prior to the regulation of the industry. Research by rebuildingsociety.com in late 2013 found SME owners were still largely unaware of peer-to-business lending and rely on personal borrowing to support their businesses. According to the study, about 290,000 SME owners would", "was estimated to be in the region of £15 million which would have seen the demolition of houses from the other surrounding Welsh Streets to be replaced with semi-detached properties. The managing director of the proposed regeneration, Claire Griffiths, suggested that 70% of residents had favoured the plans, yet housing charity Empty Homes disputed the credibility of the public opinion report, given the criteria used would have made it difficult to conclude refurbishment as a favourable option. The plans ultimately fell through when in January 2015 following a public enquiry, Eric Pickles halted the demolition plans, with specific focus on", "was the revitalization of the Coliseum neighborhood in the Lower Garden District. Today, Operation Comeback helps prospective homeowners locate and purchase renovated historic houses throughout the city. The program also holds interviews with homeowners and helps them finance and organize renovation projects. Rebuilding Together Originally established as \"Christmas in October\" in 1988, Rebuilding Together is a neighborhood revitalization program which renovates the homes of elderly, low-income, disabled homeowners. Homeowners who own a historic house can apply to have their homes renovated, and the renovations are done at no cost to the homeowners. The program relies on volunteer labor and donated", "fact that the house is in private ownership. A grant from the National trust for Historic Preservation enabled an assessment of the condition of the house and developed a plan to maintain it. The cost of restoring the house was estimated at more than one million dollars..", "service dictates that if Forever cannot sustain customers' accounts, it will use the Forever Guarantee Fund to give the customers' data back to Forever customers. Reception Michael Spring, a professor at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences, said, \"It seems a little overpriced. It may end up being a service used more by those who have disposable income\".\nIn an April 2018 Photography Life review, Bob Vishneski, who works in the media software industry, wrote, \"as people begin to grasp and appreciate the importance of Digital Estate Planning, I believe Forever and others that venture into this space will", "that the home would exceed their budget, and should only serve as inspiration. In either scenario, Drew and Jonathan then highlight the advantages of purchasing an older home. Afterwards, Drew takes the buyers on a tour of homes that are significantly less ideal, but have renovation potential, and the buyers are asked to narrow their choices down to two. Jonathan then uses computer-generated imagery to illustrate his imagined vision for the homes after significant renovations. The graphics are made by an outside company using Neezo Renders software at a cost of about $10,000 per episode. After the family makes", "of the businesses. Therefore, many owners prefer to leave buildings vacant rather than taking costly and time-consuming action for revitalization.", "September 2004 the entire estate was compulsorily purchased by the British Government under section 47 of the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 (only the second time the government has had to use these powers). English Heritage has spent £8 million refurbishing it to make it waterproof. Much of the work was carried out by Stamford restoration and conservation builders, E. Bowman & Sons Ltd. From 2007, buyers were sought, in spite of an estimated £6 million still required in renovation (as of 2014, the house was without any plumbing, power or heating). In 2008, the asking price was upwards", "and replace the existing building with a high-rise that has more space to sell. Often, when building owners cannot find an obvious use for a building, it is left to degenerate and decay and eventually collapse. This may pose as a threat to the safety of the neighborhood. Decaying buildings may even be subject to vandalism and become spaces for anti-social activities and may have a negative impact on the value of the properties in their vicinity.\nBullen and Love’s survey respondents thought that “the benefits of reusing their existing facility could include avoiding the disruption of relocation, reducing maintenance and", "rent stabilization program. Grunstein had uncovered an \"arcane\" rent rule that did not allow an owner to take apartments from rent stabilization while also receiving a tax break for renovations, called the J-51 Program. Stuyvesant Town owners had been doing so for years. Grunstein's work earned him recognition in New York Times real estate reporter Charles V. Bagli's book published in April 2013, Other People's Money: Inside the Housing Crisis and the Demise of the Greatest Real Estate Deal Ever Made. Personal life He is married to Chana Tambor Grunstein. They have three children: Eli, Michal, and Rachel,", "on the property. Lenders measure the ability of a project’s operating income to make mortgage payments by using a debt-service-coverage ratio, which is a calculation of annual operating income divided by annual mortgage payments; the higher the ratio the lower the risk of project foreclosure.\nMaintaining stable revenue throughout the lifetime is challenging for a non-profit. Often, affordable housing exists in weak housing markets and in neighborhoods characterized by high crime rates, vacant and abandoned properties and low rent prices. Housing in these markets is generally unattractive and thus difficult to rent, therefore buildings lose money due", "funding.\nRevenue is then generated in the forms of rents and mortgage payments from the people whose homes AHP services. AHP Formulas for Borrower Solutions AHP uses the current value of the home as the basis for determining the modified payments, principal discounts and incentive payments offered to borrowers. As a result of this formulaic approach, borrowers are not required to furnish significant documents in order to obtain mortgage modifications. This is uncommon in the mortgage industry, in which many lenders require extensive documentation. Further, this results in AHP's processing times being measured in days and weeks, rather than the months" ]

[ "They, as us can sort out what's important and tune it down. As an example, in a cocktail party you can hear the person you are talking to even though there are 60 people jabbering on.", "Overtime you learn to block it out. I live on a main road and can sleep through the morning traffic, but get awoken the second someone opens my door. City dogs as well as other animals are also able to do this, where they can block out certain distractions while remaining sensitive to other noise." ]

[ "characteristics of the vocal folds and an elongated vocal tract, the latter rendered possible by an incompletely ossified hyoid. Cats may purr for a variety of reasons, including when they're hungry, happy, or anxious. Meow The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a \"meow\" or \"miaow\" sound (pronounced /miˈaʊ/). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention-soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Just like humans who talk a lot when they're happy, cats can too. According to The Purrington Post, a chatty cat", "long generally thought that cats were unresponsive to music, recent studies have shown that they do in fact respond to music which has been created with species-specific frequencies. Results suggested that cats do benefit from music therapy when the sounds have been composed to target their auditory senses. Other findings include age-related sensitivity (older and younger cats were more responsive than middle aged cats).\nIt is a common misconception that all white cats with blue eyes are deaf. This is not true, as there are many blue-eyed cats with perfect hearing. However, white cats with blue eyes do have slightly higher", "with other parts of Asia and the canny Chinese allow no tomcats to be exported so there is no interference in this lucrative source of income.\nDue to the restrictive conditions that have deprived the cat of its actual use, its hearing has decreased because it is no longer needed for hunting its own food. With no need for watchfulness, it had no need of sharp hearing to listen for hidden things so its hearing became blunted and as a natural consequence its ears lost their upright nature, gradually becoming lower and becoming the hanging ear that is now the characteristic", "cats are known for coughing before spitting up a hairball.\nIn other domestic animals, horses can cough because of infections, or due to poor ventilation and dust in enclosed spaces.", "Howl, yowl, moan, and wail These sounds are commonly used during threatening situations. Howls are more tonal, while moans are long and slowly modulated. Anger wails are combined with growls, and yowls are similar to howls, but longer. Ultrasonic Very high frequency (\"ultrasonic\") response components have been observed in kitten vocalizations. Posture When cats lie on their back with their belly exposed, they are in a position of vulnerability. Therefore, this position may communicate a feeling of trust or comfort; however, cats may also roll onto their back to defend themselves with their claws, or to bask in areas", "attentive, alert felines that notice a lot. Considered an unusually \"talkative\" breed, they often interact vocally with people. Their soft voices are capable of nearly a whole scale of tones, leading to a folk belief that they can sing. Folklore and legend Cats feature prominently in Japanese folklore. As in many other traditions around the world, cats are frequently objects of fear and mistrust, with various supernatural abilities ascribed to them. But in some Japanese stories, the length of their tails is an important plot point, with the Japanese Bobtail seen as auspicious, while long-tailed cats may be suspected of", "wind.\nSome of these beliefs are rooted in reality. Cats are able to detect slight changes in the weather, as a result of their very sensitive inner ears, which also allow them to land upright when falling. Low atmospheric pressure, a common precursor of stormy weather, often makes cats nervous and restless. Notable examples The prevalence of cats on ships has led to them being reported on by a number of noted seafarers. The outbreak of the Second World War, with the spread of mass communication and the active nature of the world's navies, also led to a number of ship's", "cats are hearing purring, seeing a cat in real life, imagining the possibility of a cat touching or rubbing against one, the thought of meeting a cat in the dark, seeing the staring eyes of a cat, cats in pictures and on television, and cat-like toys and cat-like fur. \nBig cats such as lions or tigers can also trigger the stimuli associated with the phobia. This phobia, in relation to big cats, may have biological (or even evolutionary) origin. There is evidence that the Australopithecus (ancestor of the genus Homo) were prey of Dinofelis, a feline of the extinct Machairodontinae", "help of magnetic resonance imaging. Cats It has been postulated that domestic cats can learn to manipulate their owners through vocalizations that are similar to the cries of human babies. Some cats learn to add a purr to the vocalization, which makes it less harmonious and more dissonant to humans, and therefore harder to ignore. Individual cats learn to make these vocalizations through trial-and-error; when a particular vocalization elicits a positive response from a human, the probability increases that the cat will use that vocalization in the future.\nGrowling can be an expression of annoyance or fear, similar to humans.", "They can also be very sensitive with nervous temperaments, which do not adapt well to changes of environment or to strangers. Like Siamese, they can be extremely vocal and attention-demanding, feeling a need for human companionship. They have over 100 vocal sounds, much more than regular cats, making very unusual meows.\nMales are sometimes found to be overly aggressive towards other animals, will fight with other cats whenever they feel their territory has been invaded or just to express dominance. Point colors The Colorpoint Shorthair comes in a variety of point colors. They include: Red Point (also called Flame Point),", "restrained from hunting. If you see your cat making quick chirps, and moving their mouths extremely quickly while their eyes are set and staring at one place, they are chattering, and channeling their inner urge to hunt. Big cats do this as well. Although domesticated cats are not in the wild, they still have their innate need to hunt. Grown cats also do not meow to other grown cats. Cats meow in adult form to talk to other animals, such as dogs, and more importantly humans. Meowing to humans has been researched as that they do it to manipulate", "they often weigh slightly more than they might appear to. They don't shed as much as other breeds and require very little grooming. They tend to get along well with other cats, as they have an established pecking order in the household. They have a loud distinctive purr. Bombay cats are known to be vocal and they cry and meow more than other cats.", "by its large movable outer ears, the pinnae, which amplify sounds and help detect the location of a noise. It can detect ultrasound, which enables it to detect ultrasonic calls made by rodent prey. Smell Cats have an acute sense of smell, due in part to their well-developed olfactory bulb and a large surface of olfactory mucosa, about 5.8 cm² (0.90 in²) in area, which is about twice that of humans. Cats and many other animals have a Jacobson's organ in their mouths that is used in the behavioral process of flehmening. It allows them to sense certain aromas in a way", "kittenhood, a form of behavioral neoteny. Their high-pitched sounds may mimic the cries of a hungry human infant, making them particularly difficult for humans to ignore.\nDomestic cats' scent rubbing behavior towards humans or other cats is thought to be a feline means for social bonding. Communication Domestic cats use many vocalizations for communication, including purring, trilling, hissing, growling/snarling, grunting, and several different forms of meowing. Their body language, including position of ears and tail, relaxation of the whole body, and kneading of the paws, are all indicators of mood. The tail and ears are particularly important social signal mechanisms in", "will tend to remain silent, or make short blowing noises.\nFelines such as leopards and tigers also growl to signal territorial aggression, eliciting anti-predator responses from animals such as elephants. Similar to human interpretation of growling, elephants are able to distinguish the threat level based on the individual growl and will respond accordingly; elephants will retreat from tigers, but defend against leopards. Domestic house cats also growl, sounding like \"brrrrrooowwww\", usually followed by the typical hissing sound. In domestic cats, growling is a warning noise, implying unhappiness, annoyance, fear or other forms of aggression, and is a signal to back off.", "lead to signals of aggression, fear, dominance, friendship or territoriality being misinterpreted by the other species. Dogs have a natural instinct to chase smaller animals that flee, an instinct common among cats. Most cats flee from a dog, while others take actions such as hissing, arching their backs and swiping at the dog. After being scratched by a cat, some dogs can become fearful of cats.\nIf appropriately socialized, cats and dogs may have relationships that are not antagonistic, and dogs raised with cats may prefer the presence of cats to other dogs. Even cats and dogs that have got along", "closes from the side and appears when the cat's eyelid opens. This membrane partially closes if the cat is sick, although in a sleepy state this membrane is often visible.\nCats often sleep during the day so they can \"hunt\" at night. Unlike humans, cats do not need to blink their eyes on a regular basis to keep their eyes lubricated (with tears). Unblinking eyes are probably an advantage when hunting. Cats will, however, \"squint\" their eyes, usually as a form of communication expressing affection and ease around another cat or human. Hearing Humans and cats have a similar range of", "making noises such as mewing or crying, and some are mute. They are quite observant and intelligent, with some Chartreux learning to operate radio on/off buttons and to open screen door latches. They take about two years to reach adulthood. Chartreux cats are playful cats well into their adult years; some can be taught to fetch small objects in the same manner as a dog. Chartreux are good with children and other animals. They are non-aggressive, affectionate, good travelers and generally very healthy. Chartreux tend to bond with one person in their household, preferring to be in their general", "threat. The communication may be directed at cats as well as other species – the puffed-up hissing and spitting display of a cat toward an approaching dog is a well-known behavior. Cats hiss when they are startled, scared, angry, or in pain, and also to scare off intruders into their territory. If the hiss and growl warning does not remove the threat, an attack by the cat may follow. Kittens as young as two to three weeks will hiss and spit when first picked up by a human. \"Spitting\" is a shorter but louder and more emphatic version of hissing.", "Cat communication Purr The purr is a continuous, soft, vibrating sound made in the throat by most species of felines. Domestic kittens can purr as early as two days of age. This tonal rumbling can characterize different personalities in domestic cats. Purring is often believed to indicate a positive emotional state, but cats sometimes purr when they are ill, tense, or experiencing traumatic or painful moments such as giving birth. A more expansive definition is \"purring signals a friendly social mood, and it can be given as a signal to, say, a vet from an injured cat indicating the", "the \"prey\" item is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing). Whiskers To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable whiskers (vibrissae) over their body, especially their faces. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage. Behavior Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night. Domestic cats spend the majority of their time in the", "that reinforces a nonthreatening position. This behavior is not exclusive to domestic house cats. Since cats can be very territorial, in the wild they utilize this slow blinking with other cats to signal themselves as friendly or nonthreatening. Tail Cats often use their tails to communicate. A cat holding its tail vertically generally indicates positive emotions such as happiness or confidence; the vertical tail is often used as a friendly greeting toward human beings or other cats (usually close relatives). A half-raised tail can indicate less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low. In addition, a", "harmonics. Purring is sometimes accompanied by other sounds, though this varies between individuals. Some may only purr, while other cats also emit low level outbursts sometimes described as \"lurps\" or \"yowps\".\nDomestic cats purr at varying frequencies. One study reported that domestic cats purr at average frequencies of 21.98 Hz in the egressive phase and 23.24 Hz in the ingressive phase with an overall mean of 22.6 Hz. Further research on purring in four domestic cats found that the fundamental frequency varied between 20.94 and 27.21 Hz for the egressive phase and between 23.0 and 26.09 Hz for the ingressive phase. There was considerable variation", "is a challenge to socialize an adult. Socialized adult feral cats tend to trust only those who they trusted in their socialization period, and therefore can be very fearful around strangers.\nCats are also used for companion animals. Studies have shown that these animals provide many physiological and psychological benefits for the owner. Other aspects of cat behaviour that are deemed advantageous for the human–cat bond are cat hygiene (cats are known for good hygiene), they do not have to be taken outside (use of the litter box), they are perfect for smaller spaces, and they have no problems with being", "nature. Many enjoy being with people and are sometimes described as \"extroverts\". Often they bond strongly to a single person. Some Siamese are extremely vocal, with a loud, low-pitched voice—known as \"Meezer\", from which they get one of their nicknames—that has been compared to the cries of a human baby, and persistent in demanding attention. These cats are typically active and playful, even as adults, and are often described as more dog-like in behavior than other cats.\nSiamese cats, due to their desire to be near people or other cats, occasionally suffer from depression or separation anxiety if left alone for", "some conditions. Some hazardous encounters occur when animals raid human property for food. Additionally, if travelers come upon an unsuspecting animal and surprise it, it may attack. Regularly making loud noise, such as by clapping or yelling, reduces the risk of surprising an animal. Some people use bear bells as noisemakers, but these are usually too quiet to be heard from far away. Any mammal infected with rabies may behave unexpectedly, even aggressively, and could infect a human with rabies by biting.\nVenomous animals, including snakes, scorpions, spiders and bees, may cause harm either directly or through anaphylactic shock. Overall, the", "desensitization, anti-anxiety medications, and Dog Appeasing Pheromone, a synthetic analogue of a hormone secreted by nursing canine mothers.\nStudies have also shown that cats can be afraid of thunderstorms. Whilst it is less common, cats have been known to hide under a table or behind a couch during a thunderstorm.\nGenerally if any animal is anxious during a thunderstorm or any similar, practically harmless event (e.g. fireworks display), it is advised to simply continue behaving normally, instead of attempting to comfort animals. Showing fearlessness is, arguably, the best method to \"cure\" the anxiety.", "Cat behavior Communication Kittens need vocalization early on in order to develop communication properly. The change in intensity of vocalization will change depending on how loud their feedback is. Some examples of different vocalizations are described below.\nPurring or a soft buzz, can mean that the cat is content or possibly that they are sick. Meows are a frequently used greeting. Meows occur when a mother is interacting with her young. Hissing or spitting indicate the cat is angry or defensive. Yowls can mean that the cat is in distress or feeling aggressive. Chattering occurs when they are hunting or being", "literacy programs. Cats can also be useful for marketing campaigns, and are frequently used to generate publicity for their libraries, particularly on social media. The presence of a cat can create a relaxed environment and ease daily stress for patrons and librarians alike, but usually without the typically disruptive loud noises other animals (e.g., dogs) may produce. Cats' generally independent nature may also suit the intellectual environment of a library, as they are low-maintenance and may more readily suit the otherwise preoccupied intellectual personalities who frequent libraries. Famous example Dewey Readmore Books is perhaps the most famous library cat. He", "dependence and interest in humans, as it affects their hunting ability, a desirable trait for many owners. However, it also makes them vulnerable to urban dangers such as night-time vehicular traffic. Unlike many other blue-eyed white cats, Siamese cats do not have reduced hearing ability.\nFurthermore, the Siamese cat is more prone than other breeds to lung infections, especially in kittenhood, feline osteochondrodysplasia, vestibular disease and feline hyperesthesia syndrome." ]

[ "Tattoo's are designed to be put in deep enough to the skin, so that during the healing process it gets trapped in the deeper layers. During the ageing of a tattoo, it will start to fade or have other changes, which are partly the result of the skin replacement process, but it should last considerably longer than a few skin sheds, and we should see the current generation of tattoo's last even longer than we've seen before with even less degradation, as the people who got them start to age and we see the results of the research into techniques and ink pigments." ]

[ "eventual human trials for this application. Tattoo removal A placebo-controlled study on hairless mice found that 0.1% ingenol mebutate gel was able to remove two-week-old tattoos consistently. It was observed that the microspheres within the skin containing the dye would exude into the scab intact and slough off as the skin healed about 20 days after treatment began. This mechanism appears to be independent of ink color, unlike laser tattoo removal, which is less effective for certain colors. Human trials have not yet been conducted.", "between treatments depends on various parameters, including the area of the body treated, skin color and effectiveness of the immune system. Tattoos located on the extremities, such as the ankle, generally take longest. As tattoos fade clinicians may recommend that patients wait many months between treatments to facilitate ink resolution and minimize unwanted side effects.\nThe amount of time required for the removal of a tattoo and the success of the removal varies with each individual and their immune system function. Factors influencing this include: skin type, location, color, amount of ink, scarring or tissue change, layers of ink, immune", "of adverse effects and does not necessarily increase the rate of ink absorption. Anecdotal reports of treatments sessions at four weeks leads to more scarring and dischromia and can be a source of liability for clinicians. At each session, some but not all of the tattoo pigment particles are effectively fragmented, and the body removes the smallest fragments over the course of several weeks or months. The result is that the tattoo is lightened over time. Remaining large particles of tattoo pigment are then targeted at subsequent treatment sessions, causing further lightening. The number of sessions and spacing", "state within. While it is possible to see immediate results, in most cases the fading occurs gradually over the 7–8 week healing period between treatments.\nQ-switched lasers are reported by the National Institutes of Health to result in scarring only rarely. Areas with thin skin will be more likely to scar than thicker-skinned areas.\nBy 2023, the laser tattoo removal market is expected to grow 12.7% annually. Number of laser tattoo removal treatment sessions needed Complete laser tattoo removal requires numerous treatment sessions, typically spaced at least seven weeks apart. Treating more frequently than seven weeks increases the risk", "the hair strokes to visually give the dimension of natural eyebrow thickness without any sharp contours on the eyebrows. Durability The microblading procedure is a semi-permanent tattoo. Like all tattoos, microblading can fade, depending on multiple factors, including quality of pigment/ink used, UV exposure, elements found in skincare products, medications. The treatment lasts from one to two years. A touch-up session is encouraged 6 weeks after the first microblading procedure and every 12-18 months thereafter. Safety Safety precautions for microblading are similar to those for any other tattooing technique. The most common complications and client dissatisfaction that result from any", "limited, according to Roy, to colored glasses. Disadvantages Some of the disadvantages of corneal tattooing are the difficulty of performing the procedure and the risk of the procedure. Corneal tattooing is a procedure that is very difficult to perform precisely. Often, the area tattooed fades after time and rarely remains permanently. The size of the area tattooed also might reduce over time. Sometimes, the results are not what were expected, and the eye might need to be re-tattooed. Also, results may not last very long because of the multiple incisions, and the multiple lacerations might cause recurrent corneal erosions. Finally,", "and special precautions must be taken to avoid misdiagnoses. Effects of blood thinners A regimen of blood thinners may affect the tattooing process, causing excess bleeding. This increased bleeding can slow the process of getting enough ink into the skin. The aftercare healing may also take longer.", "for four months following a tattoo.\nInfections that can theoretically be transmitted by the use of unsterilised tattoo equipment or contaminated ink include surface infections of the skin, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, tuberculosis, and HIV. However, no person in the United States is reported to have contracted HIV via a commercially applied tattooing process. Washington state's OSHA studies have suggested that since the needles used in tattooing are not hollow, in the case of a needle stick injury the amount of fluids transmitted may be small enough that HIV would be difficult to transmit. Tetanus risk is reduced by", "in place. There are two forms of skin grafting: split thickness and full thickness. In a split thickness skin graft, a shaver is used to shave a layer of skin from the abdomen or thigh. The donor site regenerates skin and heals over a period of two weeks. In a full thickness skin graft, a segment of skin is totally removed and the donor site needs to be sutured closed.\nSplit thickness grafts can be used to repair larger defects, but the grafts are inferior in their cosmetic appearance. Full thickness skin grafts are more acceptable cosmetically. However, full thickness grafts", "the local release of pro-inflammatory chemicals in the skin.\nThe earliest pathologic change is the formation of a plug (a microcomedone), which is driven primarily by excessive growth, reproduction, and accumulation of skin cells in the hair follicle. In normal skin, the skin cells that have died come up to the surface and exit the pore of the hair follicle. However, increased production of oily sebum in those with acne causes the dead skin cells to stick together. The accumulation of dead skin cell debris and oily sebum blocks the pore of the hair follicle, thus forming the microcomedone. This is", "match their original hair color and skin tone. Whilst scalp micro pigmentation is a permanent treatment, it can be removed with a correctional procedure or laser treatment. Since the procedure is relatively new, there is not much, if any scientific data on whether people have suffered side effects. Due to the two main health concerns with hair tattoos being the cleanliness of needles and the possibility of an allergic reaction to the ink used, many practitioners of the procedure perform a small patch test on an inconspicuous part of your scalp before performing the full treatment. Finding a natural looking", "time before exhibiting symptoms. Delayed abrupt chronic reactions, such as eczematous dermatitis, are known to manifest themselves from months to as many as twenty years after the patient received their most recent tattoo. Other adverse effects Other documented conditions caused by tattoo pigments have been carcinoma, hyperplasia, tumours, and vasculitis. Keratoacanthoma may also occur, which makes excision of the affected area mandatory. Eyeball tattoos carries its own unique risks. Hematoma Occasionally, when a blood vessel is punctured during the tattooing procedure a hematoma (bruise) may appear. Bruises generally heal within one week. Bruises can appear as halos around", "receive laser tattoo removal to lighten the existing ink to make themselves better candidates for a cover up tattoo. Laser removal Tattoo removal is most commonly performed using lasers that break down the ink particles in the tattoo into smaller particles. Dermal macrophages are part of the immune system, tasked with collecting and digesting cellular debris. In the case of tattoo pigments, macrophages collect ink pigments, but have difficulty breaking them down. Instead, they store the ink pigments. If a macrophage is damaged, it releases its captive ink, which is taken up by other macrophages. This can make", " Graft recipients wear compression garments for several months and are at risk for depression and anxiety consequent to long-term pain and loss of function. History First skin grafting was performed in India in 1st century. In its most basic sense, skin grafting is the transplanting of skin and, occasionally, other underlying tissue types to another location of the body. The technique of skin harvesting and transplantation was initially described approximately 2500-3000 years ago with the Hindu Tilemaker Caste, in which skin grafting was used to reconstruct noses that were amputated as a means of judicial punishment. [1] More modern", "still. Sekundo et al. even believe that the combination of new technology and old techniques might increase the popularity of tattooing in the future. Alternative methods An alternative way to permanently change the color of the eye is called bright ocular, and is achieved by placing an artificial silicon lens on top of the original iris. The clients can choose from a variety of colors and different designs and images. The method also makes it possible to remove the implant later in life to get the original eye color back.", "the face and hand where contraction of the graft should be minimized. The general rule is that the thicker the graft, the less the contraction and deformity.\nCell cultured epithelial autograft (CEA) procedures take skin cells from the person needing the graft to grow new skin cells in sheets in a laboratory; because the cells are taken from the person, that person's immune system will not reject them. However because these sheets are very thin (only a few cell layers thick) they do not stand up to trauma, and the \"take\" is often less than 100%. Newer grafting procedures combine CEA", "by many (National Comprehensive Cancer Network) to be too high for use on many facial region, and on recurrent skin cancer. As a surgical ulcer is created and is larger than the original tumor, healing time may be delayed and subsequent scarring obvious.", "method. Very rarely, burns may result in scarring but this usually only occurs when patients don't care for the treated area properly. Occasionally, \"paradoxical darkening\" of a tattoo may occur, when a treated tattoo becomes darker instead of lighter. This occurs most often with white ink, flesh tones, pink, and cosmetic make-up tattoos.\nSome tattoo pigments contain metals that could theoretically break down into toxic chemicals in the body when exposed to light. This has not yet been reported in vivo but has been shown in laboratory tests. Laser removal of traumatic tattoos may similarly be complicated depending on", "it particularly difficult to remove tattoos. When treatments break down ink particles into smaller pieces, macrophages can more easily remove them.\nTattoo pigments have specific light absorption spectra. A tattoo laser must be capable of emitting adequate energy within the given absorption spectrum of the pigment to provide an effective treatment. Certain tattoo pigments, such as yellows and fluorescent inks are more challenging to treat than darker blacks and blues, because they have absorption spectra that fall outside or on the edge of the emission spectra available in the tattoo removal laser. Recent pastel coloured inks contain high concentrations of titanium", "made along a natural skin fold or wrinkle line, the scar will be hardly visible. Larger defects may require repair with a skin graft, local skin flap, pedicled skin flap, or a microvascular free flap. Skin grafts and local skin flaps are by far more common than the other listed choices.\nSkin grafting is patching of a defect with skin that is removed from another site in the body. The skin graft is sutured to the edges of the defect, and a bolster dressing is placed atop the graft for seven to ten days, to immobilize the graft as it heals", "in which the graft \"drinks plasma\". New blood vessels begin growing from the recipient area into the transplanted skin within 36 hours in a process called capillary inosculation. To prevent the accumulation of fluid under the graft which can prevent its attachment and revascularization, the graft is frequently meshed by making lengthwise rows of short, interrupted cuts, each a few millimeters long, with each row offset by half a cut length like bricks in a wall. In addition to allowing for drainage, this allows the graft to both stretch and cover a larger area as well as to more", "not a gold standard treatment method to remove tattoos. Factors contributing to the success of laser tattoo removal There are a number of factors that determine how many treatments will be needed and the level of success one might experience. Age of tattoo, ink density, color and even where the tattoo is located on the body, all play an important role in how many treatments will be needed for complete removal. However, a rarely recognized factor of tattoo removal is the role of the client’s immune response. The normal process of tattoo removal is fragmentation followed by phagocytosis which is", "Health effects of tattoos Infection Since tattoo instruments come in contact with blood and bodily fluids, diseases may be transmitted if the instruments are used on more than one person without being sterilised. However, infection from tattooing in clean and modern tattoo studios employing single-use needles is rare. With amateur tattoos, such as those applied in prisons, however, there is an elevated risk of infection. To address this problem, a programme was introduced in Canada as of the summer of 2005 that provides legal tattooing in prisons, both to reduce health risks and to provide inmates with a marketable skill.", "form of tattooing are misapplication of the pigment, pigment migration, colour change, and in some cases, unintended hyperpigmentation. Serious complications are uncommon. As with all forms of tattooing, risks associated with microblading include the transmission of blood-borne pathogenic organisms (e.g., HIV, hepatitis C), as well as short-term or long-terms reactions to pigment ingredients. Therefore, it is essential to check that the technician holds appropriate licenses and registrations for the provision of tattoo services, as well as inquire about the technician's standard of training.\nProcedures performed by technicians who have completed a comprehensive course of instruction can minimize the risk of unwanted", "a common problem that may occur when using autologous grafts. When tissue is obtained from somewhere other than the oral cavity (such as the intestine or skin) there is a risk of the graft not being able to lose its original donor tissue characteristics. For example, skin grafts are often taken from the radial forearm or lateral upper arm when covering more extensive defects. A positive aspect of using skin grafts is the large availability of skin. However, skin grafts differ from oral mucosa in: consistency, color and keratinization pattern. The transplanted skin graft often continues to grow hair in", "for as long as it would have in its original one, these parameters continue to serve as the fundamental foundation for hair follicle harvesting, whether by strip method or FUE.\nFor the next twenty years, surgeons worked on transplanting smaller grafts, but results were only minimally successful, with 2–4 mm \"plugs\" leading to a doll's head-like appearance. In the 1980s, strip excisions began to replace the plug technique, and Carlos Uebel in Brazil popularized using large numbers of small grafts, while in the United States William Rassman began using thousands of “micrografts” in a single session.\nIn the late 1980s, B.L. Limmer introduced", "skin to block the proliferation of damaged cells while concurrently, by triggering the secretion of the cited cytokines, stimulating the proliferation of undamaged skin cells; these actions may thereby serve to rejuvenate skin damaged for example by UV light.", "by blocking DNA synthesis. Cells that are rapidly growing need more DNA, so they accumulate more 5-fluorouracil, resulting in their death. Normal skin is much less affected. The treatment usually takes 2–4 weeks depending on the response. The typical response includes an inflammatory phase, followed by redness, burning, oozing, and finally erosion. Treatment is stopped when ulceration and crusting appear. There is minimal scarring. Complete clearance has been reported in about 50% of patients.\nImiquimod (Aldara) is an immune response modifier that has been studied for the treatment of actinic cheilitis. It promotes an", "below the dermis of the cutis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (subcutaneous tissue contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body. Aging As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself as a person ages.\nAmong other things, skin aging is noted by a decrease in", "to have no effect on stain longevity, as even with stronger solutions silver nitrate doesn't have a photosensitive reaction on live skin cells. This means that the stain will wear off as new skin grows. Silver nitrate is an irritant and frequently harmful at 25% solution and above, even being used as an effective, if painful, cauterizing agent in the treatment of rhinitis at that concentration. At 25% the silver nitrate content will also start to precipitate depending on conditions, forming fine crystals which can also be irritating on skin and reducing the active dissolved silver nitrate back to as" ]

[ "[WikiLeaks Press](_URL_3_) is an endorsed WikiLeaks support project, and we host several mirrors: [_URL_7_](_URL_1_), [_URL_2_](http://_URL_2_), [_URL_9_](_URL_4_).\n\nWhile [cabledrum](_URL_5_) project is down (US State Department cables search engine), you can also use [_URL_0_](http://_URL_0_).\n\nWe've also got the most up-to-date TrapWire docs up. You can follow us on [twitter](_URL_10_) for announcements of most recent mirror updates.", "A lot of money and time have gone into the wikileaks website. Also, it's how most people know how to find the information, how would they spread the news of a new site without use of their currently crippled sites?", "They have done this. You can see a load of mirrors [here](_URL_11_). It looks like they're all being hit by the DoS attack." ]

[ "the participating countries that have an access blocking system in place evaluate the content of websites found in investigations, exchanged with other law enforcement agencies or received as tips from hotlines against the national legislation. If found to be illegal to download, possess or distribute in said country, add the domain or URL to their list of blocked addresses. The ISPs will then, either by agreement with the police or obligated by law, redirect the traffic to another server and display a STOP page. This STOP page will explain the reason for the redirection of traffic, give links to legislation", "UK ISPs by Richemont, Cartier International and Montblanc to block several domains. ISP Default network blocking Internet customers in the UK are prohibited from accessing a range of web sites by default, because they have their Internet access filtered by their ISPs. The filtering program has applied to new ISP customers since the end of 2013, and has been extended to existing users on a rolling basis. A voluntary code of practice agreed by all four major ISPs\nmeans that customers have to 'opt out' of the ISP filtering to gain access to the blocked content. However, the complex nature of", "for purposes other than determining if Iraq possessed WMDs. Former inspector Scott Ritter was a prominent source of these charges. Former UNSCOM chief inspector David Kay said \"the longer it continued, the more the intelligence agencies would, often for very legitimate reasons, decide that they had to use the access they got through cooperation with UNSCOM to carry out their missions\".\nRenewed pressure in 2002 led to the entry of UNMOVIC, which eventually received some degree of cooperation; before it could complete its work, the United States required it to leave Iraq to avoid its impending 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "is infected with malware and Internet Explorer has entered \"Emergency Mode\". It blocks access to legitimate sites such as Google if the user tries to access them.", "the Internet Explorer vulnerability,\" said George Kurtz, CTO of McAfee, of the attack. \"The now public computer code may help cyber criminals craft attacks that use the vulnerability to compromise Windows systems.\"\nSecurity company Websense said it identified \"limited public use\" of the unpatched IE vulnerability in drive-by attacks against users who strayed onto malicious Web sites. According to Websense, the attack code it spotted is the same as the exploit that went public last week. \"Internet Explorer users currently face a real and present danger due to the public disclosure of the vulnerability and release of attack code, increasing the", "are the custodians of the CTIRU list - a continuously updated proscribed list of websites that is considered under the act to be illegal to access or attempt to access. The CTIRU list details URLs that, for one reason or another, cannot or will not be removed from ISP's or search engines. The list is one of the strategies employed by the Government as part of its drive to implement the \"Prevent\" legislation. As of September 2016, all Schools, childcare facilities or organisations that provide care or facilities for children under the age of 18 in the UK, have a", "groups sites based on certain conditions, including whether it is an Internet- or intranet-based site as well as a user-editable whitelist. Security restrictions are applied per zone; all the sites in a zone are subject to the restrictions.\nInternet Explorer 6 SP2 onwards uses the Attachment Execution Service of Microsoft Windows to mark executable files downloaded from the Internet as being potentially unsafe. Accessing files marked as such will prompt the user to make an explicit trust decision to execute the file, as executables originating from the Internet can be potentially unsafe. This helps in preventing accidental installation of malware.\nInternet Explorer", "would no longer use only the DNS servers assigned by the VPN service. Instead the DNS request would be sent through all available interfaces, thus the DNS traffic would travel out of the VPN tunnel and expose the user's default DNS servers. List of websites offering DNS leak tests Because some websites may report false positive test results, it is advisable to always check each result manually, making sure to note the country, provider, and ip are not of the home isp but something different or foreign. Conclusion It may not always be so easy to know whether the one", "Google's chairman, Eric Schmidt, is quoted saying \"I would be very, very careful if I were a government about arbitrarily [implementing] simple solutions to complex problems\" in reference to DNS blocking and the PIPA bill. Experts claim that users could get around DNS blocking by using foreign search engines and foreign DNS servers. In fact, within two months of the legislation being introduced there were browser plug-ins released that enable users to resolve blocked domains.\nNumerous industry experts have concerns regarding the effect of DNS blocking on the security of the Internet. A former Bush administration Department of Homeland Security policy", "not the attackers intentionally shut them down. However, the attacks were still occurring as of February 2010. Response and aftermath The German, Australian, and French governments publicly issued warnings to users of Internet Explorer after the attack, advising them to use alternative browsers at least until a fix for the security hole was made. The German, Australian, and French governments considered all versions of Internet Explorer vulnerable or potentially vulnerable.\nIn an advisory on January 14, 2010, Microsoft said that attackers targeting Google and other U.S. companies used software that exploits a hole in Internet Explorer. The vulnerability affects Internet Explorer", "strategy away from the attacks to Scientology websites: \"Anonymous even decided that they were going to stop that attack, that it was a bad idea. It's the usual thing they used to do when they really hadn't had a thought out plan, and here they're realizing they actually have to figure out some real plan against a real enemy.\"\nUniversity of Alberta professor Stephen A. Kent weighed in on the issue, and said \"I think these disruptions probably are illegal. At the very least, they’re forms of harassment ... We now have three parties involved. Anonymous, Scientology and law enforcement.\" Kent", "the receiving end, there are multiple points that hackers or law enforcement can gain access to them. While it may be difficult for law enforcement to legally gain access to one's personal computer and local copies of saved in one's personal computer, they may be able to get them easily from the ISP.\nISPs are also increasingly creating End User Service Agreements that users must agree to abide by. These agreements reduce any expectation of privacy, and often include terms that grant the ISP the right to monitor the network traffic or turn over records at the request of a government", "victim is asked to download and install AnyDesk and provide the attackers with access. When access is obtained, the attackers can control the computer and move personal files and sensitive data.\nIn 2017, the UK based ISP TalkTalk banned AnyDesk and similar software from all its networks to protect its users from scammers, cold calling victims and talking them into giving access to their computer. The software was removed from the blacklist after setting up a scam warning.", "public interest in the information being available. Google indeed acknowledged that some of its search result removals, affecting articles that were of public interest, were incorrect, and reinstated the links a week later. Commentators like Charles Arthur, technology editor of The Guardian, and Andrew Orlowski of The Register noted that Google is not required to comply with removal requests at all, as it can refer requests to the information commissioner in the relevant country for a decision weighing the respective merits of public interest and individual rights.\nGoogle notifies websites that have URLs delinked, and various news organizations, such as BBC,", "pieces of \"illegal terrorist material\" from the internet. Scope The December 2013 report of the Prime Minister's Extremism Taskforce said that it would \"work with internet companies to restrict access to terrorist material online which is hosted overseas but illegal under UK law\" and \"work with the internet industry to help them in their continuing efforts to identify extremist content to include in family-friendly filters\" which would likely involve lobbying ISPs to add the CTIRU list to their filters without the need for additional legislation.\nCTIRU hold responsibility for the implementation of aspects of the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015, and", "been hacked. LulzSec said that by releasing lists of hacked usernames or informing the public of vulnerable websites, it gave users the opportunity to change names and passwords elsewhere that might otherwise have been exploited, and businesses would be alarmed and would upgrade their security.\nThe group's latest attacks have had a more political tone. They claimed to want to expose the \"racist and corrupt nature\" of the military and law enforcement. They have also expressed opposition to the War on Drugs. Lulzsec's Operation Anti-Security was characterized as a protest against government censorship and monitoring of the internet. In a question", "Packetstorm, www.hack.co.za, and vuln-dev have done much more to harm the underground and net than they have done to help them.\nWhat casual browsers of these sites and mailing lists fail to realize is that some of the more prominent groups do not publish their findings immediately, but only as a last resort in the case that their code is leaked or has become obsolete. This is why production dates in header files often precede release dates by a matter of months or even years.\nAnother false conclusion by the same manner is that if these groups haven't released anything in a", "U.S. or UK government offices were infiltrated, although a NATO computer was monitored for half a day and the computers of the Indian embassy in Washington, D.C., were infiltrated.\nSince its discovery, GhostNet has attacked other government networks, for example Canadian official financial departments in early 2011, forcing them off-line. Governments commonly do not admit such attacks, which must be verified by official but anonymous sources. Technical functionality Emails are sent to target organizations that contain contextually relevant information. These emails contain malicious attachments, that when opened, drop a Trojan horse on to the system. This Trojan connects back to a", "2014, Google announced that Orkut would be shutting down completely on September 30, 2014. Users could export their photo albums before the final shutdown date. Orkut profiles, scraps, testimonials, and community posts could be exported until September 2016. Google engineering director Paulo Golgher said in a blog post: \"Over the past decade, Facebook, YouTube, Blogger and Google+ have taken off, with communities springing up in every corner of the world. Because the growth of these communities has outpaced Orkut's growth, we've decided to bid Orkut farewell.\" Orkut was the result of a 20 percent project in which Google workers got", "American States the UN Special Rapporteur has called on states and other actors to keep international legal principles in mind. Australia On 16 March 2009, the Australian Communications and Media Authority added WikiLeaks to their proposed list of sites that will be blocked for all Australians if the mandatory internet filtering scheme is implemented as planned. The blacklisting had been removed by 29 November 2010.\nOn 2 December 2010, Prime Minister Julia Gillard made a statement that she 'absolutely condemns' WikiLeaks' actions and that the release of information on the site was 'grossly irresponsible' and 'illegal.' WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange is", "content more locally so if there was any objectionable material that violated a particular country's laws they could remove and block access to that blog for that country through the assigned ccTLD while retaining access through other ccTLD addresses and the default Blogspot.com URL. If a blog using a country-specific URL was removed it is still technically possible to access the blog through Google's No Country Redirect override by entering the URL using the regular Blogspot.com address and adding /ncr after .com. In May 2018, Blogger stopped redirecting to ccTLDs and country-specific URLs would now redirect to the default Blogspot.com", "in May 2016. Both groups of intruders were successfully expelled from the DNC systems within hours after detection. These attacks are considered to be part of a group of recent attacks targeting U.S. government departments and several political organizations, including 2016 campaign organizations.\nOn July 22, 2016, a person or entity going by the moniker \"Guccifer 2.0\" claimed on a WordPress-hosted blog to have been acting alone in hacking the DNC. He also claimed to send significant amounts of stolen electronic DNC documents to WikiLeaks. WikiLeaks has not revealed the source for their leaked emails. However, cybersecurity experts and firms, including", "making it so that ISPs can't drop spam or stop...attacks\".\nSome pieces of legislation, like The Internet Freedom Preservation Act of 2009, attempt to mitigate these concerns by excluding reasonable network management from regulation.", "the real site. The difference with Covert Redirection is that an attacker could use the real website instead by corrupting the site with a malicious login pop-up dialogue box.\nLastly, SQL injection exploits a vulnerability in the database layer of an application. When user input is incorrectly filtered, any SQL statements can be executed by the application.\nThe specific XSSs that affect a given version of a web browser tend to be unique. Consequently, it is possible to use XSS to fingerprint the browser vendor and version of a user.", "over an ISP without a court order.\nA court order is not necessarily the solution either. Even if an ISP is forced by court order, the attack may have already taken place and the prophylactic methods too late in implementing. There are thousands of ISPs and since they do not have to register, there is no known way of contacting them in time and forcing the ISP to comply.\nThe regulations that the United States uses to regulate the information and data industry may have inadvertently made a true \"Internet kill switch\" impossible. The lack of regulation allowed for building of a", "where, due to the rapid spread of information on the Internet, it only takes one individual's defeat of a DRM scheme to render the method obsolete.", "removed.\nThe idea of removing Internet Explorer was proposed during the United States v. Microsoft Corp. case. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial, however, was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability. Definition It is unclear what it means to \"remove IE\" because such a removal depends on being able to determine which files or functions on an installed Windows system are part of IE — that is, to draw a line between IE and the rest of Windows. Microsoft has held that this is not meaningful; that in Windows 98 and newer versions, \"Internet Explorer\"", "content is hosted in the UK. The UK is the only country in the world with such a unit.Home Office proposals in 2006 requiring ISPs to block access to articles \"glorifying terrorism\" were rejected and the government opted for a takedown approach at that time. However, in December 2013 the Prime Minister's extremism task force proposed that where such material is hosted overseas, ISPs should block the websites, and David Cameron gave orders that the CTIRU list be extended to UK ISPs. The UK government has defined extremism as: \"Vocal or active opposition to fundamental British values, including democracy, the", "list of banned URLs, then the connection is blocked by the WhiteBox server. The user instead sees a filter notice page and has the option of getting counselling or anonymously appealing the ban.\nIf the website is not on the list of banned URLs, then the DIA transparently passes on the data to the actual website and the user is left unaware that the request was checked. ISPs using the system Some of the largest ISPs in New Zealand, including Spark New Zealand, Vodafone, 2degrees, Compass, Kordia, Maxnet, Now, and Xtreme Networks are using the DCEFS, which as of 2017 make", "there are reports that the government blocks access to Web sites within the country that are critical of the government.\nIn 2012 and 2013, some independent online news outlets and opposition blogs were intermittently inaccessible. It is uncertain whether the disruptions are due to government blocking, as was the case in past years, or to technical issues. Some opposition sites continue to be blocked on some ISPs in early 2013, including Umusingi and Inyenyeri News, which were first blocked in 2011. Social-networking sites such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and international blog hosting services are freely available.\nThe websites of international human rights" ]

[ "IMO- Heat dissipation accounts for the volume of the enclosure, and stackable components including record players would account for the area.\nWhile I am not an expert on the subject I have owned quite a few receivers ranging from an old 70s Marantz and an old Sansui, to newer Pioneer and Kenwood receivers and they all have been about the same size. All of them have quite a lot of empty space in them and vents everywhere as they all have a lot of heat to dump. \nOn a side note the widespread problems with the X-box 360 overheating were due to downsizing the enclosure space to make the box more visually appealing with the side effect of much reduced heat dissipation." ]

[ "have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.\nLiquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung, and Apple's \"3D Touch\" system. Sound In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain", "and sound equipment. Some of the more notable companies that made Super 8 equipment include: Canon, Bauer, Nizo, Super8 Sound (Pro8mm), Beaulieu, Leicina, Logmar, Ciro, Bolex, Goko, Hahnel, Wurker, Minolta, Minnette, Nikon. Most of these companies had long histories in the production of motion picture equipment, dating back to the 1930s with 8mm. In 1980, the consumer market for Super 8 collapsed. Most of the independent companies were forced into bankruptcy or merged, as the demand for Super 8 evaporated overnight. Some companies remained in business until 1985 when many gave up completely on movie film equipment. A few later", "consumer. This is most likely because the larger, bulkier Digital8 cassette is perceived as an inferior technology, even though the Digital8 and DV formats offer indistinguishable A/V performance. In fact, the larger 8mm format is more robust, laying down wider tracks. Most, though not all, Digital8 camcorders can play back analogue Video8 and Hi8 tapes. As well as camcorders, Sony also released Digital8 Video Walkman portables, the GV-D200 and GV-D800. Camera model variations In the early years after Digital8's introduction, Sony sold a product line with coverage from entry level to high-end consumer. The more consumer", "widely imitated, and others (Sampey, ACL, DeeBee) tried their hand at developing what was then known as analog proportional. But these early analog proportional radios were very expensive, putting them out of the reach for most modelers. Eventually, single-channel gave way to multi channel devices (at significantly higher cost) with various audio tones driving electromagnets affecting tuned resonant reeds for channel selection.\nCrystal oscillator superheterodyne receivers with better selectivity and stability made control equipment more capable and at lower cost. The constantly diminishing equipment weight was crucial to ever increasing modelling applications. Superheterodyne circuits became more common, enabling several transmitters to", "2 feet), and for low frequencies (under 300 Hz) very large, a few metres (dozens of feet). In the 1950s, a few high fidelity enthusiasts actually built full sized horns whose structures were built into a house wall or basement. With the coming of stereo (two speakers) and surround sound (four or more), plain horns became even more impractical. Various speaker manufacturers have produced folded low-frequency horns which are much smaller (e.g., Altec Lansing, JBL, Klipsch, Lowther, Tannoy) and actually fit in practical rooms. These are necessarily compromises, and because they are physically complex, they are expensive. Multiple entry horn The", "been rather looked down upon by the hi-fi enthusiast. In the early days the sound quality was far below what was possible using separate components. The main compromise is in the area of the loudspeakers, where small size is favoured over the ability to reproduce an extended low frequency response. Modern equipment has improved in this respect, and such systems are popular. There are still some compromises in terms of what components are used within the integrated unit, compared to what could be fitted in a set of separates, but the differences are smaller than they used to be. There", "surplus receivers, which may be a reason many working examples of this model are still found today.\nIn 1947 the SP-600 Super-Pro receiver, which surpassed the SP-200 in performance, was introduced, covering the frequency range of 540 kHz to 54 MHz with a 0-100 calibrated mechanical band spread. The SP-600 series were widely used throughout the world for military, laboratory and commercial application. Communications gear While Hammarlund was most famous for its amateur/short-wave receiver lines such as the Super Pro series and the HQ series (which includes the HQ-100, 110, 120, 129, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 200 and 215) ", "1950s, but at a far lower cost.\nDolby Stereo, as this 4-channel system was now branded, was first used in 1976's A Star is Born. From spring 1979 onward, a new custom matrix replaced the Sansui QS matrix. It was first used in that year's Hair and Hurricane.\nAt first Dolby Stereo equipment was installed mainly in larger theaters already equipped with amplifiers and speakers for CinemaScope 4-track stereo. But the success of 1977's Star Wars, which used the 4-channel system to great effect, encouraged owners of smaller theaters to install stereo equipment for the first time.\nA key feature of this system", "components of transistor radios that became smaller over time were used to make anything from \"Jimmy Carter Peanut-shaped\" radios to \"Gun-shaped\" radios to \"Mork from Ork Eggship-shaped\" radios. Corporations used transistor radios to advertise their business. \"Charlie the Tuna-shaped\" radios could be purchased from Star-Kist for an insignificant amount of money giving their company visibility amongst the public. These novelty radios are now bought and sold as collectors' items amongst modern day collectors. Rise of portable audio players Since 1980, the popularity of portable radios has declined with the rise of portable audio players and smartphones, which allow users to", "of the market.\nVarious formats of subminiature camera have come and gone over the years as newer formats have replaced older one. In addition, many larger format cameras, especially 35 mm, become smaller in size and weight—partly due to the consumer demand for subminiature cameras—and were able to replace some subminiature formats. For example, full-frame 35 mm cameras, such as the Minox 35 and the Olympus XA, were made as small as earlier half-frame subminiature cameras such as the Olympus Pen, using moderate wide-angle fixed lenses to minimise lens barrel depth. Some subminiature formats, such as the Minox and 110", "generate strong sound with good bass response. Soundbar usage has increased steadily as the world has moved to flat-screen displays. Earlier television sets and display units were primarily CRT-based and hence the box was bigger, facilitating larger speakers with good response. But with flat-screen televisions the depth of the screen is reduced dramatically, leaving little room for speakers. As a result, the built-in speakers lack bass response. Soundbars help to bridge this gap. Manufacturers such as Bose, Pioneer, Polk, and Yamaha are leaders in the high-performance soundbar segment.\nSoundbars also eliminate the issue of inherent audio loss, when sound emitted from", "receivers were unavailable due to the early chipsets either being too large for a portable enclosure or needing too much power to be practical for a battery-operated device. However, in January 2008 at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in Las Vegas iBiquity unveiled a prototype of a new portable receiver, roughly the size of a cigarette pack. Two companies are currently making low-power chipsets for HD Radio receivers: Samsung, and Santa Clara startup SiPort, acquired by Intel in 2011.\nThe portable Coby HDR-700 unit receives AM HD and FM HD stations. Griffin Technology produced an HD Radio tuner designed to be", "complete package concept would end and digital receivers would return but with lower power ratings, and matching cassette recorders were far smaller than the previous models, offering less complexities when compared to the build and of earlier models. Eventually the Optonica brand was eliminated but would emerge once again in the late 1980s as a line of high-end stereo television receivers, VCR, CD, portable cassette and CD radios, voice-activated remote controls, and surround sound receivers for television and audio listening. These products were available until the early 1990s, and that marked the end of the Optonica high-end line", "high end, complete stereo systems with advanced technological features setting the trend towards the digital age. The line was discontinued after 1981, but the Optonica line was again re-introduced in the late 1980s for a high end line of television receivers and higher quality mass market audio products such as VCR's, surround sound receivers, CD cassette boom boxes, and portable cassette players. 2000-2012 Sharp's Mobile Communications Division created the world's first commercial camera phone, the J-SH04, in Japan in 2000.\nSince 2000, Sharp heavily invested in LCD panel manufacturing plants: Kameyama in 2004, Sakai in 2009. The Sakai plant is", "the speaker are tied together permanently) and cost. In the US, L W Erath, an oil industry engineer, introduced a line of high end speakers along very much the same lines.\nAs electronics costs have decreased, it has become common to have sensor-equipped woofers in inexpensive 'music systems', boom boxes, or even car audio systems. This is usually done in an attempt to get better performance from inexpensive or undersized drivers in lightweight or poorly designed enclosures. This approach presents difficulties as not all distortion can be eliminated using servo techniques, and a poorly designed enclosure can swamp the benefits from", "huge cost of unsold merchandise eventually made his Stereo-Pak business unprofitable. Home video In late 1970, Muntz closed his Stereo-Pak audio business after a fire severely damaged his main offices. He then entered the growing home-video market. During the mid-1970s, Muntz thought of taking a 15-inch (38 cm) Sony color cathode ray tube (CRT) television receiver, fitting it with a special lens and reflecting mirror, then projecting the magnified image onto a larger screen. He housed these primitive units in a large wooden console, making it one of the first successful widescreen projection TV receivers marketed for home use.\nThe receivers were", "high and has only a single rotor with a full-range 12-inch speaker.\nThe Pro-Line series was durable and fault-tolerant, with many models lasting for years. However, because they used solid-state amplifiers, they are not as highly regarded as the older tube-based Leslies, because they lack the characteristic sound when the amp is overdriven.\nThe smallest Leslie is the Model 16, made in 1970. It has a Fender-like speaker body and a rotating foam dispersion block. It was built for guitarists, portable, and had \"Leslie\" written on the front. It contained just a single 10-inch speaker, and was designed to be powered by", "and another one with both of them. Presence of both configurations would lead to less significant economies of scale for each type of the equipment and to distortions in the economic valuation of different parts of the spectrum in the 700 MHz band. Although the dynamics of the market such as the ever-increasing complexity of chipsets, multi-band support by chip manufacturers demonstrate that the most likely outcome is the inclusion of both duplexers in all devices.\nAdditionally, whereas channel bandwidths up to 15 MHz can be supported anywhere within the band, channel bandwidths of 20 MHz are limited to the upper and lower parts", "substantially larger due to the need for larger antennas and battery packs). In addition, as costs come down, it is possible to add advanced squelch capabilities such as CTCSS (analog squelch) and DCS (digital squelch) (often marketed as \"privacy codes\") to inexpensive radios, as well as voice scrambling and trunking capabilities. Some units (especially amateur HTs) also include DTMF keypads for remote operation of various devices such as repeaters. Some models include VOX capability for hands-free operation, as well as the ability to attach external microphones and speakers.\nConsumer and commercial equipment differ in a number of ways; commercial gear is", "receivers have a performance advantage over superregenerative; they offer increased accuracy and stability over a large voltage and temperature range. This stability comes from a fixed crystal design which in the past tended to mean a comparatively more expensive product. However, advances in receiver chip design now mean that currently there is little price difference between superheterodyne and superregenerative receiver modules. Transceiver modules An RF transceiver module incorporates both a transmitter and receiver. The circuit is typically designed for half-duplex operation, although full-duplex modules are available, typically at a higher cost due to the added complexity. System on a chip", "hard to keep under control due to the nature of radio waves operating at higher frequencies. Armstrong's superheterodyne receiver converted these high frequencies into one lower frequency. This allow the radio to be more stable or easier to tune, with less interference. \nThe result was the RCA Radiola AR-812 and Radiola VIII Superheterodynes in 1924, the world's first consumer superheterodyne receivers. In 1924, these cost $224 and $475 respectively. Up to 1930, RCA controlled the superheterodyne patent, and any radio manufacturer that wanted to build one had to pay royalties to RCA. In 1928 RCA launched their", "the late 1970s almost completely killed the consumer market for 8 mm film cameras and projectors, as VCRs connected to ordinary televisions provided a simpler and more flexible substitute. 1980s The development of multi-channel audio systems and LaserDisc in the 1980s added new dimensions for home cinema. The first-known home cinema system was designed, built and installed by Steve J. LaFontaine as a sales tool at Kirshmans furniture store in Metairie, Louisiana in 1974. He built a special sound room which incorporated the earliest quadraphonic audio systems, and he modified Sony Trinitron televisions for projecting the image. Many systems were sold", "stand-alone digital cameras, and in 2006 they outsold film and digital stand-alone cameras. Five billion camera phones were sold in five years, and by 2007 more than half of the installed base of all mobile phones were camera phones. Sales of separate cameras peaked in 2008.\nMany early smartphones didn't have cameras at all, and earlier models that had them had low performance and insufficient image and video quality that could not compete with budget pocket cameras and fullfill user's needs. By the beginning of the 2010s almost all smartphones had an integrated digital camera. The decline in sales of stand-alone", "by this time the market for rear-projection TVs was declining.\nGiven their already large dimensions, projection TVs sometimes included larger speakers and more powerful built-in audio vs direct view CRTs and especially depth-limited flat panels, as well as basic surround sound processing or emulators such as Sound Retrieval System (SRS) by SRS Labs, similar to a sound bar. History While popular in the early 2000s as an alternative to more expensive LCD and plasma flat panels, the falling price and improvements to LCDs led to Sony, Philips, Toshiba and Hitachi dropping rear-projection TVs from their lineup. Samsung, Mitsubishi, ProScan, RCA, Panasonic", "radio such as internet radio, satellite radio, USB and Bluetooth, and in-dash slots for memory card. By this time some models were offering 5.1 surround sound. And the automobile head unit became increasingly important as a housing for front and backup dashcams, navis, and operating systems with multiple functions, such as Android Auto, CarPlay and MirrorLink. Latest models are coming equipped with features like Bluetooth technology along with HDMI port for better connectivity. Screen size varies from 5-inch to 7-inch for the double Din car stereos. Active noise control and noise synthesis The automobile sound system may be part", "Marantz 2600 The Model 2600 was the most powerful stereo receiver ever made by Marantz, and one of the most powerful receivers of the \"monster receiver\" era of the 1970s, among the Technics SA-1000, rated at 330 watts per channel, tied with the Sansui G-33000, and the Pioneer SX-1980 rated at 270 watts per channel,. The 2600 was rated at 300 watts RMS per channel x2 channels at 8 ohms and 400 W.P.C. at 4 ohms. This model was produced from 1978 to 1980 and is considered especially rare. Physical The Model 2600 is 49 cm wide 18 cm high and 43 cm", "expansive four-inch speaker and four additional transistors (the TR-1 used only four). As a result, the sound quality was much better than the TR-1. An additional benefit of the 8-TP-1 was its efficient battery consumption. In July 1955, the first positive review of a transistor radio appeared in the Consumer Reports that said, \"The transistors in this set have not been used in an effort to build the smallest radio on the market, and good performance has not been sacrificed.\" Following the success of the 8-TP-1, Zenith, RCA, DeWald, and Crosley began flooding the market with additional transistor radio models.", "better. Widescreen Super8 and Max8 As Super 8 progressed to be used in HD and theatrical applications, a need arose for widescreen compatibility without having to use expensive optical adapters or excessive cropping. Since magnetic sound-striped film was no longer available, that area of the film could be used to expand the picture aspect ratio in a process similar to the creation of Super 16 from standard 16mm film. The creators of Sleep Always experimented with widening the camera gate to expose into the sound track region to achieve this.\nIn March 2005, Pro8mm introduced its own version of the widened", "a value high enough for the valves. Later radios used special valves that were designed to operate directly from a 12 volt supply. These later radios were hybrid designs which used transistors only for the audio output stages because a 12 volt power amplifier valve was not practical. For this and other applications, transistors are smaller, cheaper, more durable, use less power, run cooler, and do not need to warm up.\nSome enthusiasts prefer \"tube amps\", so a small number of valve car stereos are still made. Manufacturers include Milbert Amplifiers, Blade, Manley, and Sear Sound. Some are hybrid designs with", "chrome aesthetic of many 1980s models was frequently replaced with black plastic in the 1990s, and modern designs are typically characterized by a rounded, curved appearance instead of sharp angles. However, the designs of the older models are a source of much interest among boombox enthusiasts and collectors, who frequently seek the larger feature-packed models that represented the cutting edge of portable music technology in their day. Today most boomboxes have replaced the cassette player with iPod docks to access MP3 technology, and some even come equipped with integrated or removable satellite radio tuners.\nBoombox designs vary greatly in size. Larger," ]

[ "Almost everybody in Russia lives in the far West in Eastern Europe, and they look slavic like all the other slavs in the area.\n\nPlenty of people within the border of Russia do look pretty Asian is you're out on the Asian-bordering parts of Russia.", "Simple. Russians (who are for the most part ethnic europeans) conquered and colonised a large part of Asia. \n\nMany of the natives of Siberia are more \"Asian looking\" than an ethnic Russian.\n\nSo it's essentially the same reason the Americas are full of European looking people.", "It's called \"colonization\". Czarist Russia expanded into Asia and took it over, much like the U.S. did when it expanded westward." ]

[ "the comments about Asians and Asian-ness is not necessarily one of discrimination with ill intentions, but simply one of inexperience, unfamiliarity, and naiveté with respect to the topic. \nFor example, one of the prevalent misconceptions seem to be the automatic linkage of one's physical appearance—their race according to their physical characteristics—with one's national identity. If someone has the typical physical characteristics of an East Asian and looks to be of Asian heritage, it is a common occurrence for the people to assume that he/she is directly from Asia. Even if someone is from the United States but is of Asian", "South Asian Canadians Terminology The term 'Asian' in Canadian English generally refers to people from East and Southeast Asia. This differs from the British English definition of Asian, which includes South Asia but excludes East and Southeast Asians terming them as Oriental or East Asian instead. Thus, the term South Asian has come into common usage referring to Asians hailing from the Indian subcontinent. This includes countries such as India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and the Maldives. It does not include nations such as Afghanistan or Myanmar, which have been considered South Asian in some other connotations of", "Asian and Southeast Asian descent due to the large Indian, Pakistani and Filipino expatriate population in these countries. However, there are instances where the term is used solely to refer to those of South Asian descent. Australia The Australian Census includes Central Asia. The Australian Census includes four regions of Asia in its official definition. Defined by the 2006–2011 Australian Census, three broad groups have the word Asian included in their name: Central and Southern Asian, South-East Asian and North-East Asian. Russians are classified as Southern and Eastern Europeans while Middle Easterners are classified as North African and Middle", "that the term \"Asian\" is an imprecise term. Ancheta questioned if the term \"Asian\" describes a category which is geographical or a category which is biological/appearance-based. Ancheta questioned where does Asia start and end, if the term \"Asian\" is geographical. Ancheta said that there is a continuum along which physical appearance operates, but there exist differences which are noticeable among groups. Ancheta said that an immigrant from Japan may not look like an immigrant from India.\nMasniari Novita (2006), of the Biomedical Department of Jember University, said \"Asiatics\" are part of the \"Mongoloid\" race while \"Asians from the Indian Subcontinent\" are", "'Asian' pan-continentally and considers people of Asian background to be people from all Asian countries. Sweden Statistics Sweden uses the term 'Asian' to refer to immigrants of Asian background from all Asian countries, including the Middle East. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the term \"Asian\" is more commonly associated with people of South Asian origin, particularly Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Sri Lankans. The UK usage of the term \"Asian\" is reflected in the \"ethnic group\" section of UK census forms, which treat \"Asian\" and \"Chinese\" as separate (see British Asian). Most respondents to the UK 2001 Census", "part of the \"Caucasian\" race.\nA writing style guide published in 2011 by two professors at universities in the United States of America recommends using the term \"Asian\" to refer to people living in Asian countries such as \"China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, etc.\" unless a given situation makes using a more specific nationality term more appropriate than using the broader term \"Asian\". Mongoloid meaning Willett Enos Rotzell (1900), professor of Botany and Zoology at the Hahnemann Medical College, used the term \"Asian\" for a race, which he alternatively called the \"Yellow or Mongolian race\".\nMehmet Yaşar İşcan (1988), of the Department of", "Asian American Studies departments in many universities consider all those of East, South or Southeast Asian descent to be \"Asian\". Census definition In the US Census, people with origins or ancestry in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent are classified as part of the Asian race; while those with origins or ancestry in North Asia (Russians, Siberians), Central Asia (Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Tajiks, Kyrgyz, etc.), Western Asia (diaspora Jews, Turks, Persians, Kurds, Assyrians, Asian Arabs, etc.), and the Caucasus (Georgians, Armenians, Azeris, etc.) are classified as \"white\" or \"Middle Eastern\". As such, \"Asian\" and \"African\" ancestry are", "British Asian Terminology In Britain, the word \"Asian\" usually refers specifically to people of South Asian ancestry (Pakistanis, Indians, Bangladeshis and Sri Lankans). This usage contrasts to that in the United States, where it is used to refer to people of East Asian origin. The British Sociological Association's guidelines on equality and diversity suggest that \"South Asian\" is more precise than \"Asian\", and that the latter should not be used where there is a risk of it conflating South Asians with people from elsewhere in Asia.\nThe United Kingdom Census 1991 was the first to include a question on ethnicity (apart", "is a slight local preference for Caucasians, but East Asians show an obvious global preference and are faster and more accurate at global processing. The inclination towards global precedence is also evident in second generation Asian-Australians, but the correlation is weaker than that of recent immigrants. This could stem from the physical environment of East Asian versus Western cities, as the level of visual complexity varies across these environments. The tendency of Caucasians to process information \"analytically\" and Asians \"holistically\" has also been attributed to differences in brain structure.\nFor some cognitive scientists, the stark contrast in cognitive processing trends", "to peoples of East, Southeast, and South Asia. Inhabitants of Southwest Asia, such as Arabs and Iranians, are more commonly designated Middle Easterners.³ The term Asian as used in this article refers to people from Asia who have a Mongoloid background (Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, Filipinos, Indonesians, and others).\"", "about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only North Asia has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km², vastly less than the 80.5 people per km² of the continent as a whole. Languages Russian, as well as being spoken by around six million ethnic Russians and Ukrainians of Central Asia, is the de facto lingua franca throughout the former Soviet Central Asian Republics. Mandarin Chinese has an equally dominant presence in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Xinjiang.\nThe languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former Soviet Central Asian Republics belong", "regions of the Russian Federation\".\nThe UNSD division of East Asia is \"to obtain greater homogeneity in population, demographic circumstances and accuracy of demographic statistics\", but also other common definitions of East Asia contain Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. Overview The culture of East Asia has largely been influenced by China, as it was the civilization that had the most dominant influence in the region throughout the ages that ultimately laid the foundation for East Asian civilization. The vast knowledge and ingenuity of Chinese civilization and the classics of Chinese literature and culture", "East Asian people East Asian people (East Asians, Northeast Asians or Orientals) is a racial classification specifier used for ethnic groups and subgroups that are indigenous to East Asia, which consists of China, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan. The major ethnic groups that form the core of East Asia are the Han, Korean and Yamato. Other ethnic groups of East Asia include the Bai, Hui, Tibetans, Manchus, Ryukyuan, Ainu, Zhuang and Mongols. Culture The major East Asian language families are the Sinitic, Japonic, and Koreanic families. Other language families include the Tibeto-Burman, Ainu languages,", "Census Bureau listed the following groups to constitute \"Asian\": Asian Indian, Bangladeshi, Bhutanese, Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Malaysian, Nepalese, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Taiwanese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Other Asian. Though, the largest groups come from China and India. These groups represented 0.2% of the population. Other People of \"Some other race alone\" or \"Two or more races\" constituted 11.1% of the population in the 2010 Census.\nAlthough most Puerto Ricans are mixed-race, few actually identify as multiracial (\"two or more races\"); only 3.3% did so in the 2010 Census. They more often \nself-identify with their predominant heritage or", "Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States Yellow Peril The term \"Yellow Peril\" refers to white apprehension, peaking in the late 19th-century, that the European inhabitants of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and the United States would be displaced by a massive influx of East Asians; who would fill the nation with a foreign culture and speech incomprehensible to those already there and steal jobs away from the European inhabitants and that they would eventually take over and destroy their civilization, ways of life, culture and values. The term has also referred to the belief and fear that", "compared to Caucasians, and this lower incidence of fine wrinkles may be the reason for the \"myth\" that Asian faces age slower than Caucasian faces.\nAsian people and black people have a thicker dermis than white people. The skin of Asian people and black people also has more sun protection than the skin of white people due to Asian people and black people having larger and more numerous melanosomes in their skin than white people. The thicker dermis and the more numerous melanosomes of larger size might be the reasons that Asian people and black people have a lower incidence of", "American culture Individuals having origins within the Far East, Southeast Asia or the Indian subcontinent are referred to as Asian under the U.S. Census Bureau. Asian American complete 4.8% of the U.S. population alone. Asian Americans have had the highest educational attainment level and median household income of any racial demographic in the country and attain the highest median personal income overall, as of 2008. Thus, Asian American Culture is often depicted as the most similar culture to American Culture. \nAsian Americans often communicate non-verbally and/or indirectly, and often are not as bold or upfront as other cultures in", "Japan, Korea or Taiwan.\nAlthough it is a common assumption that people of Asian descent are all of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Taiwanese descent, in reality the term \"Asian American\" broadly refers to all people who descend from the Asian continental sub-regions of East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia as a whole. People of Chinese, Japanese and Korean descent make up roughly 7 million of the roughly 18 million Asians in America, but Filipinos, Vietnamese and Indians make up a larger portion of the total than Japanese and Koreans.\nEast Asians are often stereotyped as being inherently bad drivers.\nEast Asians are", "Asia, who have often suffered much more than their co-ethnics in other former Soviet republics, probably because Moscow doesn’t assign the same strategic significance to those Central Asian countries, where Western influence has been limited.\"", "Asian people Anglophone Africa and Caribbean In parts of anglophone Africa, especially East Africa and in parts of the Caribbean, the term \"Asian\" is more commonly associated with people of South Asian origin, particularly Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Sri Lankans. In South Africa the term Asian is used in the pan-continental sense. Due to the high number of Indians in South Africa, in official documentation the designation \"Indian\" is used to refer to both South- and East-Asians. Arab States of the Persian Gulf In the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, the term \"Asian\" generally refers to people of South", "Ahadi and Catherine A. Murray, authors of \"Urban Mediascapes and Multicultural Flows: Assessing Vancouver’s Communication Infrastructure,\" wrote that the Korean edition of the Vancouver Sun was \"error-fraught\". Other Asian ethnicities Other significant Asian ethnic groups in Vancouver are Vietnamese, Filipino, Cambodian and Japanese. In Vancouver the term 'Asian' is normally used to refer only to East Asian and Southeast Asian peoples, while South Asians are usually referred to as Indo-Canadian or East Indians. Technically, though, the term 'Asian' may refer to either group, and also to the large Persian and other Middle Eastern populations as well as elements from Central", "East Asians are generally more interpersonal, and thus may be expected to favor their in-group, they are also dialectical and understand things as balanced in contradiction. East Asians actually have a more negative view of their own in-groups compared to European Americans, simply because they consider both positive and negative aspects rather than emphasizing the positives only. This is a good example of how flexible naïve dialecticism can be when competing with other cultural tendencies.", "Stereotypes of South Asians Stereotypes of South Asians are broadly believed impressions about individuals of South Asian origin that are often inconsistent with reality. While the impressions are wrongly presumed to be universally true for all people of South Asian origin, these stereotypes adversely affect the South Asians as well as the acculturation process.\nWith 20th century immigration of South Asians around the world, especially to the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States, ethnic stereotyping of South Asians has become common place. These stereotypes have been found by scholars to be dehumanizing, making South Asians more prone to mistreatment and", "used definition of Asian American is the U.S. Census Bureau definition, which includes all people with origins in the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. This is chiefly because the census definitions determine many governmental classifications, notably for equal opportunity programs and measurements.\nAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, \"Asian person\" in the United States is sometimes thought of as a person of East Asian descent. In vernacular usage, \"Asian\" is often used to refer to those of East Asian descent or anyone else of Asian descent with epicanthic eyefolds. This differs from the U.S. Census definition and the", "or Xhosa. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names. Asia \"Afro-Asians\" or \"African-Asians\" (also known as \"Black Asians\" or \"Blasian\"), are persons of mixed African and Asian ancestry. Historically, Afro-Asian populations have been marginalized as a result of human migration and social conflict. The term \"Black Asian\" may also be used to describe Negritos (blacks indigenous to Asia); therefore \"Afro-Asian\" is a more scientifically proper term to describe Black Asians with direct African background or ancestry. Arab world Historians estimate that between the advent of Islam in 650 CE and the abolition of slavery in the", "in interactions between South Asians and mainstream Canadians.\" The Canadian Encyclopedia wrote that \"People referred to as \"South Asian\" view the term in the way that those from European countries might view the label \"European.\"\" Henderson added that because of the conflation of \"South Asian\" and \"Indian,\" \"It is very difficult to isolate the history of Asian Indians in Canada from that of other South Asians\".\nIn 1962 \"Pakistani\" and \"Ceylonese\" (Sri Lankan) were made into separate ethnic categories, while prior to that year people with those origins were counted as being \"East Indian\".", "English, Asian often refers to South Asians. See the List of transcontinental countries for further geographic definitions. The term Asia Pacific generally refers to a combination of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and islands in the Pacific Ocean — and most are also considered part of Australasia or Oceania. Asia contains the Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, as well as a piece of the North American plate in Siberia. Asia's changing climate A survey carried out in 2010 by global risk analysis firm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio,", "since the term \"Asian\" is a \"contested term\". United States In 1968, an Asian activist conference decided on favoring the name \"Asian American\" over the competing terms—\"yellow\", \"Mongoloid\", \"Asiatic\", and \"Oriental\"—since the Filipinos at the meeting thought they were \"brown\" rather than \"yellow\" and the conference thought the term \"Oriental\" was Eurocentric, since they originate from lands \"east\" only from Europe's standpoint and, since the term \"Oriental\" suggested to them \"passivity\".\nEarlier Census forms from 1980 and prior listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups along with White and Black or Negro. Previously, Asian Americans were classified as \"other\". But", "activism, South Asians came to be included as 'Asians' in the census only in the 80's. Prior to that many South Asians had been checking 'Caucasian' or 'Other'.\"\nRespondents can also report their specific ancestry, e.g.: Okinawan, etc. Someone reporting these ancestries but no race would be classified as \"Asian\". Unlike South Asians, Jewish Americans, Israeli Americans, Arab Americans, Armenian Americans, Assyrian Americans, Kurdish Americans, Georgian Americans, Chechen Americans, Turkish Americans, Azerbaijani Americans, Iranian Americans and Central Asian Americans have not lobbied to be included as Asians by the U.S. Census Board.\nIn normal American usage Asian does not refer to", "Ethnic groups in Asia Central Asia Central Asia, in its most common definition, is deemed to consist of five former Soviet Socialist Republics: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. In a wider view, Xinjiang of western China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, and northern Pakistan are included. Turkic, Indo-Iranian, and Mongolic peoples comprise its general ethnicities.\nThe main religions of Central Asia are Islam (Turkic/Indo-Iranian peoples) and Buddhism (Mongolia). Central Asia has a long, rich history mainly based on its geographical location along the ancient Silk Road. It has been conquered by Mongols, Tibetans, Persians, Tatars, Russians, Afghans and Sarmatians, and thus has" ]

[ "Redditors hate Fox News for a variety of reasons:\n\nSome redditors are idealists about a lot of things. They believe that a news organization should be impartial. Fox News is highly targeted towards a specific viewpoint, and they greatly magnify their crime in idealists' eyes by doing so while loudly insisting that they are fair and balanced.\n\nSome redditors are quite liberal, and they hate Fox News because its politics are counter to its own.\n\nSome redditors are conservatives who love rational arguments, and they hate Fox News because instead of being a mouthpiece for intelligent conservatism, they focus more on rabble-rousing, accusing their enemies of being socialists who hate Christmas.\n\nSo...lots of reasons, really.", "It's the News bit that I take umbrage to.", "Because they are the propaganda arm of the GOP.", "I don't speak for everyone, but besides the lying, right-leaning, bias whatever you want to call it (because ALL tv-stations have bias and lying to some extent) my biggest problem is that they aren't producing news. While there are many stations that have filler I can't think of a station that pushes SO MANY segments like The O'Reilly Factor, or Glenn Beck's various rants and claim that they are part of the \"news.\"\n\nWhile opinions are fine, FOX has been reduced almost entirely to these extraordinarily narrow opinion-shows. And I think this speaks to a lot of the problems in general, there is nothing in moderation for FOX. Yes the side that they are on matters, but the extent is more significant I think.", "I'm just reading these comments and everyone is pointing out Fox News is conservative and not impartial and that's one of the reasons reddit hates them. Do people realize that most tv news programs are very liberal? MSNBC has been caught multiple times doctoring footage to push a liberal agenda. NBC, ABC, and CBS have all been caught doing the same thing. It's a two way street. Yes Fox News is strongly conservative, but theyre the only ones out there against at least 4 other strongly liberal news stations. I don't think we can call any of it \"news\", to be honest.", "A couple of months ago I heared that Fox News were not allowed to air in Canada because \"they lie to much\". Anyone get a source on this?", "Stephen Colbert once famously said that \"facts have a notoriously liberal bias.\" This is really just a funny way of saying that Fox News (and other news organizations) routinely ignores pertinent facts when reporting on a story - especially if those fact conflict with or outright contradict a narrative or point of view they're espousing about that topic. A prime example of this would be for climate change. The facts for the overwhelming, real and dangerous existence of climate change (scientific research, studies, peer reviewed papers, statistics, etc.) are routinely ignored and even denied by Fox News, especially in a \"people disagree on the shape of the world\" fashion because it conflicts with the point of view and larger agenda fostered by Fox and its advertisers, sponsors and supporters." ]

[ "bad news, said that Americas are poorly served by the media, and that \"the take on Fox News is that's not actually news\" and now \"they have to make it bad news, they have to make into maybe a scandal itself.\"\nOn the edition of October 24 of Fox News' Special Report with Bret Baier, syndicated columnist Charles Krauthammer claimed that a State Department e-mail, which passed along a report from Embassy Tripoli that Ansar al-Sharia had claimed responsibility for the attack on Facebook and Twitter, proved that the White House knew of terrorist connections to the attack almost immediately. Krauthammer", "on the fringe\". The Fox News website has also gotten more extreme in its rhetoric since the election of Donald Trump; according to Columbia's Tow Center for Digital Journalism, the Fox News website has \"gone a little Breitbart\" over time. At the start of 2018, Fox News mostly ignored prominent scandals in the Trump administration which received ample coverage in other national media outlets, such as White House Staff Secretary Rob Porter's resignation amid domestic abuse allegations, the downgrading of Jared Kushner's security clearance and the existence of a non-disclosure agreement between Trump and the porn star Stormy Daniels.\nIn March", "Fox News controversies Fox News (officially, Fox News Channel, FNC and informally known as Fox) is an American basic cable and satellite television channel. During its time on the air, it has been the subject of several controversies, allegations and firings. General Fox News has been alleged by academics, media figures, political figures, and watchdog groups of having Republican Party bias in their news coverage as well as perpetuating more general views of a conservative bias. Fox News has publicly denied such charges, stating that the reporters in the newsroom provide separate, neutral reporting, while acknowledging their opinion programming", "is really egregious. Please stop.\" Fox News was also criticized by conservative outlets, such as the Weekly Standard, National Review, and Red State, and conservative columnists, such as Jennifer Rubin, Michael Gerson, and John Podhoretz. In September 2017, NPR noted that Fox News had yet to apologize for its false story or explain what went wrong; \"When a story of this scale crumbles, most news organizations feel obligated to explain what happened and why. Not so far at Fox.\" Cease and desist letter and retraction On May 19, 2017, an attorney for the Rich family sent a cease and desist", "the U.S. media\" is an outspoken critic of Fox News, frequently accusing the channel of including racial overtones in news coverage. Furthermore, an MMFA article claims that a shooting of an Australian teen was labelled a racial hate crime by Fox News. MMFA was particularly outraged over an incident where Fox News' show On The Record With Greta Van Susteren, guest Pat Buchanan claimed that \"racial hate crimes [are] 40 times more prevalent in the black community than the white community.\"\nMedia Matters for America also asserted that the March 12 edition of Fox & Friends, regarding the case of the", "the past that his work at Fox opened his eyes to what critics cite as bias in the mainstream press. Wallace has stated, \"Fox News wouldn't exist if it weren't for this kind of stuff going on in the mainstream media. That's why people are fed up with that and want the antidote to it because they get it and they've gotten it for years – the so-called bias in the objective press.\"\nThe Commission on Presidential Debates selected Chris Wallace as moderator of the third presidential debate, held on October 19, 2016, at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. This was", "Matt Grossmann and David A. Hopkins, \"Fox News tends to raise the profile of scandals and controversies involving Democrats that receive scant attention in other media, such as the relationship between Barack Obama and William Ayers ... Hillary Clinton's role in the fatal 2012 attacks on the American consulate in Benghazi, Libya; the gun-running scandal known as 'Fast and Furious'; the business practices of federal loan guarantee recipient Solyndra; the past activism of Obama White House operative Van Jones; the 2004 attacks on John Kerry by the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth; the controversial sermons of Obama's Chicago pastor Jeremiah", "its reports, though apparently doesn't feel the need to prove its allegations right\". Fox News controversy In March 2015, The Daily Caller columnist Mickey Kaus quit after editor Tucker Carlson refused to run a column critical of Fox News coverage of the immigration policy debate. Carlson, who also works for Fox, reportedly did not want The Daily Caller publishing criticism of a firm that employed him. 2016 presidential election According to a study by Harvard University's Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society, The Daily Caller was among the most popular sites on the right during the 2016 presidential election.", "news channels in the United States claim political objectivity but to various degrees, Fox News has been accused of conservative bias and MSNBC accused of liberal bias. The degree to which these leanings influence cherry-picking of facts, factual accuracy, the predominance of non-news opinion and commentators, audience opinion of the issues and candidates covered, visual composition, tone and vocabulary of stories is hotly debated.\nNews value is generally used to select stories for print, broadcast, blogs, and web portals, including those that focus on a specific topic. To a large degree, news value depends on the target audience. For example, a", "November 2017, Fox News host Shepard Smith concisely debunked the alleged scandal, infuriating viewers who suggested he should work for CNN or MSNBC. Hannity later called Smith \"clueless,\" while Smith stated, \"I get it, that some of our opinion programming is there strictly to be entertaining. I get that. I don't work there. I wouldn't work there.\" Pro-Republican and pro-Trump bias Fox News Channel has been widely described as providing biased reporting in favor of conservative political positions, the Republican Party and President Donald Trump. Political scientist Jonathan Bernstein described Fox News as an expanded part of the Republican Party.", "(which is fine by me) and elsewhere. But it's worth remembering that Fox (Fox News) is less a bastion of ideological conservatism and more a populist, tabloid-like network.\"\nLongtime Fox News Channel host Bill O'Reilly stated in 2004 in the context of the Iraq War that \"Fox (Fox News) does tilt right\", but that the network does not \"actively campaign or try to help Bush-Cheney.\" Media watchdogs Progressive media watch dog groups such as Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR) and Media Matters for America, have argued that Fox News reporting contains conservative editorializing within news stories. FAIR has asserted that", "were politically motivated and not to be believed. But on Tuesday night, the people in charge of Fox News were confronted with a stark choice after it became clear that Mr. Romney had fallen short: was Fox, first and foremost, a place for advocacy or a place for news? In this moment, at least, Fox chose news.\nA May 2017 study conducted by Harvard University's Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy examined coverage of Trump's first 100 days in office by several major mainstream media outlets including Fox. It found Trump received 80% negative coverage from the overall media,", "wasn't anywhere close to being something I was comfortable publishing.\" Nik Richie, who claimed to be one of the sources for the story, called LaCorte's account \"complete bullshit\", adding \"Fox News was culpable. I voted for Trump, and I like Fox, but they did their own 'catch and kill' on the story to protect him.\"\nA 2008 study found Fox News gave disproportionate attention to polls suggesting low approval for President Bill Clinton. A 2009 study found Fox News was less likely to pick up stories that reflected well on Democrats, and more likely to pick up stories that reflected well", "video games, music and entertainment programming. Political figures Former Democratic National Committee chairman Howard Dean has referred to the Fox News Channel as a \"right-wing propaganda machine,\" and several Democratic Party politicians have boycotted events hosted or sponsored by the network. In 2007, several major Democratic Party presidential candidates (Hillary Clinton, John Edwards, Barack Obama, and Bill Richardson) boycotted or dropped out of Fox News-sponsored or -hosted debates, forcing their cancellation.\nSimilar accusations have been levied against Fox News in response to its decision to exclude Ron Paul and Duncan Hunter from the January 5, 2008, Republican candidate debate. In response,", "'Beautiful' Right After NYC Terror Attack\" in a tweet that was later deleted. Tapper chastised Fox News for choosing to \"deliberately lie\" and said \"there was a time when one could tell the difference between Fox and the nutjobs at Infowars. It's getting tougher and tougher. Lies are lies.\" Tapper had in 2009, while a White House correspondent for ABC News, come to the defense of Fox News when Obama criticized the network for not being a legitimate news organization.\nFox News guest host Jason Chaffetz apologized to Tapper for misrepresenting his statement. After Fox News had deleted the tweet, Sean", "2016 presidential election intensified in October 2017, the focus of Fox News coverage turned \"what they see as the scandal and wrongdoing of President Trump's political opponents. In reports like these, Bill and Hillary Clinton are prominent and recurring characters because they are considered the real conspirators working with the Russians to undermine American democracy.\" Paul Waldman of the Washington Post described the coverage as \"No puppet. You're the puppet\", saying it was a \"careful, coordinated, and comprehensive strategy\" to distract from Mueller's investigation. German Lopes of Vox said Fox News' coverage has reached \"levels of self-parody\" as it dedicated", "to report the news fully, accurately, and fairly. Distrust had increased since the previous few years, when Americans were already more negative about the media than they had been before 2004.\nThroughout 2016, Google and Facebook had been targeted to disperse a substantial amount of fake news, with the aim, it was claimed, of confusing Americans about various topics. Following the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election and during the campaign, Americans who supported Hillary Clinton were especially enraged about the noticeable amount of fake news about the election on the two websites. It was said that", "interference in the 2016 election. Trump provided great access to Fox News during his presidency, giving 19 interviews to the channel while only 6 in total to other news channels by November 2017; The New York Times described Trump's Fox News interviews as \"softball interviews\" and some of the interviewers' interview styles as \"fawning\"; similarly, The Economist has described the network's coverage of Trump's presidency as \"reliably fawning\". From 2015 to 2017, the Fox News prime-time line-up changed from one that was skeptical and questioning of Trump to a \"Trump safe space, with a dose of Bannonist populism once considered", "online before being shared with a much wider audience on Fox. The television coverage, in turn, puts pressure on other news media outlets to follow up\".\nMediaite's Steve Krakauer reported that although FoxNews.com broke the story, it was later reported by other online sites such as the Atlanta Journal Constitution's, and that it was repeated by a number of people on various shows and networks. He noted full coverage by other networks and channels, so Sherrod's resignation was not simply because of the Fox News coverage. Howard Kurtz said in The Washington Post that the Fox News network, with the", "is not intended to be neutral.\nAt times, the allegations of bias have led to back and forth conflicts between Fox News commentators and political and media figures. For example, in 2009 the Fox News Channel engaged in a verbal conflict with the Obama administration while ABC News, NBC News, MSNBC, CBS News, HLN and CNN focuses on positive reporting on the presidency of Barack Obama, and with that, Disney-owned FX (at the time, it was owned by News Corporation), WarnerMedia-owned HBO (at the time, HBO's parent company was called Time Warner), Viacom-owned MTV and Comcast-owned G4 are all focusing on", "voter opinion regarding the poll. Some research studies have shown that predictions made using social media signals can match traditional opinion polls.\nRecently, concerning the 2016 U.S. presidential election, a major concern has been that of the effect of false stories spreading throughout social media. Recent evidence shows that social media plays a huge role in the supplying of news: 62 percent of US adults get news on social media. This fact makes the issue of fake news being spread throughout it more influential. Other evidence surrounding fake news shows that: the most popular fake news stories were more widely shared", "the phenomenon of Fox News and its cultural meaning.\" Fox News has denied many of the events depicted in the book. The book led to a number of media reports about Fox and its culture. Jay Ambrose said that readers \"should also not worry yourself to death about\" The Loudest Voice in the Room because Ailes is a \"fascinating if endlessly castigated man whose direction of Fox News divided nothing.\" Personal life In 2011, Sherman married Jennifer Stahl in a Jewish ceremony. Stahl is an editor at ProPublica. Formerly, she was a fact-checker at The New Yorker magazine. She is", "York Post and Fox News remarked on the episode. The Media Matters for America, a politically progressive media watchdog group, responded. According to the group, the attacking news media, both owned by News Corporation, are using the episode \"to slam poor people who use social services\". In response to Fox News, Media Matters immediately posted an item titled \"Right-Wing Media Use SpongeBob SquarePants' Firing To Attack Social Safety Net\", arguing that the talking heads \"are using the firing of fictional cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants to attack the social safety net and those who rely on it\". The article said \"Right-wing", "Hannity's behalf in May 2017, and later represented Trump in connection with the Mueller investigation. Fox News responses to criticism In June 2004, CEO Roger Ailes responded to some of the criticism with a rebuttal in an editorial in The Wall Street Journal's OpinionJournal (The Wall Street Journal is owned by News Corporation, which also owns Fox News) saying that Fox's critics intentionally confuse opinion shows such as The O'Reilly Factor with regular news coverage. Ailes stated that Fox News has broken stories harmful to Republicans, offering \"Fox News is the network that broke George W. Bush's DUI four days", "trend that some allegedly fear will take over broadcast journalism as it is known. News companies, like Fox News, are employing citizen journalists, which is a new phenomenon among journalism. Fake news The term \"fake news\" or Yellow journalism has taken over broadcast journalism throughout the past and current years. Its impact on broadcast journalism played a role in how news about the election was spread. Fake news defines how viewers see news that may be misleading or false. The main aim of Yellow Journalism is to gather the attention of people in the society. Many of these false or", "in the March 14, 2010 edition of The Washington Post that was highly critical of Fox News Channel. He suggested its biased reporting was not sufficiently criticized by legitimate media.", "that sought to portray Fox as a \"problem\" with the following proposition: \"If they put out 100 percent of their editorial directions and internal memos, Fox News Channel will publish 100 percent of our editorial directions and internal memos, and let the public decide who is fair. This includes any legitimate cable news network, broadcast network, The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, and The Washington Post.\"\nFormer Fox News personality Eric Burns has suggested in an interview that Fox \"probably gives voice to more conservatives than the other networks. But not at the expense of liberals.\" Burns justifies a higher", "news outlets.\nDebate over the impact of fake news in the election, and whether or not it significantly impacted the election of the Republican candidate Donald Trump, whom the most shared fake stories favored, led researchers from Stanford to study the impact of fake news shared on social media, where 62% of U.S. adults get their news from. They assessed that 8% of readers of fake news recalled and believed in the content they were reading, though the same share of readers also recalled and believed in \"placebos\" — stories they did not actually read, but that were produced by the", "outlets have stated that fake news may have influenced the outcome of the 2016 American Presidential Election. Fake news saw higher sharing on Facebook than legitimate news stories, which analysts explained was because fake news often panders to expectations or is otherwise more exciting than legitimate news. Facebook itself initially denied this characterization. A Pew Research poll conducted in December 2016 found that 64% of U.S. adults believed completely made-up news had caused \"a great deal of confusion\" about the basic facts of current events, while 24% claimed it had caused \"some confusion\" and 11% said it had caused \"not", "candidate Donald Trump as president. Political stance In 2012, The New York Times wrote that Fox & Friends \"has become a powerful platform for some of the most strident attacks on President Obama.\" The program has provided a platform for conspiracy theories about Obama's religion and, in May 2012, aired a 4-minute video attacking Obama's record as President. The video was widely criticized as a political attack ad masquerading as journalism; Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik wrote: \"It's hard to imagine a more over-the-top parody of Fox raw-meat-hurling, fear-stoking, base-pleasing agitprop.\" In response, a Fox News exec vice-president 'disavowed'" ]

[ "Somebody picked some colors to help differentiate newborn baby boys from the newborn baby girls & it just grew out from there. It's completely arbitrary & only came about in the last hundred years or so. \n\nBasically, it's one of those \"traditions\" that boils down to \"that's how the Baby Boomers grew up\".\n\n_URL_0_", "It actually used to be a boy's color (as it was seen to be a version of the masculine red) and blue was a girl's color as it was supposedly the color of the Virgin Mary's dress (at least as painted by classical artists who of course had no idea).\n\nBut in the 1950s several ad agencies pushed pink as a girl's color according to their interpretation of society's preferences and it caught on from there.", "I think it has to do with the colours young boys and girls are attracted to most. I have a 5yo boy and a 2yo girl and they are stereotypical in this respect. My son's favourite colour is blue and my daughter's is pink. \n\nWe have definitely not pushed them towards any particular colour. It's just been a natural attraction for them. If we give our girl a choice between different coloured outfits 5/5 times she will choose something pink or with pink on it. \n\nOur boy is not so fussy with the colour of his clothes but when it comes to other things like his tableware, bed clothes, tooth brush etc. He has to have blue. Sometimes, if he's in a mood, he won't eat off any other colour plate. \n\nSo I think marketing people picked up on this a very long time ago and have been exploiting it ever since", "Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5:why is pink considered a girl's color? ](_URL_6_) ^(_26 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: Why is the color pink synonymously feminine? ](_URL_6_) ^(_3 comments_)\n1. [ELI5: How did the colour pink become associated with feminity and homosexuality while the blue became associated with masculinity? ](_URL_6_) ^(_6 comments_)\n1. [Why is pink a \"girl color\" and blue a \"boy color\"? ](_URL_6_) ^(_1 comment_)\n1. [When did society decide that certain articles of clothing are only meant to be worn by a certain gender? ](_URL_6_) ^(_ > 100 comments_)\n1. [ELI5 Why was pink associated with girls to begin with? ](_URL_6_) ^(_1 comment_)" ]

[ "almost exclusive use of pink for girls' toys has raised concern that it is polarizing gender identity from an early age, to the detriment of girls, by over-emphasizing beauty and passivity over fun and creativity.\nThe reasons why girls may as a group prefer pink are not clear. Theories are divided between the nature versus nurture question. Social conditioning is one possible factor, since girls are surrounded by pink accessories and clothing from birth in some cultures. However, it has been proposed that a preference for pink is \"hard-wired\". One recent study showed \"a marked preference for pink among girls and", "boys, while blue – traditionally the colour of the Virgin Mary – was linked with girls. He said: \"When you walk into a toy store, as the campaign Pinkstinks has argued, it is as if feminism had never happened.\" Controversies In 2010 The Independent reported that the Ministry of Defence had objected to the inclusion of Kirsty Moore, the first woman Red Arrows pilot, as a role model on the Pinkstinks website and had refused to supply a photograph of her.\nIn a Daily Mail opinion piece, novelist Amanda Craig confessed to hating pink, but argued that \"you can't 'liberate' young girls by", "early 1900s, The Women's Journal wrote that \"pink being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl\". DressMaker magazine also explained that \"[t]he preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink. Blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler, and the more dainty of the two colours, and pink is thought to be stronger (akin to red)\". Today, in many countries, it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts, but this is also a relatively recent view.", "in both sexes (Alexander, 2003). According to the theory, this adaptation has persisted throughout human evolution, and may contribute to contemporary sexual-dimorphism in skill and preference. From this position, Alexander (2003) suggests the designation of pink as a girl color and blue as a boy color might not be completely arbitrary after all.\nIn a separate study by Gredlin and Bjorklund (2005), it was found that there are sex differences in object manipulation. An experiment was performed by putting a desirable toy in an out-of-reach place but also giving the child 5 different tools he/she could use to help retrieve", "to one spectrum of experience, and it \"firmly fuses girls' identity to appearance.\" According to Historian Jo B. Paoletti, pink and blue only became associated with girls and boys respectively from the 1940s onwards.\nIn reaction to this situation, a campaign group Pinkstinks was formed in the UK in 2008 to raise awareness of what they claim is damage caused by gender stereotyping of children. Further, clothing companies have started to sell clothes that are unisex or gender-neutral, such as Swedish companies Polarn O. Pyret, while others have been founded specifically to offer such items, such as Tootsa MacGinty.Unisex fashion: Hey", "introduced to the colour pink, dolls, dresses, and playing house where they are taking care of the dolls as if they were children. The norm of blue is for boys and pink is for girls is cultural and has not always historically been around. These paths set by parents or other adult figures in the child's life set them on certain paths. This leads to a difference in personality, career paths, or relationships. Throughout life, males and females are seen as two very different species who have very different personalities and should stay on separate paths.\nResearcher Janet Hyde found that,", "as it was in the past. White White most often symbolizes perfection, faith, innocence, softness, and cleanliness. Brides often wear white dresses to symbolize virginity or purity. Pink Pink is associated with softness, femininity, sweetness, and love. However, it was formerly used as a masculine color, frequently used for baby boys; it was not until the early 20th century that the gender roles of pink and blue were reversed.", "can be a calming color, and symbolize reliability. In the Catholic Church, the Virgin Mary is most often depicted wearing blue, to symbolize being \"full of grace\" by divine favor. Blue is widely used for baby boys' clothes or bedrooms, although the reason blue is so strongly associated with boys is debated. Yellow Yellow is a primary color. It is a color often associated with sunshine or joy. It is sometimes used in association with cowardice or fear, i.e., the phrase \"yellow-bellied\". Children tend to like this color, and it is used to market products to children; it is also", "in psychology and gender – \"Is pink a girl color?\", which examined social conventions such as what is \"feminine\" and \"masculine,\" and people's attitudes, often unconscious, towards various things from the perspective of their gender. The preparation of this course led Joel to her research into the \"male brain\" and \"female brain\" in the early 2000s.", "them boy or girl\". Parents are going as far as coordinating their daughter with the color pink because it's feminine, or blue for their son because it's masculine. In discussing these points, Penelope Eckert, in her text titled Language and Gender, states: \"the first thing people want to know about a baby is its sex, and social convention provides a myriad of props to reduce the necessity of asking\". Thus, this reinforces the importance and emphasis that society places not only on sex but also on ways in which to point towards one's sex without implicitly doing so. Eckert furthers", "banning it. Besides, if you banned pink, there would be a toddlers' revolution. It speaks to their deepest instincts of what is feminine\". International impact Pinkstinks has attracted attention in other countries and has inspired the setting up of a similar campaign in Germany, set up in 2012 and based in Hamburg-Eimsbüttel.", "almost half of both men and women as their favourite colour. The same surveys also showed that blue was the colour most associated with the masculine, just ahead of black, and was also the colour most associated with intelligence, knowledge, calm and concentration. Shades and variations Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.\nBlue also varies in", "women in different cultures\". Ben Goldacre has noted that it is likely to be cultural given that less than a hundred years ago pink was deemed the most appropriate colour for boys.\n\nAmplifying gender identity differences between boys and girls is to the benefit of toy sellers. Targeted marketing has for many decades used the technique of categorizing children into segments for marketing purposes, much as the industry does with adults. Childhood age segments that are popularly believed to be identified by psychologists were in fact invented by children's clothing and toy manufacturers. Peggy Orenstein has drawn attention to research by", "Pinko Pinko is a pejorative coined in 1925 in the United States to describe a person regarded as being sympathetic to communism, though not necessarily a Communist Party member. It has since come to be used to describe anyone perceived to have leftist or socialist sympathies.\nThe term has its origins in the notion that pink is a lighter shade of red, a color associated with communism. Thus pink could describe a \"lighter form of communism\", purportedly promoted by supporters of socialism who were not themselves actual or \"card carrying\" communists. The term pinko has a pejorative sense, whereas \"pink\" in", "that we ensure girls have a chance to play with trucks and trains and wear blue if they look pretty in blue and we shouldn't be defining how young people are looked after by the colour of their toys\".\nThe campaign has also been backed by Ed Mayo, author and former UK government adviser on consumer issues, who said: \"I feel this colour apartheid is one of the things that sets children on two separate railway tracks. One leads to higher pay, and higher status and one doesn't.\" According to Mayo, before World War II pink was more usually associated with", "green and blue are better received than red and yellow, strongly saturated colors are more common to be chosen, and bright colors are the favor. \nFurthermore, plenty of variables, such as gender and age, have notable effects on individuals' colors' preferences; gender of humans influences conformance and force of colors tendency, and young people are more enjoyable in warm colors including orange and red rather than intense colors such as green which are preferred by older adults. Moreover, several personal characteristics related to colors; outgoing people are more partial to warm colors, and on the other hand, introverts engage in intense", "developed its own blue, called Dodger blue, and several American universities invented new blues for their colours.\nWith the dawn of the World Wide Web, blue has become the standard colour for hyperlinks in graphic browsers (though in most browsers links turn purple if you visit their target), to make their presence within text obvious to readers. Gender Blue was first used as a gender signifier just prior to World War I (for either girls or boys), and first established as a male gender signifier in the 1940s. Sports Many sporting teams make blue their official colour, or use it as", "of red is the same as saying homosexual is a form of male... In the old days there was no such thing as gay. It was frowned upon. The church would burn you at the stake. Modern day, if you are not gay, a man should not be wearing pink. Unless of course you're in the Americas Cup and you're one of these pansies who walk around with Gant t-shirts with your collars up, and you wear pink and you wear white trousers with those dirty brown slip-on shoes. Then you're just an idiot.\"\nMcFadden's comments were reported in news reports,", "favored more by girls than by boys. Color perception of children 3–5 years of age is an indicator of their developmental stage. Color preferences tend to change as people age. In different societies Favoritism of colors varies widely. Often societal influences will have a direct impact on what colors we favor and disdain. In the West, the color black symbolizes mourning and sadness, red symbolizes anger and violence, white symbolizes purity and peace, and yellow symbolizes joy and luck (other colors lack a consistent meaning). From a recent study, it was discussed that associative learning is the process where an", "Color symbolism Red Red is a primary color. It is often associated with love, passion, and lust. It is frequently used in relation to Valentine's Day. It can also be used to signify danger or warning but it is also associated with importance. For instance, it is used for stop signs and fire engines. In China, red is often used to symbolize good luck or happiness, and is used for many holidays or weddings. Blue Blue is a primary color. It is the color of the ocean and the sky; it often symbolizes serenity, stability, inspiration, or wisdom. It", "blue is the traditional color of the right and red the color of the left. For example, in Canada red represents the Liberals while blue represents the Conservatives. In the United Kingdom, red denotes the Labour Party and blue symbolizes the Conservative Party. Blue has also been used both by party supporters for promotional efforts—ActBlue, BuyBlue and BlueFund as examples—and by the party itself in 2006 both for its \"Red to Blue Program\", created to support Democratic candidates running against Republican incumbents in the midterm elections that year and on its official website.\nIn September 2010, the Democratic Party unveiled its", "Public opinion polls in the United States and Europe showed that blue was the favourite colour of over fifty per cent of respondents. Green was far behind with twenty per cent, while white and red received about eight per cent each.\nIn 1873, a German immigrant in San Francisco, Levi Strauss, invented a sturdy kind of work trousers, made of denim fabric and coloured with indigo dye, called blue jeans. In 1935, they were raised to the level of high fashion by Vogue magazine. Beginning in the 1950s, they became an essential part of uniform of young people in the United", "names the primary colour between green and orange on the spectrum, or that the perception of yellow is stimulated by electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of between 570 and 590 nanometers, because yellow is all that and more, by the open question argument.\nBernard Williams called Moore's use of the term naturalistic fallacy, a \"spectacular misnomer\", the question being metaphysical, as opposed to rational. Appeal to nature Some people use the phrase, naturalistic fallacy or appeal to nature, in a different sense, to characterize inferences of the form \"Something is natural; therefore, it is morally acceptable\" or \"This property is unnatural;", "objects in different colors. The results showed that by the age of 2–2.5 years socially constructed gendered colors affects children's color preference, where girls prefer pink and boys avoid pink, but show no preference for other colors.\nSlightly older children who have developed a sense of favorite color often tend to pick items that are in that color. Culture Many cultural differences exist on perceived color personality, meaning, and preference. When deciding on brand and product logos, companies should take into account their target consumer, since cultural differences exist. A study looked at color preference in British and Chinese participants. Each", "and blue (ratio 2:1:2) flag as this: \"The pink color represents sexual attraction to the same sex only (gay and lesbian). The blue represents sexual attraction to the opposite sex only (straight) and the resultant overlap color purple represents sexual attraction to both sexes (bi).\" He also describes the flag's meaning in deeper terms, stating \"The key to understanding the symbolism of the Bisexual pride flag is to know that the purple pixels of color blend unnoticeably into both the pink and blue, just as in the 'real world,' where bi people blend unnoticeably into both the gay/lesbian and straight", "\"girls\") while, in others classes, the teacher referred to mixed gender groups according to t-shirt colors (\"red\" or blue\"). Teachers were explicitly instructed not to favor or show preference to one group of children over the other. After four weeks, children in classes where they were referred to as \"boys and girls\" showed increased gender stereotyping, whereas no change was observed in classes that used t-shirt colors to distinguish groups. Teachers may unknowingly impose gender stereotypes upon their pupils when they refer children as boys and girls. Such language appears to create tensions in the classroom that impact how children", "Dark Girls Scenes \"I don't like to be called black because I'm not black,\" were the opening words of a young African American girl at the beginning of Dark Girls. Dark Girls explores the many struggles, including self-esteem issues, which women of darker skin face as a result of the colorism they have experienced, allowing women of all ages recount \"the damage done to their self-esteem and their constant feeling of being devalued and disregarded.”(Haque) \nDuke and Berry even take it a step farther and interview different groups of African American get an insight on dating preferences that are", "of a complex, interesting, attracting kind of color... [The] back-story to purple is that it inspires confidence in your creativity, and we're living in a world where that kind of creative innovation is greatly admired. In the world of color, purple is an attention-getter, and it has a meaning. It speaks to people, and we felt that it was time for the purple family to be celebrated. That's why we chose the particular shade called Radiant Orchid.\n— Leatrice Eiseman\nPantone has said that color \"has always been an integral part of how a culture expresses the attitudes and emotions of", "that] people will buy more\" (Elliott 2009). Pink products have also been condemned as promoting consumerism, materialism, and environmental degradation. Critics are also concerned that the ubiquity of pink products may mislead people into thinking that significant progress has been made, and that small, individual actions, like buying a breast cancer-themed product, are sufficient (Stukin 2006). Responding to criticism, Komen CEO Nancy G. Brinker said that corporate promotions enabled the organization to reach new audiences and that \"America is built on consumerism. To say we shouldn't use it to solve the social ills that confront us doesn't make sense", "became fixed in the media and in many people's minds, despite the fact that no official color choices had been made by the parties. Some Republicans argue the GOP should retain its historic link with blue, since most center-right parties worldwide are associated with blue. On March 14, 2014, the California Republican Party officially rejected red and adopted blue as its color. Archie Tse, The New York Times graphics editor who made the choice when the Times published its first color presidential election map in 2000, provided a nonpolitical rationale, explaining that \"Both 'Republican' and 'red' start with the letter" ]

[ "> flipped horizontally?\n\nMirrors do not mirrors flip things horizontally, interestingly enough. Rather they reverse things front to back. You'll notice when you raise your right hand, the reflection raises the hand on your right also.\n\nSome, but not all, front facing cameras copy this behavior. It can be useful, for instance, in that you can treat the image of yourself as you would in a mirror, where a flip could be disorienting in something like a video call. Plenty of software exists to flip the image if it so desired however.\n\nAs a side note, the reason we think mirrors flip things horizontally, is because we've grown to accept that when facing another person, their left-hand side should be on our right-hand side. *This* is the flip, but because we think of it as normal, it seems odd to us when things are *not* flipped. That is to say, their left hand side is on our left hand side. The actual flip occurs when we turn to face the other person. Our reflection does not have to turn to face us.", "Otherwise everything would be backwards, try taking a selfie with a shirt with words on it. The preview image is flipped as to help you better compose the image, the software un-flips it afterwards. When using the front-facing camera, the lens is in the same orientation the rear-facing would be if you used it instead, when using the rear-facing, the display is on the other side, when using the front-facing, the display is on the same side, so it needs to be mirrored for preview, or you would get confused when composing the shot.", "Usually I've seen this explained by psychological and practical reasons: for whatever reason it's nicer that when you tilt your face to the right, say, the camera image also tilts to the right instead of the opposite direction. Much simpler to aim too, generally.\n\nThere are some apps that reverse the mirrored image, like \"Mirror Free\" on Android/Google Play Store. Gives a more \"realistic\" picture of, say, your hairdo. ;D" ]

[ "rear cameras has a lens to capture details, and the other has an RGB sensor to record color data. The two resulting images are then merged. The camera app has a \"Wide Aperture\" mode, among others, which allows users to adjust the focus and depth of field after a photograph has been taken. The Honor 8 also has a forward-facing 8MP camera.\nOther features include an earpiece with built-in notification LED, a fingerprint sensor on the phone's back side, an infrared port allowing the phone to act as a universal remote, dual SIM-card support in select versions, a USB 2.0 with", "Front-facing camera A front-facing camera is a common feature of cameras, mobile phones, smartphones, and tablets. While stand-alone cameras face forward, away from the operator, tablets, smartphones and similar mobile devices typically have a camera facing the operator to allow taking a self-portrait photograph or video while looking at the display of the device, usually showing a live preview of the image. These are called front-facing cameras and are important for videotelephony and the taking of selfies. History The first front-facing camera phone was the Kyocera Visual Phone VP-210, released in Japan in May 1999. It was called a \"mobile", "in the roof pentaprism (7) the image appears in the eyepiece (8). When an image is taken, the mirror moves upwards from its resting position in the direction of the arrow, the focal plane shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected onto the film or sensor (4) in exactly the same manner as on the focusing screen.\nThis feature distinguishes SLRs from other cameras as the photographer sees the image composed exactly as it will be captured on the film or sensor (see Advantages below). Pentaprisms and penta-mirrors Most 35 mm SLRs use a roof pentaprism or penta-mirror to direct", "Single-lens reflex camera A single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is a camera that typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence \"reflex\" from the mirror's reflection) that permits the photographer to view through the lens and see exactly what will be captured. With twin lens reflex and rangefinder cameras, the viewed image could be significantly different from the final image. When the shutter button is pressed on most SLRs, the mirror flips out of the light path, allowing light to pass through to the light receptor and the image to be captured. History Prior to the development of SLR, all cameras", "Pentaprism In cameras A variant of this prism is the roof pentaprism which is commonly used in the viewfinder of single-lens reflex cameras. The camera lens renders an image that is both vertically and laterally reversed, and the reflex mirror re-inverts it leaving an image laterally reversed. In this case, the image needs to be reflected left-to-right as the prism transmits the image formed on the camera's focusing screen. This lateral inversion is done by replacing one of the reflective faces of a normal pentaprism with a \"roof\" section, with two additional surfaces angled towards each other and meeting at", "lenses to get close-up shots with a side-by-side rig leads to a bad roundness.\nAnother advantage is, that the images can be used for the geometrical alignment of the cameras since stereoscopic errors can be seen most easily when the interaxial distance is zero. Disadvantages With the mirror there is one more optical element that has to be handled and manufactured carefully, which makes these rigs usually more expensive than side-by-side rigs.\n\"The use of mirrors makes it sensitive to dust and fast accelerations. The mirror needs to be big enough to accommodate wide angles. It requires accurate mirror placement toward the", "using Bluetooth controls. The connection between the device and the selfie stick lets the user decide when to take the picture or start recording a video by clicking a button located on the handle. Models designed for compact cameras have a mirror behind the viewscreen so that the shot can be lined up.\nIn contrast to a monopod for stabilising a camera on the ground, a selfie stick's arm is thickest and strongest at the opposite end from the camera in order to provide better grip and balance when held aloft. Safety concerns and the inconvenience the product causes to others", "examining the scene behind a vehicle, particularly a tall or bluff-tailed one, more effectively than a rear-view mirror alone.\nMulti-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of retina identification cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment.\nFresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular entertainment. The British rock artist Peter Gabriel made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in", "as light as other camera designs—such as rangefinder cameras, autofocus compact cameras and digital cameras with electronic viewfinders (EVF)—owing to the mirror box and pentaprism/pentamirror. The mirror box also prevents lenses with deeply recessed rear elements from being mounted close to the film or sensor unless the camera has a mirror lockup feature; this means that simple designs for wide angle lenses cannot be used. Instead, larger and more complex retrofocus designs are required.\nThe SLR mirror 'blacks-out' the viewfinder image during the exposure. In addition, the movement of the reflex mirror takes time, limiting the maximum shooting speed. The mirror", "field of view rather than only what is within the zoomed area. There is no zoom when viewing pictures or videos, and no way to edit them on the phone. Orientation Picture orientation is recorded such that photos (but not videos) are always right-side-up, and are cropped on their ends if being viewed in the opposite orientation from which they were taken. However, the phone only recognizes upright (portrait) and rotated onto its left side (landscape), and does not recognize right-side or upside-down orientation. When put this way or flat on a table, it uses the previously recognized orientation. When", "cameras is limited to the size of the lenses. Advantages Side-by-side rigs are comparably easy to build and therefore cheap.\nThey also often provide bigger possible interaxial distances then mirror rigs, which can be used to create a miniaturization effect. Disadvantages Side-by-side rigs cannot be used for close-ups since the minimum distance between the cameras is limited to the size of the lenses. For close-up shots though it is necessary to have smaller interaxial distances. For most shooting situations in live action film therefore mirror rigs are used. Set-up In a mirror rig the two cameras look through a beamsplitter. One", "often there is a facility for controlling the lens focus and zoom as well. These cameras are mounted on pan and tilt heads, and may be placed in a stationary position, such as atop a pole or tower, in a corner of a broadcast booth, or behind a basketball hoop. They can also be placed on robotic dollies, at the end of camera booms and cranes, or \"flown\" in a cable supported harness, as shown in the illustration.\nLipstick cameras are so called because the lens and sensor block combined are similar in size and appearance to a lipstick container. These", "is swung up in front of the film gate using the stop down lever on the right-hand camera front, reading the light projected from the camera lens after passing through the semitransparent mirror. Very few alternative locations inside the camera were available for picking up light rays from the camera lens. The Topcon RE Super has its meter cell placed directly behind the reflex mirror into which a pattern of slits are cut to let the light though, while the Asahi Pentax Spotmatic has a pair of cells located either side of the finder window reading light off the focusing", "not a separate feature, but operated as part of the self timer (notably the Nikon FE line of cameras).\nNote that when the mirror is in the up and locked position, the subject is no longer visible through the viewfinder. Therefore, the photographer must compose the photograph prior to activating mirror lock-up and keep the camera from moving. Use of a tripod helps prevent movement of the camera during this operation.\nCombined with a remote or cable release, this greatly reduces the potential for vibration of the camera. Lenses requiring mirror lock-up Some lenses are designed such that they extend into the", "laterally reversed, i.e. it is a mirror image.\nMost photographers use a cardboard tube or similar 'contraption' to connect the two cameras. This serves to eliminate stray light and prevent reflections appearing on the viewfinder glass or on the lens of the imaging camera.\nDepending on the model of TLR, the resulting image may have an old-fashioned feel to it, often with vignetting, blurred edges, distortion and dust.\nTLR models popular among TtV photographers have a brilliant type ('bubble glass') viewfinder. They include the Ansco Anscoflex, Argus 75, Kodak Duaflex and Kodak Brownie. History While waist-level viewfinders have been common in box", "wrapped around the inside wall opposite, and extending almost right to the edge of, the pinhole. This generates an egg-shaped image with more than 180° view.\nBecause they expose the film in a single exposure, fixed lens cameras can be used with electronic flash, which would not work consistently with rotational panoramic cameras.\nWith a flat image plane, 90° is the widest field of view that can be captured in focus and without significant wide-angle distortion or vignetting. Lenses with an imaging angle approaching 120 degrees require a center filter to correct vignetting at the edges of the image. Lenses that capture", "Reflex camera A reflex camera is a camera that permits the photographer to view the image that will be seen through the lens, and therefore to see exactly what will be captured, contrary to viewfinder cameras where the image could be significantly different from what will be captured. A single-lens reflex camera typically uses a mirror and prism system (hence \"reflex\", from the mirror's reflection) to accomplish this. The mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera achieves the same result by providing the photographer with a digitally captured image. The twin-lens reflex camera provides both a viewfinder image and the reflected image from the", "a focal length to fit in front of the retractable mirrors used in reflex cameras. In such a situation, a pancake lens focuses in front of, rather than on, the focal plane (film or light sensor) of the camera. This has necessitated the design of retrofocus lenses that refocus the image further back, which is why such lenses are longer and bulkier than their \"pancake\" equivalents.\nPancake-style prime lenses are generally simpler to manufacture than pancake zoom lenses like Sony E PZ 16-50mm F3.5-5.6 due to the general lack of an internal micromotor and fewer image correcting elements, allowing for", "screen size.\nAnother trend popularized in 2017 was having a display that contained a tab-like cut-out at the top-centre—colloquially known as a \"notch\"—to contain the front-facing camera, and sometimes other sensors typically located along the top bezel of a device. These designs allow for \"edge-to-edge\" displays that take up nearly the entire height of the device, with little to no bezel along the top, and sometimes a minimal bottom bezel as well. This design characteristic appeared almost simultaneously on the Sharp Aquos S2 and the Essential Phone, which featured circular tabs for their cameras, followed just a month later by the", "camera, introduced as an iSight camera.\nIn general usage, this rear camera is used to take higher-resolution images, whereas the front-facing camera is used for lower-resolution face-to-face conversations with other users using the FaceTime communication platform.", "with this technique because there is always a dead angle directly behind the lens.\nCameras with two lenses\n360-degree cameras with two lenses are probably the most common type, as they can accommodate a full 360-degree angle with two lenses facing each other. A camera takes pictures and videos with an angle of just over 180 degrees, e.g. 220 degrees. These are then converted into a 360-degree object using software. Problems are often caused by stitching errors. This means that an incorrect combination of the images can result in an unclean cut edge that is difficult or impossible to remove.\nCameras with multiple", "from straight in front of a face often exhibit this effect. It can be somewhat reduced by using the \"red eye reduction\" found on many cameras (a pre-flash that makes the subject's irises contract). However, very good results can be obtained only with a flash unit that is separated from the camera, sufficiently far from the optical axis, or by using bounce flash, where the flash head is angled to bounce light off a wall, ceiling or reflector.\nOn some cameras the flash exposure measuring logic fires a pre-flash very quickly before the real flash. In some camera/people combinations this will", "the camera; the more distant parts are recorded at lesser magnification, causing the convergence of parallel lines. Because the subject is at an angle to the camera, it is also foreshortened.\nWhen the camera back is not parallel to a planar subject, it is not possible to have the entire subject in focus without the use of tilt or swing; consequently, the image must rely on the depth of field to have the entire subject rendered acceptably sharp.\nWith a PC lens, the camera back can be kept parallel to the subject while the lens is moved to achieve the desired positioning", "a camera centrally located in the LED array \"looks for\" an image of the reflectors patterned face. These cameras perform the same function as the other style of alignment equipment, yet alleviate numerous issues prone to relocating a heavy precision camera assembly on each vehicle serviced.", "the protrusion on the rear lens block will engage with the mirror of the target SLR. For some Nikon cameras, this may be an issue.\nChips can also be attached to provide focal length and maximum aperture recognition in the camera body, which provides Exif in digital cameras.\nA number of manufacturers have produced adapters to allow Canon EOS cameras to take R lenses, these operate only in stop-down metering mode but function well when rapid operation is not required.", "see them in their rear-view mirrors. Camera systems are usually mounted to the rear bumper or lower parts of the car, allowing for better rear visibility.\nThere are three types of rearview cameras. \nSurface Mounted\nFlush Mounted\nLicense Mounted\nSurface Mounted Cameras\nThese cameras are mounted on a flat surface of the vehicle by focusing them high up. By doing so they provide a perfect view and an excellent depth perception. These features make this type of camera to be more efficient and that’s why they are chosen for larger vehicles so they would produce a better picture with a wider angle.\nFlush Mounted Cameras\nFlush", "angle lenses (meaning lenses with focal length much shorter than the format diagonal and producing a wide field of view) need to be mounted close to the film. However, SLR cameras require that lenses be mounted far enough in front of the film to provide space for the movement of the mirror (the \"mirror box\"); about 40 mm for a 35mm SLR compared to less than 10 mm in non-SLR 35mm cameras. This prompted the development of wide field of view lenses with more complex retrofocus optical designs. These use very large negative front elements to force back-focus distances long enough to", "ordinary lenses, this results in capturing only the bottom part of the subject (a). With a perspective control lens, however, the lens may be shifted upwards in relation to the image area, placing more of the subject within the frame (c). The ground level, the camera's point of perspective, is shifted towards the bottom of the frame.\nAnother use of shifting is in taking pictures of a mirror. By moving the camera off to one side of the mirror, and shifting the lens in the opposite direction, an image of the mirror can be captured without the reflection of the camera", "combination of five cameras built into the headset (two on the front, one on either side, and one looking directly upwards), information from the accelerometers in the HMD and controllers, and the use of AI to predict what path the controllers will most likely be taking when outside the cameras' field of view. The Constellation system is still used to track the controllers using the headset's cameras. The cameras are also used by a feature called Passthrough+, in which the device passes through the video from the built-in cameras onto the display, so that the user can navigate the real", "system can also cause noise and vibration. Partially reflective (pellicle) fixed mirrors avoid these problems and have been used in a very few designs including the Canon Pellix and the Canon EOS-1N RS, but these designs introduce their own problems. These pellicle mirrors reduce the amount of light travelling to the film plane or sensor and also can distort the light passing through them, resulting in a less-sharp image. To avoid the noise and vibration, many professional cameras offer a mirror lock-up feature, however, this feature totally disables the SLR's automatic focusing ability. Electronic viewfinders have the potential to give" ]

[ "In *The Mythology of Star Wars with George Lucas and Bill Moyers*, George Lucas talks about the Dark Side being an imbalancing factor itself, and the eradication of the dark side being balance.\n\nHowever, on the *Clone Wars* DVD commentary he also said that balance involved the selfless (light side) and the selfish (dark side) keeping each other in check.\n\nUltimately, no-one really knows. In the *Revenge of the Sith* novelisation Obi-wan even says as much, saying that no-one really knows what \"bringing balance to the force\" means. He points out that the prophecy never says that \"the chosen one\" is a Jedi (the Jedi order simply assumes that the chosen one will be a Jedi).\n\nI think that mystery of not knowing actually heightens the drama. Is it possible that every action of the Jedi is actually counter-productive, because they didn't read the prophecy properly and are too set in their ways? (The answer according the the *RotS* novel: yes, and Yoda realises it right at the end, when he sees he can't defeat Sidious.)\n\nSo perhaps this is one of those questions best left unanswered.", "I don't know, honestly the idea of balance for both sides seems pretty similar and has nothing to do with balance. It is one side dominating the other, with the end goal being eradication of the other side.\n\nIn reality, it seems like balance has always existed. There cannot be a shadow without light, and light has no meaning without the contrast of the shadows. Both sides give meaning and purpose to the other." ]

[ "of the Force while the other plays the dark side. In friendly play, a player can specialize in one side or the other, but for tournaments, players need both Dark and Light decks. This two-sided aspect is rare in customizable card games (Star Wars: The Card Game and Netrunner being the other notable examples). The action of the game occurs at various \"Location\" cards (both interstellar and planet-bound) familiar from the Star Wars Universe. Locations can be deployed as the game progresses; furthermore, most locations come in both Dark and Light-side flavors, and an on-the-table location can be \"converted\"", "Star Wars universe, and includes environmental puzzles and hazards, whilst following a central storyline outlined in mission briefings and cutscenes. For combat, the player may use fists, explosive land mines and thermal detonators, as well as blasters and other ranged weapons, with the gameplay leaning more towards ranged combat.\nIn Dark Forces II, the player has the option of a third-person view, plus an option to switch automatically to third-person when the lightsaber is the selected weapon. Three types of Force powers are introduced in this game: Light powers provide non violent advantages, Dark powers provide violent ones, while Neutral powers", "such as very old and very powerful Spirits (like the Idigam), or entities from the Abyss (like the Acamoth) are beyond manifest conception and thus are outside any measure of useful definition.\nUnlike the majority of other role-playing games, the World of Darkness \"alignment\" system is meant not to reflect philosophical convictions about 'right' and 'wrong', which are left entirely up to the creator of the character. Instead, they represent the generalities of the character's state of mind. Believing in or adhering to a certain set of abstract moralisms is not considered to be as strong a motivating factor as the", "or \"dark\" alignment and the use of them has an effect on whether the player receives the \"light\" or \"dark\" ending.\nThe player will only achieve success in the game if they make use of the extensive system for the further development of the heroine Ayumi – Experience Points earned, for example, must be converted to Skills. There are various Power-ups available to help the player as well, like combat techniques, magic, weapon enhancement and teleportation and the right mix will lead to success. Apart from that, the use of skills on the \"good or bad side\" also affects the finale. Depending", "Game are limited to \"light side\" and \"dark side\", though there are variations within these.\nIn the older West End Games version of the game, behaviour is controlled with Force points which indicate one use of it per point. When using The Force for evil deeds, the character gains a Dark Side point which can accumulate and put the character at risk of being turned to the Dark Side, at which point the player loses control of their character. By contrast, heroic deeds using The Force allow the player to remove the point. In addition, using The Force at a dramatically", "attributes. This was criticized because it limited the customization options of the players. These \"light levels\" have been removed, with experience-based leveling used across the entire game, up to level 40 for owners of The Taken King. A separate \"Light\" statistic is determined by averaging the strength and power of the character's equipped gear. Newer weapons and some Year One exotics are capable of higher damage than existing Year One weapons; damage values on all existing weapons were scaled down numerically from 365 to 170, with higher values representing weapons that are more powerful than those from Year One. The", "mode, but can switch between first- and third-person mode on the fly while using firearms.\nUnreal Championship 2 also uses a mechanic that deviates from the standard Unreal Tournament line of games, wherein each character has a designation of light, medium, or heavy, that determines the health, melee weapon damage, movement speed and agility of the characters. Light characters have the least amount of health and melee weapon damage, but are faster and more agile than the other types. Medium characters are in the middle for all three attributes. Heavy characters have the most life and melee weapon damage, but are", "system consisting of four stars in the upper-right corner of the screen. Taking damage removes one star, and losing all stars causes Ristar to lose a life. Locating and grabbing a Ristar figure grants Ristar an extra life, while finding traditional star figures replenish his health; a yellow star replenishes one star, while a blue star restores all four. Story Much like other games from the same timeframe, such as Gunstar Heroes, the game's story varied between the Japanese language release and its English language counterpart.\nIn all versions of the game, the events take place in the Valdi System, where", "Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire (video game) Gameplay Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire plays primarily as a third-person shooter. Players control Dash Rendar, the game's protagonist. Rendar has use of a blaster pistol which recharges after each shot, but the player character can also pick up additional powerups which provide other properties to the gun. In later levels of the game Rendar acquires a jetpack which can be used to traverse larger gaps. The player character has limited health, which can be replenished with health packs located throughout the game. The player is given a finite amount of", "turn-based system, only one character may act at a time; all other characters remain still, with a few exceptions that may involve the use of special abilities. The order in which the characters act is usually dependent on their attributes, such as speed or agility. This system rewards strategic planning more than quickness. It also points to the fact that realism in games is a means to the end of immersion in the game world, not an end in itself. A turn-based system makes it possible, for example, to run within range of an opponent and kill him before he", "its attributes. Apart from Agility replacing Dexterity, this is the same attribute set previously used by The Star Wars Roleplaying Game. A seventh optional attribute, Metaphysics, is also possible.\nThe Metaphysics attribute is used by a new free-form power system. This is based on the Special Effects system from Masterbook (which was derived from the magic system from Torg). This replaces the system for using The Force from The Star Wars RPG, and the Psionics system used in the earlier D6 Space Opera PDF.\nScaling (a method of determining how combat is handled between combatants and objects of starkly different sizes) uses", "Final Fantasy: The 4 Heroes of Light Gameplay Enemies are encountered randomly, and the turn-based battle system is reminiscent of the Final Fantasy games released for the Famicom, but uses a \"Boost\" command in lieu of traditional magic points. The game features a similar Job System called a \"Crown System\" which allows players to choose what abilities they want depending on what headgear their character is wearing. Crowns, weapons and armor can be upgraded by adding jewels to them.\nFour players can play together in a Multiplayer co-op mode to battle enemies. After each battle, players receive battle points. If a", "the Sith drawing on the dark side to act aggressively while the Jedi use the light side for defense and peace. According to Filoni, Lucas believed a character's intentions when using the Force—their \"will to be selfless or selfish\"—is what distinguishes light and dark sides. The Force is also used by characters who are neither Jedi nor Sith, such as Leia Organa and Kylo Ren. Characters throughout the franchise use their Force powers in myriad ways, including Obi-Wan using a \"mind trick\" to undermine a stormtrooper's will, Darth Vader choking subordinates without touching them, Luke Skywalker having a vision of", "\"sorcerer's ways\" of Darth Vader. The depiction of the Force in Star Wars has been compared to that of magic in Harry Potter, with the former being described as more of a \"spiritual force\". According to The A.V. Club, The Last Jedi depicts the Force \"closer to the sorcery of fairy tales and medieval romance than it's ever been.\"\nEric Charles points out that the television films The Ewok Adventure (1984) and Ewoks: The Battle for Endor (1985), intended for children, are \"fairy tales in a science fiction setting\" which feature magic and other fairy tale motifs rather than the Force", "Comparison of Axis & Allies games Objective In Axis & Allies, the players representing the Axis powers must cooperate against the players representing the Allied powers in a recreation of World War II. If there are fewer players than powers, players may assume multiple powers, ensuring that the units and IPC supplies of different powers remain separate (though, of course, a player may not play both an Axis and an Allied power at the same time). Players take turns in a predetermined order (typically alternating between Axis and Allied powers) until one side can claim victory after an", "continents.\nCombat is similar to the first three Arc the Lad games, using a tactical format. However, unlike the PS1 games, Twilight of the Spirits uses a circular based movement system rather than grid like movement. There is no magic points, rather the game uses the \"Spirit Stone' items for magic and special attacks, which can be bought in stores, or picked up from fallen enemies or from boxes and other scenery. During combat, players can check character stats and equip items in battle. By pressing R1, the player can see the range of their attack, which can allow them to", "Alignment (role-playing games) Warhammer FRP Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay originally used a linear five-place system: Law – Good – Neutral – Evil – Chaos. In changes of alignment (for whatever reason) a character moved one place along to the next position (e.g.: a neutral character could move to good or evil but not to chaotic).\nIn practise, the system was used to regulate reactions between characters of different alignments.\nIn the newer edition, the concept of alignment (and the presence of Law as the antithesis of Chaos) has been discarded, with more emphasis on the personalities and unique natures of characters, rather than", "characters and the background rotate to offer a pseudo-3D effect. In each battle, players must defeat the enemies while keeping their own party alive through items and Psynergy that restore life and supplement defense. The player receives a \"Game Over\" if each character's hit points are reduced to zero; if this happens, the player will incur a monetary penalty and the party will be returned to the sanctum in the last visited town. After winning a battle, players receive experience points, coins, and occasionally items.\nGolden Sun also features an optional battling mode accessible from the menu screen. In this mode,", "a base for the overall balance. Unlike God of War where magic had a small role, Daniels said that for God of War II, their goal was to make magic an integral part of the combat system and to make it more refined. Barlog said the game would feature new creatures and heroes from the mythology, and he wanted to put more boss battles in it. Commenting on multiplayer options, Barlog said that \"there are possibilities for that but it is not something we are doing right now.\" He said that he felt that God of War is a single-player", "homage to the term Lucas originally associated with the Jedi—does not align with the franchise's normal dark-or-light duality, and this role is an extension of Filoni's conversations with Lucas about the nature of the Force. Filoni credits the prequel films for better developing the concept of the Force, particularly the idea of a balance between the light and dark sides. Depiction Obi-Wan Kenobi describes the Force as \"an energy field created by all living things\" in Star Wars. In The Phantom Menace, Qui-Gon says microscopic lifeforms called midi-chlorians, which exist inside all living cells, allow some characters to be Force-sensitive;", "of questions on moral behaviours. For example, given the question \"Would you keep a wallet full of cash you found?\", most selfish or evil alignments would keep it, while most good alignments would seek to return the wallet to its owner. The categories are not organized into a pattern like Dungeons & Dragons. The system specifically does not include any sort of \"neutral\" alignment on the grounds that a neutral point of view is antithetical to the active role heroes and villains should play in a story. Star Wars The alignments of the Wizards of the Coast Star Wars Roleplaying", "replaced when between battles, while units can be given magic items to use to help them with enemies. In addition, wizards can cast spells when the player has enough magical power available to them, which builds up over time, with the spell's cost determining how much power is used.\nUnlike its predecessor, Dark Omen features a number of upgrades and improvements to gameplay. The first is the greater incorporation of 3d terrains, which as a direct result,= means ranged and artillery units are affected by the \"line-of-sight\" rule - these units must have a clear visual of a target, before they", "Richard Baker's Dungeon Master For Dummies noted that a party of good or neutral characters works better as the motivations for adventures are easier, the group dynamics are smoother, and the \"heroic aspects of D&D shine through in ways that just don't happen when players play evil characters\". Law vs. chaos The law versus chaos axis in D&D predates good versus evil in the game rules.\nOriginally the law/chaos axis was defined as the distinction between \"the belief that everything should follow an order, and that obeying rules is the natural way of life\", as opposed to \"the belief that life", "that power and the amount depleted from the Force meter during its use. The multiplayer mode divides players into Light Siders and Dark Siders, pitting each side against the other in team battles. Each side has access to both shared \"Neutral\" Force powers, which are mostly focused on increasing speed and athletic ability. There are also numerous powers unique to both Light and Dark sides. As in the previous games, Light Side powers are mainly focused around protection and healing, while Dark Side powers are openly aggressive. Unlike previous games, however, Kyle does not exclusively select Light or Dark powers", "Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic (series) Gameplay The game's system is based on Wizards of the Coast's Star Wars Roleplaying Game, which is based on the d20 role-playing game system derived from the Third Edition Dungeons & Dragons rules. Combat is round-based; time is divided into discrete rounds, and combatants attack and react simultaneously. However, the number of actions a combatant may perform each round is limited. While each round's duration is a fixed short interval of real time, the player can configure the combat system to pause at specific events or at the end of each round.\nThe", "Star Wars Infinities Star Wars Infinities is a graphic novel trilogy published by Dark Horse Comics from 2002 to 2004. It tells a non-canon alternate version of each film in the original Star Wars trilogy in which a point of divergence occurs and changes the outcome of the story. Each individual Infinities story is unrelated to the others and is set within the timeline of their original film. Synopsis At the Battle of Yavin, events begin to change when the torpedoes fired by Luke Skywalker experience a technical malfunction and fail to destroy the Death Star, but prevent the complete", "battles: if a character used magic, they would become strong in magic while other attributes would suffer. For Final Fantasy III, the system changed back to a traditional class-based model: Kawazu stated that the reason for this was because no-one could fully understand the system he had created for Final Fantasy II.\nThe battle system most closely associated with Final Fantasy is the \"Active Time Battle\" (ATB) system: while utilizing a turn-based combat system, action meters are assigned to all characters that are emptied when they act in battle. Each player character being issued a command when their action meter is", "However, the light-side ending is the canon ending, and is used in the novel adaption and sequels. Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II In the Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II video game and comic, as well as the novel, Starkiller is cloned by Darth Vader. Starkiller's clone is haunted by visions of the original Starkiller's life. After escaping Kamino, Starkiller goes on a quest to find out who he is and to find Juno Eclipse who has been kidnapped by Vader. At the end of the game, if the player chooses the light-side ending, Starkiller spares Vader, capturing him,", "and 1979, continued the two-axis system. The 1981 version of the Basic Set, however, went back to the earlier one-axis alignment system.\nAD&D 2nd Edition, released in 1988, retained the two-axis system. In that edition, a character who performs too many actions outside their alignment can find their alignment changed, and is penalized by losing experience points, making it harder to reach the next level. D&D 3rd Edition, released in 2000, kept the same alignment system.\nD&D 4th Edition, released in 2008, reduced the number of alignments to five: lawful good, good, evil, chaotic evil, and unaligned. In that edition, \"good\" replaced", "Unreal Championship 2: The Liandri Conflict Gameplay Unreal Championship 2 features 14 different characters from the Unreal universe, plus extra characters released in a bonus pack via Xbox Live. Other additions include the new gametypes Overdose and Nali Slaughter, new weapons including melee weapons, and more adrenaline combos than in previous games.\nUnreal Championship 2 adds melee combat to the series by allowing characters to switch to their respective weapon, such as a blade or staff. Players can also perform special \"Fatality\" moves very much like Mortal Kombat, another game series by Midway. Players can use melee weapons only in third-person" ]

[ "The body is repairing the damaged skin. This involves blood. Blood is hot. Heat makes liquid evaporate quickly.", "When you burn yourself, the site of injury becomes inflamed. Inflammation has 4 symptoms, Redness, Pain, Swelling, and Heat, flow of warm blood increases to the site of injury, and carries more body heat there.", "As part of the tissue damage from the burn, the area swells,and local blood vessels dilate. This produces heat.. And swelling!", "Initially, the burn causes swelling and inflammation. The swelling makes it harder for water to be absorbed in your pores.\n\nIf you burn yourself bad enough to create scar tissue the water will roll off instead of absorbing into the scar. Sweat glands and hair follicles don't grow back in scar tissue, so there's nothing to absorb the liquid." ]

[ "their foundations.\nBecause of its extremely low temperature, careless handling of liquid nitrogen and any objects cooled by it may result in cold burns. In that case, special gloves should be used while handling. However, a small splash or even pouring down skin will not burn immediately because of the Leidenfrost effect, the evaporating gas thermally insulates to some extent, like touching a hot element very briefly with a wet finger. If the liquid nitrogen manages to pool anywhere, it will burn severely.\nAs liquid nitrogen evaporates it reduces the oxygen concentration in the air and can act as an asphyxiant, especially", "acid if it has dried out. States started a push to remove dried picric acid containers from high school laboratories in the 1980s.\nMunitions containing picric acid may be found in sunken warships. The buildup of metal picrates over time renders them shock-sensitive and extremely hazardous. It is recommended that wrecks that contain such munitions not be disturbed in any way. The hazard may subside when the shells become corroded enough to admit seawater as these materials are water-soluble.", "ignition of the solid powder. Keep separated from air, moisture, water, acids, oxidizing agents, and reducing agents. It can also cause severe skin burns.", "were highly flammable and became the ignition source for the burn injury. His clinical measurements of fabric flammability of the textiles as well as a careful review of the ignition source documented that flammable liquids, such as gasoline, were the ignition sources of most burn injuries. Consequently, Edlich initiated a nationwide educational program that has dramatically reduced the frequency of burn injuries stemming from flammable liquids. Surgical gloves During his surgical career, Edlich and his team of scientists made important scientific contributions that have protected health care workers as well as operating room personnel. His studies on the toxicity of", "of the arc in GTAW can break down surrounding air to form ozone and nitric oxides. The ozone and nitric oxides react with lung tissue and moisture to create nitric acid and ozone burn. Ozone and nitric oxide levels are moderate, but exposure duration, repeated exposure, and the quality and quantity of fume extraction, and air change in the room must be monitored. Welders who do not work safely can contract emphysema and oedema of the lungs, which can lead to early death. Similarly, the heat from the arc can cause poisonous fumes to form from cleaning and degreasing materials.", "off-gas resulting in additional damages.\nParticulate contaminants, including pollen, dust, fibers, and soot, may affix to objects after entering collection areas through poorly maintained ventilation systems. Individuals passing through a collection area may also have particulates embedded on their clothing or bodies, which can become dislodged thereby becoming an airborne contaminant. Construction or maintenance efforts are another common cause of particulate pollution. Particulates which adhere to collection objects may cause soiling or blemishing, requiring mechanical removal and conservation efforts. These pollutants can be minimized via high quality HVAC systems, regularly replaced filters for vents, and careful placement of objects away from", "in the catalyzation of deletrious chemical reactions. The chemical reactions caused by these gases can result in the breakdown of inorganic and organic materials, or the tarnishing of metal objects. Other objects contain intrinsic elements that may begin to break down over time causing a damaging condition known as off-gassing. The storage of construction materials and basic housekeeping within a collection area may also be a source of gaseous pollutants. The hazardous fumes given off by strong cleaning products such as bleach or ammonia can transfer to objects causing deterioration, and construction materials such as adhesives, paints, and sealants may", "shoved out of the material. Once exposed to the environment, camphor can undergo sublimation at room temperature, leaving the plastic as brittle nitrocellulose. Also, with exposure to excess heat, the nitrate groups can break off and expose nitrogen gases, such as nitrous oxide and nitric oxide, to the air.\nAnother factor that can cause this is excess moisture, which can accelerate deterioration of nitrocellulose with the presence of nitrate groups, either newly fragmented from heat or still trapped as a free acid from production. Both of these sources allow the accumulation of nitric acid. Another form of deterioration, photochemical deterioration, is", "skin and may cause an allergic reaction. Because of the irritation, LiH is normally rejected rather than accumulated by the body.\nSome lithium salts, which can be produced in LiH reactions, are toxic. LiH fire should not be extinguished using carbon dioxide, carbon tetrachloride, or aqueous fire extinguishers; they should be smothered by covering with a metal object or graphite or dolomite powder. Sand is less suitable, as it can explode when mixed with burning LiH, especially if not dry. LiH is normally transported in oil, using containers made of ceramic, certain plastics or steel, and is handled in an atmosphere", "is released into the environment, it ends up being broken down into the air, and some cases groundwater too. If in the air, trichloroethane has a 49-day expectation to break down half way, therefore spreading far away from the origin before fully being broken down. If the chemical is underground, it is not expected to break down until about after 16 weeks, or even years. Exposure to trichloroethene can be from breathing it in or direct contact to it on the skin. Temporary side effects include stinging and burning of the skin upon contact. Animal testing has been used when", "skin which is spider veined and with underlying fibrosis.\nThe burns may manifest at different times at different body areas. The Chernobyl liquidators burns first appeared on wrists, face, neck and feet, followed by chest and back, then by knees, hips and buttocks.\nIndustrial radiography sources are a common source of beta burns in workers.\nRadiation therapy sources can cause beta burns during exposure of the patients. The sources can be also lost and mishandled, as in the Goiânia accident, during which several people suffered external beta burns and more serious gamma burns, and several died. Numerous accidents also occur during radiotherapy due", "violent boiling of the extremely acidic solution. Solutions made using hydrogen peroxide at concentrations greater than 50% may cause an explosion. Once the mixture has stabilized, it can be further heated to sustain its reactivity. The hot (often bubbling) solution cleans organic compounds off substrates and oxidizes or hydroxylates most metal surfaces. Cleaning usually requires about 10 to 40 minutes, after which the substrates can be removed from the solution.\nThe solution may be mixed before application or directly applied to the material, applying the sulfuric acid first, followed by the peroxide. Due to the self-decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, piranha solution", "of ozone gas are present near to exposed elastomer surfaces, such as O-rings and diaphragm seals. The product must be in tension, but only very low strains are sufficient to cause degradation.", "the a contaminant which can have detected hazards at the point of origin is the effect of municipal solid waste on the environment through seepage and particulate pollution. On the other hand, the effects of water-soluble contaminants may be obscured a long time as they are washed far away from the contamination site and only slowly accumulate in oceans and groundwater to harmful concentrations. The same is true for air \"soluble\" gasses like carbon dioxide: they dissolve in the vast quantity of the atmosphere, and accumulate over time. Emerging Contaminants pose a danger through drinking water as well", "abandoned their ships into the water became covered with this oily mixture which provided an ideal solvent for the sulfur mustard. Some mustard evaporated and mingled with the clouds of smoke and flame. The wounded were pulled from the water and sent to medical facilities whose personnel were unaware of the mustard gas. Medical staff focused on personnel with blast or fire injuries and little attention was given to those merely covered with oil. Many injuries caused by prolonged exposure to low concentrations of mustard might have been reduced by bathing or a change of clothes.\nWithin a day, the first", "released from porous materials or from cracks and crevices. Traces of lubricants, residues from machining, can be present on the surfaces. A specific risk is outgassing of solvents absorbed in plastics after cleaning.\nThe gases liberated from the materials not only lower the vacuum quality, but also can be reabsorbed on other surfaces, creating deposits and contaminating the chamber.\nYet another problem is diffusion of gases through the materials themselves. Atmospheric helium can diffuse even through Pyrex glass, even if slowly; this however is usually not an issue. Some materials might also expand or increase in size causing problems in delicate equipment.\nIn", "Natural rubidium oxide is added to water, and the resulting reaction forms soluble rubidium hydroxide as a product. Hazard prevention Rubidium hydroxide is a corrosive compound that causes immediate burns to the skin on contact. Ultimate care must be carried out when handling this chemical.\nIn the laboratory, protective clothing, gloves, and eye-face protection made from alkali-resistant materials are to be worn to prevent injury caused by accidental leakage of rubidium hydroxide onto human skin.\nDilution of this strong alkali must be done by adding the chemical slowly into the beaker of water.\nIn addition, chemical experiments on this compound must be performed", "when water suppression occurs they are trapped and protected from rapid degradation in these porous materials. With this in mind, the most common items collected by investigators are; cloth, carpets, cardboard and soils. Sample packaging Packaging is of the utmost importance for fire debris evidence because improper packaging could lead to the destruction of evidence. Not only do investigators have to worry about the evidence being well documented, but if it is not packaged correctly the ILRs could degrade or become contaminated by other ILRs while being transported to the laboratory. If there was a leak in the packaging", "objects such as steam pipes, light bulbs, hotplates, and recently extinguished bunsen burners are able to ignite its vapours.\nIn addition some solvents, such as methanol, can burn with a very hot flame which can be nearly invisible under some lighting conditions. This can delay or prevent the timely recognition of a dangerous fire, until flames spread to other materials. Explosive peroxide formation Ethers like diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran (THF) can form highly explosive organic peroxides upon exposure to oxygen and light. THF is normally more likely to form such peroxides than diethyl ether. One of the most susceptible solvents is", "small fire can consume enough oxygen and produce enough smoke to cause death of the persons present, whether by asphyxiation or by smoke inhalation.\nProtective clothing made of fire-retardant materials (e.g. Nomex) reduces or prevents thermal injury in the body areas that are covered by the fire-retardant material. Even normal clothing can provide partial protection. Surgical Small flash fires can occur in the operating room during surgery where the presence of ignition sources such as electrical instruments or lasers, an oxygen-rich environment, and flammable vapors (e.g. alcohol-based disinfectants) may set the stage for such an accident. While apparently smaller fires", "a pile are considered a fire hazard because they provide a large surface area for rapid oxidation of the oil. The oxidation of linseed oil is an exothermic reaction, which accelerates as the temperature of the rags increases. When heat accumulation exceeds the rate of heat dissipation into the environment, the temperature increases and may eventually become hot enough to make the rags spontaneously combust.\nIn 1991, One Meridian Plaza, a high rise in Philadelphia, was severely damaged and three firefighters perished in a fire thought to be caused by rags soaked with linseed oil.", "oxidizing and fluorinating agent. It is extremely reactive with most inorganic and organic materials, such as glass, and will initiate the combustion of many otherwise non-flammable materials without any ignition source. These reactions are often violent, and in some cases explosive. Vessels made from steel, copper, or nickel resist the attack of the material due to formation of a thin layer of insoluble metal fluoride, but molybdenum, tungsten, and titanium form volatile fluorides and are consequently unsuitable. Any equipment that comes into contact with chlorine trifluoride must be scrupulously cleaned and then passivated, because any contamination left may burn through", "its effects are unpredictable. Even light burnishing will significantly alter the surface finish of a part. Initially the finish will be smoother, but with repetitive sliding action, grooves will develop on the surface along the sliding direction. The plastic deformation associated with burnishing will harden the surface and generate compressive residual stresses. Although these properties are usually advantageous, excessive burnishing leads to sub-surface cracks which cause spalling, a phenomenon where the upper layer of a surface flakes off of the bulk material.\nBurnishing may also affect the performance of a machine. The plastic deformation associated with burnishing creates greater heat and", "of dehydrating carbohydrates and liberating extra heat. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns and may speed up its decomposing reactions on the contact surface. Some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage and toxicity after being painlessly absorbed. Zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting", "dumped on the fire to starve it of the oxygen it needs to stay alight. This method of fighting liquid fires has generally been replaced by modern foaming agents.\nThe sand from a fire bucket can also be used to absorb spills of flammable liquids and render them less dangerous, by reducing the risk of ignition and explosion. Fire buckets are often provided at petrol filling stations to absorb any small fuel spills.", "on air containing hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that react to form ozone directly at the source of the pollution or many kilometers down wind.\nOzone reacts directly with some hydrocarbons such as aldehydes and thus begins their removal from the air, but the products are themselves key components of smog. Ozone photolysis by UV light leads to production of the hydroxyl radical HO• and this plays a part in the removal of hydrocarbons from the air, but is also the first step in the creation of components of smog such as peroxyacyl nitrates, which can be powerful eye irritants. The atmospheric", "and crevices in soils, making removal easier. Alkaline chemicals break down known soils such as grease and mud. Acids break down soils such as lime scale, soap scum, and stains of mustard, coffee, tea, and alcoholic beverages. Some solvent-based products are flammable and some can dissolve paint and varnish. Disinfectants stop smell and stains caused by bacteria.\nWhen multiple chemicals are applied to the same surface without full removal of the earlier substance, the chemicals may interact. This interaction may reduce the efficiency of the chemicals applied (such as a change in pH value caused by mixing alkalis and acids) and", "humidity. For this reason, a thin film of oil or similar waterproof coating is applied to create a barrier to moisture in the air. This oil film must later be removed for many fabrication, plating or painting processes. Disadvantages Acid cleaning has limitations in that it is difficult to handle because of its corrosiveness, and it is not applicable to all steels. Hydrogen embrittlement becomes a problem for some alloys and high-carbon steels. The hydrogen from the acid reacts with the surface and makes it brittle and causes cracks. Because of its high reactivity with treatable", "and equipment. It is noted that the common materials iron and copper are incompatible with peroxide, but the reaction can be delayed for seconds or minutes, depending on the grade of peroxide used.\nSmall hydrogen peroxide spills are easily dealt with by flooding the area with water. Not only does this cool any reacting peroxide but it also dilutes it thoroughly. Therefore, sites that handle hydrogen peroxide are often equipped with emergency showers, and have hoses and people on safety duty.\nContact with skin causes immediate whitening due to the production of oxygen below the skin. Extensive burns occur unless washed off", "peracetic acid. Safety Performic acid is non-toxic; it does irritate the skin, but less so than peracetic acid. Concentrated acid (above 50%) is highly reactive; it readily decomposes upon heating, and explodes upon rapid heating to 80–85 °C. It may ignite or explode at room temperature when combined with flammable substances, such as formaldehyde, benzaldehyde, or aniline, and explodes violently upon addition of metal powders. For this reason, spilled performic acid is diluted with cold water and collected with neutral, non-flammable inorganic absorbents, such as vermiculite." ]

[ "Clouds are made of water and dust. This mix reflects/scatters light pretty equally across the spectrum, and when you mix all of the spectrum of visible light, you get white." ]

[ "due to refraction for any colors other than those with a reddish hue to be seen. The clouds do not become that color; they are reflecting long and unscattered rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. The effect is much like if one were to shine a red spotlight on a white sheet. In combination with large, mature thunderheads this can produce blood-red clouds. Clouds look darker in the near-infrared because water absorbs solar radiation at those wavelengths. Halos A halo (ἅλως; also known as a nimbus, icebow or gloriole) is an optical phenomenon produced by", "cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, it may be that a percentage of the light which enters the cloud is not reflected back out before it is absorbed. A simple example of this is being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.\nOther colors occur naturally in clouds. Bluish-grey is the result of light scattering within the cloud. In the visible spectrum, blue and green are at the short end of light's visible wavelengths,", "when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced grey shading because", "cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.\nAs a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets, which may combine to form droplets large enough to fall as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the", "clouds can appear as a milky sheen in the sky or as a striated sheet. They are sometimes similar to altostratus and are distinguishable from the latter because the sun or moon is always clearly visible through transparent cirrostratus, in contrast to altostratus which tends to be opaque or translucent. Cirrostratus come in two species, fibratus and nebulosus. The ice crystals in these clouds vary depending upon the height in the cloud. Towards the bottom, at temperatures of around −35 °C (−31 °F) to −45 °C (−49 °F), the crystals tend to be long, solid, hexagonal columns. Towards the top of the cloud, at", "clouds can be present.\nCirrocumulus clouds tend to reflect the red and yellow colours during a sunset and sunrise, and thus they have been referred to as \"one of the most beautiful clouds\". This occurs because they reflect the unscattered rays of light from the early morning or evening sun, and those rays are yellow, orange, red, and sometimes purple", "have a depth of between a few hundred to a few thousand feet thick. The thicker the clouds, the darker they appear from below, because little of the sunlight is able to pass through. From above, in an airplane, the same clouds look perfectly white, but from the ground the sky looks gloomy and grey. The greying of hair The color of a person's hair is created by the pigment melanin, found in the core of each hair. Melanin is also responsible for the color of the skin and of the eyes. There are only two types of pigment: dark", "which combinations may occur, are needle, column, plate, and rime. Snow appears white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes. Formation Snowflakes nucleate around mineral or organic particles in moisture-saturated, subfreezing air masses. They grow by net accretion to the incipient crystals in hexagonal formations. The cohesive forces are primarily electrostatic. Nucleus In warmer clouds, an aerosol particle or \"ice nucleus\" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. The particles that", "while red and yellow are at the long end. The short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely to be absorbed. The bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain-sized droplets in the cloud. A cumulonimbus cloud emitting green is a sign that it is a severe thunderstorm, capable of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes. The exact cause of green thunderstorms is still unknown, but it could be due to the combination of reddened sunlight passing through very optically thick clouds. Yellowish clouds", "low latitudes. Similar patterns also occur at higher latitudes in both hemispheres. Luminance, reflectivity, and coloration The luminance or brightness of a cloud is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows. In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially", "cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange. The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter). The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight's wavelengths (more than 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength-dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around", "Cloud iridescence Cloud iridescence or irisation is a colorful optical phenomenon that occurs in a cloud and appears in the general proximity of the Sun or Moon. The colors resemble those seen in soap bubbles and oil on a water surface. It is a type of photometeor. This fairly common phenomenon is most often observed in altocumulus, cirrocumulus, lenticular, and cirrus clouds. They sometimes appear as bands parallel to the edge of the clouds. Iridescence is also seen in the much rarer polar stratospheric clouds, also called nacreous clouds. \nThe colors are usually pastel, but can be very vivid or", "as graupel. Color Although ice by itself is clear, snow usually appears white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the scattering of light by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes of which it is comprised. Shape The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Rarely, at a temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry — triangular snowflakes. The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more", "without any break. However, the cloud sheet is not completely uniform, so that separate cloud bases still can be seen. This is the main precipitating type, however any rain is usually light. If the cloud layer becomes grayer to the point when individual clouds cannot be distinguished, stratocumulus turn into stratus clouds.\nStratocumulus Perlucidus is a layer of stratocumulus clouds with small spaces, appearing in irregular pattern, through which clear sky or higher clouds can be seen.\nStratocumulus Translucidus consist of separate groups of stratocumulus clouds, with a clear sky (or higher clouds) visible between them. No precipitation in most cases. Pattern-based", "edges or in semi-transparent clouds, while newly forming clouds produce the brightest and most colorful iridescence. When the particles in a thin cloud are very similar in size over a large extent, the iridescence takes on the structured form of a corona, a bright circular disk around the Sun or Moon surrounded by one or more colored rings.", "cells\" (POCs) and actinoform clouds is related to the onset of precipitation. In fact, professor Stevens discovered that the shape of the cloud field reorganizes itself when the clouds begin to rain.\nThese clouds have also been known to carry hail.", "in increase in the cloud albedo making clouds appear whiter. Satellite imagery often shows trails of cloud or of enhanced brightness of cloud behind ocean-going ships due to this effect. The decrease in global mean absorption of solar radiation due to increases in CCN concentrations exerts a cooling influence on climate; the global average magnitude of this effect over the industrial era is estimated as between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm⁻². Derivation Assume a uniform cloud that extends infinitely in the horizontal plane, also assume that the particle size distribution peaks near an average value of .\nThe formula for the optical", "called diffuse clouds. An interstellar cloud is formed by the gas and dust particles from a red giant in its later life. Chemical compositions The chemical composition of interstellar clouds is determined by studying electromagnetic radiation or EM radiation that they emanate, and we receive – from radio waves through visible light, to gamma rays on the electromagnetic spectrum – that we receive from them. Large radio telescopes scan the intensity in the sky of particular frequencies of electromagnetic radiation which are characteristic of certain molecules' spectra. Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out EM radiation of", "2, the Rayleigh scattering is reduced by a factor of 16. However, Rayleigh scattering only takes place when scattering particles are much smaller than the wavelength of light (the sky is blue because air molecules scatter blue light much more than red light). When particles are larger, scattering increases approximately linearly with wavelength: hence clouds are white since they contain water droplets. This form of scatter is known as Mie scattering and is what occurs in biological tissues. So, although longer wavelengths do scatter less in biological tissues, the difference is not as dramatic as Rayleigh's law would predict. Optical", "is scattering of light, called skylight, into the line of sight of the viewer. Scattering occurs from molecules of the air and also from larger particles in the atmosphere such as water vapour and smoke (see haze). Scattering adds the sky light as a veiling luminance onto the light from the object, reducing its contrast with the background sky light. Skylight usually contains more light of short wavelength than other wavelengths (this is why the sky usually appears blue), which is why distant objects appear bluish (see Rayleigh scattering for detailed explanation). A minor component is scattering of light out", "matter how illogical, bizarre, or base they may seem. Patient \"I am thinking of the fluffy clouds I seem to see with my very eyes. They are white and pearly. The sky is full of clouds but a few azure patches can still be seen here and there...\nClouds keep changing their shapes. They are fluid because they are condensed water particles...\nI am thinking I may have an obsession about this water. The doctor has told me I am dehydrated; there's not enough water in my body. He suggested I should drink 2-3 liters of water every day. Mineral water or", "to the brownish color of the moon. The moonlit sky is not perceived as blue, however, because at low light levels human vision comes mainly from rod cells that do not produce any color perception (Purkinje effect). In optical fibers Rayleigh scattering is an important component of the scattering of optical signals in optical fibers. Silica fibers are glasses, disordered materials with microscopic variations of density and refractive index. These give rise to energy losses due to the scattered light, with the following coefficient:\nwhere n is the refraction index, p is the photoelastic coefficient of the glass, k is", "by yellow clouds had been noted in the 1870s when they were observed by Schiaparelli. Evidence for such clouds was observed during the oppositions of 1892 and 1907. In 1909, Antoniadi noted that the presence of yellow clouds was associated with the obscuration of albedo features. He discovered that Mars appeared more yellow during oppositions when the planet was closest to the Sun and was receiving more energy. He suggested windblown sand or dust as the cause of the clouds.\nIn 1894, American astronomer William W. Campbell found that the spectrum of Mars was identical to the spectrum of the Moon,", "small ice crystals individually scattering light. Larger ice crystals do not produce iridescence, but can cause halos, a different phenomenon.\nIrisation is caused by very uniform water droplets diffracting light (within 10 degrees from the Sun) and by first order interference effects (Beyond about 10 degrees from the Sun). It can extend up to 40 degrees from the Sun.\nIf parts of clouds contain small water droplets or ice crystals of similar size, their cumulative effect is seen as colors. The cloud must be optically thin, so that most rays encounter only a single droplet. Iridescence is therefore mostly seen at cloud", "appears about once a decade. They tend to be visible only shortly before sunrise or after sunset because those are the times they are close enough to the sun to show a tail. Clouds Clouds obscure the view of other objects in the sky, though varying thicknesses of cloudcover have differing effects. A very thin cirrus cloud in front of the moon might produce a rainbow-colored ring around the moon. Stars and planets are too small or dim to take on this effect, and are instead only dimmed (often to the point of invisibility). Thicker", "Snow goose Description The snow goose has two color plumage morphs, white (snow) or gray/blue (blue), thus the common description as \"snows\" and \"blues\". White-morph birds are white except for black wing tips, but blue-morph geese have bluish-grey plumage replacing the white except on the head, neck and tail tip. The immature blue phase is drab or slate-gray with little to no white on the head, neck, or belly. Both snow and blue phases have rose-red feet and legs, and pink bills with black tomia (\"cutting edges\"), giving them a black \"grin patch\". The colors are not as bright on", "of this is not only to give different colours to different parts of the rainbow, but also to diminish the brightness. (A \"rainbow\" formed by droplets of a liquid with no dispersion would be white, but brighter than a normal rainbow.)\nThe light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo total internal reflection, and some light does emerge from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as the", "scattering due to molecule sized particles (as in air) is greater in the direction toward and away from the source of light, than it is in directions perpendicular to the arrival path. Scattering is significant for light at all visible wavelengths but is stronger at the shorter (bluer) end of the visible spectrum, meaning that the scattered light is bluer than its source, the sun. The remaining sunlight, having lost some of its short wavelength components, appears slightly less blue.\nScattering also occurs even more strongly in clouds. Individual water droplets exposed to white light will create a set of colored", "Pileus (meteorology) Appearance Sometimes several pileus clouds are observed above each other. The bright iridescent colors seen in pileus are sunlight diffracted in water vapor. Iridescent colors are strongest when the diffracting droplets are small and similar in size. The newly formed pileus droplet all of similar provenance are ideal for iridescence. Variants When sheet of altostratus cloud is seen lower down and skirting a cumulonimbus cloud, it is classified as a velum cloud. Forecast Pilei clouds indicate the parent cloud is growing rapidly, has plenty of moisture, and is highly unstable. This means the parent cloud could quickly grow", "rainbow is often visible. It appears about 10° outside of the primary rainbow, with inverse order of colours.\nThe rainbow effect is also commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains. In addition, the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a moonbow, lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights. As human visual perception for colour is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white.\nIt is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an angle of" ]

[ "Sleep is necessary for their fast physical growth. However, using lots of energy is necessary for learning, as children learn best through interaction." ]

[ "of growth hormones and enzymes necessary for brain and heart growth. Also, the physiology of co-sleeping babies is more stable, including more stable temperatures, more regular heart rhythms, and fewer long pauses in breathing than babies who sleep alone.\nBesides physical developmental advantages, co-sleeping may also promote long-term emotional health. In long-term follow-up studies of infants who slept with their parents and those who slept alone, the children who co-slept were happier, less anxious, had higher self-esteem, were less likely to be afraid of sleep, had fewer behavioral problems, tended to be more comfortable with intimacy, and were generally more independent", "rise before about 8 a.m. In addition, they need to sleep in until 8 a.m. or so to get the 9 or more hours of sleep that most sleep research suggests they need. As a result, many teenagers arrive at school sleep-deprived. The most recent data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey show that 70% of American high school students are sleep-deprived and about 40% get six or fewer hours of sleep per night. Health and safety impact of early school hours Due to the fact that almost 70% of teens don't get enough sleep, there are increases in stimulant", "improve the amount and quality of sleep which the child is getting. It is also important to have a good sleep hygiene, if a child has night terrors parents could try to change their sleep hygiene. Another option could be to adapt child's naps so that they are not too long or too short. Then, excessive stress or conflicts in a child's life could also have an impact on their sleep too, so to have some strategies to cope with stress combined with psychotherapy could decrease the frequency of the episodes. A polysomnography can be recommended if the child continues", "on infant sleep A number of factors have been shown to be associated with problems in sleep consolidation, including a child’s temperament, the degree to which s/he is breast-fed vs. bottle-fed, and his/her activities and sleepiness during the day. Moreover, co-sleeping, which is defined here as sharing a room or bed with parents or siblings in response to an awakening, can be detrimental to sleep consolidation. It is important to note that none of these factors have been directly shown to cause children’s sleep consolidation issues. \nIn terms of infant feeding, breastfeeding has been found to be associated with", "in sleep continuity, decreased delta sleep and altered REM patterns with regard to latency, distribution across the night and density of eye movements. Children By the time infants reach the age of two, their brain size has reached 90 percent of an adult-sized brain; a majority of this brain growth has occurred during the period of life with the highest rate of sleep. The hours that children spend asleep influence their ability to perform on cognitive tasks. Children who sleep through the night and have few night waking episodes have higher cognitive attainments and easier temperaments than other children.\nSleep also", "of these children to crawl into their parent's bed in ages past infancy. Safety and health Health care professionals disagree about bed-sharing techniques, effectiveness and ethics. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American Academy of Pediatrics strongly discourage bed-sharing because of the risk of suffocation or strangulation, but some pediatricians and breast-feeding advocates have opposed this position. Advantages One study reported mothers getting more sleep and breast-feeding by co-sleeping than other arrangements. Parents also experience less exhaustion with such ease in feeding and comforting their child by simply reaching over to the child. As a result, co-sleeping also", "over. It is theorized that sleep helps facilitate the synthesis of molecules that help repair and protect the brain from these harmful elements generated during waking. The metabolic phase during sleep is anabolic; anabolic hormones such as growth hormones (as mentioned above) are secreted preferentially during sleep.\nEnergy conservation could as well have been accomplished by resting quiescent without shutting off the organism from the environment, potentially a dangerous situation. A sedentary nonsleeping animal is more likely to survive predators, while still preserving energy. Sleep, therefore, seems to serve another purpose, or other purposes, than simply conserving energy. Another potential purpose", "hour naps two to three times a day, with the third nap dropped by about nine months. By one year of age, the amount of sleep that most infants get nightly approximates to that of adults. Good sleep conditions Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first", "adolescents undergo a swing in their circadian cycle which shifts sleep times later into the night. This change seems to occur during puberty and extends well into adulthood and have even been seen in other mammals. With the delay in sleep cycles or sleep onset, but still maintaining a structured early morning schedule such as work or school, actual sleep time is greatly reduced. There has been a push in many educational systems for a later start time to help increase the available time for sleep in adolescents due to these biological changes. Sleep plays a vital", "a few months of postnatal development, there is a marked reduction in percentage of hours spent in REM sleep. By the time the child becomes an adult, he spends about 6–7 hours in NREM sleep and only about an hour in REM sleep. This is true not only of humans, but of many animals dependent on their parents for food. The observation that the percentage of REM sleep is very high in the first stages of development has led to the hypothesis that REM sleep might facilitate early brain development. However, this theory has been contested by other studies.\nSleep behavior", "the sleep-wake cycle several hours later during the adolescent years. This same shift to a delayed phase in the release of melatonin during puberty has also been seen in other mammals.\nThe shifted circadian rhythms associated with puberty make it difficult, if not impossible, for many teenagers—who may have to rise at 5 or 6 a.m. to get ready and commute to school in time for 7 a.m. school bells—to get sufficient sleep on school nights. Even discounting for the distractions of homework and extracurricular demands and electronics, most adolescents find it difficult to fall asleep before about 11 p.m. or", "naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.\nIndividuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions", "hour less talking to family, and it's an hour less exercise and it's an hour less sleep. And of course it is a lack of sleep that research is showing can have a damaging effect on a child's mental health.\"\nThe schools did notice that the positive impact was greater for students under the age of eleven rather than the older students. In fact, it was shown that older students actually suffered from a restricted use of learning platforms on their phones such as educational apps assisting in studying or learning skills. Students that were caught with their mobile phones between", "supports, in his opinion, the mother-child-attachment, makes breastfeeding more convenient, and prevents not only separation anxiety, but SIDS, too. Sears is convinced that mother and child, in spite of frequent nighttime breastfeeding, have the best sleep when they sleep close together. He is also convinced that due to the extra nighttime feedings, a child that sleeps close to the mother thrives better than a child \"crying, alone, behind bars\". Moreover, Katie Allison Granju argued that co-sleeping is beneficial for children, too, because it gives children a vivid notion of the concept of bedtime.\nThe idea of co-sleeping was not new in", "and facilitates breastfeeding. Older babies can breastfeed during the night without waking their mother. Opponents argue that co-sleeping is stressful for the child when they are not co-sleeping. They also cite concerns that a parent may smother the child or promote an unhealthy dependence of the child on the parent(s). In addition, they contend that this practice may interfere with the parents' own relationship, by reducing both communication and sexual intercourse at bedtime, and argue that modern-day bedding is not safe for co-bedding.\nBecause children become accustomed to behaviors learned in early experiences, bed-sharing in infancy will also increase the likelihood", "the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened. Voluntary Sleep deprivation can sometimes be self-imposed due to a lack of desire to sleep or the habitual use of stimulant drugs. Sleep deprivation is also self-imposed to", "Infant sleep training The development of sleep over the first year During the first year of life, infants spend most of their time in the sleeping state. Assessment of sleep during infancy presents an opportunity to study the impact of sleep on the maturation of the central nervous system (CNS), overall functioning, and future cognitive, psychomotor, and temperament development. Sleep is essential to human life and involves both physiologic and behavioral processes. Sleep is now understood as not simply a resting state, but a state that involves intense brain activity. The first year of life is a time of substantial", "abuse, weight gain, risk of diabetes, immune disorders, mood swings, depression, and suicidal ideation, as well as reduced impulse control. In addition, early school start times have been associated with drowsy driving in new teen drivers and higher car crash rates. Schools ending early in the afternoon may also increase the risk of engaging in unhealthy, risky behaviors among sleep-deprived adolescents. Sending children to school before sunrise also means they must wait or walk in dark, with low visibility. Impact on school performance Sleep deprivation can result in low motivation, difficulty concentrating, restlessness, slowed reaction times, lack of energy, frequent", "increases the responsiveness of parents to their child's needs.\nIt has been argued that co-sleeping evolved over five million years, that it alters the infant's sleep experience and the number of maternal inspections of the infant, and that it provides a beginning point for considering possibly unconventional ways of helping reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).\nStress hormones are lower in mothers and babies who co-sleep, specifically the balance of the stress hormone cortisol, the control of which is essential for a baby's healthy growth. In studies with animals, infants who stayed close to their mothers had higher levels", "rundown or hungry. However, you may increase your capacity for willpower by engaging in activities such as mindfulness, meditation and exercise and/or by ensuring good nutrition and adequate sleep.", "infants. \nLastly, temperament also seems to yield correlations with sleep patterns. Researchers believe that infants classified as “difficult,” as well as those who are very sensitive to changes in the environment, tend to have a harder time sleeping through the night. Parents whose infants sleep through the night generally rate their infant’s temperaments more favorably than parents whose infant continue to wake; however, it is hard to determine if a given temperament causes sleep problems or if sleep problems promote specific temperaments or behaviors.", "of the body's total energy needs. Sleep necessarily reduces this use and gives time for the restoration of energy-giving ATP. The effects of sleep deprivation show the absolute need for sleep.\nThe lateral hypothalamus contains orexinergic neurons that control appetite and arousal through their projections to the ascending reticular activating system. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland through the release of peptides such as oxytocin, and vasopressin, as well as dopamine into the median eminence. Through the autonomic projections, the hypothalamus is involved in regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, sweating, and other homeostatic mechanisms. The hypothalamus also", "asked not to wake up an hour early but 3–4 hours early, while waking up \"normally\" may already be an unrecognized challenge imposed by the environment.\nThe bias toward early morning can also adversely affect adolescents in particular. Teenagers tend to require at least 9 full hours of sleep each night, and changes to the endocrine system during puberty shift the natural wake time later in the morning. Enforcing early start times despite this can have negative effects on mood, academic performance, and social skills.", "of the hormones ghreline and Leptin that control appetite and reduce physical activity levels.\nNot only sleep reduction, also disruption of the circadian clock can have a negative impact on sleep architecture and metabolism, as shown in mouse models. In adolescence late bedtimes are  related to a higher risk of getting obese and great bedtime shifts between weekdays and weekend were associated with greater severity of overweight and longer screen time use. In general, sleeping less than 7 hours per night increases the risk to be obese.\nAnother plausible explanation is that fatigue because of limited sleep reduces physical activity and thus", "during NREM sleep in adolescence. School schedules are often incompatible with a corresponding delay in sleep offset, leading to a less than optimal amount of sleep for the majority of adolescents. Hospital stay A study performed nationwide in the Netherlands found that general ward patients staying at the hospital experienced shorter total sleep (83 min. less), more night-time awakenings, and earlier awakenings compared to sleeping at home. Over 70% experienced being woken up by external causes, such as hospital staff (35.8%). Sleep disturbing factors included noise of other patients, medical devices, pain, and toilet visits. Sleep deprivation is even", "be beneficial for psychological and physical health, as it helps the brain to encode incoming information and may lead to higher levels of creativity. Payne notes that it is important to limit naps to 20 minutes to avoid the risk of falling into a deep sleep and waking amidst slow-wave sleep. Naps are an effective way to compensate for sleep debt, i.e., the cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep. As alternative strategies to enhance brain activity. Payne suggests engaging in five-minute meditation exercises, engaging in diaphragmatic breathing, taking walks, and changing one's environmental surroundings.", "that the body is full. When one becomes sleep deprived, leptin levels decrease, resulting in a more aggressive appetite. user:dnbell/sandbox\nThe association between sleep deprivation and obesity appears to be strongest in young and middle-age adults. Other scientists hold that the physical discomfort of obesity and related problems, such as sleep apnea, reduce an individual's chances of getting a good night's sleep.\nSleep loss is currently proposed to disturb endocrine regulation of energy homeostasis leading to weight gain and obesity. For instance, laboratory sleep deprivation studies in young men have demonstrated that one night of wakefulness (typically found in shift workers) exerts", "al. argued that it's actually important for children to get the internal reflection skills from daydreaming. Research shows that children quipped with theses skills have higher academic ability and are socioemotionally better off. Also, when the external environment demands overly high attention from children, it's reasonable to believe these useful skills are underdeveloped. Functions of daydreaming Since daydreaming is disruptive in external tasks and its potential benefits are quite private and subtle, it's worth discussing the reason why daydreaming exists and occupies a large amount of people's waking time.\nMooneyham and Schooler summarized five potential functions daydreaming serves: future thinking, creative", "that kids will become motivated to read because they live in a literate environment.", "a state of relaxation that shifts an individual's internal clock towards the sleep cycle. This is said to have an effect on children and adults with various cases of sleep disorders. Music is most effective before bed once the brain has been conditioned to it, helping to achieve sleep much faster. Melatonin In addressing sleep disorders and possible solutions, there is often a lot of buzz surrounding melatonin. Research suggests that melatonin is useful in helping people to fall asleep faster (decreased sleep latency), to stay asleep longer, and to experience improved sleep quality. In order to test this, a" ]

[ "Graphene is a very new technology. Right now the benefits don't outweigh the costs of mass production, although iirc mass production of hybrid Li+/graphene supercapacitor batteries was announced this year (by Samsung I think, could be wrong). \n\nIt usually takes 10-15 years for new materials and designs to go from academic labs to mass production. Even the transistor didn't enter consumer technology until about a decade after its invention.", "I just did a term paper on this!\n\nTo keep it simple:\n\n1. At this point there does not exist a cost effective method to produce high quality graphene on a large scale. You can use Hummers method to make graphene oxide flakes, which is like a mid-level quality graphene. But flakes are too small of a \"sheet\" for some applications like solar cells. For bigger sheets you need to use chemical deposition, which is really expensive but can produce higher quality graphene. But this method doesn't scale up well. \n\n2. Carbon nanotubes were discovered years ago. And they're just graphene sheet rolled up into cylindrical tubes so they have very similar properties as graphene and is already a more established technology.\n\nEdit: I noticed my response was kind of generic and similar to alot of other answers.", "It took carbon fiber decades to hit the market. Now, you can't swing a dead cat without hitting something made out of it. It used to be that wonderful super material of the future.", "Graphene is like most new super technologies\n\nIt is absolutely amazing at everything *except making it out of a lab*\n\nGraphene is really good at a lot of things, but really expensive to manufacture. Until someone can come up with a good way to make tons of graphene cheaply it'll stay in the lab and other specialized(read high budget) applications", "It's great, just not cost-effective right now. That's why you see all sorts of cool things in laboratories, but nothing has actually reached the store shelves yet.\n\nKind of like solar panels; they are really nice in theory, but still very expensive and kinda hard to set up for the average consumer.", "I hate these answers of 'cant make it out of the lab' \n\nIf you don't know why its so expensive to produce then let someone else answer.", "No one has found a way to mass produce high quality, usable graphene. It's great properties pretty much rest on being a perfect layer of carbon where all the atoms are oriented correctly and bonded to other carbons in a sp2 configuration, and there are no voids and everything is in a perfect surface.", "In addition to being hard to manufacture, it and its close relative carbon nanotubes are sort of hot research topics now. Non-scientists think they sound cool but get very watered down explanations about them that can make it seem like they are a perfected technology. \n\nThese topics get tons of research funding because of that though, because the people granting funding are not scientists, they are regular people who think things sound cool based on a little blurb summary about it. It's sort of like the average person doesn't see the whole picture.", "Because it's still very new technology. And one obvious reason is that *it's an atomically thin sheet,* and while it's mechanical robust *on the nanoscale* it's difficult to implement in macroscale systems. \n\nAnother aspect is that much of graphene's properties, like it's really good thermal and electrical conductivity really depend on its supporting substrate. For example, its *k* constant drops from like ~500W/mK to something like 600W/mK on silicon oxide. This is important because it's almost impossible to employ graphene in a system without a substrate.\n\nA second reason why we don't see it widely used (yet) is because synthesis techniques still don't allow to produce large-area sheets. Sure, you can grow a 1cmx1cm sheet on copper foil in a CVD furnace and then transfer it somewhere else, but this doesn't scale well.", "Because when people first claim graphene is good, they promote graphene's electrical properties. Later people realized 1) using a narrow (or like nonexisting) bandgap material is a bad idea for making transistors and 2) graphene's good conductivity deteriorates when you put it on a regular substrate. \n\nThen people switches to using graphene (or nanotubes) for mechanical properties. That becomes a different story.\n\nBtw, many people took CMOS scaling the wrong way: \"it is small, it is thin, so it must be good.\" Not really.", "Graphene is already being used in carbon composite commercial products that have been around for decades. Simply a matter of a process was developed that made graphene layers before the science was understood. Much like how early metallurgy developed. Now we an take modern methods to evaluate those materials and we have found that in fact we have been making and using graphene in many composite materials.", "its very difficult to mass produce. it was first discovered by someone basically putting cello tape onto graphite and getting a very thin sheet (1 atom thick iirc) there is no real way to upscale cello tape sticking. until we find a way to produce large amounts of graphine it can't be used practically." ]

[ "applications (with the possible exception of graphene). Despite this, many are under close consideration for a number of industries, in areas including electronics and optoelectronics, sensors, biological engineering, filtration, lightweight/strong composite materials, photovoltaics, medicine, quantum dots, thermal management, ethanol distillation, Electromagnetic shielding and energy storage, cryptography and have enormous potential.\nGraphene has been the most studied. In small quantities it is available as a powder and as a dispersion in a polymer matrix, or adhesive, elastomer, oil and aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. The dispersion is claimed to be suitable for advanced composites, paints and coatings, lubricants, oils and functional fluids,", "Chlorographene Early derivatives GO, CH and CF: Although graphene is one of the most mechanically strong material having a wide range of extraordinary properties, practical device applications are limited by its metallic behavior and sensitivity to surface adsorbates. Efforts to synthesize chemically modified graphene composites with tailored electronic, optical, and chemical properties have presented new directions in graphene research. In particular, band gap engineering of graphene through chemical modification, such as oxygenation, hydrogenation and fluorination is appealing for electronic applications, since the scalable fabrication of graphene-based devices without disturbing the strong honeycomb lattice has become possible. However, due to the", "suitable technique for these measurements is the low-energy electron microscopy (LEEM). Applications and open problems Using a two-inch 6H-SiC wafer as substrate, the graphene grown by thermal decomposition can be used to modulate a large energy pulse laser. Because of its saturable properties, the graphene can be used as a passive Q-switcher.\nFurthermore, epitaxial graphene on SiC is considered as a potential material for high-end electronics. It is considered to surpass silicon in terms of key parameters like feature size, speed and power consumption and is therefore one of the most promising materials for future applications. The graphene on SiC can", "physics, the main focus is currently on designing nanoelectronic components by the use of graphene as electrical conductor, hexagonal boron nitride as electrical insulator, and a transition metal dichalcogenide as semiconductor. Graphene Graphene's two surfaces are single sheets of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. Having two surfaces and lacking bulk makes it the thinnest possible material but also 5 times stronger than steel due to pi and sigma orbital bonds. Graphene has high electron mobility and high thermal conductivity. Although graphene can be used in different applications, one issue regarding graphene is its lack of a band", "based materials must fully be explored before their implementation, especially because of their high surface area which can easily react with surrounding environments. Carbon nanotubes were also found to have varying conductivities, being either metallic or semiconducting depending on their helicity when processed. Because of this, special treatment must be given to the nanotubes during processing to assure that all of the nanotubes have appropriate conductivities. Graphene also has complicated electric conductivity properties compared to traditional semiconductors because it lacks an energy band gap and essentially changes all the rules for how electrons move through a graphene based", "in 2014, 2015, and 2018, respectively. Graphene Graphene is a crystalline allotrope of carbon in the form of a nearly transparent (to visible light) one atom thick sheet. It is hundreds of times stronger than most steels by weight. It has the highest known thermal and electrical conductivity, displaying current densities 1,000,000 times that of copper. It was first produced in 2004.\nAndre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov won the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene\". They first produced it by lifting graphene flakes from bulk graphite with adhesive tape and then transferring them onto", "that the graphene layers require no post-processing treatment, which was common in the other methods. The other factor is that the spray gun is remarkably simple in both its production and utilization. Usage Due to graphene's distinctive properties, such as its high strength, high electron mobility, mechanical stiffness, and its remarkably well ability to conduct both electricity and heat, it serves a plethora of applications. Serving primarily in the field of electronics, several graphene applications include its usage within flexible touch screens, integrated circuits, reinforcement of electrical properties to plastics, biological engineering, optical electronics, energy storage, and photovoltaic cells. Graphene", "1962, but only studied while supported on metal surfaces. The material was later rediscovered, isolated and characterized in 2004 by Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov at the University of Manchester. Research was informed by existing theoretical descriptions of its composition, structure and properties. High-quality graphene proved to be surprisingly easy to isolate, making more research possible. This work resulted in the two winning the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2010 \"for groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene.\"\nThe global market for graphene is reported to have reached $9 million by 2012, with most of the demand from research and development", "stored not only on the internal surface of graphene, but also on the nanopores that exist between the single layers of graphene.\nRaccichini et al. also outlined the drawbacks of graphene and graphene-based composites. Graphene has a large irreversible mechanism during the first lithiation step. As graphene has a large surface area, this will result in a large initial irreversibility capacity. He proposed that this drawback was so large that graphene-based cells are “unfeasible”. Research is still being done on graphene in anodes.\nCarbon nanotubes have been used as electrodes for batteries that use intercalation, like lithium-ion batteries, in an effort to", "crystallographic defects(physical) bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon, a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as prosthetic heart valves.\nGraphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon. Contrary to popular belief, high-purity graphite does not readily burn, even at elevated temperatures. For this reason, it is used in nuclear reactors and for high-temperature crucibles for melting metals. At very high temperatures and pressures (roughly 2000 °C and 5 GPa), it can be transformed into diamond.\nNatural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their", "for their work on graphene. Successfully isolated in 2004, research and development continues on the 'miracle material' today to find practical, everyday uses for the material. The following year in 2011, the British government announced £50 million of funding to allow further development of graphene in the United Kingdom.", "electronic properties were unaffected. Prior approaches involved doping graphene with other substances. The dopant's presence negatively affected its electronic properties. Biological Researchers at the Graphene Research Centre at the National University of Singapore (NUS) discovered in 2011 the amazing ability of graphene to accelerate the osteogenic differentiation of human Mesenchymal Stem Cells without the use of biochemical inducers.\nIn 2015 researchers used graphene to create sensitive biosensors by using epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide. The sensors bind to the 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and is capable of selective binding with antibodies. The presence of 8-OHdG in blood, urine and saliva is commonly associated", "Graphene Research Centre History and funding NUS established the GRC in 2010, under the leadership of Prof. Antonio H. Castro Neto, with a start-up fund from NUS of S$40 Million, 1,000 m2 of laboratory space, and a state-of-the-art clean room facility of 800 m2. Speaking of commercial application today scientists are using graphene for making synthetic blood and developing non-invasive treatments for cancer. Graphene would soon replace silicon in your computer chips thus resulting in a much faster, unbreakable tablets, phone and others; GRC is also participating on a S$50 Million CREATE grant from NRF, together with University of California,", "is dramatically lower than any other steel, with a surfacic mass of 0.763mg per square meter. It conducts heat and electricity very efficiently and is nearly transparent. Graphene also shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism, even greater than graphite, and can be levitated by Nd-Fe-B magnets. Researchers have identified the bipolar transistor effect, ballistic transport of charges and large quantum oscillations in the material.\nScientists have theorized about graphene for decades. It has likely been unknowingly produced in small quantities for centuries, through the use of pencils and other similar applications of graphite. It was originally observed in electron microscopes in", "in several important aspects, although they remain about one order of magnitude behind current generation capacity, despite rapid improvement. Graphene devices can work at very high frequencies, and could in principle reach higher bandwidths. Graphene can absorb a broader range of wavelengths than germanium. That property could be exploited to transmit more data streams simultaneously in the same beam of light. Unlike germanium detectors, graphene photodetectors do not require applied voltage, which could reduce energy needs. Finally, graphene detectors in principle permit a simpler and less expensive on-chip integration. However, graphene does not strongly absorb light. Pairing a silicon waveguide", "demonstrated straining of graphene can result in high flexibility and can tune the electronic structure of graphene to produce enormous pseudomagnetic fields. This new theory opens up new possibilities in straining graphene boron nitride hybrid to advance new concepts of electronics.", "Graphene Graphene (/ˈɡræfiːn/) is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a single layer of atoms in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. It is the basic structural element of other allotropes, including graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. It can also be considered as an indefinitely large aromatic molecule, the ultimate case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.\nGraphene has a special set of properties which set it apart from other allotropes of carbon. In proportion to its thickness, it is about 100 times stronger than the strongest steel. Yet its density", "with such a coil behaves as a quantum conductor whose current distribution between the core and exterior varies with applied voltage, resulting in nonlinear inductance. Production A rapidly increasing list of production techniques have been developed to enable graphene's use in commercial applications.\nIsolated 2D crystals cannot be grown via chemical synthesis beyond small sizes even in principle, because the rapid growth of phonon density with increasing lateral size forces 2D crystallites to bend into the third dimension.\nIn all cases, graphene must bond to a substrate to retain its two-dimensional shape. Exfoliation As of 2014, exfoliation produced graphene with the lowest", "in some form. Modern variations Graphite oxide captured the attention of the scientific community after the discovery of graphene in 2004. Many teams are looking into ways of using graphite oxide as a shortcut to mass production of graphene. So far, the materials produced by these methods have shown to have more defects than those produced directly from graphite. Hummers' method remains a key point of interest because it is an easy method of producing large quantities of graphite oxide.\nOther groups have been focused on making improvements to the Hummers' method to make it more efficient and environmentally friendly. One", "plane.\nGraphite powder is used as a dry lubricant. Although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure, in fact in a vacuum environment (such as in technologies for use in space), graphite was found to be a very poor lubricant. This fact led to the discovery that graphite's lubricity is due to adsorbed air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can also account for this effect.\nWhen a large number of", "be also an ideal platform for structured graphene (transducers, membranes).\nOn the other side, limitations in terms of wafer sizes, wafer costs and availability of micromachining processes have to be taken into account when using SiC wafers.\nAnother problem is directly coupled with the advantage. of growing the graphene directly on a semiconducting or semi-insulating substrate which is commercially available. But there's no perfect method yet to transfer the graphene to other substrates. For this application, epitaxial growth on copper is a promising method. The carbon's solubility into copper is extremely low and therefore mainly surface diffusion and nucleation of carbon atoms", "Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (Russia), and Radboud University Nijmegen (Netherlands). Research Geim's achievements include the discovery of a simple method for isolating single atomic layers of graphite, known as graphene, in collaboration with researchers at the University of Manchester and IMT. The team published their findings in October 2004 in Science.\nGraphene consists of one-atom-thick layers of carbon atoms arranged in two-dimensional hexagons, and is the thinnest material in the world, as well as one of the strongest and hardest. The material has many potential applications.\nGeim said one of the first applications of graphene could be in the development", "graphene (FLG). Different heating mechanisms like e-beam heating or resistive heating lead to the same result. The heating process takes place in vacuum to avoid contaminations. Approximately three bilayers of SiC are necessary to set free enough carbon atoms needed for the formation of one graphene layer. This number can be calculated out of the molar densities.\nToday's challenge is to improve this process for industrial fabrication. The FLG obtained so far has a non-uniform thickness distribution which leads to different electronic properties. Because of this, there's a demand for growing uniform large-area FLG with the desired thickness in a reproducible", "layer of graphene on top. The graphene can be peeled from the wafer using a dry process and is then ready for use. The wafer can be reused. The graphene is wrinkle-free, high quality and low in defects. Metal single crystal substrates Metal single crystals are often used as substrates in graphene growth since they form a smooth and chemically uniform growth platform for graphene. Especially, the chemical uniformity is an important advantage of metal single crystal surfaces: for example in different oxide surfaces the oxidized component and the oxygen forms very different adsorption sites. A typical metal single crystal", "Graphene chemistry Graphene is the only form of carbon (or solid material) in which every atom is available for chemical reaction from two sides (due to the 2D structure). Atoms at the edges of a graphene sheet have special chemical reactivity. Graphene has the highest ratio of edge atoms of any allotrope. Defects within a sheet increase its chemical reactivity. The onset temperature of reaction between the basal plane of single-layer graphene and oxygen gas is below 260 °C (530 K). Graphene combusts at 350 °C (620 K). Graphene is commonly modified with oxygen- and nitrogen-containing functional groups and analyzed by infrared spectroscopy and", "graphene gyroids might find their way to various applications, ranging from batteries and supercapacitors to filtration and optoelectronics. Pillared Pillared graphene is a hybrid carbon structure consisting of an oriented array of carbon nanotubes connected at each end to a graphene sheet. It was first described theoretically in 2008. Pillared graphene has not been synthesized in the laboratory. Reinforced Graphene sheets reinforced with embedded carbon nanotubes (\"rebar\") are easier to manipulate, while improving the electrical and mechanical qualities of both materials.\nFunctionalized single- or multiwalled carbon nanotubes are spin-coated on copper foils and then heated and cooled, using the nanotubes as", "of graphene. One such method is to perform ex situ graphitization of silicon terminated SiC in an atmosphere consisting of argon. This method has proved to yield layers of graphene with larger domain sizes than the layer that would be attainable via other methods. This new method can be very viable to make higher quality graphene for a multitude of technological applications.\nWhen it comes to understanding how or when to use these methods of graphene production, most of them mainly produce or grow this graphene on the SiC within a growth enabling environment. It is utilized most often at rather", "are responsible for most of graphene's notable electronic properties, via the half-filled band that permits free-moving electrons. Recent quantitative estimates of aromatic stabilization and limiting size derived from the enthalpies of hydrogenation (ΔHhydro) agree well with the literature reports.\nGraphene sheets in solid form usually show evidence in diffraction for graphite's (002) layering. This is true of some single-walled nanostructures. However, unlayered graphene with only (hk0) rings has been found in the core of presolar graphite onions. TEM studies show faceting at defects in flat graphene sheets and suggest a role for two-dimensional crystallization from a melt.\nGraphene can self-repair holes in", "graphene is reactive to oxygen at 250 °C, strongly doped at 300 °C, and etched at 450 °C; in contrast, bulk graphite is not oxidized until 800 °C. Atomically thin boron nitride has much better oxidation resistance than graphene. Monolayer boron nitride is not oxidized till 700 °C and can sustain up to 850 °C in air; bilayer and trilayer boron nitride nanosheets have slightly higher oxidation starting temperatures. The excellent thermal stability, high impermeability to gas and liquid, and electrical insulation make atomically thin boron nitride potential coating materials for preventing surface oxidation and corrosion of metals and other two-dimensional (2D) materials, such as black", "on epitaxially grown graphene on single crystal silicon carbide. While significant control has been in growing and characterizing epitaxial graphene, challenges remain in being able to fully exploit the potential of these structures. The promise lies in the hope that charge carriers on these graphene structures, like carbon nanotubes, remain ballistic. If so, it could revolutionize the world of electronics. Silicon carbide Heating silicon carbide (SiC) to high temperatures (>1100 °C) under low pressures (~10⁻⁶ torr) reduces it to graphene. This process produces epitaxial graphene with dimensions dependent upon the size of the wafer. The polarity of the SiC used" ]

[ "This is a really big question that gets very complicated and political. \n\nBasically, it had to take any number of complicated corporate systems with all fine print, discern what was needed and important, then translate that into a unified marketplace. It also had to do it perfectly, because any misinformation meant the federal government helped a corporation kill grandma because she didn't know her heart pills weren't covered. \n\nInsurance companies are betting you $/yr that you'll spend less than that on healthcare this year. They profit by winning enough bets over a given populace. To help their odds, they will pre-negotiate lower medical costs with larger medical groups and put in exceptions like \"We don't cover elective surgeries\", then get shitty with the definition of \"elective\" in the fine print. Shit like \"That cancer surgery is \"elective\" because you haven't tried drug therapy yet\". \n\n_URL_1_ needed to read ALL of that fine print, for every level of every policy, filter out the ones that don't 100% meet the 15,000 pages of ACA standards and then post the differences using less than a tweet's worth of characters. All of this needs to be back checked with teams of lawyers to make sure it's presented in a way that a reasonable person can make an educated choice. \n\nThen there's the technical side. The website had to plug into at every participating insurance provider's unique and universally terrible corporate sales databases, transmitting application and payment information perfectly, and again making sure there's no fine-print switcheroos for every policy. Think of the worst corporate management software you've ever seen. Then consider a the slickest and most user friendly. You get to write software that works with ALL OF THEM. Each interface is it's own special shit-snowflake that you get to automate. For every policy. For every company. \n\nOh, and every state has their own branch of the company, and set of state standards, so your fix for Aetna New Jersey isn't going to work for Aetna Missouri, because that has to flow through _URL_0_'s shit website too AND Aetna MO's database didn't get the update yet so they're still using the system from 2003 which is totally different anyway. So now your shit-snowflake work just went up by a factor of 50. Also, not everyone speaks english so everything for all policies, fine print, marketplace summaries, and user interfaces has to be accurately translated into a couple dozen languages. Don't fuck that up or you're killing grandma again. \n\nWhile the backend guys are designing a shit-snowflake shoveler, another team has to program a web interface that grandma can use. See, for the first time EVERYONE was REQUIRED to have health insurance. That includes your grandmother who browses family photos by dragging them into word documents because it's the only way she knows how. It also includes the homeless guy who literally cannot read and was genuinely unaware that computers could be used for anything other than porn. Your interface needs to be so simple that they can figure it out on their own. \n\nOh, and since it's collecting SSN's, addresses, and health histories, it all needs to be super secure and require a secure username/password when logging in. If you're in the identity stealing business, it's goddamn christmas morning in there. So the site needs to be easy enough to access that illiterate grandma can get in, but also hard enough that 1337HackerBoi69 can't. \n\nThen it also needs to be ruggedized against political enemies that want the site to fail. Obama's been telling everyone Sept. 29th is opening day, so how bad would it suck if the site was hit by a DDOS for the first week? Oh, and any fuckup from the aforementioned issues before will \ndefinitely be blown way out of proportion, so build some lawsuit budgets into any work you do building the site. \n\nAnd all of this needs to be done ideally within a year or two, because we've got a political schedule to keep. Oh, also, Aetna MO finally got their system updated to the 2009 version so the plugins you hacked together for them stopped working and need to be rebuilt.", "I was not part of this specific disaster, but have been involved in other multi-billion dollar non-profit/government entity IT projects. I have also been involved in many successful projects, so have seen the glaring difference. The lifecycle of the non-profit project has been as follows; \n \n* Management are given low budget, and hire in high paid high skilled consultants. Work is scoped out, and above average pricing provided (driving work to high priced firm). In this case, could have been given a $50 million budget, and then consulting firm says they could do it for $80 million. \n* Managers then have cheaper firms, especially large offshore types come in and undercut. They say they could get it done for $10 million, and win the project. \n* The firm who underbid, don't have any experience in this type of project, so spin their wheels for 6-12 months, achieving very little. \n* More underbidding firms get parts of the project, to help speed things up. As the baseline has been set for very low cost resources, the only firms bidding are more offshore type firms. \n* The multiple firms start competing with each other for each part of the project, bring in more and more resources. \n* A small number of highly skilled independents by the this stage are likely doing most of the work. The offshore firms are spending all their time on presentations to management on why their firm should see increased scope. \n* Management sees their $50 million budget has evaporated, and they have nothing to show for it yet. To save face, they make a great case on why budget needs to increase. Each firm helps management make the case. \n* Now 12 months in, prototypes are produced, which look nothing like what requirements set out. Turns out lowest salaried grads hired offshore (to maximize firm profit), are not as familiar with new healthcare law as firms had promised. \n* Initial firms start to be phased out due to non performance, and new offshore firms start to come in and take scope. New firms are at same price point or lower, and many of the same offshore resources shift to new firm (since they already have ACA experience). \n* Eventually after many iterations, prototypes start looking closer to what is needed, but are as buggy as all heck. No one realized all the great grads offshore went to work for tech companies at multiples the income. \n* Government managers by this stage are so deep, that they are committed to following through on solution. They have become experts at asking for more money in the budget. \n* A few years after it was due, a solution is eventually produced. Original firm that could have provided it for $80 million are working for private firms. A strong team of independents who came from $80 million firm could have done it for $20 million. \n* Project is declared a success. Budget issues are swept under rug. \n* Firm quietly hires a local firm or independents to correct issues left in original solution.", "A couple of the major factors that I'm aware of:\n\n1) Changing Requirements: In the time between the announcement of the ACA, the signing of contracts for website development, and the actual roll-out of the website the law went through several policy iterations, which requires redevelopment of aspects of the website related to those policies. So if you design the website for policy A, but policy B is actually enacted, you have to changed everything related to policy A. Those could be significant impact changes.\n\n2) Lack of Oversight: The program was managed by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, which does not typically handle large-scale, customer-facing government IT projects. \n\n3) Scope Creep: I don't know about this project specifically, but one of the major problems with government projects is scope creep. The government lays out requirements that usually range between \"way too much for what we actually need\" and \"everything we could think of related to this project.\" So the cost is already elevated above what a private program like this would run. Then you add the contractors coming in and saying \"but you didn't think of X, Y, and Z\" and the government says \"you're right, we definitely need that too!\"\n\n4) Government Regulations: Not saying this as a political statement, but being a government contractor means dealing with government regulations. Many times these regulations become very expensive, as opposed to developing things in the private sector. This leaves some of the best programmers on the sidelines, since they are working in the Silicon Valley sphere, not the Contracting sphere.", "By the way, if you're really interested in the topic and want to gain an in-depth look into what went wrong, the Office of the Inspector General for the Department of Health & Human Services released a 90+ page report detailing the faults, from leadership to contracting choices to communications, that led to the breakdown of the project.\n\n_URL_2_", "It is just a huge, super complicated system. Healthcare software is particularly complicated because it has to communicate with and integrate information from multiple systems developed over the course of decades while maintaining HIPPA standards and complying with the new Medicare regulations that come most every year. On top of that, it's government. The requirements are set by a political process and likely overseen by people who got through jobs because of their political loyalties, and implement by unfireable, unmotivated career bureaucrats. You pretty much double the cost of anything when you are working for government.\n\nMost people are unaware how expensive enterprise software can be to purchase and implement. A medium sized health care company can easily spend $17 million implementing a new system, more if things go wrong. It is absolutely no surprise to mean that a system that large would cost 100 times more, even if everything went smoothly.", "In any huge IT project, government or corporate, there are typically hundreds (if not 1000's) of people who can add complexity to a project (Janice in Accounting says it needs to do \"X\") but very few who can remove it (VP Bob says \"no, it really doesn't need X\")\n\nThat means over time the scope of the project grows enormously. There is a term for this \"scope creep\" that people in IT are very familiar with.\n\nA lot of these additional requirements come in after the project has already started, which means that changes impact multiple teams of people working on multiple parts of the project. Something as simple as adding a new field to capture \"mother's maiden name\":\n\n- you have to change the UI layer\n- you have to change the database\n- you have to change the validation that tests for required fields\n- you have to change the data layer that talks to the UI and database\n- all of the db maint scripts have to be updated\n- all of the test scripts have to be updated\n- all of the translations for different languages have to be updated\n- reports have to be updated\n\nSo one little change may impact 8+ teams. Multiply that by 10,000 - and keep in mind that some changes are much more significant." ]

[ "early 2002, it rose to an intraday peak of $70.85 at the end of August 2005 in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. A new intraday record high of $78.40 was set on July 14, 2006, prompted by the firing of at least six missiles by North Korea on July 4–5, 2006, and escalating Middle East violence.\nSubsequently, the price declined until on October 11, 2006, the price closed at $66.04. But, by August 2007, the price had reached a record high of $78.71, amid production output concerns in the North Sea and Nigeria. On November 29, 2007, the price peaked at", "its price history revealed that price increases between 1955 and 1990 were generally explained by inflation, but there has been a rapid value increase since 1990 and especially 2010. Specifically, its price has increased from $2850 in 2010 to $5600 as of 2019.", "in the US market and a list price of US$15,500 was being discussed.", "Bloomberg report indicates the price as $25 billion.", "in 1956, a standard price index of commodities rose from 100 at the beginning of the war to more than 9200 by the war's de facto end in April 1865. By October 1864, the price index was at 2800, which implies that a very large portion of the rise in prices occurred in the last six months of the war. This drop in the demand for money, the corresponding increase in \"velocity of money\" (see next paragraph) and the resulting rapid increase in the price level has been attributed to the loss of confidence in Southern military victory or the", "$100 per barrel, a level last attained in the 1860s (inflation adjusted). Later in 2008, the price again sharply fell, to a low of about $40, before rising again to a high around $125. Since mid-2011, prices were slowly trending downward until the middle of 2014, but falling dramatically until the end of 2015 to ca. $30. Since then prices were relatively stable (below $50).\nSimon was skeptical, in 1994, of claims that human activity caused global environmental damage, notably in relation to CFCs, ozone depletion and climate change, the latter primarily because of the perceived rapid switch from fears of", "(and generally increasing) market values at the production level, the wholesale level and the retail level. For example, the value of the global illicit drug market for the year 2003 was estimated by the United Nations to be US$13 billion at the production level, $94 billion at the wholesale level (taking seizures into account) and US$322 billion at the retail level (based on retail prices and taking seizures and other losses into account).", "24, 2002, the Dow Jones Industrial Average had lost 27% of the value it held on January 1, 2001: a total loss of 5 trillion dollars. The Dow Jones had already lost 9% of its peak value at the start of 2001, while the Nasdaq had lost 44%. At the March 2000 top, the sum in valuation of all NYSE-listed companies stood at $12.9 trillion, and the valuation sum of all NASDAQ-listed companies stood at $5.4 trillion, for a total market value of $18.3 trillion. The NASDAQ subsequently lost nearly 80% and the S&P 500 lost 50% to reach the", "current index of 133.3 would indicate that prices received by producers of export goods today are one-third higher than what they were in December 2001.", "List price United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the list price is referred to as a recommended retail price or RRP.\nIn 1998, the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry prohibited the placing of RRP on electrical goods, but it was lifted by the Competition Commission in February 2012. United States In the United States, the list price is referred to as the manufacturer's suggested retail price or MSRP.\nUnder earlier US state Fair Trade statutes, the manufacturer was able to impose a fixed price for items. The fixed prices could offer some price protection to small merchants in competition against", "“an absolute price floor,” adding that a significant amount of U.S. and Canadian production can’t cover the cash costs of operating at that price. 2015–16 prices: The lows of January 2016 In early 2015, the US oil price fell below $50 per barrel dragging Brent oil to just below $50 as well.\nIn mid-January 2015, Goldman Sachs predicted the U.S. oil benchmark to average $40.50 a barrel and Brent to average $42 a barrel in the second quarter. For the year, Goldman saw Brent prices averaging $50.40 and for the U.S. benchmark, $47.15 a barrel in 2015, down from $73.75.\nBecause", "as percent changes, rather than as changes in index points, because the latter are affected by the level of the index in relation to its base period, while the former are not. Each index measures price changes from a reference period defined to equal 100.0. \nAn increase of 20 percent from the base period in the Export Price Index, for example, is shown as 120.0, which can be expressed in dollars as follows: “Prices received by domestic producers of a systematic sample of finished goods have risen from $100 in the base period, December 2001, to $120 today.” Likewise, a", "of $45 on September 11, 2001 only to drop again to a low of $26 on May 8, 2003. The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. By March 3, 2008 the price of oil reached $103.95 a barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange.\nAlthough the oil price is largely determined by the balance between supply and demand—as with all commodities—some commentators including Business Week, the Financial Times and the Washington Post, argued that the rise in oil prices prior to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was due to speculation in futures markets.\nFor a dissenting view of", "October 2002 lows. The total market value of NYSE (7.2) and NASDAQ (1.8) companies at that time was only $9 trillion, for an overall market loss of $9.3 trillion.", "behavior found that a majority of prices take cost into account. A Canadian survey from 2002 found that 67.1% of major Canadian firms attributed price-stickiness to markup pricing. A 2003-2004 survey done in France found that 36.9% of prices are cost-added (another 4% of prices were \"regulated\"). Writing in 2006, Fabiani et al found that administered prices account for 42% of prices (of both goods and services) in Italy, 46% in Belgium, 52% in Spain, 65% in Portugal, and an average of 54% of all Eurozone prices. They also account for 40% of the prices of goods sold in France", "reduced to $8 million from the previous asking price of $10.5 million (which reflected a 2009 reduction from the earlier reported price of $13.89 million).", "importance of this benchmark for detecting irregularities in prices was demonstrated and with it a clear trend towards psychological pricing after the nominal shock of the euro introduction.\nAnother phenomenon noted by economists is that a price point for a product (such as $4.99) remains stable for a long period of time, with companies slowly reducing the quantity of product in the package until consumers begin to notice. At this time, the price will increase marginally (to $5.05) and then within an exceptionally short time will increase to the next price point ($5.99, for example).\nResearch has also found psychological pricing relevant", "2000, the price had dropped to US$2,500.", "applicable price by nearly 20%.", "example, the EUR.USD currency pair trades with spreads as tight as 1/10 of a basis point, i.e. with just a 0.00001 difference between the bid and offer price, so \"a tax on transactions in foreign exchange markets imposed unilaterally, 6/1000 of a basis point (or 0.00006%) is a realistic maximum magnitude.\" Similarly Shvedov (2004) concludes that \"even making the unrealistic assumption that the rate of 0.00006% causes no reduction of trading volume, the tax on foreign currency exchange transactions would yield just $4.3 billion a year, despite an annual turnover in dozens of trillion dollars.\"\nAccordingly, one of the modern Tobin", "price doubled. By March 2000, the company had a market cap of approximately $24 billion, making Bansal and other company leaders billionaires on paper.\nLater that month, MicroStrategy announced that it would restate its financial results for the preceding two years, which resulted in an investigation by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. In December 2000, Saylor, Bansal, and the company's former CFO settled with the SEC without admitting wrongdoing by each paying $350,000 in fines. The officers also paid a combined total of $10 million in disgorgement.\nSubsequently, the company's stock price plummeted, from a high of $333.00 in March to", "at the end of its crediting period.\nIn August 2008 prices for CERS were $20 a tonne. By September 2012, prices for CERS had collapsed to below $5. This was in response to the Eurozone debt crisis reducing industrial activity and the over-allocation of emission allowances under the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme. The Economist described the Clean Development Mechanism as a \"complete disaster in the making\" and \"in need of a radical overhaul\". The Guardian also reported the prolonged downward trend in the price of CERs, which had been traded for as much as $20 (£12.50) a tonne before", "in the world. As of 2005 the CSE had recorded a consistent annual growth of over 30% in the All Share Price Index (ASPI) for the previous three years. It surpassed that in 2006, with the ASPI growing by 41.6%, and the MPI growing by 51.4% during the calendar year. CSE recorded the highest point in history on 26 February 2007. Milanka Price Index (MPI) reached 4,214.8 points on that day.\nBuoyed by improved investor confidence due to positive political developments and strong corporate results the CSE continued to achieve strong growth in 2007, as the ASPI surged passed the", "of the drug in the U.S. market increased from US$13.50 to US$750 per pill, overnight, a factor of 56.\nThe price increase was initially criticized, jointly, by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the HIV Medicine Association, by the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, and soon thereafter by presidential candidates Hillary Clinton, Bernie Sanders, and Donald Trump.\nA subsequent organized effort called on Turing to return pricing to pre-September levels and to address several matters relating to the needs of patients, an effort that garnered endorsements from more than 160 medical‑specialty and patient‑related organizations (as of December 2015, 164 organizations", "a physical asset or a financial asset, and irrespective of its acquisition cost; this reduces the fall of the profit rate).\nThe valuations made are themselves influenced by the way price inflation is actually calculated using price indexes. Jochen Hartwig found that the divergence in growth rates of real GDP between the U.S. and the EU since 1997 \"can be explained almost entirely in terms of changes to deflation methods that have been introduced in the U.S. after 1997, but not – or only to a very limited extent – in Europe\". See further real prices and ideal prices. Tax dodging", "prices are determined by the market's forecast of the 3-month USD LIBOR interest rate expected to prevail on the settlement date. A price of 95.00 implies an interest rate of 100.00 - 95.00, or 5%. The settlement price of a contract is defined to be 100.00 minus the official British Bankers' Association fixing of 3-month LIBOR on the day the contract is settled. History The Eurodollar futures contract was launched in 1981, as the first cash-settled futures contract. People reportedly camped out the night before the contract's open, flooding the pit when the CME opened the doors. That trading pit", "over $83 billion USD, while the U.S. market reported a 16% increase to $44 billion USD. A 30% growth is also predicted in Asia and the U.S. by 2020. Furthermore, analysts at Morgan Stanley, believe that global sales may therefore rise to over $350 billion USD.\nIn spite of this, there is an arising issue regarding market saturation, due to the continuous entry of traditional luxury, and mass merchant brands, tapping into this trend. The athleisure market for casual athletic clothing, which took off a few years ago, also has become increasingly crowded with big-box retailers such as Wal-Mart and Target,", "price since July 2004. On December 30 with U.S. supplies still high, light sweet crude fell to $36.60, while Brent crude reached $36.46. Oil ended the year down 30%. 2016 On January 6, 2016, the price of WTI crude hit another eleven-year low, as it dropped to $32.53 a barrel for the first time since 2009. On January 12, in its seventh losing day, crude oil dropped below $30 for the first time since December 2003. OPEC encouraged production cuts, which helped prices go up before U.S. crude fell to $26.05, its lowest price since May 2003. Prices started rising", "spot market has doubled since 2010.\" The price increase has cost \"American consumers more than $5 billion\" from 2010 to 2013 according to former industry executives, analysts and consultants. The cause of this was alleged to be Goldman's ownership of a quarter of the national supply of aluminum—a million and a half tons—in network of 27 Metro International warehouses Goldman owns in Detroit, Michigan. To avoid hoarding and price manipulation, the London Metal Exchange requires that \"at least 3,000 tons of that metal must be moved out each day\". Goldman has dealt with this requirement by moving the aluminum—not to", "December 2007); 1, 5, and 10 million dollars (16 January 2008); 25 and 50 million dollars (4 April 2008); 100 and 250 million dollars (5 May 2008); 500 million and 5, 25, and 50 billion dollars (20 May 2008); and 100 billion dollars (21 July 2008). From the time of currency revaluation to the beginning of June 2008 the money supply in the country increased from billion to more than quadrillion, or a 20,000,000 fold increase.\nGono denied media claims that he had opposed price cuts that the government instituted to arrest inflation. As time went by, it became" ]

[ "Increasing the volume (amplifying a sound) does not typically reduce the quality, but it will result in background noise being amplified as well. \n\nSo if you record silence and then amplify it by several decibels, then very soft background noise that was imperceptible before will suddenly become incredibly loud noise.\n\nIf a recording (e.g. of someone's voice) was originally very soft then again amplifying the recording will make the recording louder, but it will also make the noise louder so the recording won't really be any clearer; just louder to the ears.\n\nThere is, however, a limit to how much you can amplify a sound. If you amplify a sound beyond that limit, it will cause 'clipping'. When clipping happens, basically the audio waveform gets distorted and the peaks and troughs of the waveform essentially get cut-off. So you end up losing that information from the sound and this results in noticeable distortion or degradation in quality.\n\nA lot of amplifiers and professional audio gear will have volume unit meters or indicators that will show you if the amplification level is too high and causing the audio to clip (see [here](_URL_2_) or [here](_URL_1_) for an example).\n\nSoftware applications for editing audio can also show you if your digital waveform is clipping (see [here](_URL_3_) for an example).\n\nTo answer your question about multiple volume controls on a computer. It doesn't really matter what the software (e.g. media player volume) is set to as long as it's not set to > 100% or configured in a way that allows clipping (the VLC media player, for example, allows you to exceed 100% volume).\n\nSo if you keep the player on the max/100% setting and then adjust the system volume level to your desired listening level, that's fine. Or you can do it the opposite way (set the system volume high and adjust the media player volume to the desired level). Just don't allow any of your volume controls to exceed 100% or otherwise get to the point where the sound is clipping.\n\nNote: some media players have volume controls that are tied to the system volume so adjusting the media player control has a direct effect on the system volume level.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) is an example of what clipping can sound like (starts half-way through the video). Clipping is not always as pronounced/obvious though, it could be far more subtle.", "> How does volume work when we increase or decrease it?\n\nThe amplitude of the signal is scaled up or down. This corresponds to the movement of the speaker membrane - so if the volume is higher, the speaker membrane moves faster and further. You do this by multiplying the signal with a large or small number respectively, e.g. multiplying amplitude by 0.5 halves volume.\n\n > How does it affect the sound quality? \n\nIdeally, not at all, but if implemented in a sloppy way, it can significantly reduce sound quality. Digital audio is represented by a series of numbers representing the amplitude of the signal, called \"samples\". If you already use a small size for these samples, e.g. 8 bit (0-255), and you then divide it by 10 to reduce volume to 1/10th, each sample is a number between 0 and 25 - which is completely inadequate. \n\nFor that reason, CDs use 16bit samples, that is numbers between 0 and 65535, which is so high that you still end up with perfectly fine quality even after cranking down the volume.\n\nEdit: Adjusting the volume at the amplifier should not affect audio quality like that. However, amplifiers typically don't work well in their extremes, meaning that very quiet and very loud settings usually have worse quality.\n\n > what I mean is we can change a video volume by video player(example: youtube, spotify) and from pc's volume at right bottom, do they overwrite each other or multiply its values etc?\n\nThey multiply. It just doesn't seem to be like that because of our logarithmic perception of volume: What we perceive to be twice as loud is actually roughly a tenfold increase of volume, or a change of 10dB." ]

[ "volume are also used by themselves while rotating the volume to a new orientation. Pre-integrated volume rendering Pre-integrated volume rendering is a method that can reduce sampling artifacts by pre-computing much of the required data. It is especially useful in hardware-accelerated applications because it improves quality without a large performance impact. Unlike most other optimizations, this does not skip voxels. Rather it reduces the number of samples needed to accurately display a region of voxels. The idea is to render the intervals between the samples instead of the samples themselves. This technique captures rapidly changing material, for example the transition", "Volume Logic Description Volume Logic was available for RealPlayer, Windows Media Player, Winamp and Musicmatch. \nIt was designed to subjectively improve the listening experience by increasing loudness of soft passages, controlling loudness of loud passages without audible distortion, emphasizes loudness of bass separately, for example.\nIt corrected a problem with RealPlayer and the system's wave volume control. Volume Logic disabled RealPlayer's volume control and uses its own. \nPresets stored settings for the amount of each kind of processing to be applied: automatic gain control, limiting, bass boost, etc. Presets cannot be added.\nThe Volume Logic plug-in incorporated multi-band dynamics processing technology,", "Volume (thermodynamics) Overview The volume of a thermodynamic system typically refers to the volume of the working fluid, such as, for example, the fluid within a piston. Changes to this volume may be made through an application of work, or may be used to produce work. An isochoric process however operates at a constant-volume, thus no work can be produced. Many other thermodynamic processes will result in a change in volume. A polytropic process, in particular, causes changes to the system so that the quantity is constant (where is pressure, is volume, and is the", "of the digital output signal. On later generation units, this does not work, as the main volume knob and the software main volume setting only modify the volume of the analogue output using voltage-controlled amplifiers and have little effect on the amplitude of the digital signal. To prevent signal overflow, each individual part's volume (controller #7) must be kept low instead. A third-party solution In the period of 1989 to 1993, Robin Whittle of Real World Interfaces offered aftermarket modifications to the MT-32 to address its sound quality issues, as well as improve the functionality of the reverberation unit,", "certain volume within its operational range and are called adjustable. These pipettes commonly have a label with their volume range like \"10–100 µL\". These limits are indeed the limits as overwinding these limits would result in damage of the pipetting system. The fixed volume pipette cannot be changed. As there are less moving parts, the mechanism is less complex, resulting in more accurate volume measurement.\nIn 1972, several people of the University of Wisconsin–Madison (mainly Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy) enhanced the fixed-volume pipette, developing the pipette with a variable volume. Warren Gilson founded Gilson Inc. based on this invention. Single-channel and", "Volume–price trend Volume–price trend (VPT) (sometimes price–volume trend) is a technical analysis indicator intended to relate price and volume in the stock market. VPT is based on a running cumulative volume that adds or subtracts a multiple of the percentage change in share price trend and current volume, depending upon the investment's upward or downward movements.", "in general, volume change is governed by considerations from elasticity and, this assumption being largely untrue for real soils, results in very poor matches of these models to volume changes or pore pressure changes. Further, elasto-plastic models describe the entire element as a whole and not specifically conditions directly on the failure plane, as a consequence of which, they do not model the stress-strain curve post failure, particularly for soils that exhibit strain-softening post peak. Finally, most models separate out the effects of hydrostatic stress and shear stress, with each assumed to cause only volume change and shear change respectively.", "volume of sound while reducing the dynamic range of source audio (typically CDs) to a range that can be accommodated by the narrower-range broadcast signal. Broadcasters in most countries have legal limits on instantaneous peak volume they may broadcast. Normally these limits are met by permanently inserted hardware in the on-air chain (see multiband compression below).\nAs was alluded to above, the use of compressors to boost perceived volume is a favorite trick of broadcasters who want their station to sound \"louder\" at the same volume than comparable stations on the dial. The effect is to make the more heavily compressed", "regulate volume expansion.\nThis was necessary due to the limitations of dynamic range on optical motion picture film of the period, however the volume compression and expansion were not fully automatic, but were designed to allow manual studio \"enhancement\"; i.e., the artistic adjustment of overall volume and the relative volume of each track in relation to the others. Stokowski, who was always interested in sound reproduction technology personally participated in the \"enhancement\" of the sound at the demonstration.\nThe speakers produced sound levels of up to 100 decibels, and the demonstration held the audience \"spellbound, and at times not a little terrified\",", "as minimum volume stability limit. The curve CA represents another limit to stability, characterizing maximum volume. It is upper bound to the stability region. There also exists a transition region between minimum and maximum volume stability. It is not yet clearly defined and thus is noted by dashed line in fig. 7.", "of that volume is less than the distance between the measuring electrodes.) Calibration and correction From the above equation, it can be seen that the volume measurement requires the knowledge of α, ρ, L, and Gᴾ.\nThe equation may be considered to be a straight line of the form y = mx + b, where m (the gain) is a combination of the three terms 1/α, ρ, and L² and b (the offset) is Gᴾ.\nL is available from catheter data sheets, while ρ can be measured directly using appropriate equipment.\nIdeally, gain should be determined in every experiment. While L is known", "duplicate of the Market Profile Point of Control (13). Users of the Meta-Profile need to be aware of the differences and their potential differences in trading.\n5. The time which is spent on individual prices does not necessary imply that the same amount of volume took place there. For more precise results, it is sometimes advisable to use Volume Profile, which is based purely on volume and price and does not take time into account at all.", "the input to reach the output gain determined by the ratio, or, to unity, once the input level has fallen below the threshold. Because the loudness pattern of the source material is modified by the time-varying operation of compressor, it may change the character of the signal in subtle to quite noticeable ways depending on the attack and release settings used.\nThe length of each period is determined by the rate of change and the required change in gain. For more intuitive operation, a compressor's attack and release controls are labeled as a unit of time (often milliseconds). This is the", "On-balance volume On-balance volume (OBV) is a technical analysis indicator intended to relate price and volume in the stock market. OBV is based on a cumulative total volume. Application Total volume for each day is assigned a positive or negative value depending on prices being higher or lower that day. A higher close results in the volume for that day to get a positive value, while a lower close results in negative value. So, when prices are going up, OBV should be going up too, and when prices make a new rally high, then OBV should too. If OBV fails", "some cases specific volume will be plotted on the x-axis instead of volume, in which case the area under the curve represents work per unit mass of the working fluid (i.e. J/kg).", "gain over a recording to fit the level within a minimum and maximum range. Normalization adjusts the gain by a constant value across the entire recording. Peak normalization One type of normalization is peak normalization, wherein the gain is changed to bring the highest PCM sample value or analog signal peak to a given level – usually 0 dBFS, the loudest level allowed in a digital system.\nSince it only searches for the highest level, peak normalization alone does not account for the apparent loudness of the content. As such, peak normalization is generally used to change the volume in such a way", "Fader creep Results of creeping As a result, the faders (potentiometers that operate by sliding up or down) or volume controls (rotary potentiometers) on the mixing board or audio processor gradually \"creep\" toward the maximum volume setting, which reduces the ability to manipulate the relative volumes between channels. It can also result in clipping or distortion of the master mix, which is when the overall volume of sound is too great for the equipment or recording medium intended to hold it. Multi track problems with creep Fader creep can be a particular problem in audio mixing sessions for multi-track recordings,", "Volume (finance) In capital markets, volume, or trading volume, is the amount (total number) of a security (or a given set of securities, or an entire market) that was traded during a given period of time. In the context of a single stock trading on a stock exchange, the volume is commonly reported as the number of shares that changed hands during a given day. The transactions are measured on stocks, bonds, options contracts, futures contracts and commodities. \nThe average volume of a security over a longer period of time is the total amount traded in that period, divided", "(although it cannot be thinner than one control volume width in our simulations); therefore,the formulation used for the source term is not very important in a physical sense, as long as it manages to bring the velocity to zero in mostly solid control volumes and to vanish if the volume contains pure liquid.[11]", "and amplitude effects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument. Dynamics effects were among the first effects introduced to guitarists.\nBoost/volume pedal: A boost or \"clean boost\" pedal amplifies the volume of an instrument by increasing the amplitude of its audio signal. These units are generally used for \"boosting\" volume during solos and preventing signal loss in long \"effects chains\". A guitarist switching from rhythm guitar to lead guitar for a guitar solo may use a boost to increase the volume of their solo.\nTreadle-based volume pedals are used by electric instrument players (guitar, bass, keyboards) to adjust the volume of", "engine is the product of the rotation rate of the engine, the displacement of the engine, and the density of the intake stream in the intake manifold. In most applications the rotation rate is set by the application (engine speed in a vehicle or machinery speed in other applications). The displacement is dependent on the engine geometry, which is generally not adjustable while the engine is in use (although a handful of models do have this feature, see variable displacement). Restricting the input flow reduces the density (and hence pressure) in the intake manifold, reducing the amount of power produced.", "these issues, this method is rarely used. Metering by using Volume Getting constant volume is, technically, relatively simple and metering systems relying on constant volume dispensing therefore are especially simple and reliable.\nA very good way is the use of piston metering heads. The ratio of resin to hardener can be determined exactly by the ratio of the width of two separate pistons, one for resin, one for hardener, where both pistons are pushed simultaneously. The amount is determined by a common stopper, limiting the stroke of both pistons equally.\nState of the art (2009) are metering volumes from 0,01 mL to", "compression or expansion of a fluid. At the molecular level, it stems from the finite time required for energy injected in the system to be distributed among the rotational and vibrational degrees of freedom of molecular motion. \nKnowledge of the volume viscosity is important for understanding a variety of fluid phenomena, including sound attenuation in polyatomic gases (e.g. Stokes's law), propagation of shock waves, and dynamics of liquids containing gas bubbles. In many fluid dynamics problems, however, its effect can be neglected. For instance, it is 0 in a monatomic gas at low density, whereas in an incompressible flow", "shrinkage, generally occurs without major changes, such as exocytic insertion or endocytic retrieval of the plasma membrane. Instead, volume regulation mostly occurs through the transport of potassium, sodium, chloride, and organic osmolytes across the membrane. The ramifications of cells not being able to regulate their volume size in relation to their environments are great as swelling leads to lysis, and shrinking eventually leads from dehydration to apoptosis. The specific role that VRACs play in the regulation of cell volume specifically is regulatory volume decrease (RVD) of cells.\nResearch of VRACs has led some to conclude that they are widely expressed in", "Audio normalization Audio normalization is the application of a constant amount of gain to an audio recording to bring the amplitude to a target level (the norm). Because the same amount of gain is applied across the entire recording, the signal-to-noise ratio and relative dynamics are unchanged. Normalization is one of the functions commonly provided by a digital audio workstation.\nTwo principal types of audio normalization exist. Peak normalization adjusts the recording based on the highest signal level present in the recording. Loudness normalization adjusts the recording based on perceived loudness.\nNormalization differs from dynamic range compression, which applies varying levels of", "not simply a measure of volume, but of volume under specific conditions. The task of converting this standard barrel of oil to a standard cubic metre of oil is complicated by the fact that the standard cubic metre is defined by the American Petroleum Institute to mean the amount of oil that at 101.325 kPa and 15 °C occupies 1 cubic metre. The fact that the conditions are not exactly the same means that an exact conversion is impossible unless the exact expansion coefficient of the crude is known, and this will vary from one crude oil to another.\nFor a light oil", "difference can be exploited to provide a measurement for the liquid fraction. This involves adding a second pressure tapping downstream of the Venturi to provide a measure of the partly recovered pressure drop. This method can be affected by changes in the system pressure and gas velocity.\nAdvanced signal processing is used where a liquid phase has an effect on the measurement signal such as pressure fluctuations in a DP flow meter or shift in the speed of sound in ultrasonic flow meter. Complex analysis and modelling of these signals can determine the liquid and gas flows.\nThere are a number of", "into a sound wave. The volume (gain) control is used to adjust the amount of amplification applied to the electric signal and thus, indirectly, controls the sound volume.\nThe devices vary in size from small boxes (with an earpiece attached) worn around the neck or hung off of a belt - down to - a tiny encapsulated device that fits inside the ear canal. These smaller devices look like hearing aids but are far simpler and do not correct hearing loss.", "Audio bit depth In digital audio using pulse-code modulation (PCM), bit depth is the number of bits of information in each sample, and it directly corresponds to the resolution of each sample. Examples of bit depth include Compact Disc Digital Audio, which uses 16 bits per sample, and DVD-Audio and Blu-ray Disc which can support up to 24 bits per sample.\nIn basic implementations, variations in bit depth primarily affect the noise level from quantization error—thus the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and dynamic range. However, techniques such as dithering, noise shaping and oversampling mitigate these effects without changing the bit depth. Bit", "as you go up the scale, to maintain the volume/length ratio of the tube and therefore produce the best consistent tone quality." ]

[ "THE ACTUAL WAY: \n\nSo... To get the frozen time look. The actors just stand as still as they can. The camera is on a track and therefore can do the exact same path over and over. Anything that defies gravity is added later. I.E. popcorn, beer, etc.\n\nOnce the footage gets into the effects software, a visual effects artist will be tasked with making sure there is no movement from the actors. They have an arsenal of tools to achieve this. But the basics is that they freeze frame and copy past a bunch of stills taken from the footage. This is also when they start adding in the popcorn. Which is most likely a 3D element.\n\nAs for making it look like 1 continuous shot. Lots of ways. They might have all done this on location. Where they would shoot one sequence, back the camera up. Take the new positions, and then go forward again. Compositing it all together in post.\n\nIf I was doing it. This would actually be 1 shot. In a bar, full of actors. Except there would be nobody standing where the main characters are. It would just be all the extras.\n\nThen in a studio green screen, you would recreate the camera path from the bar and film the main people. You would then composite them into the original single shot from the bar.\n\nEdit: Source:\n\n[I worked on this](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit 2:\n\n[Some behind the scenes](_URL_1_)\n\nEdit 3:\n\n[Here is the actual behind the scenes for this exact shoot](_URL_2_)\n\nWhich like I've been trying to tell people. Says that there was only a single camera.", "Here's another example of bullet-time photography - \n[Carousel - Phillips ad (Youtube)](_URL_3_)\n\n\nThe [wikipedia article](_URL_4_ has some explanations of the methods used." ]

[ "It was shot on Super 16 mm film using a Bolex camera. Each individual frame was animated, meaning that an average of 3–5 seconds' worth of film was produced in each full day of filming.\nThe film was produced by clay animation using character models each about the size of a wine bottle. The models were first constructed using plasticine before pouring Carbog, a solid material used by mechanics, into moulds to form the bodies. They were then painted to appear like plasticine, and real plasticine around wire was used for the arms. Elliot said he chose to use Carbog since", "from the opening establishing shot street scene under the credits. Camera moves were carefully planned and there was almost no editing.\nThe walls of the set were on rollers and could silently be moved out of the way to make way for the camera and then replaced when they were to come back into shot. Prop men constantly had to move the furniture and other props out of the way of the large Technicolor camera, and then ensure they were replaced in the correct location. A team of soundmen and camera operators kept the camera and microphones in constant motion, as", "photographed, he tested them on a hand-cranked 24×12×20-inch (61×30×51 cm) Mutoscope-like machine to ensure the animation was fluid. Photography was done at the Vitagraph Studios under the supervision of Blackton. The animated portion took up about four minutes of the film's total length. In only one sequence did McCay use an animation loop for a repeated action: he re-used a series of seven drawings six times (three forward, three back) to have Flip move his cigar up and down in his mouth three times. McCay made more extensive use of this technique in his later films. Style", "of the footage used in the sequence was filmed on location. Digital Kitchen took a four-day trip to Louisiana to film; it also shot scenes at a Chicago church, and on a stage and in a bar in Seattle.\nDuring editing, individual frames were splattered with drops of blood. The sequence's transitions were constructed differently; they were made with a Polaroid transfer technique. The last frame of one shot and the first frame of another were taken as a single Polaroid photo, which was divided between emulsion and backing. The emulsion was filmed being further separated by chemicals, and those shots", "a new version of the mammoth craft. Mead created a machine that contained organic elements based on input from Wise, Roddenberry, and the effects leads. The final model was 68 feet (21 m) long, built from the rear forward so that the camera crews could shoot footage while the next sections were still being fabricated. The model was built out of a plethora of materials—wood, foam, macramé, Styrofoam cups, incandescent, neon and strobe lights.\nDick Rubin handled the film's props, and set up a makeshift office in the corner of stage 9 throughout production. Rubin's philosophy as property master was that nearly", "featured in the film had been discovered by Clark while scouting for locations, and its owners agreed to lease the home for the production. Additional photography was completed on the University of Toronto campus. According to John Saxon, Clark had meticulously drawn out storyboards with key shots, which he brought to the film set each day: \"I could understand exactly what I thought he needed, and the scene needed.\" Scene in the film involving POV shot of Billy scaling the house was accomplished through the use of a rig designed by camera operator Bert Dunk, which was attached to Dunk's", "and images in postproduction. Thom Best served as DOP, with special effects by Tony Willis. Advanced mixers with live links to the live cameras allowed for the technicians to adjust background images in real time as the cameras rolled, giving a rough idea of what the finished product would look like. Opera Atelier The Toronto opera company, Opera Atelier, partnered with Sullivan Entertainment for the production, providing costumes, crew and cast. Opera Atelier co-Artistic Directors Marshall Pynkoski and Jeannette Zingg were choreographers for dance numbers in the film. Pynkoski also played the role of the opera director in the film.", "by multiple exposure and frame-accurate backwinding of the film strip. The graphics were shot as a series of secondary exposures using a television monitor, and the flashing lights were created with an LED strip board, also exposed on the same piece of film. At Gondry's insistence, no edits were made after the film was exposed; the only post processing consisted of colour correction during transfer of the piece to videotape.\nBjörk sings live in the video. This new vocal take was later featured in the CD2 of the Hyperballad single, and in the 5.1 edition of Surrounded. Mike Diver from BBC", "of the film uses a shot achieved using a dummy. Other locations included Germany, the United States, and Italy. The desert scenes were done in Ouarzazate, Morocco. The conclusion of the film included the Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna and Elveden Hall, Suffolk.\nPrincipal photography commenced at Gibraltar on 17 September 1986. Aerial stuntmen B.J. Worth and Jake Lombard performed to the pre-credits parachute jump. Both the terrain and wind were unfavourable. Consideration was given to the stunt being done using cranes but aerial stunts arranger B.J. Worth stuck to skydiving and completed the scenes in a day. The aircraft used for the", "in the film have been based on real events which transpired between the cast and crew.\nThe initial edit was done on a borrowed Macbook (in-between shooting days) and later the post production, VFX & Sound Design (Vijesh Rajan) of the film was done in a one-month time-span on a home computer so that it could be sent out within several film festivals' deadlines. After seeing an initial screening, director Anurag Kashyap helped to promote the film.", "to produce a broad cartoon version of the tale, so he planned to shoot the entire film in live action and animate the footage with rotoscoping. The film also incorporated brief cel animation and straightforward live-action footage. Production of the live-action sequences took place in Spain. During the middle of a large shoot, union bosses called for a lunch break, and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table, and used the footage in the film. Jerry Beck later wrote that, while he found the rotoscoped animation \"beautiful\", he felt that it", "the occasion of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. He used his camera to shoot the procession in one shot. His device had the camera mounted on a vertical axis that could be rotated by a worm gear driven by turning a crank handle, and Paul put it on general sale the next year. Shots taken using such a \"panning\" head were also referred to as 'panoramas' in the film catalogues.\nGeorges Méliès built one of the first film studios in May 1897. It had a glass roof and three glass walls constructed after the model of large studios for still photography, and", "the sunrise. The clip was the only musical segment filmed at an exterior location and using professional photography, and the shoot took place when the rest of the Magical Mystery Tour footage was well into the editing stage. Peter Brown, who was coordinating the Beatles' business affairs following Epstein's death, recalled that McCartney phoned him from Nice asking for new camera lenses to be sent out for the shoot. According to Brown, the cost for the location filming was considerable, at £4000. In Taylor's description, the footage was \"terrific\" and \"really complemented the song\".\nThe clip shows McCartney in contemplation and", "produced with DeLuxe Color processing. Aerial footage was photographed with an MCS-70 camera. The sound was recorded on 70 mm six-track using a Westrex recording system. The sets used for the film were based on the storyboards of sketch artist Maurice Zuberano, who accompanied Wise to Austria to scout filming locations in November 1963. Wise met with the artist over a ten-week period and explained his objective for each scene—the feeling he wanted to convey and the visual images he wanted to use. When Zuberano was finished, he provided Wise with a complete set of storyboards that illustrated each scene and", "and rewrite the previous script. The production had this footage from the beginning of shooting the film and had rebuilt some of the locations from the stock footage in Spain, where the film was shot. Fragasso commented on the use of stock footage in the film as producers wanted to reuse footage they had, which led to Mattei adding footage of a documentary New Guinea, Island of Cannibals into the film. Parts of the film were improvised on set, such as when a character enters a room imitating Gene Kelly in his film Singing in the Rain. The score", "measure, but released in the standard theatrical 35 mm format. The cinematographer was Bergman's longtime colleague Sven Nykvist.\nThe process of creating the film began with a recording session, starting 6 April 1974, at the Circus Theater in Stockholm. In addition to the singers who appeared in the film, the musical forces included the Swedish Radio Symphony Orchestra and Ericsson's own choir, the Swedish Radio Choir. This recording provided a carefully sung version with balanced audio, to which the singers later synchronized their mimed singing during filming. The latter began on 16 April 1974 at Filmhuset in Stockholm, Studio 1, and was", "plywood, cardboard boxes, and paper-maché, which were then painted to resemble rooms, forests and city streets. The sets were then photographed with a digital camera as either still pictures, or in sequences to create a stop-motion effect. These digital photos then served as backgrounds for the hand-drawn characters, made in pencil on paper using a lightbox. For the entire film, approximately 30,000 drawings were created, and then scanned into Photoshop where they were colored digitally. The individual drawings were composited into sequences using AfterEffects, and output as QuickTime files, which were then edited using Final Cut Pro. Release The film", "how the final animation would look, and all of his work took place alone in a sound booth. Filming Prior to filming, giant props for the film were stolen from the set. Local police found the props vandalized with graffiti in a mall car park in Pomona, California. Despite this, no arrests had been made and filming was to start the next week. Principal photography took place mostly in California from October 2002 until January 2003. The neighborhood and the town centre was filmed in a rural valley near Simi Valley, where 24 houses (each 26 feet square and 52", "identified early on as the primary shooting location. Zimbalist hired Wyler's long-term production supervisor, Henry Henigson, to oversee the film, and art directors William A. Horning and Edward Carfagno created the overall look of the film, relying on the more than five years of research which had already been completed for the production. A skeleton crew of studio technicians arrived in the summer of 1956 to begin preparing the Cinecittà soundstages and back lot.\nThe Ben-Hur production utilized 300 sets scattered over 148 acres (60 ha) and nine sound stages. Several sets still standing from Quo Vadis in 1951 were refurbished and", "cameraman to deal with the film's intricate double exposures, as Swanson was not used to taking charge, and filming took place in New York. The film premiered at the grand opening of the Roxy Theatre in New York City on March 11, 1927. (Swanson was pictured in the ruins of the Roxy on October 14, 1960, during the demolition of the theater, in a famous photo taken by Time-Life photographer Eliot Elisofon and published in Life magazine.) The production had been a disaster and Swanson felt its success would be mediocre at best. On the advice of Joseph Schenck, Swanson", "footage was also shot to be rear projected behind Cruise. Production was followed by a strong campaign of secrecy, helped by Kubrick always working with a short team on set. Outdoor locations included Hatton Garden for a Greenwich Village street, Hamleys for the toy store from the film's ending, and Mentmore Towers and Elveden Hall in Elveden, Suffolk, England for the mansion. Larry Smith, who had first served as a gaffer on both Barry Lyndon and The Shining, was chosen by Kubrick to be the film's cinematographer. When possible, Smith made use of available light sources visible in the shots,", "local production service company, Zohar International, for the six-day shoot, though no more than 500 were on set on any particular day. The extras included 50 stuntmen, gymnasts, and circus performers. Five carefully placed cameras were used to capture the early crowd scenes, buildings, and backgrounds. The final shot was taken by a helicopter-mounted camera, of the 50 trained extras running and climbing up a 20 ft cone fitted to the top of the Rio Sul Center.\nPost-production work was done by The Mill. Since the majority of the buildings and backgrounds were captured in-camera, the bulk of the work consisted of", "the main cast. Filming Continuing his advocacy for the use of film stock over digital cinematography, Pfister chose to shoot the film in the anamorphic format on 35mm film. Filming officially began in June 2013, and took place over a period of 62 days. The majority of the movie was filmed in a variety of locations throughout Albuquerque, New Mexico. The fictional town of Brightwood was created in downtown Belen, New Mexico. The film went through a traditional photochemical finish instead of a digital intermediate. In addition to film, a digital master was completed in 4K resolution, and the film", "photography began in mid-April 1944 and was completed by mid-June 1944.\nThe associate producer of the film was Theron Warth, and the assistant director was Harry Scott. Special effects were produced by Vernon L. Walker. The art directors were Albert S. D'Agostino and Ralph Berger. Set decorations were done by Darrell Silvera and William Stevens. The sound recording was done by John E. Tribby, and rerecording was done by James G. Stewart. Music was composed by Roy Webb under musical director C. Bakaleinikoff. Gowns were designed by Edward Stevenson. Critical response Upon its theatrical release on September 29, 1944, the film", "of the technique. Winner of the Palme d'or at the Cannes Film Festival and nominated for an Academy Award, City of Gold used animation camera techniques to slowly pan and zoom across archival still pictures of Canada's Klondike Gold Rush. Implementation In film editing, the technique may be achieved through the use of a rostrum camera, although today it is more common to use software. Virtually all non-linear editing systems provide a tool to implement this technically simple effect, although only some systems, such as iMovie and Openshot for Linux, specifically call it a Ken Burns Effect; it is usually", "Red One video cameras. Extensive use of Steadicam helped the audience participate in the scene. All of the dailies were shipped on hard drives to Electric Entertainment in Hollywood, California. Shooting, editing, and all post-production work were done digitally, using no physical film or videotape at any point in the process. Leverage was originally edited in Apple's Final Cut Studio Pro 7, but has used Final Cut Pro X in the later seasons. Shooting was in 4096 x 2304 at 24 frame/s, though resolution was reduced in post-production to 1080p. Broadcast The series premiered on December 7, 2008, on TNT", "all, twelve cameras were used, allowing the final product to be edited more like a film than a piece of static filmed theatre. Filming was done following the 1964 run of the plays at Stratford-upon-Avon, and took place over an eight-week period, with fifty-two BBC staff working alongside eighty-four RSC staff to bring the project to fruition. In 1966, the production was repeated on BBC 1 where it was re-edited into eleven episodes of fifty minutes each. The second episode, \"Margaret of Anjou\", presented 1 Henry VI from Act 4, Scene 2 onwards, beginning with Talbot confronting the French general", "they had captured at Crewe. Wright later thought it was \"one of the most beautifully organised shots\" of the entire film. The filming session began at 5:00 pm and lasted for 14 hours without a break. It included filming of the wheeltapper, who became the subject of an inside joke at the film studio when the crew forgot to shoot his scenes until the next morning. They adopted the term when the unit had missed a shot. Shots taken at Broad Street were incorporated into the Crewe sequence in the film.\nFowle is credited with capturing several dramatic shots, including the", "location filming, production went back to soundstages for interiors. Some scenes were shot against a green screen background for second unit footage of other locations to be substituted, allowing the use of crane shots. With the photography done, Moore took the film to South Korea to edit to prevent Disney from finding out; he also refused to tell most of his close friends what he was doing. Visual effects were done by the same company there that had done them for the 2006 South Korean monster film, The Host.\nThe post-production tasks were as challenging as the production itself. Sound editors", "the movie. Filming Filming began in 2005. The film was shot on location in Silver Lake, Los Angeles, California, primarily at Occidental Studios, where Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford once made movies. The film was shot guerrilla-style in a total of twenty-one days and in three production periods over a two-year period. Grossman used multiple camera positions to convey the significance of the band in relation to the audience. For example, in a scene depicting one of the band’s first shows, the camera looks down on Darby, suggesting the lackluster effect that the band had on the audience. As the" ]

[ "Ever hear of the LEXILE score? Textbook companies use this measure to be sure their material is at the right grade level. A LEXILE score is based on words per sentence, length of words, and other factors in the text. The writers you mention as being difficult -- Tolkien, Hawthorne, Cooper -- would have high Lexile scores. They are indeed difficult due to the complexity of their language, sentence length, vocabulary, etc. One other factor -- written English language has gotten simpler over the centuries due to the spread of literacy. When only the best-educated could read, writers felt free to spin long sentences and fanciful prose. Older authors -- Austen, Dickens, etc -- were writing for people who had all day to read them and no other entertainment. Now that literacy is more common and books must compete with TV and other screens, simpler syntax is more acceptable. As to those authors -- Hawthorne is difficult but worth it. I never cared much for Tolkien. James Fennimore Cooper is impossibly stilted and not worth it. Read Twain's \"Fennimore Cooper's Literary Offenses\" for a good laugh." ]

[ "difficult book to read because of the sheer horror and mayhem, but it’s even tougher to put down.\" It was also on the New York Times best seller list for \"Combined Print & E-Book Fiction\" soon after it was released.", "in literature\n\"I write books for young people. Many of my characters are characters of color who live in urban centers like the Bronx or Philly or Chicago. They speak in urban dialects. They deal with gangs, poverty, gentrification, broken families. But the books are hopeful in their search for belonging, for love, for connections. They are books for humans. Many of my readers don't read because they don't see people like themselves or hear voices they recognize. Comments I hear over and over: this is my story, this is my world. Why aren't there other books like this? Where's your", "in elementary schools.\nJessica Roake, in an article published in Slate, argued that the books are well suited for young readers. She wrote that \"They're drawn to them because for the first time in their reading lives they are understood, entertained, and catered to all at once. It is theirs, not ours, and that feeling of exclusive ownership forges the kind of connection everyone should have with at least one book in their life. For that, most every English teacher of my acquaintance will be more than happy to take the shot to the ego the Captain provides.\"", "the library stated that it was due to the book's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches. Deborah Caldwell-Stone of the American Library Association commented that \"If the only reason you don't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there's a question of whether you're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there is a demand for the information.\" Brevard County public libraries later made their copies available to", "an unnamed European nation known for their production of important books did not read books, or that 43% were book readers. Estimates for other industrialized nations' active readers ranged from 33 to 55%. Commentary from authors, businesses and educators Jim Trelease, author of The Read-Aloud Handbook, has stated that this trend away from the written word is more than worrisome, and that it's tearing apart culture. People who have stopped reading, he says, \"base their future decisions on what they used to know...If you don't read much, you really don't know much...you're dangerous.\"\nAmerican historian Daniel Boorstin, in 1984, while serving", "criteria for the library and that reviews for the book had been poor. A representative for the library stated that it was due to the book's sexual content and that other libraries had declined to purchase copies for their branches. Deborah Caldwell-Stone of the American Library Association commented that \"If the only reason you don't select a book is that you disapprove of its content, but there is demand for it, there's a question of whether you're being fair. In a public library there is usually very little that would prevent a book from being on the shelf if there", "reading. One major purpose of reading is to be sure that a local position can be neglected for a while. For instance, a player may be able to make gains by playing for a certain patch of territory. Yet, this play may be worth only a few points, and thus deemed unnecessary, depending on the state of the game. With confidence in one's reading, it becomes much easier to set priorities and switch around the board (see sente). Not changing gears at the correct time can be a loss of opportunity. High and low In order to build a", "book is the gridlock in Congress where nothing ends up happening, the book becomes a \"competent if not especially riveting reading\" because of the subject itself.", "books have also gained recognition for sparking an interest in reading among the young at a time when children were thought to be abandoning books for computers and television, although it is reported that despite the huge uptake of the books, adolescent reading has continued to decline. Harry Potter films In October 1998, Warner Bros. purchased the film rights to the first two novels for a seven-figure sum. A film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was released on 16 November 2001, and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets on 15 November 2002. Both films were directed", "next book? I point them to folks like Walter Dean Myers, Sharon Flake, Matt de la Pena and many others but they usually have read those and the very short list of my contemporaries. When they run out of titles, they read them again. And again.\nMy books will never be on the NYT Bestseller list and are hard to spot in your neighborhood Barnes and Noble. But they are widely read. I travel the country going to schools where they cannot keep them on the shelves. For every dog eared copy, hundreds of kids read them, passing them along like", "their complexity difficult to implement, insists on it even if, say, does not write any book.\"", "authors, like Mitch Albom, have built strong reputations on books like The Five People You Meet in Heaven and For One More Day, which are marketed as inspirational fiction; and others, like Tuesdays With Morrie and Have a Little Faith, which are marketed more in the category of inspirational non-fiction, or the larger category of inspirational literature, or inspirational writing.\nBecause it is often difficult to determine which books fit into the category of inspirational fiction according to a strict set of rules, libraries often include explanations (and sometimes, even disclaimers), such as the following:\nPlease note: The books listed here cover", "so complex a literary technique.\nIt may be possible to skate lightly over the narration of the events with all their plausibility but the book will only yield its true worth to the reader who has acquired or been taught the real art and skill of reading. There is the danger that less mature readers will be too daunted by the book's structure to give it the close reading it so richly deserves. The theme may be adolescent but its presentation invites comparison with novels that have made their way into the accepted canons of distinction.\nBooks For Keeps: Robert Swindells wrote:", "reading. It is quite often painfully hard to read According to John Pilling there is insistent use of the present tense used throughout the book that produced in the mind of this reviewer \"a kind of literary indigestion\". He went on to mention that a person could \"fear the snare of thinking that this sort of literary indigestion is therefore good for the person reading!\" Audio Edition in French There is a spoken version of \"La ronde et autres faits divers\"CD & MP3 as read in French by Bernard Giraudeau.", "book reviews] that I have read, the negative ones often say something to the effect that the book is just like the game, so why read it? What those readers may not realize is that I was hired to novelize the game. That means taking the game and turning it into a book [...] or, put another way, I did what I was hired to do. ...there must be some folks who feel that I wrote the Chief out of character. That's news to me. All I can tell you is that the Bungie folks, who care deeply about the", "and memory dynamic was very different. Books were a rare commodity; simply having access to a book one day did not imply access to it the next. Also at this point in time, books were not bound with outward facing spines; they were quite heavy, and lacked indexes. Even if one did have access to a book, it was unlikely that he/she would be able to find what he/she was looking for without having read and even become familiar with the book from top to bottom. In this point in time, external memory and internal memory blended together. Manuscripts were", "be set in a regular place. After reading, return them to their original place. Though there may be something urgent, still roll and tie the books up properly first. If there is damage, repair it immediately. Books not of the sages, reject them; don't look. Such books cloud the intellect and corrupt one's heart and aspirations. Don't abuse yourself; don't give up on yourself. What is saintly and virtuous can be smoothly arrived at.", "on the other hand the fiction literature has a treasure of themes which, relate more to our everyday lives. All this goes against what most English language learners and many English teachers as well believe: poems, short stories, and plays do not have a major role in classrooms aimed at developing communicative competence in English, and literary texts are only for advanced learners. In reality, most students often think that the study of English literature is boring and difficult. This problematic situation might be the result of not teaching literature in the right way. Most English learners think that studying", "of a book's reading in order to have a greater number of copies available. The popularity of Chapter a Day is consistently high and there have been many years when Chapter a Day has been the most listened to program on the Ideas Network. As Fleming said, \"There is something very basic and comforting about being read to that brings back an element of childhood and sitting on your grandfather's lap.\"", "it easily.\nWhen it was finished, everyone to whom I read it, everyone who read it themselves, all men of sense, couldn't finish it. Beauty, pleasure, everything was there, they said, never, perhaps, reading has provoked so much laughter. I did not trust that: the book had been too easy to be so good. I knew all the faults I have said; and in detail, I saw many things that could have been better, but as they were, I found them good. And even if the performance had achieved half the fun it achieved in reading, it would have been a", "the situation in the U.S. was different, and people were asking for reading matter. Since, in his view, practically every American was busy earning a living with no time for obtaining a higher education let alone for timeconsuming distractions, they preferred books which \"may be easily procured, quickly read, and which require no learned researches to be understood ... they require rapid emotions, startling passages .... Small productions will be more common than bulky books ... The object of authors will be to astonish rather than to please, and to stir the passions more than to charm the taste.\" Written", "too many \"indispensable\" books rather than allowing the game to stand alone.", "read, they read less today.\" This incited a negative reaction from many of those present in the room, mainly librarians and other representatives of the publishing industry. He later elaborated on his comment by saying that, \"In every survey, we find that they're watching more television, they're on the Internet more, and that content, although being king, is very disposable. Because the way content gets put out now, it gets put out free. \" Viz Media's Liza Coppola responded to Kahn's words by bringing up Viz's partnership with the Read for America literacy campaign, stating \"Manga is a great medium", "reading this book. Length and title-less chapters are no excuse to not reading the book. A must read! \".", "just what sort of book it is. Perhaps no explanation is necessary. Read in it what you like; read it to whomever you like; be of what age you like; it can only fall into one of the two classes. Either you will enjoy it, or you won't. \"It is that sort of book.", "poor marketing choices:\nWhy, why, why would a company publish a book this good and then practically demand that people not read it? Why should this book go to waste? Is it because there are people in publishing who believe that readers who liked The Memory Keeper's Daughter are too dumb to enjoy a killer novel like Fieldwork? If so, shame on them for their elitism.\n— Stephen King, Entertainment Weekly, April 15, 2007\nKing's review resulted in increased sales of Fieldwork. When Berlinski won the Whiting Award, he attributed it to his \"luck\" that \"Stephen King, the most famous writer in the", "books that is difficult to stop reading. The scare element wasn't too terribly high, but the fact Pearson and King marketed the book as an authentic diary makes it all the more enjoyable to read.\" But the Christian Science Monitor gave it an \"Unfavorable Review\" rating, unhappy with the book's violence and explicit depictions of sexuality.", "reward for someone who's read all your previous stuff because it seems to be at once a synthesis and a transfiguration – a transcendence – of your previous stuff; (4) a book in which nothing is skimped or shirked or tossed off or played for the easy laugh, and where (it seems to me) you've taken some truly ballsy personal risks and exposed parts of yourself and hit a level of emotion you've never even tried for elsewhere(at least as I've read your work).\nHe also remarked on the phonetics of the novel, telling Delillo \"you use these Saxonic devices heavily", "attacked by reviewers quite angrily because its outward array was not mean and forbidding. Of course, critics who take this view of new books have no patience with persons who care for \"margins,\" and \"condition,\" and early copies of old books. We cannot hope to convert the adversary, but it is not necessary to be disturbed by his clamour. People are happier for the possession of a taste as long as they possess it, and it does not, like the demons of Scripture, possess them. The wise collector gets instruction and pleasure from his pursuit, and it may well be", "books of any one age have always been written from several different viewpoints, some of them palpably more false than others. In so far as a writer is a propagandist, the most one can ask of him is that he shall genuinely believe in what he is saying, and that it shall not be something blazingly silly. To-day, for example, one can imagine a good book being written by a Catholic, a Communist, a Fascist, pacifist, an anarchist, perhaps by an old-style Liberal or an ordinary Conservative: one cannot imagine a good book being written by a spiritualist, a Buchmanite" ]

[ "Because generally when someone reaches the point of being able to commit suicide their brain is no longer chemically balanced. Be it depression, drugs, what have you, the signal for survival is essentially buried beneath all the other stuff that you feel is more important and are consciously expending energy on.\n\n Many suicide attempt survivors, those that really tried but failed, are often relieved that they failed. You also have to take into account that many people that try to kill themselves aren't really serious or the reason they try is due to temporary life problems. Relationship issues, job/money problems, etc. Those that succeed have more than likely been thinking about it for quite a while, weeks, months, in some cases years, despite whether they show any signs/symptoms of wanting to harm themselves. With these people it's either depression or some other psych issues that often times have been going on for a long time and they can't handle the yo-yoing any more.", "The brain is out for relief. To a suicidal person, the pain of being alive is worse than existence.", "A lot of logical attempts to answer a question which is inherently illogical. It's not that the suicidal person no longer fears death, or their chemical makeup of the brain allows for suicide, but rather that their experience of day to day life is far scarier, far more filled with flames than the idea of death; death becomes the less scary of two options.", "There is a great quote on suicide from David foster Wallace.\n\n > The so-called ‘psychotically depressed’ person who tries to kill herself doesn’t do so out of quote ‘hopelessness’ or any abstract conviction that life’s assets and debits do not square. And surely not because death seems suddenly appealing. \n\n > The person in whom Its invisible agony reaches a certain unendurable level will kill herself the same way a trapped person will eventually jump from the window of a burning high-rise. \n\n > Make no mistake about people who leap from burning windows. Their terror of falling from a great height is still just as great as it would be for you or me standing speculatively at the same window just checking out the view; i.e. the fear of falling remains a constant. The variable here is the other terror, the fire’s flames: when the flames get close enough, falling to death becomes the slightly less terrible of two terrors. It’s not desiring the fall; it’s terror of the flames. And yet nobody down on the sidewalk, looking up and yelling ‘Don’t!’ and ‘Hang on!’, can understand the jump. Not really. You’d have to have personally been trapped and felt flames to really understand a terror way beyond falling.\n\nI think that's a great literary way to describe it. A more \"clinical\" way would be to say that suicide and suicide attempts occur when internal pain exceeds that persons coping mechanisms.\n\nMy personal experience as someone who has \"suicide ideation\" is like this. let me say first that I'm not at immediate risk for suicide, I've never made an attempt and I dont habe a plan. \n\nBut sometimes I'll hear a little voice just say \"why don't you just kill yourself\". I'd also get an intrusive image of the moment I shot myself in the head. These sorts of things happening are apparently a precursor to suicide. \n\nIt's kind of hard to describe what it's like. It's easier than explaining depression though.", "There is no high level programming which tells an animal to avoid death. Instead, the neural net, which is the basis for all animal design, forces the mind to achieve a subconscious desire for self-protection through pain aversion. \n\nThis happens during early development, because all animal bodies are focused on producing an enormous amount of pain, even when injured very slightly (paper cut). The reason for all the excruciating pain, is simple, it has been bred into us, as those born with limited sensitivity to pain are far more likely to die out. \n\nTo put what I'm describing in a human perspective, instead of merely reaching a state where you're subconsciously afraid of pain, most people become highly consciously aware of this aversion as well. I say most, because it's entirely possible to rewire your natural aversion to pain, and instead begin to enjoy it immensely. It's also possible to end up in a constant state of pain and agony, without injury (clinical depression), at which point the subconscious and conscious aversions humans have to pain actually starts to lead them down the path toward suicide, in a desperate attempt to: guess what, avoid pain. \n\nOn a side note: In Japanese culture, the pain felt as a result of failure; the pain felt as a result of embarrassment, as a result of losing face in public, is described in a myriad of death poems written before the warrior ceremonially killed himself. I would say this too, is a form of pain aversion which might seem almost entirely abstract, and as such, is the best fringe example I could come up with.", "We negate our instincts all the time. See a pretty lady on the street, you don't run up to her and kiss her. Have to go to the bathroom? You don't crap your pants right where you stand. It's the same with suicide. As higher functioning beings, many times the more important thing is happiness and meaning in life, rather than existence. So if you've decide life has no inherent meaning, and your not happy and you see no possible resolution to this, it might be your next logical and emotional step to politely \"bow out\" of life. The other thing to think about is where does it say in the Laws of Nature that life is *always* worth living. I believe there would be many times that it is not. That would be a personal decision...\n\nSpeaking from experience, perhaps it might not be about pain/suffering/chemical imbalance. What if it is about clear rational thought? The assumption that life is *always* worth living is not universal, and is not a law of nature, it is a human construction. For myself, it was never about pain and suffering, but the far reaching emptiness and meaninglessness of life. Or in other ways, when you take a full look at your contribution to society and those around you, perhaps the math does not add up to a net positive? Perhaps I would not want to pass on this \"chemical imbalance\" to my children? There are so many more perspectives to consider on this. I hope this adds another dimension that you can add to the answer.", "I would guess that it falls into the most logical choice. Choosing between perceived pain to come and not being able to escape whatever horror that has the individual contemplating suicide in the first place. The logical choice then would be to not subject themselves to any more pain. Suicide would eliminate both the pain and heartache of dealing with whatever life has handed the person. \n\n*Note: I do not advocate suicide as a valid option. \n**edit: a word.", "These were all very enlightening. Thank you everyone.", "The brain's self-preservation can be overwritten by two things.\n\n1 - It's commitment to the next generation. This would be characterized as a person sacrificing themselves so that the next generation can survive (ie. a mother dying for her child) or a person doing something they know will kill them so that another person can survive (ie. a man rushing a mugger so that his friend doesn't get hurt)\n\n2 - When the brain cannot see a good way out. This is the more common thought when we think of suicide. The brain looks at all attainable options that it is aware of, and considers each one. It then takes the path that will ensure the least pain. Sometimes that path is to take the easy way out and kill one's self, because they don't see it ever getting better, they only see it staying the same or getting worse.", "I think a reasonably healthy brain has this mechanism of self-preservation, because when I think about ending it all, my brain just kind of goes NOPE NOPE NOPE. Even when I was very, very low, the closest I could get was \"maybe if I fall asleep and just don't wake up...\" but I never got into the active suicidal mindset. \n\nNot sure abuit what's going on in the suicidal brain. The one person I knew who was in that stage of things unfortunately succeeded. :(", "TL;DR: Suicidal people thinks self-preservation is stupid and ignores it. \n\nFrom a Counselling perspective: to the suicidal person, they are better off dead. \n\n1. Humans experiences events differently. This is due to people having different perspectives (think colored glasses). \n\n2. Through repeated perspective of events, humans form ideas,values and beliefs of their self, others, the future and the world. These ideas affect their actions, thinking and emotions. Certain Ideas are deeper than others. These beliefs reinforces their perspectives, which in turn reinforces their beliefs when they go through another event. Example: Nobody loves me (belief), I feel sad (emotion), useless (thinking) and I cut myself from the world (action). Now I see that nobody can find me (new event seen through formed perspective), I feel sad (emotion) and even more useless (thinking). \n\n3. A suicidal person has a strong and long lasting negative belief of themselves, others, the world and the future. Example: I am better off dead, nobody cares, this world is hopeless and the future is doomed. \n\nThese beliefs formed over time and can be difficult to change by the time they get suicidal. \n\n4. Self-preservation, in counselling views, is only a value/belief commonly held by humans, but can be changed. Humans commonly believe that this is moral, right, natural and instinctive; and this idea is passed along generations of humans. Certain humans can believe that their living only brings pain to themselves and others, and self-preservation can be outweighed by the benefits of suicide. \n\n5. When viewed through the lens (perspective) of a suicidal person, self-preservation looks like a laughable idea.", "Depression sufferer here, \n\nThe best explanation I can give is that due to whatever is going on in the brain during severe bouts of depression, you are NOT thinking clearly. Case in point, my family was considerably ripped apart by suicide, I have witnessed the repercussions and would not want to inflict that on anyone. I have a good life, I do not feel like I've hit rock bottom so It can be generally unsettling when I do have thoughts of suicide, because it is not something I really want to do.\n\nThe best way I can put it is your brain reacts similarly when you are mortally wounded. I don't know the exact science behind it, but I do know most animals, when faced with imminent death, become accepting of it and want it to end their suffering. I feel our brains do something similar during severe bouts of depression, we become instantly accepting of death and the brain thinks it is a better way out. As we are intelligent creatures, we are aware on how to end our own lives, therefore we are more inclined to act on these impulses caused by the effects of depression.\n\nThis by no means is a scientifically accurate description, but I've been suffering with depression since adolescence and have tried very hard to understand where it comes from.", "This probably doesn't really answer the specific self preservation of the brain you are getting at, but just my 2c. \n\nMental illness in and of itself, means your brain is not operating as it should. It is largely distorted perception of reality. In some cases of psychosis that can mean you perceive your best friend is an enemy, or an alien, or covered in bugs - either way as a threat of some sort... in the same way depression can make your brain perceive that continuing to live is a greater threat than anything else, that has to be stopped. The other quoted comparison to jumping from a burning high rise is extremely apt in this case. \n\nIn most cases it can't be rationalized, but most of the arguments against it imply that those struggling should rationalize and assume that continuing to live means there is a chance for things to get better or things will get better. However, even those who are able to rationalize it, for some are going to decide there is some point of \"diminishing returns\" where the likelihood of it getting better is not worth the possibility of it continuing on as it is.", "> The person in whom [depression's] invisible agony reaches a certain unendurable level will kill herself the same way a trapped person will eventually jump from the window of a burning high-rise. Make no mistake about people who leap from burning windows. Their terror of falling from a great height is still just as great as it would be for you or me standing speculatively at the same window just checking out the view; i.e. the fear of falling remains a constant. The variable here is the other terror, the fire’s flames: when the flames get close enough, falling to death becomes the slightly less terrible of two terrors. It’s not desiring the fall; it’s terror of the flames. And yet nobody down on the sidewalk, looking up and yelling ‘Don’t!’ and ‘Hang on!’, can understand the jump. Not really. You’d have to have personally been trapped and felt flames to really understand a terror way beyond falling. \n\n–David Foster Wallace", "I used to cut my wrists. It wasnt a cry for help its because i was 16 and scared of pain but wanted to die. I did it to see if i could stand the pain or have to find another way. My life was hell i had a depression that was undiagnosed my mother was awful. Death scared me but i needed so very much for everything to just stop. I couldnt sleep enough to get the kind of quiet i needed. I looked at death as something like a very long much needed rest. But i was scared to get there even though i desperately wanted to. I wasnt a cry for help i just needed a manual or someone who had suceeded to ask questions of.", "The thing to remember is that the fear of death is constant. It is unchanging. A person who commits suicide is not any less afraid of death than anyone else. The difference is that the pain of continuing to live has grown so strong that they decide that it outweighs their fear if death.\n\nA good analogy of this is a person from a burning building jumping from the top floor to escape the fire. Its not that their suddenly not afraid of falling such a long distance, its that the fire has become a stronger fear and they've chosen the lesser of two evils.", "You have to realise that a normal, balanced adult (who understands death) could basically never commit suicide the instinct to survive would be too great. \n \nWith people who attempt/complete suicide, in their mind (due to unbalanced chemistry among other factors) their pain was so bad and/or their future so bleak that they override that survival instinct. \n \nI can't even imagine that feeling.", "There is a theory from evolutionary psychology that suicide may actually be beneficial for gene propagation in some circumstances. People who are a burden on their families, for example, may better enable the replication of their DNA via their siblings by committing suicide. Not endorsing this line of thinking, but it is a proposed hypothesis.", "I'll just leave this here.\n\n\n\n\"Johns Hopkins researchers say they have discovered a chemical alteration in a single human gene linked to stress reactions that, if confirmed in larger studies, could give doctors a simple blood test to reliably predict a person’s risk of attempting suicide.\"", "My brain won't allow me to intentionally inflict any self harm. I'm not suicidal, but if I were to do anything that i know would do harm to my body my unconscious mind would immediately send impulses to avoid just that.", "No mention of altruistic suicide yet?\n\nSometimes people commit suicide because they think it's the best thing to do to benefit their social group. We have an instinct to self-preserve but sometimes that \"self\" is not our individual genetics.\n\n_URL_0_", "From a logical standpoint, if you are well aware that in the entire course of the rest of your life you will not enjoy yourself, or that survival is not even guaranteed, then why wouldn't you end it?", "when you've associated guilt with being happy it pretty much seems the only thing to do" ]

[ "in the brain might be altered during suicidal states. Specifically, changes in the polyamine system and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.\nSocial isolation and the lack of social support has been associated with an increased risk of suicide. Poverty is also a factor, with heightened relative poverty compared to those around a person increasing suicide risk. Over 200,000 farmers in India have died by suicide since 1997, partly due to issues of debt. In China, suicide is three times as likely in rural regions as urban ones, partly, it is believed, due to financial difficulties in this area of the country.\nThe time of year", "condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation. It is now thought that – in a developmental context – cells are induced to positively commit suicide whilst in a homeostatic context; the absence of certain survival factors may provide the impetus for suicide. There appears to be some variation in the morphology and indeed the biochemistry of these suicide pathways; some treading the path of \"apoptosis\", others following a more generalized pathway to deletion, but both usually being genetically and synthetically motivated. There is some evidence that certain symptoms of \"apoptosis\" such as endonuclease activation can be spuriously induced without engaging a genetic", "a common means of suicide in situations where other materials are not readily available, such as in prisons. Hypothermia Suicide by hypothermia is a slow death that goes through several stages. Hypothermia begins with mild symptoms, gradually leading to moderate and severe penalties. This may involve shivering, delirium, hallucinations, lack of coordination, sensations of warmth, then finally death. One's organs cease to function, though clinical brain death can be delayed. Immolation Immolation usually refers to suicide by fire. It has been used as a protest tactic, most famously by Thích Quảng Đức in 1963 to protest the South Vietnamese government's", "the \"cause\" of the suicidal person's death; for example when someone takes advantage of someone else's unawareness or simplicity and convinces him/her to kill him/herself. In such cases assisting a suicide is treated as murder and the offender is punished accordingly. In addition, assisting a suicide is considered a crime under section 2 of Act. 15 of the cyber crimes law of the Islamic Republic of Iran which was legislated on June 15, 2009. According to the act, any type of encouragement, stimulation, invitation, simplification of access to lethal substances and/or methods and teaching of suicide with the help of", "or may not involve exact planning or intent. In a murder-suicide (or homicide-suicide), the individual aims at taking the life of others at the same time. A special case of this is extended suicide, where the murder is motivated by seeing the murdered persons as an extension of their self. Suicide in which the reason is that the person feels that they are not part of society is known as egoistic suicide.\nThe normal verb in scholarly research and journalism for the act of suicide is commit. Some advocacy groups recommend saying completed suicide, took his/her own life, died by suicide,", "Suicide Definitions Suicide, from Latin suicidium, is \"the act of taking one's own life\". Attempted suicide or non-fatal suicidal behavior is self-injury with at least some desire to end one's life that does not result in death. Assisted suicide is when one individual helps another bring about their own death indirectly via providing either advice or the means to the end. This is in contrast to euthanasia, where another person takes a more active role in bringing about a person's death. Suicidal ideation is thoughts of ending one's life but not taking any active efforts to do so. It may", "attempts and most who self-harm are not at high risk of suicide. Some who self-harm, however, do still end their life by suicide, and risk for self-harm and suicide may overlap. Psychosocial factors A number of psychological factors increase the risk of suicide including: hopelessness, loss of pleasure in life, depression, anxiousness, agitation, rigid thinking, rumination, thought suppression, and poor coping skills. A poor ability to solve problems, the loss of abilities one used to have, and poor impulse control also play a role. In older adults, the perception of being a burden to others is important. Those who have", "About 60% of people with suicidal thoughts do not seek help. Reasons for not doing so include low perceived need, and wanting to deal with the problem alone. Despite these high rates, there are few established treatments available for suicidal behavior.\nReducing access to certain methods, such as firearms or toxins such as opioids and pesticides, can reduce risk of suicide by that method. This may be in part because suicide is often an impulsive decision, with up to 70% of near-fatal suicide attempts made after less than one hour of deliberation—thus, reducing access to easily-accessible methods of suicide may make", "motor neurone disease several years before. Over time, the disease worsened and made it impossible for her to move or communicate easily even though her mental faculties remained normal. The illness resulted in her having to be looked after round the clock by her husband and nurses, meaning that she could not commit suicide, which she had said she would do if she was able to. She stated a wish that her husband should be able to assist her in ending her life, but this is classed as assisted suicide, which is a criminal offence in England and Wales under", "sensitive issues, though they are not likely to actually attempt one. They might be down and depressed when all possible connections have been cut off, but as long as there is some relationship or even hope for one the risk will be low. The idea of suicide is a driving force against the person's schizoid defenses. As Klein says: \"For some schizoid patients, its presence is like a faint, barely discernible background noise, and rarely reaches a level that breaks into consciousness. For others, it is an ominous presence, an emotional sword of Damocles. In any case, it is an", "suicide risk. One explanation states that this is caused by altered neurotransmitter activity due to the immunological response. Rational Rational suicide is the reasoned taking of one's own life. However some consider suicide as never rational.\nEuthanasia and assisted suicide are accepted practices in a number of countries among those who have a poor quality of life without the possibility of getting better. They are supported by the legal arguments for a right to die.\nThe act of taking one's life for the benefit of others is known as altruistic suicide. An example of this is an elder ending his or her", "the impetus for suicide. There appears to be some variation in the morphology and indeed the biochemistry of these suicide pathways; some treading the path of \"apoptosis\", others following a more generalized pathway to deletion, but both usually being genetically and synthetically motivated. There is some evidence that certain symptoms of \"apoptosis\" such as endonuclease activation can be spuriously induced without engaging a genetic cascade, however, presumably true apoptosis and programmed cell death must be genetically mediated. It is also becoming clear that mitosis and apoptosis are toggled or linked in some way and that the balance achieved depends on", "constituted about 42% of U.S. suicides (as of 2017). Pathophysiology There is no known unifying underlying pathophysiology for suicide. It is however believed to result from an interplay of behavioral, socio economic and psychological factors.\nLow levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are both directly associated with suicide and indirectly associated through its role in major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Post-mortem studies have found reduced levels of BDNF in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, in those with and without psychiatric conditions. Serotonin, a brain neurotransmitter, is believed to be low in those who die by suicide. This", "be due to imitation. Once mental disorders are accounted for, the estimated heritability rate is 36% for suicidal ideation and 17% for suicide attempts. An evolutionary explanation for suicide is that it may improve inclusive fitness. This may occur if the person dying by suicide cannot have more children and takes resources away from relatives by staying alive. An objection is that deaths by healthy adolescents likely does not increase inclusive fitness. Adaptation to a very different ancestral environment may be maladaptive in the current one.\nInfection by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii, more commonly known as toxoplasmosis, has been linked with", "a correlative of what one takes to be the necessary condition of human life, e.g., ... the potential for consciousness\". The criteria of death, however, are \"those empirical measurements that can be made to determine whether a person is dead, such as cessation of respiration or a flat EEG\". Thus, brain death is a criterion of death that may serve \"as a symbol of when it is time to die\". A person must not delay death so long that it is no longer possible to die a good death.\nOn the subject of suicide, Hauerwas challenges the claim that autonomous suicide is", "most people, and in many cases it is, in other cases it may be extremely difficult or even impossible to resolve, even through counseling or lifestyle change, depending upon the severity of the affliction and the person's ability to cope with their pain. Examples of this are incurable disease or lifelong mental illness. Absurdism The French Algerian absurdist philosopher Albert Camus saw the goal of absurdism in establishing whether suicide is a necessary response to a world which appears to be mute both on the question of God's existence (and thus what such an existence might answer) and for our", "was someone who was committing suicide by police as a lot of people with mental problems do, and now, if they say they're a terrorist, if they say they're somehow associated with ISIS or Al Qaeda, it becomes a major event that shuts down the city and gets international attention. This was a person with a mental problem who tried to gain attention and succeeded, tried to shut down the city and succeeded, merely by putting up a flag that was something like the flag of ISIS.\"\nThe difference between terrorism and terrorising acts was noted in one analysis as \"enormously", "and anxiety and loneliness. The study consisted of 850 internet users; the data was obtained by carrying out a questionnaire amongst the participants. This study found that browsing websites related to suicide, and methods used to commit suicide, had a negative effect on suicidal thoughts and increased depression and anxiety tendencies. The study concluded that as suicide-related internet use adversely affected the mental health of certain age groups it may be prudent to reduce or control their exposure to these websites. These findings certainly suggest that the internet can indeed have a profoundly negative impact on our mental health.\nPsychiatrist Thomas", "computer or any other media network is considered assisting in suicide and, thus, is punished by imprisonment from 91 days up to 1 year or fines from 5 to 20 million Iranian rials or both. Religious In Iran it's said by the religious figures that according to the Islamic texts, suicide is a sin, because it would be unthankful of the blessings that God (Allah) has given them. Cultural While suicide is portrayed and discussed in many Iranian classic art works and literature, speaking of it among people is seen as more or less of a taboo. The cases of", "Murder–suicide Homicide and suicide theories According to the psychiatrist Karl A. Menninger, murder and suicide are interchangeable acts – suicide sometimes forestalling murder, and vice versa. Following Freudian logic, severe repression of natural instincts due to early childhood abuse, may lead the death instinct to emerge in a twisted form. The cultural anthropologist Ernest Becker, whose theories on the human notion of death is strongly influenced by Freud, views the fear of death as a universal phenomenon, a fear repressed in the unconscious and of which people are largely unaware. \nThis fear can move individuals toward heroism,", "mentally ill. The high court in Lausanne, Switzerland, in a 2006 ruling, granted an anonymous individual with longstanding psychiatric difficulties the right to end his own life. England and Wales decriminalized suicide via the Suicide Act 1961 and the Republic of Ireland in 1993. The word \"commit\" was used in reference to its being illegal, however many organisations have stopped it because of the negative connotation.\nIn the United States, suicide is not illegal but may be associated with penalties for those who attempt it. Physician-assisted suicide is legal in the state of Washington for people with terminal diseases. In Oregon,", "of humankind.\"\nSince \"committing suicide\" was akin to committing murder or rape, it has been argued that they continue to be linked in some languages. However, this common English expression is not universal: \"By contrast the French se suicider and the Italian uccidersi are reflexive. Likewise in Hebrew: l'hit'abbed, 'to self-destroy,' is something one does to oneself, with no implication of criminality.\"\nVarious alternatives have been proposed to alter the language regarding the act of suicide from a variety of sectors – including government, journalism, community mental health advocates, and the scientific community. Terms such as \"death by suicide,\" and \"non-fatal suicide", "was thought before. Outcomes Suicide attempts can result in serious and permanent injuries and/or disabilities. 700,000 (or more) Americans survive a suicide attempt each year. People who attempt either hanging or charcoal grill carbon monoxide poisoning and survive can face permanent brain damage due to cerebral anoxia. People who take a drug overdose and survive can face severe organ damage (e.g., liver failure). Individuals who jump from a bridge and survive may face irreversible damage to multiple organs, as well as the spine and brain.\nWhile a majority sustain injuries that allow them to be released following emergency room treatment, a", "intend to commit suicide as a means of managing physical pain and/or their way of dealing with possible future atrophy or death. Reasons to live Balanced against reasons to die are the suicidal person's reasons to live, and an assessment would include an enquiry into the person's reasons for living and plans for the future. Past suicidal acts There are people who commit suicide the first time they have suicidal thoughts and there are many who have suicidal thoughts and never commit suicide. Suicide risk and mental illness All major mental disorders carry an increased risk of suicide. However, 90%", "protocol for diagnosing someone as brain dead due to widespread disinformation and misinformation on the internet. \nThe American Academy of Neurology created a prerequisite and neurological clinical assessment to be used as guidelines for determining brain death published in 2010. To be considered for brain death the body must have a determinant cause of coma, have normal systolic blood pressure, and pass two neurological tests. These neurological assessments commonly consist of an apnea test, reflex tests where the body is manipulated or exposed to a stimulus and does not react, or be in a coma where there is complete unresponsiveness.", "can't understand them is a world in which they do not wish to live, and with a police officer discovering the car, the boys commit suicide by handcuffing themselves to each other through the bottom rung of a ladder in the motel swimming pool.", "as human beings. The distinction should be made that \"brain death\" cannot be equated with one who is in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery.\nThose people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone", "no suicidal thoughts, to 7, very strong suicidal thoughts) for the time directly before their first forum visit and at the time of the survey (Eichenberg, 2008). The study found significant reduction after using the forum. The study however cannot conclude the forum is the only reason for decrease. Together, these studies show how forums can reduce the number of suicides.\nAn example of how social media can play a role in suicide is that of a male adolescent who arrived at the emergency department (ED) with his parents after a suspected medication ingestion in which he attempted to overdose. Beforehand", "an unfortunate cycle for an individual who requires social or financial assistance to survive, particularly in a society which excludes those who are deemed abnormal.\nThis apparent cycle of alienation can cause feelings of helplessness where the only foreseeable resolution may be suicide. There is an identified link between severe mental illness and subsequent suicide. One predictor of suicide is a lack of social integration. Dating back to the late nineteenth century, Durkheim illustrated that highly integrated societies with strong social bonds and a high degree of social cohesion have low suicide rates. Social integration consists of many sources", "lead to humans imitating harmful behaviours. Copycat suicides occur when the person attempting suicide copies the method of a suicide attempt they had heard about or seen in the media, with a significant rise in attempts seen after celebrity suicides (see Werther effect). Suicides can spread through social networks like an epidemic due large groups of people imitating the behaviour of a model or group of models (see Blue Whale Challenge)." ]

[ "Reddit posts & articles are usually fairly short. There's not a lot of depth or nuance going on - especially the front page, which is full of image, memes and other such easily digestible things (not to mention all the articles that get commented on by people who never read the link).\n\nA book, or long-form article requires more commitment & attention paid to it. It's able to express more complex ideas, commit more time to them & explore themes in more depth.\n\nHaving reddit as your primary reading source is like eating candy & stacks instead of eating a full meal." ]

[ "Reading series A reading series is a recurring public literary event featuring writers reading from their work to a live audience. Some reading series are curated, some have themes, and some also feature music or other multimedia collaborations. Others simply focus on the act of listening to the written word, read out loud. Ireland Riverbank Reading Series, Newbridge, Co. Kildare", "Reading Like a Writer Background Subtitled \"A Guide for People Who Love Books and for Those Who Want to Write Them,\" — Prose shares how she developed her writing craft through writing and reading. She uses examples from literature to demonstrate how fictional elements, such as character and dialogue, can be mastered. Books to be Read Here are the books in mostly chronological order. The chapters in which they are discussed are in italics.\nSophocles\n(trans. Sir George Young)\nOedipus Rex\nAnonymous (trans. Dorothy L. Sayers)\nThe Song of Roland\nMiguel de Cervantes\n(trans. Tobias Smollett)\nDon Quixote\nWilliam ShakespeareKing Lear\nJohn Milton\nParadise Lost\nSamuel Richardson\nPamela: Or Virtue Rewarded\nJohnson\nSamuel\nThe Life of", "questions about the reading. In upper grades, the teacher reads the text aloud after stating a focus, and then re-reads the text, asking questions specific to the focus of choice (and may ask students to join). The focus may include things like: analysis, predictions, drawing inferences, grammar and punctuation, vocabulary development, questioning, literacy elements, critical thinking, phrasing, fluency, intonation, character and plot development.\nAccording to Morrow (2009), shared reading usually begins with a teacher reading from a Big Book so that everyone can see the text. Stories that have predictable plots are best because students can participate early on in the", "reader is not constrained by reading the fiction from start to end, depending on the choices they make. In this sense, it is similar to an encyclopaedia, with the reader reading a node and then choosing a link to follow. While this can be done more easily on paper, it is quite a different experience on a screen. The reader can be thrown into unpredictable loops because not all of the links are explained by their title. The fiction can contain text, quotes, and images.\nThere are different forms that hypertext fiction can take. These forms are axial, arborescent, and networked.", "the University College London have done a 5-year study on Internet habits, and have found that people using the sites exhibited “a form of skimming activity,” hopping from one source to another and rarely returning to any source they’d already visited. The 2008 report says, \"It is clear that users are not reading online in the traditional sense; indeed there are signs that new forms of “reading” are emerging as users “power browse” horizontally through titles, contents pages and abstracts going for quick wins. It almost seems that they go online to avoid reading in the traditional sense.\" Brain power", "including punctuation and spaces). Note that the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (German) are based on texts of increasing difficulty; other data were obtained when all age groups were reading the same text.\nRates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]); reading for learning (100–200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm); and skimming (400–700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people. Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension (below 50%).\nAdvice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing", "not used in the book. Part III: Approaches to Different Kinds of Reading Matter In Part III, Adler briefly discusses the differences in approaching various kinds of literature and suggests reading several other books. He explains a method of approaching the Great Books – read the books that influenced a given author prior to reading works by that author – and gives several examples of that method. Part IV: The Ultimate Goals of Reading The last part of the book covers the fourth level of reading: syntopical reading. At this stage, the reader broadens and deepens his or her knowledge", "just what sort of book it is. Perhaps no explanation is necessary. Read in it what you like; read it to whomever you like; be of what age you like; it can only fall into one of the two classes. Either you will enjoy it, or you won't. \"It is that sort of book.", "teacher Aidan Chambers, in his book Booktalk: occasional writing on literature and children.\nIn the 1950s, booktalks were originally designed to motivate young adults to read because they had the freedom to read but chose not to. Teenagers don’t read for a variety of reasons including (but not limited to): the notion that reading is not cool, unnecessary, and uninteresting. Books also have to compete with movies, television, the Internet, and other media. By the 1980s, there are also booktalks for adults. For example, booktalks in senior centers and in adult book discussion groups in libraries. Booktalks for adults were geared", "with chapters read by multiple readers, others find this to be a non-issue or even a feature, though many books are narrated by a single reader.", "Commonplace book Commonplace books (or commonplaces) are a way to compile knowledge, usually by writing information into books. They have been kept from antiquity, and were kept particularly during the Renaissance and in the nineteenth century. Such books are essentially scrapbooks filled with items of every kind: recipes, quotes, letters, poems, tables of weights and measures, proverbs, prayers, legal formulas. Commonplaces are used by readers, writers, students, and scholars as an aid for remembering useful concepts or facts. Each one is unique to its creator's particular interests but they almost always include passages found in other texts, sometimes accompanied by", "strategy in a book the students are familiar with. The teacher likewise uses a \"think aloud\" in this method to show students what she is currently thinking and then allows the students to work this out in their own books or in her book during the active engagement. During the link phase, she reminds students about the strategies they can do while they are reading.\nShared reading is when the students read from a shared text. Often this is a big book, a book on screen using a website or documents camera. If possible students should have their own copies also.", "can be removed as an impediment. No conclusion has yet been reached among professionals regarding whether or not reading on a screen is significantly different than reading printed text. Criticism Critics have voiced concerns about screen reading, though some have taken a more positive stance. Kevin Kelly believes that we are transitioning from \"book fluency to screen fluency, from literacy to visuality\". Anne Mangen holds that because of the materialist nature of a printed book the reader is more engaged with a text, while the opposite is true with a digital text in which the reader is engaged in", "Independent reading Independent reading is a term used in educational settings, where students are involved in choosing and reading material (fiction books, non-fiction, magazine, other media) for their independent consumption and enjoyment. Students that read independently have an emphasized creative choice in what they want to read and choose to learn. Usually, Independent Reading takes place alongside the ongoing curriculum in the classroom or homeschool. Independent Reading can be tied to assessment and evaluation or remain as an activity in itself.", "20–40% of the time. Reading in this way, as all fluent readers do, allows for efficient reading. Effective reading involves the ability to self-monitor and apply strategies such as phonics, looking at pictures, skipping words, or using synonym substitutions when coming to words that the reader does not know. In contrast to the argument that reduces the complexity of good reading to rapid and automatic decoding, this perspective acknowledges that all good readers come to words they do not know and constantly miscue, and that good reading is the ability to effectively solve problems that arise in reading through a", "probably like 85% women - teachers and librarians.\" As for how exactly to motivate boys to read, Scieszka says, \"I think the best way to do it is to give them things they like to read... What we haven't done with boys is we haven't really given them a broad range of reading. In schools, what's seen as reading is so narrow: it's literary, realistic fiction.\"\nThe Guys Read website includes a large list of \"books that guys read\", instructions as to how to start a Guys Read \"field office\" (or book club), a blog, and links to many boy-loved authors'", "public transit systems, airport waiting areas and resorts seeking what Heath defines as \"enforced transition zones\". Heath's interviews generally consist of discovering from individuals reading \"substantive works of fiction\" why they are reading, rather than using electronic media to stave off boredom. Heath's research found that those who continue reading this type of fiction frequently modeled on the individual enjoying reading first at a young age. Additionally, Heath found that the reading of substantive fiction is done by those of all educational backgrounds and economic positions. Heath's research divided those who developed the habit of substantively reading between those who", "reading. The survey was not focused specifically on reading books, but also reading journals, the Internet, tablet computers, and smart phones.", "confirmed it for me. Now, when I sit down to write the first page of a novel, I never give a thought to who will eventually read it. He said, \"Don't talk about your books with anybody, even me, until they are written.\" Until it is written a book is merely smoke on the wind. It can be blown away by a careless word. I write my books while other aspiring authors are talking theirs away. He said, \"Dedicate yourself to your calling, but read widely and look at the world around you, travel and live your life to the", "this process, the reader is converted to a \"writer\", whether or not he writes or publishes his own ideas.\nReading and writing are thus reciprocal processes, reading is an active process, and the best way to learn critical reading is probably by training academic writing.\nBazerman (1994) writes about the active role of the reader, and remarks (p. 23): \"The cure for real boredom is to find a more advanced book on the subject; the only cure for pseudo-boredom is to become fully and personally involved in the book already in front of you\". Bazerman's book is informed by an advanced theoretical", "Read (magazine) READ Magazine was a children's classroom magazine for grades 6–10, published by Weekly Reader Corporation. It included a mix of classic and contemporary fiction and nonfiction, including plays, personal narratives, poetry, and more to help build reading comprehension and verbal skills. The headquarters was in Delran, New Jersey. It was based in Middletown, Connecticut, and was published on a biweekly basis at the end of the 1980s.\nREAD has 15 printed issues and 3 electronic issues per publishing year, and features the work of a number of illustrators, including Bethany Culp, Alex Bradley, Noma Bliss, and many others. The", "libraries do identify and list some works in such a category, using some working definitions to explain their choices.\nFor example, one library list of \"inspirational fiction\" books begins with the statement:\nAny good book can be an inspiration, but many of these books highlight people overcoming adversity or reaching new levels of understanding. Whether they pull themselves up by their own bootstraps or have help from a higher power, these books will uplift and entertain you.\nWhile it is true that many novels involve a positive change in the lives of some characters, this library definition might help limit the books that", "reading—by helping people find the right book at the right time.\"", "to as being \"read\". (/rɛd/) The event of being read is known as \"a read\". (/riːd/) or \"being clocked\".\nPassing entails much more than physical appearance, since there are many factors : height, bone structure, appearance of having or lacking an Adam's apple. Mannerisms and vocabulary are important; the mind picks up these inconsistencies or supporting traits to determine whether the person is \"read\" or not. A person's dress, for example out-of-place clothing for the surroundings, will draw attention. A miniskirt, mink coat and knee high boots even on a cis woman in a supermarket will focus one's attention on her, leaving", "written or completed orally, including close text, i.e. 'find the missing word'. Many books have comprehension questions at the end of the book giving page numbers where the answer can be found. The story books also come with workbooks, for the children to practice writing and comprehension in.", "towards the recommendation of new titles rather than the motivation to read. By the 1990s, booktalks were also created for children to motivate kids to read at a younger age. However, booktalks for children focused heavily on teaching kids to read using mostly picture books. Purpose The purpose of a booktalk is to motivate listeners in order to foster good reading, writing and speaking skills by encouraging self-directed learning through reading. Booktalkers also try to incorporate learning opportunities following a book talk which include discussion topics, ideas for journals, papers, poems or other creative writing, panel discussions or presentations (visually", "they are, and how the written formats differ from author to author, and suggested that these are the aspects we have to think about when we choose books to read. Also, Wang stressed that it is necessary for every author to get the basic and wide-ranging knowledge on different areas before having any discussion or analysis. With his literature commentaries in Magical Eyes (魔幻之眼), Nanfang Shuo attempts to give his readers a brief overview on his recommended books to help them choose readings.\nWang’s views on literature ties in well in the principles in journalism. While literature commenting allows his audience", "Then Write Read Then Write is a literacy composition and publishing program for young authors. Teens read and discuss books from a specific genre and then write their own stories in that style, which Open Books later publishes. During this program, students read through a text with a volunteer writing coach before going on to write their own creative writing works, which are published in an annual Open Books anthology. Open Books Publishing Academy Open Books Publishing Academy is a reading, creative writing, book access & distribution program where children create, write and professionally publish a full length novel. With", "reading book. Other print sources have increasingly higher amounts of rare words, from children's books, to adult books, to popular magazines, newspapers, and scientific articles (listed in increasing level of difficulty). Television, even adult news shows, do not have the same level of rare words that children's books do.\nThe issue is that oral language is very repetitive. To learn to read effectively a child needs to have a large vocabulary. Without this, when the child does read they stumble over words that they do not know, and have trouble following the idea of the sentence. This leads to frustration and", "readers guides, Book Lust and More Book Lust, which recommend \"reading for every mood, moment, and reason.\" Both have been popular with the general public and can be found at most book stores and libraries. Also of note are Pearl's guides to contemporary fiction: Now Read This: A Guide to Mainstream Fiction, 1978–1998 and Now Read This II: A Guide to Mainstream Fiction, 1990–2001.\nBookPage is a periodical available at many public libraries, containing book reviews, recommended reading lists, and author interviews." ]

[ "First of all, if a plane has major issues while in flight, the shape of the plane still allows for a large glide ratio, meaning that as long as the plane maintains its shape (which seems like a necessary component for any parachute mechanism) it will continue moving forward, rather than going into a nosedive. If that's the case, the plane can do just fine without additional help and glide into a landing area, rather than just falling.\n\nAnother thing to consider is that few accidents occur during the \"cruising\" portion of the flight. It's much more likely for crashes to occur during takeoffs and landings. During those portions of the flight, the aircraft is too low for parachutes to make much of a difference. \n\nIn other words, having a parachute wouldn't actually solve any of the problems that are associated with typical airplane malfunctions.", "This actually is a thing for some small planes ([_URL_0_] (like Cirrus)", "This website has a formula to calculate how big a parachute would need to be given some assumptions about drag and effectiveness that seem reasonable. _URL_2_\n\nPlugging in the weight of a 747 ( [272,000 kg](_URL_2_) ) gives a parachute size of:\n\nD = sqrt( (8 m g) / (p r Cd v2) )\n\nD = sqrt (((8)(272,000)(9.8))/((1.22)(.75)(5)))\n\nD = sqrt (21324800 /(4.575)\n\nD = sqrt (4,661,158)\n\nDiameter of the chute = 2158 METERS\n\nSeems way to big. The whole plane is only 70 meters.", "This kind of system exists for smaller planes like a Cessna, but its expensive and potentially can wreck the craft because planes are built to fly or be parked, not be dangling from a parachute. Pretty sure its unworkable for Jets tho because of the speed involved--engines dead, plummeting to earth, pull the chute!, (enter sound effect here :P) it either injures or kills half the passengers on opening or traps them inside as it comes down on top of them as they land and sink or burn. I'm not optimistic that a system could be developed for larger planes that wouldn't double the cost of the plane." ]

[ "no holes in it is more prone to oscillate and is not considered to be steerable. Some parachutes have inverted dome-shaped canopies. These are primarily used for dropping non-human payloads due to their faster rate of descent.\nForward speed (5–13  km/h) and steering can be achieved by cuts in various sections (gores) across the back, or by cutting four lines in the back thereby modifying the canopy shape to allow air to escape from the back of the canopy, providing limited forward speed. Other modifications sometimes used are cuts in various sections (gores) to cause some of the skirt to bow", "a dangerous downplane configuration. Having two deployed parachutes side by side can create considerably more lift to the point of becoming dangerously hard to control. One should always attempt to fly the canopy more overhead.\nSafely Landing a two-out scenario\nThe two canopies will arrange themselves into a biplane or side-by-side. At any point it can shift into a down plane (See Image), which will accelerate the parachutist quickly downwards. One should NOT cutaway while under two canopies due to risk of entanglement of the parachutes, unless the canopies begin to shift into a down plane. The moment the canopies are", "canopies, the drag induced by trailing a pilot chute behind a canopy has become a significant concern. To reduce this drag some pilot chute designs of the Pull-out and Throw-out variety are collapsible. Once deployment of the parachute has occurred a kill line running up the center of the pilot chute bridle becomes loaded. This kill line pulls down on the apex of the pilot chute collapsing it and greatly reducing its drag on the canopy.\nSome designs replace the kill line with a fixed length of shock cord, which stretches when the pilot chute is moving quickly, allowing it to", "pulling apart from each other is when you cut away. Line twist This is where a parachute twists around the vertical axis on deployment. This causes the parachute to only partially open especially if the slider is above the line twists. If a skydiver is unable to kick out of the line twists (rotating his body to untwist the lines) he or she will have to cut away. Closed end cells This is when the parachute is open, but the end cells have not yet inflated. This can usually be cleared by just waiting, and they will self-inflate, or", "Drogue parachute Design and operational characteristics A drogue parachute is more elongated and has a far smaller area than a conventional parachute and therefore provides less drag. This means that a drogue parachute cannot slow an object as much as a conventional parachute, but it can be deployed at speeds at which conventional parachutes would be torn apart.\nThe drogue parachute's simpler design allows for easier deployment. Where a conventional parachute could get caught in itself while unfolding or fail to inflate properly (thus not slowing the falling object as much as it should), the drogue parachute will inflate more easily", "leads are automatically disconnected, leg and arm restraints also operate.\nAs the seat moves further up and out of the aircraft the rocket pack is fired by a telescopic static rod attached to the main gun which remains attached to the aircraft after the ejection seat separates. A steel rod, known as the drogue gun, is fired and extracts two small parachutes to stabilise the seat's descent path. A barostatic mechanism prevents the main parachute from opening above an altitude of 16,000 ft (5,000 m) A time delay mechanism operates the main parachute below this altitude in conjunction with another device to prevent", "roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These \"vent lines\" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.\nAn older, and presently less commonly used, style", "do not have a similar limitation with regard to centerline-thrust aircraft. The limitation can be removed by further testing in a conventional multi-engine aircraft. Military application Despite its advantages push-pull configurations are rare in military aircraft. In addition to the problems noted for civil aircraft, the increased risk to the pilot in the case of a crash or the need to parachute from the aircraft also pose problems. During a crash the rear engine may crush the pilot and if bailing out, the pilot is in danger of hitting the propeller. Examples of past military applications include the aforementioned", "balloons, it had mixed results when used on fixed-wing aircraft by the Germans, where the bag was stored in a compartment directly behind the pilot. In many instances where it did not work the shroud lines became entangled with the spinning aircraft. Although a number of famous German fighter pilots were saved by this type of parachute, including Hermann Göring, no parachutes were issued to Allied \"heavier-than-air\" aircrew, since it was thought at the time that if a pilot had a parachute he would jump from the plane when hit rather than trying to save the aircraft.\nAirplane cockpits at that", "deploys a small pilot-chute which acts as a drogue, catching air and pulling out the main parachute or the main canopy. There are two principal systems in use: the \"throw-out\", where the skydiver pulls a toggle attached to the top of the pilot-chute stowed in a small pocket outside the main container: and the \"pull-out\", where the skydiver pulls a small pad attached to the pilot-chute which is stowed inside the container.\nThrow-out pilot-chute pouches are usually positioned at the bottom of the container – the B.O.C. deployment system – but older harnesses often have leg-mounted pouches. The latter are safe", "is to cut away although it is sometimes possible to clear the malfunction by collapsing the parachute and letting the line pass back into the right position. Two canopies out Since a sport skydiver jumps with a main and a reserve parachute, it is possible for both parachutes to deploy. This often occurs when a skydiver employing an Automatic Activation Device (AAD) deploys the main canopy at an altitude low enough for the AAD to activate. This may result in a dangerous main-reserve entanglement. More commonly, the two canopies will arrange themselves in a biplane, side-by-side, or", "force of the motor to deploy, or push out, the parachute or streamer. The parachute is attached to the body either directly, by means of a ripcord, or indirectly, when it's attached to the nose cone, which attached to the body by a ripcord. Typically, a ball or mass of fireproof paper or material is inserted into the body before the parachute or streamer. This allows the ejection charge to propel the fire-proof material, parachute, and nose cone without damaging the recovery equipment. Air resistance slows the rocket's fall, ending in a smooth, controlled and gentle landing. Glide recovery In", "a tailplane, can also be mounted in front of the main wing in a canard configuration (Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender).\nStabilators on military aircraft have the same problem of too light control forces (inducing overcontrol) as general aviation aircraft. In older jet fighter aircraft, a resisting force was generated within the control system, either by springs or a resisting hydraulic force, rather than by an external anti-servo tab. For example, in the North American F-100 Super Sabre, springs were attached to the control stick to provide increasing resistance to pilot input. In modern fighters, control inputs are moderated by computers", "parachutes have similarities to annular designs. They are frequently designed to deploy at supersonic speeds. A conventional parachute would instantly burst upon opening and be shredded at such speeds. Ribbon parachutes have a ring-shaped canopy, often with a large hole in the centre to release the pressure. Sometimes the ring is broken into ribbons connected by ropes to leak air even more. These large leaks lower the stress on the parachute so it does not burst or shred when it opens. Ribbon parachutes made of Kevlar are used on nuclear bombs, such as the B61 and B83. Ram-air Ram-air parafoils", "by balloons.\nThe British added two refinements to their balloons, \"Double Parachute Link\" (DPL) and \"Double Parachute/Ripping\" (DP/R). The former was triggered by the shock of an enemy bomber snagging the cable, causing that section of cable to be explosively released complete with parachutes at either end; the combined weight and drag bringing down the aircraft. The latter was intended to render the balloon safe if it broke free accidentally. The heavy mooring cable would separate at the balloon and fall to the ground under a parachute; at the same time a panel would be ripped away from the balloon causing", "fitted with drogue chute deployment capability in the extreme rear ventral fuselage. Parachuting Drogue parachutes are sometimes used to deploy a main or reserve parachute by using the drag generated by the drogue to pull the main parachute out of its container. Such a drogue is referred to as a pilot chute when used in a single user (sports) parachute system. The pilot chute is only used to deploy the main or reserve parachute; it is not used for slowing down or for stability. Tandem systems are different; a drogue is so deployed shortly after exiting the aircraft as to", "the paratrooper's harness to the connectors) and suspension lines which attach to the parachute canopy itself. German paratroopers, whose harnesses had only a single riser attached at the back, could not manipulate their parachutes in such a manner. Today, paratroopers still use round parachutes, or round parachutes modified so as to be more fully controlled with toggles. The parachutes are usually deployed by a static line. Mobility of the parachutes is often deliberately limited to prevent scattering of the troops when a large number parachute together. \nSome military exhibition units and special forces units use \"ram-air\" parachutes, which offer a", "drag was considerably stronger than any other parachute he had tested in his 25 years of experience. He believed others' attempts ripped to shreds, because of the drag. To slow the opening of the parafoil, Theodore ran the cords through rings he designed that were slid to the top while packing the parachute. As it opened, the rings had to slide down, slowing the opening. These rings later evolved to be the slider in modern ram-air parachutes. Theodore personally made the first full-size parafoil, which worked perfectly in its first drop. Ram-air airfoil of fully flexible materials", "deflate the balloon as quickly as possible. The main part of the parachute was in a bag suspended from the balloon with the pilot wearing only a simple waist harness attached to the main parachute. When the balloon crew jumped the main part of the parachute was pulled from the bag by the crew's waist harness, first the shroud lines, followed by the main canopy. This type of parachute was first adopted on a large scale for their observation balloon crews by the Germans, and then later by the British and French. While this type of unit worked well from", "Causes may be that the pilot chute is caught in the turbulent wake of the jumper (the \"burble\"), the closing loop holding the pin is too tight, or the pilot chute is generating insufficient force. This effect is known as \"pilot chute hesitation,\" and, if it does not clear, it can lead to a total malfunction, requiring reserve deployment.\nParatroopers' main parachutes are usually deployed by static lines that release the parachute, yet retain the deployment bag that contains the parachute—without relying on a pilot chute for deployment. In this configuration, the deployment bag is known as a direct-bag system, in", "also now available with special child-proof locks. Launching As with all aircraft, launching and landing are done into wind. The wing is placed into an airstream, either by running or being pulled, or an existing wind. The wing moves up over the pilot into a position in which it can carry the passenger. The pilot is then lifted from the ground and, after a safety period, can sit down into his harness. Unlike skydivers, paragliders, like hang gliders, do not \"jump\" at any time during this process. There are two launching techniques used on higher ground and one assisted launch", "for flat-flying, but often unsuitable for freestyle or head-down flying.\nIn a typical civilian sport parachute system, the pilot-chute is connected to a line known as the \"bridle\", which in turn is attached to a small deployment bag that contains the folded parachute and the canopy suspension lines, which are stowed with rubber bands. At the bottom of the container that holds the deployment bag is a closing loop which, during packing, is fed through the grommets of the four flaps that are used to close the container. At that point, a curved pin that is attached to the bridle is", "Parachute A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag (or in the case of ram-air parachutes, aerodynamic lift). Parachutes are usually made out of light, strong fabric, originally silk, now most commonly nylon. They are typically dome-shaped, but vary, with rectangles, inverted domes, and others found. A variety of loads are attached to parachutes, including people, food, equipment, space capsules, and bombs.\nA drogue chute is used to aid horizontal deceleration of a vehicle including fixed-wing aircraft and drag racers, provide stability, as to assist certain types of", "airplane. Tractor configuration leaves the rear of the plane as relatively safe working area, while a pusher is dangerous to approach from behind, while a spinning propeller may suck in things and people nearby in front of it with fatal results to both the plane and the people sucked in. Even more hazardous are unloading operations, especially mid-air, such as dropping supplies on parachute or skydiving operations, which are next to impossible with a pusher configuration airplane, especially if propellers are mounted on fuselage or sponsons.", "Malfunction (parachuting) Pilot chute in tow This happens with the popular throw-out deployment system where the pilot chute does not pull the pin and open the container or once opened does not exert enough force to extract the deployment bag from the container. It can be caused by pilot chutes with kill lines that have not been cocked during packing or where the kill line has shrunk through use and reduces the drag of the pilot chute. It can be caused by a mis-routed pilot chute bridle. It can also be caused by too large a deployment bag and canopy", "(17 mph).\nIf a skydiver experiences a malfunction of their main parachute which they cannot correct, they pull a \"cut-away\" handle on the front right-hand side of their harness (on the chest) which will release the main canopy from the harness/container. Once free from the malfunctioning main canopy, the reserve canopy can be activated manually by pulling a second handle on the front left harness. Some containers are fitted with a connecting line from the main to reserve parachutes – known as a reserve static line (RSL) – which pulls open the reserve container faster than a manual release could. Whichever method", "centre of gravity, and because the long wings are close to the ground. Any tendency to touch a wingtip to the ground while moving must be quickly counteracted. The leverage from the long wings can apply great stress to the rear fuselage, sometimes breaking the tail boom, especially on T-tail gliders. Intentional looping Pilots may decide to execute a ground loop deliberately, usually as a last resort before hitting an immovable object, as in the case of China Airlines Flight 605. In such cases, energy may be dissipated by damaging the wings of the aircraft to protect the", "Pilot chute Spring-loaded The spring-loaded pilot chute is used in conjunction with a ripcord. When the user pulls the ripcord, the container opens, allowing the pilot chute compressed inside and loaded with a large spring inside it to jump out. Spring-loaded pilot chutes are mainly used to deploy reserve parachutes. They are often also used to deploy the main parachute on skydiving students' parachute equipment. Pull-out The pull-out and throw-out pilot chutes are identical in construction; the difference is in their connection to the handle and the bridle, and in the way they are packed.\nWith the pull-out system, the pilot", "in what direction the aircraft is headed. This ruse was inspired by animals and fishes that have similar markings on the head and tail, so they can confuse other creatures. Pilots remain skeptical of this feature, asserting that if the enemy is close enough to see the marking, they are too close to be fooled by it. Ejection seat system On many high-performance military aircraft, the canopy is an integral part of the ejection seat system. The pilot cannot be ejected from the aircraft until the canopy is no longer in the path of the ejection seat. In most ejection", "the main parachute manually by pulling a ripcord." ]

[ "The person is unconscious not asleep. Asleep is a pattern in neurons firing rate, direction and cycle in specific regions off the brain, like the ascending reticular system. \nAnesthesia uses 3 bases, unconscious, analgesia and muscle paralysis. For gas anesthesia, we actually don’t know how it works in molecular levels. In total venous anesthesia we do know. For this kind of anesthesia the most common drugs are Propofol for\nUnconsciousness and it works on chlorine channels in neurons making them hard to fire upon a stimulus, like auditory or visual stimulation. For analgesia we use remifentanil working on opioid receptors to make the neurons hard to fire on noxious, pain, stimulus. And for muscle relaxation we use rocuronium that blocks the sinapses between neurons and muscles connecting in the receptors in the muscle end on the sinapses \n\nThe gas anesthesia with sevoflurane we really don’t know how the gas block the pain, give unconsciousness and some muscle relaxation. Several theories speculate that it modify the neurons in some way that make it hard to fire on stimulus. There are a beautiful example destroying this theory on YouTube when scientists uses gases to numb a plant that contract its leaves on touch. Since plants don’t have neurons, how it works remains a big mystery\n\nI’m an anesthesiologist", "Some weird answers about us not knowing how anesthesia works here...\n\nELI5: Brain is like an electrical lightbulb. Anesthesia is like a lightbulb dimmer. Turn up the anesthesia, lightbulb goes dimmer and dimmer until you can't see anything.\n\nSometimes you want to get the light a little dim, sometimes you want lights out. Anesthesia can give that for you. The dimmer the light, the more things people like surgeons can do without you being aware of it.\n\nBeyond ELI5: brain is literally like a complex electrical circuit, but using ionic depolarizations to turn the circuit on and off. The circuit exists on a cellular level, so there's a whole lot of them in series and parallel, turning each other on and off. Got lots of finer, more complex detail, but the fundamental biochemistry is simple and well defined.\n\nMost anesthetics blocks the ionic depolarization via various mechanism. If you block enough depolarization, the circuit essentially stops, and no more electrical impulse go through. No sensation, no memory, no awareness is possible. You can also partially block the circuit; to cause hypnosis or partial analgesia, but not complete anesthesia/coma. All depends on how much anesthetics is used, and what kind.\n\nSource: am actually an anesthesiologist.", "Its difficult to ELi5 this. Anesthesia literally means \" free of sensation\". The primary motivation for using anesthetica is not to render you unconscious but rather to block your pain pathways. For eg, Ketamine is an anesthetic popularly known to cause dissociative anesthesia, in which you can be conscious but wouldn't feel any pain sensation. However that's just one. Some act through opoid receptors, some act through Na+ channels. Then there are different agents that act differently depending on their route of administration( for eg, local or spinal or ivra).There are a subclass of muscle relaxants which themselves are broadly grouped into 2 as per their action on nerve endings as Depolarizing or Non Depolarizing. NDMR competitively act on Nm receptors and block their action by inhibiting Ach. \n\nThus, TLDR, we still have no clue how it all comes together and depending on route/site/chemical nature, mechanism varies.", "There are different types of anaesthetic agents. They are often used in combination to maximise efficiency and minimise side effects. \n\nLocal anaesthetics (like the ones used when you get a dental filling) are sodium channel blockers. They change the membrane potential of your nerves preventing them from firing. In this way, they prevent the pain signal from being sent to the brain. So effectively, the pain doesn't happen.\n\nI assume from the way the question is worded, you are particularly interested in general anaesthetics--that is when they \"knock you out\" for things such as major surgery. In answer to the second part of your question, I'm pretty sure it counts as unconsciousness because of the lack of ability to respond to stimuli. If you're asleep and someone tries to amputate your leg, you will definitely wake up. \n\nThe goal of a general anaesthetic protocol is to block pain, memory, movement, and cause unconsciousness. You technically have to be conscious to perceive pain, but if you're unconscious when something painful happens, your body will still have biochemical reactions that wouldn't occur if you blocked the nerves as well as induced unconsciousness.\n\nSome drugs, like ketamine, produce what is known as a dissociative anaesthesia. It interacts with NMDA receptors in the brain and interferes with incoming signals. It can put patients in a trance-like state with an absence of pain (hence why people use it recreationally.) It doesn't cause loss of consciousness though so can never be used alone to induce general anaesthesia.\n\nInhalational anaesthetics such as sevoflurane or desflurane are not precisely understood. They act on receptors in the brain such as GABA and NMDA as well as working on the level of the spinal cord. They are hypnotics and cause amnesia and as far as I know, they result in complete unconsciousness, unlike ketamine. \n\nThere are lots of different anaesthetics and they all have their pros and cons. Basically, it all goes back to the general goals I listed earlier and tricking the body into not signalling the brain of what's happening.\n\nEdit: I'm still only a student so corrections on any potential mistakes are welcome!", "How did they make anesthesia without knowing how it works, but it works pretty well? Doesn't make sense.", "Say your brain is an office building. Sleep is part of the normal daily routine. There are still people in the building. There are security guards on duty (loud noises or pain will wake you up). There are night shift employees hard at work filling the day's paperwork (dreams are thought to help consolidate the day's memories for long term storage). And so on. The building definitely has LESS activity, but it is certainly active.\n\nAnesthesia is more like there was a blizzard and nobody could even get to work in the building. Nobody is there. The usual downtime activities are not being done.\n\nThis is because the general anesthetic drugs inhibit all kinds of brain activity, including inhibiting the brain circuits that would normally be active while you sleep. When you sleep, certain specific brain areas are inhibited. In anesthesia, everything is inhibited.", "Kinda disturbingly, we don't know exactly. There's been countless theories, ranging from merely dulling our senses, to essentially rendering us brain dead, as u/GhostCheese Mentioned. \n\nAll we know is that it works. Somehow." ]

[ "the condemned to wake up.\nAnesthesia awareness occurs when general anesthesia is inadequately maintained, for a number of reasons. Typically, anesthesia is 'induced' with an intravenous drug, but 'maintained' with an inhaled anesthetic given by the anesthesiologist or nurse anesthetist (note that there are several other methods for safely and effectively maintaining anesthesia). Barbiturates are used only for induction of anesthesia and these drugs rapidly and reliably induce anesthesia, but wear off quickly. A neuromuscular blocking drug may then be given to cause paralysis which facilitates intubation, although this is not always required. The anesthesiologist or nurse anesthetist has the responsibility", "action and the behavioral responses commonly seen in anesthetized patients. Brown also shows that, contrary to common dogma general anesthesia is not sleep, but rather a reversible coma.\nBrown’s research group has provided detailed insights into how anesthetics produce unconsciousness. The brain is not shut off under general anesthesia. Instead, anesthetics induce highly structured oscillations between key brain regions. These oscillations, which are readily visible in standard electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings, alter arousal by impairing normal communication between regions. This is analogous to what happens when an epilepsy patient loses consciousness with the appearance of the regular, hypersynchronous oscillations of a seizure.", "to be detectable by clinical vigilance because other drugs used during anaesthesia may block or obtund these.\nMany types of surgery do not require the patient to be paralyzed. A patient who is anesthetized but not paralyzed can move in response to a painful stimulus if the analgesia is inadequate. This may serve as a warning sign that the anesthetic depth is inadequate. Movement under general anesthesia does not imply full awareness but is a sign that the anesthesia is light. Even without the use of neuromuscular blocking drugs the absence of movement does not necessarily imply amnesia. Light anesthesia For", "Natural sleep or anesthesia Many similarities exist between natural sleep and anesthesia.\nDuring early parts of natural sleep, an individual is difficult to arouse. During general anesthesia, a patient cannot be aroused. Parts of the brain that are responsible for sleep are similar to areas that control general anesthesia.\nWhen one type of anesthesia, propofol, is used and there is natural sleep debt, it dissipates. Specifically, a REM sleep deficit was apparent after exposure to isoflurane, sevoflurane or halothane and a NREM sleep deficit is seen after halothane. Controversy and dangers concerning prolonged and daily use of propofol Propofol administration to achieve", "given. In addition, similar protocols have been used in countries that support euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide. Anesthesia awareness Thiopental is a rapid and effective drug for inducing unconsciousness, since it causes loss of consciousness upon a single circulation through the brain due to its high lipophilicity. Only a few other drugs, such as methohexital, etomidate, or propofol, have the capability to induce anesthesia so rapidly. (Narcotics such as fentanyl are inadequate as induction agents for anesthesia.) Supporters argue that since the thiopental is given at a much higher dose than for medically induced coma protocols, it is effectively impossible for", "certain operations, such as Caesarean section, or in hypovolemic patients or patients with minimal cardiac reserve, the anesthesia provider may aim to provide \"light anesthesia\" and should discuss this with the patient to warn them. During such circumstances, consciousness and recall may occur because judgments of depth of anesthesia are not precise. The anesthesia provider must weigh the need to keep the patient safe and stable with the goal of preventing awareness. Sometimes, it is necessary to provide lighter anesthesia in order to preserve the life of the patient. \"Light\" anesthesia means less drugs by the intravenous route or via", "Anesthesia General anesthesia Anesthesia is a combination of the endpoints (discussed above) that are reached by drugs acting on different but overlapping sites in the central nervous system. General anesthesia (as opposed to sedation or regional anesthesia) has three main goals: lack of movement (paralysis), unconsciousness, and blunting of the stress response. In the early days of anesthesia, anesthetics could reliably achieve the first two, allowing surgeons to perform necessary procedures, but many patients died because the extremes of blood pressure and pulse caused by the surgical insult were ultimately harmful. Eventually, the need for blunting of", "sedation or monitored anesthesia care are never meant to be without recall. Whether or not a patient remembers the procedure depends on the type of medications used, the dosages used, patient physiology, and other factors. Many patients undergoing monitored anesthesia do not remember the experience.\nSome patients undergo sedation for smaller procedures such as biopsies and colonoscopies and are told they will be asleep, although in fact they are getting a sedation that may allow some level of awareness as opposed to a general anesthetic. Prevention The risk of awareness is reduced by avoidance of paralytics unless necessary; careful checking of", "Outline of anesthesia The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to anesthesia:\nAnesthesia – pharmacologically induced and reversible state of amnesia, analgesia, loss of responsiveness, loss of skeletal muscle reflexes or decreased sympathetic nervous system, or all simultaneously. This allows patients to undergo surgery and other procedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. An alternative definition is a \"reversible lack of awareness,\" including a total lack of awareness (e.g. a general anesthetic) or a lack of awareness of a part of the body such as a spinal anesthetic.", "Anesthesia awareness Paralytics/muscle relaxant use The biggest risk factor is anesthesia performed by unsupervised trainees and the use of a medication that induces muscle paralysis, such as suxamethonium (succinylcholine) or non-depolarising neuromuscular blocking drugs (muscle relaxants). During general anesthesia, the patient's muscles may be paralyzed in order to facilitate tracheal intubation or surgical exposure (abdominal and thoracic surgery can only be performed with adequate muscle relaxation). Because the patient cannot breathe for themselves mechanical ventilation must be used. The paralysing agent does not cause unconsciousness or take away the patient's ability to feel pain, but does prevent the patient from", "General anaesthetic General anaesthetics (or anesthetics, see spelling differences) are often defined as compounds that induce a loss of consciousness in humans or loss of righting reflex in animals. Clinical definitions are also extended to include an induced coma that causes lack of awareness to painful stimuli, sufficient to facilitate surgical applications in clinical and veterinary practice. General anaesthetics do not act as analgesics and should also not be confused with sedatives. General anaesthetics are a structurally diverse group of compounds whose mechanisms encompasses multiple biological targets involved in the control of neuronal pathways. The precise workings are the subject", "gas), or intravenously, with drugs such as ketamine (pediatrics primarily, and infrequently in adults), propofol, and midazolam. Twilight anesthesia alone is not used to provide relief from surgical pain, therefore, it is always given in conjunction with a local or regional anesthetic. Additionally, IV sedation is frequently administered as a concoction of several agents including those previously mentioned for induction and maintenance of anesthesia, as well as a benzodiazepine (usually midazolam, but temazepam or flunitrazepam are also used via the oral route) and a narcotic/systemic analgesic such as demerol or fentanyl. As discussed in the levels of sedation by anesthesia,", "anesthesia is facilitated by diffusion of an inhaled anesthetic drug into the brain and spinal cord. Diffusion throughout the body proceeds until the drug's partial pressure within the various tissues is equivalent to the partial pressure of the drug within the lungs. Healthcare providers can control the rate of anesthesia induction and final tissue concentrations of the anesthetic by varying the partial pressure of the inspired anesthetic. A higher drug partial pressure in the lungs will drive diffusion more rapidly throughout the body and yield a higher maximum tissue concentration. Respiratory rate and inspiratory volume will also effect the promptness", "are various levels of consciousness. Wakefulness and general anesthesia are two extremes of the spectrum. Conscious sedation and monitored anesthesia care (MAC) refer to an awareness somewhere in the middle of the spectrum depending on the degree to which a patient is sedated. Monitored anesthesia care involves titration of local anesthesia along with sedation and analgesia. Awareness/wakefulness does not necessarily imply pain or discomfort. The aim of conscious sedation or monitored anesthetic care is to provide a safe and comfortable anesthetic while maintaining the patient's ability to follow commands.\nUnder certain circumstances, a general anesthetic, whereby the patient is completely unconscious,", "period. Biochemical mechanism of action The biochemical mechanism of action of general anaesthetics is not well understood. Theories need to explain the function of anaesthesia in animals and plants. To induce unconsciousness, anaesthetics have myriad sites of action and affect the central nervous system (CNS) at multiple levels. Common areas of the central nervous system whose functions are interrupted or changed during general anaesthesia include the cerebral cortex, thalamus, reticular activating system, and spinal cord. Current theories on the anaesthetized state identify not only target sites in the CNS but also neural networks and loops whose interruption is linked", "patient is maintained utilizing local anesthesia. The local anesthesia techniques can be either a local field block or a regional nerve block of the scalp. The more common technique for the awake craniotomy is conscious sedation. In conscious sedation, the patient is only sedated during the opening and closing process, but never fully anesthetized, eliminating the need for breathing tubes, lessening the chances of complications, and lessening the chances of problems with motor response. Patients who undergo the procedure with an awake craniotomy instead of general anesthesia have better preservation of language function, a prediction of their seizure-free outcome", "of some debate and ongoing research.\nGeneral anesthetics elicit a state of general anesthesia. It remains somewhat controversial regarding how this state should be defined. General anesthetics, however, typically elicit several key reversible effects: immobility, analgesia, amnesia, unconsciousness, and reduced autonomic responsiveness to noxious stimuli. Mode of administration Drugs given to induce general anaesthesia can be either as gases or vapours (inhalational anaesthetics), or as injections (intravenous anaesthetics or even intramuscular). All of these agents share the property of being quite hydrophobic (i.e., as liquids, they are not freely miscible—or mixable—in water, and as gases they dissolve in oils better than", "patient is under general anesthesia, the depth of the anesthesia can affect the outcome because if the levels of muscle relaxation are too high due to neuromuscular blocking drugs, then the results from the mapping can be incorrect. For the awake procedure there are different considerations for patient care that the anesthesiologist must take into account. Rather than simply ensuring that the patient is asleep, the doctor can follow what is called the asleep-awake-asleep technique. In this technique the patient is anesthetized using a general anesthesia during the opening and closing portions of the procedure, but during the interim the", "medications are used depending on the medical procedure being done. While the patient is under level two of sedation by anesthesia, depending on the type and dose administered, they are in a state that is known as a “twilight” state, thus attaining the name \"twilight anesthesia.\" Drugs and technology used The some of the same drugs used in general anesthesia are also used for twilight anesthesia, except in smaller doses and in a bolus interval (a concentrated mass of a substance administered intravenously for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). These drugs can be administered via gases, such as nitrous oxide (laughing", "capable of inducing euphoria. Many dissociatives have general depressant effects and can produce sedation, respiratory depression, analgesia, anesthesia, and ataxia, as well as cognitive and memory impairment and amnesia. Effects The effects of dissociatives can include sensory dissociation, hallucinations, mania, catalepsy, analgesia and amnesia. The characteristic features of dissociative anesthesia were described as catalepsy, amnesia and analgesia. According to Pender (1972), \"the state has been designated as dissociative anesthesia since the patient truly seems disassociated from his environment.\" Both Pender (1970) and Johnstone et al. (1959) reported that patients under anaesthesia due to either ketamine or phencyclidine", "assistance with breathing tubes (ETT or LMA) are not generally used for this type of anesthesia. Effects A few studies have been geared towards studying the effects of post operative analgesic regimes which measure the quality of recovery period and health-related quality of life. Factors other than degree of analgesia and presence of analgesic agent-related side effects (e.g., fatigue, physical functioning, and mental health) may potentially influence these outcomes. Twilight anesthesia offers a limited recovery period after procedures, and is usually associated with less nausea and vomiting than general anesthesia which makes it a popular choice among doctors who are", "must be monitored for ambient temperature and humidity, as well as for accumulation of exhaled inhalational anesthetic agents, which might be deleterious to the health of operating room personnel. Sedation Sedation (also referred to as dissociative anesthesia or twilight anesthesia) creates hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, amnesic, anticonvulsant, and centrally produced muscle-relaxing properties. From the perspective of the person giving the sedation, the patient appears sleepy, relaxed and forgetful, allowing unpleasant procedures to be more easily completed. Sedatives such as benzodiazepines are usually given with pain relievers (such as narcotics, or local anesthetics or both) because they do not, by", "its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse. Anesthesia General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma. To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, propofol is a GABA agonist, and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist. Pain management Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus,", "Twilight anesthesia Overview Twilight anesthesia is commonly known as twilight sleep and calls for an easy awakening and speedy recovery time by the patient. Anesthesia is used to control pain by using medicines that reversibly block nerve conduction near the site of administration, therefore, generating a loss of sensation at the area administered. Close monitoring by the Anesthesia Provider will sometimes be provided, to help keep the patient comfortable during a medical procedure, along with other drugs to help relax the body. It can also help control breathing, blood pressure, blood flow, and heart rate and rhythm, when needed.\nThere are", "Geriatric anesthesia Geriatric anesthesia (or geriatric anaesthesia) is the branch of medicine that studies anesthesia approach in elderly. Origin The perioperative care of elderly patients differs from that of younger patients for a number of reasons. Some of these can be attributed to the changes that occur in the process of aging, but many are also caused by diseases that accompany seniority. The distinction between so-called normal aging and pathological changes is critical to the care of elderly people. Anesthesia and surgery has become more common as the population survives longer. Perioperative management of the geriatric patients requires knowledges about", "gives the anesthetist an indication of how \"deep\" under anesthesia the patient is. The essence of BIS is to take a complex signal (the EEG), analyse it, and process the result into a single number. Several other systems claim to be able to perform the same thing. This calculation is very computer-intensive. The recent availability of cheap, fast computer processors has enabled great advances in this field. When a subject is awake, the cerebral cortex is very active, and the EEG reflects vigorous activity. When asleep or under general anesthesia, the pattern of activity changes. Overall, there is a change", "four levels of sedation by anesthesia. Level one This level called minimal sedation causes anxiolysis, a drug-induced state in which the patient responds normally to verbal commands. Although the cognition and coordination of the patient are impaired, cardiovascular and ventilatory functions remain unaffected. Level two In this level called moderate sedation/analgesia or conscious sedation, a drug induced depression of consciousness during which the patient responds purposefully to verbal commands, either alone or accompanied with light physical stimulation. Breathing tubes are not required for this type of anesthesia. This is a twilight anesthesia. Level three In this level called deep sedation/analgesia,", "emergency medicine, intensive care medicine and first aid. Unconscious Evaluation of an unconscious patients breathing is often performed by the look, listen, and feel method. The ear is placed over person's mouth so breathing can be heard and felt while looking for rising chest or abdomen. The procedure should not take longer than 10 seconds. As in conscious patients stridor can be heard if there is an airway obstruction. Back fall of the tongue however results in snoring. In the unconscious patient agonal breathing is often mistaken for airway obstructions. If there is respiratory arrest or agonal breathing CPR is", "order to stop breathing. Procedure It is also used as one component of a lethal injection in administration of the death penalty in some parts of the United States. Controversy Like all non-depolarising muscle relaxants, pancuronium has no effect on level of consciousness. Therefore, if the anaesthetic used is insufficient, the individual may be awake but unable to cry out or move due to the effect of the pancuronium. There have been several civil lawsuits alleging similar failures of adequate anaesthesia during general surgical procedures. These have been largely due to improper or insufficient dosages of anaesthetic in concert with", "thought to exact their effects on different parts of the central nervous system. For instance, the immobilizing effect of inhaled anesthetics results from an effect on the spinal cord whereas sedation, hypnosis and amnesia involve sites in the brain.\nAn inhalational anaesthetic is a chemical compound possessing general anaesthetic properties that can be delivered via inhalation. Agents of significant contemporary clinical interest include volatile anaesthetic agents such as isoflurane, sevoflurane and desflurane, and anaesthetic gases such as nitrous oxide and xenon. Administration Anaesthetic gases are administered by anaesthetists (a term which includes anaesthesiologists, nurse anaesthetists, and anaesthesiologist assistants) through" ]

[ "Upsides: More efficient transfer of power from the motor to the wheels. Generally a lighter transmission, lighter car = faster, more fuel efficient. Also usually less expensive. Easier to use the engine to brake when going downhill, although you can downshift automatic transmissions as well.\n\nDownsides: PITA in traffic, harder to find others who are able to drive it (e.g. if you want to have a few drinks and have someone else drive home).", "I've driven a manual to work for 15 years, in traffic jams on the highway every day or 2. Not a big deal at all once you learn to how to stay back a little bit and roll slowly in first gear. \n\nIf everyone did this traffic jams would be far less severe as the stop-start chain reaction is such a contributor to it.", "Manual is fun on back country roads, open roads. (IMHO) It also keeps you much more engaged in driving, much harder to suffer from highway hypnosis. (Do they still talk about that in driver's ed?) But like ocdad said PITA in rush hour and you may be paying for a taxi if your sober buddy can't drive stick.", "ocdad said most of what there is to say, but nobody mentioned that you can push it down a hill, put it in 2nd or 3rd, re-engage the clutch, and start the car with a dead battery (usually). Even a mild slope or running start on flat land works." ]

[ "equivalent automatic transmission vehicle can range from 5% to about 15% depending on driving conditions and style of driving. The lack of control over downshifting under load in an automatic transmission, coupled with a typical vehicle engine's greater efficiency under higher load, can enable additional fuel gains from a manual transmission by allowing the operator to keep the engine performing under a more efficient load/RPM combination. This is especially true as between manual and automatic versions of older models, as more recent advances including variable valve timing reduce the efficiency disadvantages of automatic transmissions by allowing better performance over a", "of a continuously variable transmission, which slip by nature. Manual transmissions also lack the parasitic power consumption of the automatic transmission's hydraulic pump. Also, manual transmissions do not require active cooling and because they are, mechanically, much simpler than automatic transmissions, they generally weigh less than comparable automatics, which can improve economy in stop-and-go traffic. Because of this, manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic or continuously variable transmissions; however the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions. Increased fuel economy with a properly operated manual transmission vehicle versus an", "(which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to \"slippage\" in the torque converter), and their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.\nAttempts to improve fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when conditions are such that they repeatedly cut", "amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some systems will override the driver's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speeds. Comparison with manual transmission Most cars sold in North America since the 1950s have been available with an automatic transmission, based on the fact that the three major American car manufacturers had started using automatics. Conversely, in Europe a manual gearbox is standard, with only 20% of drivers opting", "Because manual transmissions are mechanically simpler, are more easily manufactured, and have fewer moving parts than automatic transmissions, they require less maintenance and are easier as well as cheaper to repair. Due to their mechanical simplicity, they often last longer than automatic transmissions when used by a skilled driver. Typically, there are no electrical components, pumps and cooling mechanisms in a manual transmission, other than an internal switch to activate reversing lighting. These attributes become extremely vital with a vehicle stuck in mud, snow, etc. The back and forth rocking motion of the vehicle drivers use to dislodge a stuck", "for an automatic gearbox compared to the United States. In some Asian markets and in Australia, automatic transmissions have become very popular since the 1980s.\nVehicles equipped with automatic transmissions are not as complex to drive. Consequently, in some jurisdictions, drivers who have passed their driving test in a vehicle with an automatic transmission will not be licensed to drive a manual transmission vehicle. Conversely, a manual license will allow the driver to drive vehicles with either an automatic or manual transmission. Countries in which such driving license restrictions are applied include some states in Australia, Austria, Botswana, Belgium, Belize, China,", "energy efficient than manual transmissions due mainly to viscous and pumping losses (parasitic losses), both in the torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. 21% is the loss on a 3-speed Chrysler Torqueflite compared to a modern GM 6L80 automatic. A relatively small amount of energy is required to pressurise the hydraulic control system, which uses fluid pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms. However, with technological developments some modern continuously variable transmissions are more fuel efficient than their manual counterparts and modern 8-speed automatics are within 5% as efficient as a manual gearbox.\nManual", "automatic transmissions in countries such as the United States, but the opposite is true in Europe. As of 2008, 75.2% of vehicles made in Western Europe were equipped with manual transmission, versus 16.1% with automatic and 8.7% with other.\nWhen a driver passes their driving test using a vehicle with an automatic transmission, in some jurisdictions; the resulting driving licence is restricted to the use of vehicles with automatic transmissions only. This is the case in countries such as New Zealand (for the second-phase Restricted license, but not the final Full license), the European Union with the exception of member countries", "with an automatic transmission option, and family vehicles and large pickup trucks sold in the US are predominantly fitted with automatics. However, in some cases, if a buyer wishes, they can have the vehicle fitted with a manual transmission at the factory. In Europe, most vehicles are sold with manual transmissions. Most luxury vehicles are only available with an automatic transmission. In most cases where both transmissions are available for a given model of vehicle, automatics are an at-cost option, but in some cases the reverse is true. Some vehicles, such as rentals and taxicabs, are nearly universally equipped with", "automatics were detrimental to economy, the main reason a lighter automatic transmission was developed.\nIn addition, lower differential ratios differentials were usually used in other automatic transmission applications to improve gas mileage (again due to the inefficiency of the earlier automatics, especially when used with small engines). The BW 35 was a more efficient transmission and was quite successful in the USA with the smaller engined cars. This also made it a natural for European cars that usually had much smaller engines than American cars of that era. Production was transferred in 1960 to the Borg-Warner plant at Letchworth in Great", "better performance, though this is changing as many automakers move to faster dual-clutch transmissions, which are generally shifted with paddles located behind the steering wheel. For example, the 991 Porsche 911 GT3 uses Porsche's PDK. Off-road vehicles and trucks often feature manual transmissions because they allow direct gear selection and are often more rugged than their automatic counterparts.\nConversely, manual transmissions are no longer popular in many classes of vehicles sold in North America, Australia, and some parts of Asia, although they remain dominant in other parts of Asia, and in Europe, Africa, and Latin America. Nearly all vehicles are available", "AP automatic transmission Known Issues - Because the unit uses engine oil for both lubrication and for powering its hydraulic circuit, engine oil changes are critical to the long term reliability of the transmission. Typically it should be changed every 6000 miles.\n- The transmission is not interchangeable with a conventional BMC sump mounted manual gearbox. Because of an extended flywheel mounting flange on the crankshaft, the AP automatic requires to be fitted to its own unique version of the A-series engine. This causes issues for Mini owners wanting to convert to a manual gearbox, since the entire", "Semi-automatic transmission History In the 1930s, automakers began to market cars with some sort of device that would reduce the amount of clutching and de-clutching and shifting required in stop and go driving. Most typically, a fluid coupling or a centrifugal clutch replaced the standard manual clutch to allow for stop and go driving without using the clutch pedal every time the car was brought to a stop. More sophisticated systems allowed for shifting while driving without using the clutch, and some systems did away with the clutch pedal altogether. Semi-automatic transmissions were phased out as technology advanced and automatic", "fear of losing too much speed to reach a hilltop, automatic transmissions are at a great advantage — whereas driving a manual car depends on finding a gear that is not too low to enter the bottom of the hill at the necessary speed, but not too high to stall the engine at the top of the hill, sometimes an impossible task, this is not an issue with automatic transmissions, not just because gearshifts are quick, but they typically maintain some power on the driving wheels during the gear change. Energy efficiency Earlier hydraulic automatic transmissions were almost always less", "vehicle can destroy automatic transmissions. Clutches are a wear item that may need to be replaced at some point in the vehicle's lifespan, however the service life of the clutch depends on the operating conditions that it is subjected to. Cost The price of a new vehicle with a manual transmission tends to be lower than the same vehicle with an automatic transmission.\nMost new vehicles are available with manual or automatic transmissions. There is often a difference in cost between the two. Manual transmissions generally cost less than automatic transmissions. For example, the base price of a Chevrolet Cruze 2LT", "These systems could be fitted to smaller cars such as the Ford Anglia. Comparison to other automated transmissions Modern \"Semi-automatic transmissions\" usually have a fully automatic mode, where the driver does not need to change gears at all, operating in the same manner as a conventional type of automatic transmission by allowing the transmission's computer to automatically change gear if, for example, the driver were redlining the engine. The semi-automatic transmission can be engaged in manual mode wherein one can up-shift or down-shift using the console-mounted shifter selecter or the paddle shifters just behind the steering wheel, without the need", "Automatic transmission History Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early \"horseless carriage\" gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston, Massachusetts. This unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged. As the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasn't up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the transmission would often fail without warning.\nOne of", "should occur.\nIn many jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom, a driving licence issued for only vehicles with an automatic transmission is not valid for driving vehicles with a manual transmission, but a licence for manual transmissions covers both. This is also the case for P1 (provisional-1) car licence holders in New South Wales, Australia, but P2 (provisional-2) licence holders are allowed to drive vehicles with either transmission. Shifting speed Automatic transmissions can typically shift ratios faster than a manual gear change can be accomplished, due to the time required for the average driver to push the clutch pedal to the", "that opt to disallow road tests on automatic vehicles completely, China, Dominican Republic, Israel, Jordan, Norway, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, and the U.A.E. This treatment of the manual transmission skill seems to maintain the widespread use of the manual transmission. As many new drivers worry that their restricted license will become an obstacle for them where most vehicles have manual transmissions, they make the effort to learn with manual transmissions and obtain full licenses. Some other countries (such as Turkey, Greece, Georgia, India, Pakistan, Portugal, Malaysia, Serbia, Brazil, Ukraine and Denmark) go even further,", "broader RPM range. In recognition of this, many current models (2010 and on) come with manual modes, or overrides on automatic models, although the degree of control varies greatly by the manufacturer. However this gap in economy is being rapidly closed, and many mid- to higher-end model automatic vehicles now get better economy than their standard-spec counterparts. This is in part due to the increasing impact of computers co-ordinating multiple systems, particularly in hybrid models in which the engine and drive motors must be managed, as well as using different automatic technology such as CVTs and dual-clutch automatics. Longevity", "transmission built by ZF Friedrichshafen. The decision to replace the automatic transmission was primarily made to make the car more engaging to drive. This move was lauded by the purists and resulted in a positive response.\nThe interior was available in three colour combinations, those being black leather with blue and green stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel (or alternatively red stitching), red leather with red stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel and beige with maroon piping and maroon stitching on the dashboard and steering wheel. Noticeable changes to the interior include an Alpina blue instrument cluster, Alpina logos", "controls were developed to take care of changing gear ratios. Smaller, lower powered cars used semi-automatic transmissions with a dry clutch because the mechanical connection offered a more efficient powertrain compared to a fluid coupling.\nAnother early semi-automatic transmission was the Sinclair S.S.S. (synchro-self-shifting) Powerflow gearbox. which was applied to Huwood-Hudswell diesel mines locomotives. It was also applied to some road vehicles.\nImproved semi-automatics appeared in the 1950s and 1960s. The Automotive Products Manumatic and Newtondrive systems were also known as \"two-pedal transmissions\". They relieve the driver of the need for skill in operating clutch and engine speed in conjunction with the", "selection of gear ratios. Many vehicles offer a 5-speed or 6-speed manual, whereas the automatic option would typically be a 4-speed. This is generally due to the increased space available inside a manual transmission compared with an automatic, since the latter requires extra components for self-shifting, such as torque converters and pumps. However, automatic transmissions are now adding more speeds as the technology matures. ZF currently manufactures 7- and 8-speed automatic transmissions. ZF is also planning a 9-speed automatic for use in front-wheel drive vehicles. The increased number of gears allows for better use of the engine's power band, resulting", "in the United States shortly after production began due to a risk of exhaust system fires. Owners that were not made aware of the manual shifting mode (\"sport mode\") of the 4-speed automatic transmission would mistakenly leave the shifter in that position, resulting in high temperatures as the car would remain in second gear. Mazda's solution was to add a heat shield around the muffler and to alter the vehicle's software to not allow excessively high engine speeds beyond a short period of time when in \"sport mode\". Although the five-speed manual transmission equipped cars would seemingly not need to", "An automatic transmission's main focus is smooth shifting between gears. To accomplish this it often goes into two gears at once while shifting up, which is known as a shift overlap. In these cars, it is a kit that can reduce or eliminate the shift overlap. It will also reduce wear because the transmission won't be trying to drive in two gears at once. History The term \"Shift Kit\" is a registered trademark of the company \"TransGo\" which originated the development of automatic transmission valve body improvement and upgrade components such as springs, valves, and instructional materials to improve the", "in increased fuel economy by staying in the most fuel-efficient part of the power band, or higher performance, thereby remaining closer to the engine's peak power rating. Even with more forward speeds and the potential of designing more forward gears to offer higher speed and/or torque, the manual transmission remains smaller and much more compact than its larger, automatic cousin, as referenced by the 991 Generation of the Porsche 911 and the C7 Chevrolet Corvette, which offer a 7-speed manual transmission. Engine braking In contrast to most manual gearboxes, most automatic transmissions have far less effective engine-braking. This means that", "transmissions use a mechanical clutch to transmit torque, rather than a torque converter, thus avoiding the primary source of loss in an automatic transmission. Manual transmissions also avoid the power requirement of the hydraulic control system, by relying on the human muscle power of the vehicle operator to disengage the clutch and actuate the gear levers, and the mental power of the operator to make appropriate gear ratio selections. Thus the manual transmission requires very little engine power to function, with the main power consumption due to drag from the gear train being immersed in the lubricating oil of the", "automated transmissions; for instance the BMW 545i (E60) and BMW 645Ci/650i (E63/64) (standard 6-speed manual) had as an option a 6-speed automatic \"Steptronic\" transmission or a 7-speed Getrag SMG III single-clutch semi-automatic transmission until after the 2008 model year, when the SMG III was dropped. Many sport luxury manufacturers such as BMW offer the manumatic transmissions for their mainstream lineup (such as the BMW 328i and BMW 535i) and the semi-automatic gearbox for their high-performance models (the BMW M3 and BMW M5).\nThe semi-automatic transmission may be derived from a conventional automatic; for instance Mercedes-Benz's AMG Speedshift MCT semi-automatic transmission is", "pedal and gear stick. Historically, cars had a manual overdrive switch. Automatic The desire for driver convenience led to the widespread implementation of the semi-automatic transmission, automatic transmission and continuously variable transmission (CVT). Some automatic transmission vehicles have extra controls that modify the choices made by the transmission system. These controls depend on the engine and road speed. Automatic transmissions generally have a straight pattern, beginning at the most forward position with park, and running through reverse, neutral, drive, and then to the lower gears. Signals and lighting Cars have controls for headlamps, fog lamps, turn signals, and other automotive", "floor and move the gearstick from one position to another. This is especially true in regards to dual-clutch transmissions, which are specialized computer-controlled automatic transmissions that mechanically operate more like a manual transmission than a traditional automatic one. Ease of use Because manual transmissions require the operation of an extra pedal, and keeping the vehicle in the correct gear at all times, they require more concentration, especially in heavy traffic situations. The automatic transmissions, on the other hand, simply require the driver to speed up or slow down as needed, with the vehicle doing the work of choosing an appropriate" ]

[ "Overall, things will gradually become more expensive due to inflation. Basically, the government prints more money than is taken out of circulation, causing the buying power of money to slowly decrease over time.\n\nIn the short term for food, things like droughts or widespread livestock or produce disease may disrupt the food supply, causing the price to increase." ]

[ "goods may retain or improve the basic functionality for which all items of a given category are originally designed.\nThere are also goods that are perceived as luxurious by the public simply because they play a role of status symbols as such goods tend to signify the purchasing power of those who acquire them. These items, while not necessarily being better (in quality, performance, or appearance) than their less expensive substitutes, are purchased with the main purpose of displaying wealth or income of their owners. These kinds of goods are the objects of a socio-economic phenomenon called conspicuous consumption and commonly", "nobody is the worse for them. When a thing is bought not for its use but for its costliness, cheapness is no recommendation.", "production costs, but it ensures future sales opportunities by preventing the market from becoming saturated with high-quality, long-lasting goods. The forces of a free market tend to preclude the sale of substandard staples, while disposability, technological innovations, and a culture of collection all facilitate planned obsolescence.\nMany mass marketed items are considered staples. These are items people are accustomed to buying new when their old ones wear out (or are used up). Cheaper versions of durable goods are often marketed as staples with the understanding that they will wear out sooner than more expensive goods, but they are so", "futurist Raymond Kurzweil, products start out as highly ineffective and highly expensive.\nGradually, products become more effective and cheaper until they are highly effective and almost free to buy. Some of the products that have followed this example include AIDS medications (which are now affordable to the majority of AIDS sufferers), text-to-speech programs, and digital cameras. However, products that rely primarily on paper (e.g., newspapers and toilet paper) and/or fossil fuels (e.g., electricity in most countries and petroleum gasoline for automobiles) have only increased in price. \nThis directly contradicts the trend of electronic gadgets like netbooks, desktop computers, and laptop", "everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. Its underlying rationale is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices.", "sales tax may compensate for this. Shipping a small number of items, especially from another country, is much more expensive than making the larger shipments bricks-and-mortar retailers order. Some retailers (especially those selling small, high-value items like electronics) offer free shipping on sufficiently large orders. Another major advantage for retailers is the ability to rapidly switch suppliers and vendors without disrupting users' shopping experience. Lack of full cost disclosure The lack of full cost disclosure may also be problematic. While it may be easy to compare the base price of an item online, it may not be easy to see", "one product immediately opens a vent for other products.\nSay further argued that because production necessarily creates demand, a \"general glut\" of unsold goods of all kinds is impossible. If there is an excess supply of one good, there must be a shortage of another: \"The superabundance of goods of one description arises from the deficiency of goods of another description.\"\nTo further clarify, he wrote: \"Sales cannot be said to be dull because money is scarce, but because other products are so. ... To use a more hackneyed phrase, people have bought less, because they have made less profit.\"\nSay's law should", "'Balance Sheet Affluent' (those with actual wealth, or high-net-worth) and the 'Income Affluent' (those with a high income, but little actual wealth, or low net-worth). Spend less than you earn Anyone who spends more than they earn will fail to increase their net worth. Avoid buying status objects or leading a status lifestyle Buying or leasing brand-new, expensive imported vehicles is poor value. \nBuying status objects such as branded consumer goods is a never-ending cycle of depreciating assets. Even when you get a good deal on premium items, if you choose to replace them frequently, the older items hold no", "gems and spices or drugs such as nutmeg, cloves, pepper, ambergris and opium. The thirteenth century as well as present day favor luxury items due to the fact that small high-value goods can have high transport costs but still have a high value attached to them, whereas low-value heavy goods are not worth carrying very far. Purchases of luxury items such as these are described as archaic consumption since trade was largely popular for these items as opposed to everyday needs. The distinction between food, drugs and materia medica is often quite blurred in regards to these substances, which were", "cheaply by sea?... Why should a book written out by hand be worth more than one which is printed, when the latter is better though it costs less to produce?... The just price is found not by counting the cost but by the common estimation.\nHowever the school rarely followed this idea through systematically, and, as Friedrich Hayek has written, \"never to the point of realizing that what was relevant was not merely man's relation to a particular thing or a class of things but the position of the thing in the whole...scheme by which men decide how to allocate the", "cost of our products. The movement of this cost was impossible to go on the market because of the reported downturn in the construction industry and the huge competition, which appeared in our products. Consequence of all these was the limitation of our turnover (sales, products, etc.) from 34,360 million euros in 2007, to 30,369 million, a decrease of 3,991 million euros, corresponding to rate of 11.61%.\nThe second major weight received was the cost of energy (electricity and gaseous fuels), which, from 4,187 million euros in 2007 reached 5,511 million euros, an increase of 1,324 million or 31.62%. Also, the", "continue to buy non-value items, by the time you lose your income source (old, retrenched, disabled, bad luck), you will become poor as you will have no savings. Such trend is common in well-developed countries, where assets that will make you rich (e.g. property) has already become too expensive to be bought. A privilege only for the rich. So, instead of saving to buy such assets, mass market has choose to ignore them but continue to buy lifestyle consumer items. Influence This notion became a hotly discussed topic in Japan. And as Ohmae's book was translated into Chinese version, it", "for all expenditure, even those large items purchased only infrequently (e.g. motor vehicles, furniture, electronics, clothes, etc.) but that when purchased are very large commitments. Prices of these goods have risen much less quickly or have, in some cases, fallen.", "buying an item. Shopping goods are costlier than convenience goods and are durable in nature. Consumer goods companies usually try to set up their shops and show rooms in active shopping areas to attract customer attention and their main focus is to do lots of advertising and promotion to attract more customers.\nExamples include clothing items, televisions, radios, footwear, home furnishings, etc. Specialty consumer goods Specialty goods are unique in nature; these are unusual and luxurious items available in the market. Specialty goods are mostly purchased by the upper classes of society as they are expensive in nature and difficult to", "it to the extent that prices can be escalated to surprising proportions without reference to the cost of manufacture. Extreme examples of this type of branding are found among accessory manufacturers such as Versace, Gucci and Burberry, scent manufacturers such as Chanel and Guerlain and watch manufacturers such as Rolex and Bulgari.\nFashion victims, by their characteristic inability to recognize boundaries, may aspire to the extreme end of what is available, seeking expensive products (or copies of these products), believing that the outward display of such items will draw admiration in proportion to their actual or apparent cost. Because of this,", "product. Having a low price on a luxury product would also have a negative impact on the business as in the long run the business would not be profitable. This can be seen as a positive for the consumer as they are not needing to pay extreme prices for the luxury product.\nThere has been an evident change in the marketing area within a business from cost plus pricing to the value. Variable pricing strategies Variable pricing strategy sums up the total cost of the variable characteristics associated in the production of the product. Examples of variable characteristics are: interest rates,", "if the luxury goods become quite popular and favourable.\nHowever, cheaper products may draw attention and demand away from a brands upward product line extension. A way to combat this is to increase the quality of the brands luxury goods, as well as targeting aspects of the consumer market that are able and prepared to pay more for the higher quality product.", "value is impossible due to the difference in purchasing power, and economist Gilles Jacoud notes that for ridiculously expensive objects the actual value would become arbitrary for someone like Caesar who could afford anything. He expresses that Roman readers of Suetonius would likely have had a much better understanding for its actual exceptional value. Similarly Mary Saul, an expert of pearls and gastropod shells, states that: \"we do not need to know the equivalent in today's currency to appreciate that he paid an enormous price [for it]\". A contemporary comparision would be that 900 sesterces was the average yearly salary", "we still get to have fun buying and wearing. I’ve always believed that fine art, high quality craft, and meaningful objects can be affordable. Galleries, museums and artists can find plenty of room for a different, affordable, more commercially sustainable kind of art-for-art’s-sake… that fits in both the museum and living room.\" (Seattlemet.com) Leavitt continues, \"it's ironic to use a cheap disposable material like cardboard. Cheap, disposable material makes an expensive product, oddly resembling the manufacturing of boutique footwear. The simple image of the cardboard shoe speaks humorously and clearly on consumerism.\" (Suite101.com) 2006-12 Wedding Cake Toppers Leavitt is also", "that community, not because the people want the \"just-as-good\" substitute, nor because the quality of the article has been lowered, nor because the standard price is exorbitant, but because a business parasite used the good name of a popular article to deceive the. public into believing he sold everything below cost.\nHe added:\nThe price cutter is not a philanthropist, lie is a robber, stealing the advertising and filching the good will of another's product; and like all thieves he does not share his booty with the public. \"I cannot believe\", said Mr. Justice Holmes in his strong dissent in the Dr.", "in 2013 after a report from Rambøll deemed it too expensive.", "costs because they add no wealth to the economy. Perverse incentives also occur because of non-taxable 'hidden' transactions; for instance, a sale from one company to another might be liable for sales tax, but if the same goods were shipped from one branch of a corporation to another, no tax would be payable.\nTo address these issues, economists often suggest simple and transparent tax structures which avoid providing loopholes. Sales tax, for instance, can be replaced with a value added tax which disregards intermediate transactions. In developing countries Following Nicolas Kaldor's research, public finance in developing countries is strongly tied to", "Luxury goods Market trends Originally, luxury goods available only to the very wealthy and \"aristocratic world of old money\" that offered them a history of tradition, superior quality, along with a pampered buying experience. Luxury goods have been transformed by a shift from custom-made (bespoke) works with exclusive distribution practices by specialized, quality-minded family-run and small businesses to a mass production of specialty branded goods by profit-focused large corporations and marketers. The trend in modern luxury is simply a product or service that is marketed, packaged, and sold by global corporations that are focused \"on growth, visibility, brand awareness, advertising,", "they are very cheap, there cannot be much paid for making them: and that, consequently, the manufacturing working man's wages are reduced, the mills are shut up, business is ruined, and general distress is spread through the country. But when, as now, the working man has the said 25s left in his pocket, he buys more clothing with it (ay, and other articles of comfort too), and that increases the demand for them, and the greater the demand ... makes them rise in price, and the rising price enables the working man to get higher wages and the masters better profits.", "dominated by the \"bad\" money. This is because people spending money will hand over the \"bad\" coins rather than the \"good\" ones, keeping the \"good\" ones for themselves.\nLegal tender laws act as a form of price control. In such a case, the intrinsically less valuable money is preferred in exchange, because people prefer to save the intrinsically more valuable money.\nConsider a customer purchasing an item which costs five pence, who possesses several silver sixpence coins. Some of these coins are more debased, while others are less so – but legally, they are all mandated to be of equal value. The", "that the consumers are not so poor that they can only afford the inferior good. For this reason, many text books use the term Giffen paradox rather than Giffen good.\nSome types of premium goods (such as expensive French wines, or celebrity-endorsed perfumes) are sometimes called Giffen goods—via the claim that lowering the price of these high status goods decreases demand because they are no longer perceived as exclusive or high status products. However, to the extent that the perceived nature of such high status goods actually changes significantly with a substantial price drop, this behavior disqualifies them from being considered", "Too cheap to meter Too cheap to meter describes a commodity so inexpensive that it is cheaper and less bureaucratic to simply provide it for a flat fee or even free and make a profit from associated services. It can also refer to services which it would cost more to itemize bills for the service than it costs to provide the service in the first place, thus it being simpler and less expensive to just provide it in a bundle along with other services.\nAlthough sometimes attributed to Walter Marshall, a pioneer of nuclear power in the United Kingdom, the phrase", "longer applies and its value is linked to what is called the secondary market. There is no secondary market for an item unless someone is willing to buy it, and an object's value is whatever the buyer is willing to pay. Depending on age, condition, supply, demand, and other factors, individuals, auctioneers, and secondary retailers may sell a collectable for either more or less than what they originally paid for it. Special or limited edition collectables are created with the goal of increasing demand and value of an item due to its rarity. A price guide is a resource such", "the Internet and other sources of information, most sellers are more aware of the prices their items can fetch. In the past, this antiques market was known as cheap, but that is not true anymore.\nThe types of antiques and collectibles sold is vast, but some of the most common include books, magazines, coins, toys, handcrafts and furniture. However, other finds include silverware, movie posters, jewelry, photographs, LP records, watches, cameras, 19th century brass beds, appliances and musical instruments. (mood163-164) While they can still be found today, one of the objects more often sold in the past in the market was", "to its price. Consumers often believe a high price of a product indicates a higher level of quality.\nEven though it is suggested that high prices seem to make certain products more desirable, consumers that fall in this category have their own perception of quality and make decisions based upon their own judgement. They may also use the premium price as an indicator of the product's level of quality." ]